Organizational Expatriates’ Career Success Aspirations and

the Influence of Nationality, Age, and Gender:

An Exploratory Study

Peter W. Ó BRIEN

Abstract
This exploratory study investigated the career success aspirations (or
internal career success orientations) profile of organizational expatri-
ates working in Japan, and the influence of the selected intervening
variables of age, gender and nationality. The most preferred career suc-
cess aspiration was ‘getting balanced.’ Career aspiration profiles dif-
fered statistically significantly according to gender and national origin,
but not according to age. Understanding the practical implications of
the differing career aspirations of organizational employees, however,
may assist in selecting candidates for successful international assign-
ments.

Keywords: organizational expatriates; career success aspirations

Introduction
Organizational international assignments can have wide-ranging effects on a
career. What those effects are seems to be one of the least understood phenomena of
international mobility, however. Multinational corporations use international as-
signments as a means of career development (see, e.g., Oddou, Derr, and Black, 1995).
Anecdotal accounts and reports in both the popular and the academic press (see, e.g.,
GMAC, 2007; Webb, 1996) suggest that international assignments are important for
employees seeking to climb the organizational career ladder more quickly. Research
on repatriation, however, indicates that many former expatriate employees feel that
their overseas assignments harmed, rather than helped, their careers, and that they
do not get the recognition they deserve (cf., Black and Gregersen, 1999).
‘Success’ in an international assignment is seen as the absence of ‘failure,’
which is usually taken to be ‘premature return’ (see, e.g., Ashamalla 1998; Festing
and Mueller, 2007; Simeon and Fujiu 2000). The existing expatriation literature con-
centrates on what individuals need to do (or characteristics they need to have) to per-
form successfully in an international assignment, but it neglects what they gain from
their foreign work experience (cf., Dickmann, Doherty, and Brewster, 2006). Bolino
(2007) noted that relatively little research has sought to understand how organiza-
tional expatriate assignments might be related to career success. Respondents cited
“career aspirations” third (after “family concerns,” and “spouse’s or partner’s career”)
as a reason for refusing to accept an assignment (GMAC, 2007). This strongly sug-
gests a negative perception of international assignments on the part of employees.
What is ‘career success?’ Just as career is a “Janus-like concept” (Barley,
1989:49), so too is career success. Suutari and Taka (2004) noted the increased impor-
tance (because of the globalization of business) of understanding the careers of global
leaders who typically have careers that include various international positions and
assignments. They suggested that the internal or subjective career approach, as con-
trasted with the external or objective approach is one relevant approach to under-
standing such careers.
Objective career success is the structural and public aspect of a person’s ca-
reer, as measured against objective, verifiable and measurable (in an interpersonal
way) criteria such as span of control, income or salary level, advancement or promo-
tion rank, and occupational status. While such measures are useful in some career
contexts, it is questionable to what extent they are meaningful in all organizational
contexts. Harrison and Shaffer (2005), however, presented an explicit consideration of
the criterion space for expatriate success, conceptualizing expatriate performance in
terms of task completion, relationship building, and overall performance.
Subjective career success, on the other hand, is the individual’s assessment of
objective and subjective rewards in his or her career, i.e., the meaning that individu-
als attribute to their career and its evaluation according to personal criteria such as
satisfaction. As Gattiker and Larwood (1986) noted, subjective career success is a
multi-dimensional construct whose facets can be measured by several factors.
Schein (1987) argued that it is one’s career aspirations that define a person’s
self-concept in terms of his or her career. There are five recognized approaches to as-
sessing an individual’s career orientation or career self-concept – in chronological or-
der, those of Schein (1978), Driver (1980), Delong (1982), Derr (1986a), and Baruch
(2004). They have in common the fact that they identify five different types of career
orientation, to which they give different names (see, e.g., Kim, 2005: 50).
 Derr’s (1986a, 1986b) approach is particularly appropriate to investigating
the career success aspirations of organizational expatriates because it was founded,
in part, on his research with multinational corporate executives. He stated, “Career
success is being able to both live out the subjective and personal values one really
believes in and to make contributions to the world of work” (Derr, 1986a: 5). The
unique aspect of his work is its focus on temperament and aspirations rather than
career orientation in general. Building upon earlier work by Schein (1978), he argued
that career success could be perceived as a long-term planned work history represent-
ing a dynamic interplay between three activities: work, relationships, and self-
development. He argued that most people developed their own internal career success
maps, i.e., unconsciously formulated cognitive maps of what constitutes career suc-
cess for them (Derr, 1986b) as opposed to definitions from an organizational or an
outside observer perspective. In Derr and Laurent (1989), he summed up his concept
of internal and external career by posing two deceptively simple questions: “What do
I want from work, given my perceptions of who I am and what’s possible?” and
“What’s possible and realistic in my organization and occupation, given my percep-
tions of the world of work?” He symbolized an individual’s internal career aspiration
(or orientation) by the equation: Career Success Map = (Motives + Values + Talents) -
Perceived Constraints.
In Managing the New Careerists, Derr (1986a) identified five distinct career
aspirations, each bearing different motivational needs, benefits and costs, strategies
for success, and managerial considerations. The five were:
• Getting ahead: aroused by the possibility of advancing to higher and higher lev-
els within the organization.
• Getting secure: a sense of job security and organizational loyalty is of primary
importance.
• Getting free: wanting to feel a sense of autonomy and self-direction in one's work.
• Getting high: craving challenge and excitement.
• Getting balanced: being able to deal with work and personal life on a level of
equal importance; not allowing one to overshadow the other.

