Networking Fundamental:

1) Applicatio Layer: Data is first processed according to one of the many applic
ations layer protocols, such as SMTP. This layer usually specify details such as
how data should be encoded, compressed, or encrypted, and how sessions should b
e managed.
Some of Appications layer protocols are:
a) HTTP, FTP,DNS,SMTP
2) Transport Layer : This layer specify which Application layer protocols should
be process the data on the receving computer. Each application layer protocol i
s assigned a unique numerical identifier, called port, which is used to identify
the protocol.
Eg: HTTP : Port 80, DNS : Port 53, SMTP use: Port 25
This layer also include Sorce port number and destination port number.
Two transport layer protocols are:
a) User Data gram protocol (UDP) {no delivery ack,no error checking}
Like DNS, Online gaming,VOIP, Streaming Video uses UDP.,,,,,as speed is critica
l in this.
b) Transmission Control protocol (TCP): A robost protocol providing delivery not
ification, error checking and recovery procedures. The receving computer tells t
he sending computer when the data was recived.
HTTP,SMTP,FTP uses TCP.
TCP accepts data from the application layer protocol and cut the data into a sma
ller pieces called segments.( like numbering the pages of a book), So TCP uses s
equence number to put segment back together in the correct order, Recepints chec
k the as per seq nos.
Network Layer: The n/w layer receive data segment from the TX layer and adds a h
eader to create a packet. The layer 3 header contains a destination and source I
P address. It adds Source IP, Dest. IP address and IP port number: The n/w layer
identifies the upper layer TX layer protocol that is being used. Each TX layer
protocol is assigned a unique identifier,or IP pootocol No.
Eg: UDP ( IP port no:17), (TCP : IP port no: 6), So what happen is that when rec
eving computer see this IP port no.: IF UDP-17 ( simple and fast protocol), IF
TCP-6, then process with (reassamble segments)

Data link layer: The data link layer recives packets and adds its own header to
each packet to create a FRAME. the header usually includes another address reffe
red to as a layer 2 address , a physical address or a MAC address. Layer 2 also
perform's a data integrity check, by adding a checksum in the trail of the frame
.
This layer uses: Ethernet, FDDI( fiber distributed data interface) and ATM ( use
s fixed size cells [53 bytes] protocol.
Physical layer: Layer 1 converts bits into electrical signals and sends them acr
oss the physical medium , which and be a telephone wire , a fiber -optic cable ,
or even a wireless environment. This define characteristic such as cabling spec
ifications, voltage levels, physical data rates, maximum transmission distance,
physical connectors.
On RECEVING THE DATA
1) Layer 1: Recived electrical signals.
2) Layer 2: Reassembled bits into a frame , Validated checksum.
3) Layer 3: Verified packet has reached correct IP address, Determine whether to
process as TCP or UDP.
4) Layer 4: Determine which application layer protocol should be used to process
data.
5) Layer 7: Processes data using the specified application layer protocol.

2)Ethernet Operations:
802.3 : CSMA/ CD ( the collision detection used by ethernet)
802.5 : token ring technology
802.2 : A method of supprotiong alternative layer 3 protocols
802.11 Wireless standards
MAC address 48 bits( 6 bytes)
00:90:69:9f:ea:46 , here first 3 bytes reps: Identifies the manufacturer Orga
nizationally Unique Identifier (OUI), last 3 bytes reps: Identifies the unique N
IC
1) When one device send data to one other device , it uses an individual or unic
ast address, one-to-one mapping.
2) If a device needs to send the same data to every device on the network , it u
ses a broadcast destination MAC address. Brodcast : ffff.ffff.ffff means except
all bits of this bytes. one-to-many.
3) If the device need to send the same data to a group of devices on the same ne
twork ,it must use a group address or multicast MAC address.
it always has first bit of first byte set to one (1)...eg... 0100.5e28.123s
i.e multicast address always begin with "01".
5-4-3 rule::: 5 segments,4 repeters, 3 operational segments,
HUB acts on layer 1, it is just internal physical connection bus.
Bridge: connected b/w two hub's, it separate the collision domains, it acts at l
ayer 2.
its functions: a) forwarding frames, b) learning MAC address, c) Controlling tra
ffic.
Bridges use Source Address ( SA) to bulid there MAC table not Dest. Address .
*** file sizes are measuresd in Mega bytes per secone ( Bps) and data rate is me
asures in bits per second (bps)
RJ45 cable description::
Blue/white blue : Voice ( pin : 4 5
Orange/orange white : Ethernet receive ( pin 1 2
brown/brown white : Auxiliary ( pin 7 8
green/green white : Ethernet transmit ( pin 3 6
Switches (layer 2 ): TX / RX different on ethernet cable,
Each port has separate coillision domain, VLAN are possible in switches were not
possible in bridges.