These may change over the years, but an individual’s career aspiration at any
one time is the one held with the highest intensity, i.e., the degree to which the indi-
vidual identifies with that particular career aspiration. A high intensity score indi-
cates the individual would strongly endorse the values, attitudes, and motivations
associated with the identified career aspiration and vice versa. One possible outcome
is that intensities are the same for two or more of the aspirations, so that the indi-
vidual has no one single career aspiration. Derr (1986a) suggested that a balanced
profile, with weak intensities, or unconventional pairings may show either an indi-
vidual having a lack of involvement in a personal work career or an individual new to
employment and immature in work life.
In terms of moving from one career success aspiration to another, Derr
(1986a) discussed their compatibility, and suggested that they fall along a continuum.
“Getting free” is at one end of the continuum, together with “getting high,” while “get-
ting balanced” occupies the continuum’s middle. At the other end of the continuum
are “getting ahead” and “getting secure. Though “getting high” and “getting free” re-
quire different pay-offs, they are compatible because they both require some degree of
autonomy and some degree of challenging work. On the other hand, “getting ahead”
and “getting secure” have less in common internally but it is sensible to put them at
the opposite end of the continuum from “getting free” as they are polar opposites,
“negatively correlated and mutually exclusive” (Derr, 1986a: 175). While “getting
ahead” shares with “getting free” and “getting high” an absorption in work, their
goals are different, and “getting ahead” people are more self-interested. “Getting
ahead” careerists often fall back into a “getting secure” or “getting balanced” mode if
they think they cannot make it and burn out. “Getting free” and “getting high” factor
closely together, with “getting balanced” representing a middle position that avoids
extremes. While natural conceptual bridges exist between “getting ahead” and “get-
ting secure,” it may be more difficult to move from “getting secure” to “getting ahead”
as some of the basic motives and talents needed for “getting ahead” may be missing in
“getting secure” careerists.
Derr (1986a, 1986b) suggested that the five career success aspirations (or ori-
entations) must be qualified in six ways. First, work experience serves to shape ca-
reer success maps. Second, contextual variables may affect how a career success map
is followed. Third, while everyone may have a career, not everyone is career-oriented.
Fourth, internal career aspirations can change with new self-discoveries or personal
events that trigger major conceptual-emotional shifts. Fifth, the force of direction as-
sociated with a particular career success map may vary markedly from individual to
individual. And, sixth, self-perception is often less accurate than external observa-
tions.
In Derr and Laurent (1989), he proposed the second part of his theoretical
formulation by identifying factors that influence the role of culture in career success
dynamics. According to this model, national culture is the most determining factor in
influencing a person’s cognitive map through the shaping of basic assumptions.
Strong corporate culture and the impact of cross-national experiences may alter one’s
culturally embedded assumptions. Derr, Roussion, and Bournois (2002) illustrated
this by pointing out that a French expatriate who has lived extensively in the United
States and Sweden may, in fact, have formed some constructs different from those
formed by someone who had never left France. Their work is useful in the context of
expatriates because they introduced the mediating role of culture in career develop-
ment. They conjecture, for example, that fundamental assumptions about work and
life are deeply rooted in broad cultural settings such as nations, providing a major
influence on internal career orientations and dynamics. National culture, they argued,
also shapes external careers through work practices and socialization. This also
raises the tricky question for expatriates of whether there are different perceptions of
the career construct across cultures and different selection/appraisal procedures.
Derr (1986a) had earlier noted that persons from different national cultures
may express different aspects of career success aspirations. Citing the case of a Japa-
nese executive who by every standard “should have been a getting-ahead person” but
who exhibited ‘getting secure’ characteristics, Derr (1986a: 82) suggested that for this
executive the definition of career success was “lifetime employment, the rewards of
money, status and exciting job, good health, being seen as loyal and hardworking,
and good relations with colleagues and peers.” Derr and Laurent (1989) found differ-
ences in internal career success maps aspirations by national origin in a study involv-
ing 150 male executives of British, French, German, and Swedish origin enrolled at
INSEAD (the European Institute of Business Administration). They were surprised
to find that over a quarter of their managerial sample were oriented to “getting bal-
anced” between their professional and their personal lives. They suggested that those
high flyers may have had to disguise that aspiration from their employers.
Review of the literature on career aspirations of expatriates
Other than the literature already cited, there is only a small body of work re-
porting studies that either used Derr’s “Career Success Maps Questionnaire” (CSMQ)
or his conceptualization of career success to investigate the career success aspirations
(or orientations) of global expatriate executives. (In this paper, the terms ‘aspiration’
and ‘orientation’ are used as synonyms when they refer to the characteristics of or-
ganizational expatriates identified using Derr’s CSMQ).
Segalla, Rouziès, and Flory (2001) used Derr’s (1986a) career maps concepts
in a study of nearly 300 managers in 25 financial sector firms from France, Germany,
Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The results of their study indicated both that
nationality is a good determinant of the choice of internal or external promotion sys-
tems and that that individual self-interest remains an important factor in managerial
decision-making.
Wee (2006) examined the career aspirations of 165 China-based Singaporean
expatriate managers, using a modified version of Derr’s (1986a) CSMQ, and explored
the effect of levels of education, tenure, gender, age, and marital status. The results
showed that the dominant career aspiration of Singaporean expatriates in China was
‘getting balanced,’ followed by ‘getting ahead,’ ‘getting high,’ ‘getting free’ and ‘getting
secure.’ Levels of education, gender, and marital status did not affect the career aspi-
rations of these Singaporean expatriates. The two variables that affected career aspi-
rations were tenure and age. Longer tenure was associated with Singaporean expa-
triates who held the career aspiration type of ‘getting ahead.’ Respondents aged 20 to
39 years old also had a greater chance of having a career aspiration type of ‘getting
free.’
Siljanen (2007) investigated the careers of 30 expatriates of 15 different na-
tionalities working in the Israeli-Palestinian context. Based on his findings, he cate-
gorized them as global careerists, balanced experts, idealizers, and drifters. He
claimed that global careerists fitted Derr and Laurent’s (1989) ‘getting ahead’ profile;
balanced experts could be linked to ‘getting balanced’ or ‘getting secure;’ idealizers
could be linked to ‘getting free’ or ‘getting high,’ while drifters fitted no one particular
profile.
Lee (2007) studied the personal characters, career aspirations, expatriate mo-
tivation, and expatriate adjustment of a sample of Taiwanese expatriates in the Peo-
ple’s Republic of China, and the impacts of these four factors on the intention to stay
in Mainland China. With regard to career success aspiration, the results of this study
indicated that people whose career aspiration was “getting ahead” had positive corre-
lations with the expatriate motivations, which indicated self-fulfilling, self-esteem
and security. The “getting secure” people had negative correlation with the self- ful-
filling motivation. Personal characteristics of high “interpersonal skills” positively
affected the expatriates’ “getting high” and “getting ahead” career aspirations, but
negatively affected the “getting balance” career aspiration. A high score on “ability of
conflict solving” negatively influenced the “getting ahead” career aspiration. Fur-
thermore, a high score on “optimistic tendency” negatively influenced the “getting
secure” career aspiration.
The previous research indicates that personal characteristics such as gender,
personality, nationality, and age affect career success aspirations of expatriates.