ARP: Address resolution protocol : It maps IP address into MAC address

One network domain has one Broadcast domain. If we break broadcast domain , we n
eed to assgin different n/w no's.. For connecting this different broadcast domai
n or n/w's we need ROUTER. While switch works in broadcast domain, router is b/
w broadcast domain.
Router is layer 3 device. Each connecting port on router requires IP & MAC addre
ss.
Default route in routing table add , to counter the problem of unknown destinati
on IP, for which there is no data in routing table.
In same network for ARP , even router responda to this ARP query.
IP also perform fragmentation and reassembling (data later)
IPv4 has 32-bit address ( around 4.3 billion) address.While IPv6 has 128 bit, ar
ound 3.4X10^38 address.
Router decrement TTL field by 1, each time it passes through the router.
IP header length is of 20-24 header octate length.
Class A: (0-127) , 1st Bit is zero
Class B: (128-191), 2nd bit is zero
Class C: (192-223), 3rd bit is zero
Natural Mask : 255.0.0.0 /8 ( 1st octet reps. n/w num)
255.255.0.0 /16 ( 1st & 2nd octet reps n/w num
)
255.255.255.0 /24 (1st, 2nd & 3rd octet reps n/w n
um)
Classless Address:
10.0.0.0 /8 255.0.0.0
172.0.0.0 /8 255.0.0.0
192.168.0.0/16 255.255.0.0
Network Number : 192.168.1.0
Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.255
Valid Host Nos: 192.168.1.1 through 192.168.1.254
No of Host = 2^no. of host bits - 2 ( revserves broad "1111"& n/w nos."0000")
Host bits are always zero.
So for /24 = 2^3-2, =256-2, =254 Host bits available for /24
/24= 255.255.255.0 ( 3 Octet are filled)
More network bits means fewer hosts per network. More host bits means more host
with fewer networks.
/27 means: 27 bits are ON.
IP Subnetting : Spilitting large n/w into smaller nw's
Subnet Portion:
No. of network = 2^ no of bit turned ON
No. of host bit = 2^no of bit turned OFF -2
2^1=1
2^2=4
2^3=8
2^4=16
2^5=32
2^6=64
2^7=128
2^8=256
Private IP range: ( For private use only, not for internet)
10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 -172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0-192.168.255.255
This IP can be used repeatdly many times for local ip n/w, home n/w.
Loop Back IP address : 127.0.0.1 -127.255.255.255
MTU: Maximum Transmission Unit : basically for size of packet that is allowed to
enscapulate in layer 2 frame
Ethernet v2 : 1500 MTU
802.11 :: 2272
802.5 :: 4464
FDDI :: 4500
Tradational WAN protocols work in Layer 2 & Layer 1, Such as PPP or frame relay,
ATM uses a different layer 2 frame format and provides different for reliabilit
y and error recovery.
MPLS is not a WAN technology, but a WAN service that operates b/w layer 2 & laye
r 3.known as LAYER 2.5
PPP can handle and react to poor lines, PPP is a connection oriented protocol. W
hile Ethernet is connectionless protocol. Both work in Layer 1 & 2
PPP Frame: Flag,Address,Control,Protocol, Data,FCS,Flags.
Frame Relay: Is connection oriented protocol.
VPN( Virtual private N/w)----1) PVC {permanent virtual circuits} 2) SVC {switch
virtual circuits--dynamic n/w only on use}
Hub & Spoke ( One main router to other normal routers)
Frame relay PVCs are identified by a Data Link Connection Identifier ( DLCI) ,,,
,Routers do no advertise DLCI. So can be used in many times.
Frame Relay Frame: Flag,Addres, Data,FCS,Flag. Its address contain DLCI, Command
response,Extended Addr, DLCI , {FECN,BECN,DE}--used for congestion control,Exte
nded Address.
FECN/BECN: Adds bit to decide fast movement/Delay or slow movement.
DE: It discard packets as it require to reduce congestion, by assagining the bit
priority=1, delete it.Whic is assigned by higher layer protocol.
ATM ::: For better / fast data delievery .
It uses Cell-Switching tech, of 53-byte fixed length.
Layer 2 protocols: Ethernet,PPP,ATM,Frame relay.
MPLS is Layer 2.5 ( b/w layer 2 & 3), It adds its MPLS lable on data packet. MPL
S uses Lable-Switched Path (LSP), its not depedent on its layer 2 technology ( w
hich can be PPP,ethernet,Frame relay, ATM)
LSP is unidirectional. Each LSP must be matched with another in the opposite dir
ection.
ON an incomming packet , LER ( lable edge router) strips layer 2 frame and insp
ect the packet. LER then adds MPLS header.
PPP: Dedicated circuit between each location, LCP & NCP used to establish a conn
ection. Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol ( CHAP).
ATM: Fixed-Length Cells, Virtual Channel Identifiers (VCI's) ans virtual path id
entifiers (VPI's) Defined service categories.
Frame Relay: Data Lnk Connection Identifiers (DLCI), FECN,BECN,DE manage congest
ion. Network layer protocol identifier ( NLPID).
MPLS: Layer 2 agnostic, Lable Switch path, Forwarding Equivalency Class ( FEC).