Purpose of the research

The primary purpose of this exploratory study is to investigate (a) the distri-
bution of dominant career success aspirations among a group of organizational expa-
triates working in Japan and (b) their career success aspirations profile. Its secon-
dary purpose is to investigate whether the intervening variables of age, nationality,
and gender statistically influenced the career success aspiration profile of these expa-
triate managers. The third purpose is to discuss the practical (as opposed to the sta-
tistical) significance of the findings. Though not a major study, it attempts to con-
tribute to the wider literature on organizational expatriate management and career
aspirations.

Research Method
Research Instrument
Derr’s (1986a) (CSMQ) was used to gather the data in this study. The instru-
ment calculates an individual’s preferred rank ordering of the internal career success
maps using an ipsative, force-choice, scoring process. The CSMQ comprises 30 paired
statements and respondents select from each pair the item that is the most accurate
personal description. A code letter identified each of the five career success aspira-
tions, and each code letter may be chosen up to 12 times or not at all. By adding the
number of statements with the same code letter, the intensity with which a career
success aspiration is held may be measured, ranging from weak (or zero) to strong (or
12). The individual’s career aspiration with the highest score is a person’s career suc-
cess aspiration. Kim (2004) and Watts (1992) both noted that the instrument reached
acceptable levels of validity, reliability, and stability. A copy of the research instru-
ment, a covering letter, and a stamped, self-addressed envelope were sent to respon-
dents.

Sampling Procedure and Respondents

The valid response rate was 16.25 per cent, i.e., 65 informants from potential
respondents randomly chosen from the membership directories of the American
Chamber of Commerce and the Australian and New Zealand Chamber of Commerce.
As Tzeng (1996) noted, however, there is a high turnover rate among organizational
expatriates, and so the response rate was quite acceptable.
Of the 65 respondents, 46 were male and 19 were female. The larger group of
organizational expatriates (39) came from Australia, with the remainder coming from
the USA. The mean age of respondents was 40.5 years, with a range from 28 to 63
years. Approximately 60% of respondents were currently married, 30% never mar-
ried, and the remainder separated or divorced. The three leading industrial sectors
represented were manufacturing, consulting and finance, but other sectors repre-
sented included advertising, communications, engineering, hospitality, insurance,
and tourism and transport.

Findings
This study used Analysis of Variance (to compare male and female, and Aus-
tralian and American organizational expatriates) and Pearson Correlation statistical
techniques (cf., Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, and Lowe, 1991; Siegel and Castellan, 1988).
Table 1 below shows the dominant internal career success aspiration by num-
ber and percentages of respondent. No expatriate held two or more career success as-
pirations equally intensely. Just over one-third (33.8%) of the informants in this
sample had ‘getting balanced’ as their dominant career success aspiration. More
males than females and more Americans than Australians had this dominant career
success aspiration. On the other hand, more Australians than Americans had ‘getting
free’ as their dominant career aspiration. The two nationalities were comparable in
terms of the numbers of each having one of the others as their dominant career suc-
cess aspiration. In percentage terms, however, more females than males had ‘getting
balanced’ as their dominant career aspiration.

Table 1: Dominant Internal Career Success Aspirations

Career Suc- All Males Females Americans Australians
cess Aspira-
tion
Getting 22 15 7 13 11
balanced (33.8%) (32.6%) (36.8%) (50%) (28.2%)
Getting free 16 11 5 5 13
(24.6%) (23.9%) (26.3%) (19.2%) (33.3%)
Getting 13 9 4 3 6
high (20.0%) (19.6%) (21.1%) (11.5%) (15.4%)
Getting 8 6 2 3 5
ahead 12.3%) (13.0%) (10.5%) (11.5%) (12.8%)
Getting se- 6 5 1 2 4
cure (9.2%) (10.9%) (5.3%) (11.5%) (7.7%)
Source: Analysis of data.

Table 2 below presents the results for the career success aspirations profile,
based on the means of the intensity with which informants held each career success
aspiration.

Table 2: Means for Internal Career Success Aspirations

Career Suc- All Males Females Americans Australians
cess Aspira-
tion
Getting 7.0 6.9 7.6 7.2* 6.1
balanced
Getting free 6.5 6.4 6.7 6.8 6.8
Getting 6.3 6.1 6.9 6.7 6.2
high
Getting 4.9 5.0 4.8 4.9 5.3
ahead
Getting se- 4.7 5.1* 3.8 4.0 5.1*
cure
Source: Analysis of data. *p < 0.05.

The career success aspiration profile for this sample of organizational expa-
triates showed that as a group they were more concerned with ‘getting balanced’ (i.e.,
finding equilibrium between personal and professional life), ‘getting free’ (i.e., moving
outward rather than upward and acquiring marginal positions with more personal
autonomy, ‘space,’ looser supervision and the responsibility for outcomes) and ‘getting
high’ (i.e., craving challenge and excitement) than with either ‘getting ahead’ (i.e.,
upward mobility and promotion within the organizational hierarchy) or ‘getting se-
cure’ (i.e., being concerned with company loyalty and a sense of belonging). In other
words, they held the first three career success aspirations more intensely than the
latter two.
For Australian organizational expatriates, the career aspiration profile, in or-
der of intensity held, was “getting free,” “getting high,” “getting balanced,” “getting
ahead” and “getting secure.” For United States organizational expatriates, the order
was “getting balanced,” “getting free,” “getting high,” “getting ahead” and “getting
secure.” Australian respondents, moreover, held the aspirations “getting ahead” and
“getting secure” more intensely than their American counterparts, while United State
informants held “getting balanced” and “getting high” more intensely. Analysis
showed statistically significant differences between Australian and American respon-
dents. Australian respondents were more oriented to ‘getting secure’ (p = 0.0588, r2 =
0.0670) than Americans, while Americans were more oriented to ‘getting balanced’ (p
= 0.0698, r2 = 0.0618) than Australians. These findings also tend to support Derr and
Laurent’s (1989) contention that there are national differences in terms of career suc-
cess map aspirations.
In the sub-samples, male and female expatriates and United States expatri-
ates held the aspiration “getting balanced” more intensely than on the other four ca-
reer success aspirations, while Australian expatriates scored more highly on “getting
free.” Male organizational expatriates had a stronger ‘getting secure’ aspiration than
did female organizational expatriates (p < 0.05). Female expatriates as a group scored
higher on “getting balanced,” “getting free” and “getting high,” and male expatriates
higher on “getting ahead” and “getting secure.” For both groups, however, while male
expatriate executives had a statistically significantly stronger “getting secure” aspi-
ration than did female executives, this career success aspiration ranked only fifth.
For both groups, “getting balanced” received the highest rating.
Analysis showed no statistically significant differences between younger and
older organizational expatriates.
Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation for Further Research
This was an exploratory study to investigate career aspirations (or internal
career success maps), and conclusions from it must be tempered with caution. The
subjects were all organizational expatriates working in Japan and, principally, in To-
kyo. Their prior work history and how long they had worked in Japan were not exam-
ined, though these may have been important intervening variables. Moreover, while
the total number of respondents was comparable with previous research, the sample
represented a response rate of less than 20 per cent. Gender and age sub-samples
were small.
International assignments have been seen as a necessary and logical step in
corporate advancement, as a way of skipping rungs on the corporate ladder, as a way
of exploiting opportunities in booming economies, or as a way of securing corporate
visibility. As a consequence, it might have been expected that organizational expatri-
ates would be oriented to ‘getting ahead’ (or upward mobility). Instead, however, the
sample group in this study was oriented to ‘getting balanced’ (or finding equilibrium
between work, family, and personal development).
In the sub-samples, male and female expatriates and United States expatri-
ates as a whole scored more highly on ‘getting balanced’ than on the other four career
success aspirations, while Australian expatriates as a whole scored more highly on
‘getting free.’
In the career success aspirations profiles, female expatriates scored higher on
‘getting balanced,’ ‘getting free’ and ‘getting high,’ and male expatriates higher on
‘getting ahead’ and ‘getting secure,’ that is, these groups held those career success
aspirations with greater intensity. For both groups, however, while male organiza-
tional expatriates had a statistically significantly stronger ‘getting secure’ success
aspiration than did female executives, this career success aspiration ranked only
fifth. For both groups, ‘getting balanced’ received the highest rating.
The studied identified national differences between Australian and American
organizational expatriates in their career success maps profile. For Australian expa-
triates, the order was ‘getting free,’ ‘getting high,’ ‘getting balanced,’ ‘getting ahead’
and ‘getting secure.’ For United States expatriates, the order was ‘getting balanced,’
‘getting free,’ ‘getting high,’ ‘getting ahead’ and ‘getting secure.’ Australian expatri-
ates, however, scored more highly on ‘getting ahead’ and ‘getting secure,’ and United
State expatriates on ‘getting balanced’ and ‘getting high.’ The study identified statis-
tically significant differences between the two national groups on ‘getting secure’ and
‘getting balanced.’ These findings tend to support Derr and Laurent’s (1989) conten-
tion that there are national differences in terms of career success map aspirations.
These exploratory findings suggest that, as a group, organizational expatri-
ates in international assignments are more concerned with achieving and maintain-
ing equilibrium between work, family, and personal development than might be ex-
pected. That is, their internal definition of career success is ‘getting balanced’ rather
than securing promotions and salary increments.
The findings suggest that, too, that there are gender and national differences
in the rewards sought by executives when they accept an international assignment.
The findings support the view that organizational expatriates are very different kinds
of people with different goals, lifestyles, talents, and values. Matching managers’ in-
ternal career needs to overseas postings may reduce expatriate failure rates.
Traditionally, an assumption that people perceive career success from a ‘get-
ting-ahead’ aspiration underlies career development facilitation and interventions.
Yet it is likely that considerable diversity exists in perceptions of career success in
contemporary society and particularly among young people. As Cloward (1999: 1)
pointed out:
The most silent revolution in the workplace has been the increasing
number of serious careerists who look at the ladder leading to the ex-
ecutive suite – and then look away. They love their work. It has a
high priority in their lives. They have career plans and carry them
out. But they simply don’t want to manage the organization.
While the investigation discovered some statistically significant findings, it is
the practical significance of the findings that bears further examination. It is useful,
therefore, to compare Derr’s (1986a) five career success aspirations with those of Ba-
ruch (2004) in order to understand why organizations may need to tailor their expa-
triation policy and career interventions differently for a variety of types of career as-
pirations, not for just the ‘getting ahead’ one. In Baruch’s (2004) measures of career
success, the ‘getting balanced’ informants in this study would also be concerned with
quality of life and work-family balance issues, but the ‘getting free’ informants would
be concerned with issues of self-management and entrepreneurship, the ‘getting high’
with lateral transitions and spiral movement within the organization, the ‘getting
ahead’ with self-development competencies, and the ‘getting secure’ with issues of
employability. In other words, organizational expatriates have different expectations
from their foreign assignment, and a “one size fits all” approach can result in consid-
erable employee dissatisfaction and disenchantment with the organization. Firms
should take into account the fact that different organizational expatriates have dif-
ferent dominant career aspirations when making overseas assignment decisions.
What was not examined in this study, but which would be a fruitful area for
further investigation is whether the type of expatriate assignment of the respondents
influences their career aspirations as measured by Derr’s (1986a) CSMQ, i.e.,
whether respondents on an organization-initiated foreign assignment differ from
those on a self-initiated foreign assignment (see Suutari and Brewster, 2000). For
example, Myers and Pringle (2005) noted that the propensity for women to seek out
less risky and more secure environments affords them greater career opportunities
and resultant career capital, and that the self-initiated foreign assignment provides a
positive conduit to accumulate career capital for global careers.

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 外国人駐在員の成功願望と国籍・年齢・性別の影響：

１つの示唆的研究

ピーター・オブライエン

要旨
この示唆的研究は、日本で働くある組織の駐在員のその職業における成功願望
（または、職業内における成功志向）の一面を調査し、年齢、性別、国籍といっ
た干渉変数の影響を調べるものであった。その職業において最も好まれる成功願
望は、
「バランスの取れた人物になる」ことであった。職業における志向のプロ
フィールは性別や出身国によって統計的には著しく異なっているが、年齢に関し
てはそうでなかった。しかしながら、ある組織の従業員が自分の就いた職業にお
いて何を「成功」と見るかについては組織によって異なることを示唆する現実を
理解しておくことは、国際的な仕事で成功を収める可能性を持つ候補者を選択す
る際に役立つであろう。

【キーワード】組織に属する駐在員；職業における成功志向