NAME: HASBUL RIZUAN B ISMAIL @ ABU HASSAN

CLASS: 404
YEAR: 2010
MATRIC NO: 10683
Title Page

Manufacture Substances in Industry 3

Sulphuric Acid 4

Ammonia and Its Salts 8

Alloys 14

Synthetics Polymers 17

Glass and Ceramics 21

Composite Materials 23

Chemicals for Consumers 25

Soaps and Detergents 26

Uses of Soap Additives 43

Medicine 50

2
3
 (H4SO4)
PROPERTIES OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is a strong mineral acid.

2. Its molecular formula is H2SO4.
3. It is soluble in water.
4. Sulphuric acid is a non-volatile diprotic acid.
5. It is a highly corrosive, dense and oily liquid.
6. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a viscous colourless liquid.

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

1.Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium

sulphate and
potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily
absorbed by
plant.
2.Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte.
3.Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificial silk-like fibres and
rayon.
4.Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one
of
their component materials.

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

1.Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though contact process

4
2.The process contain three stage

STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur

i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide

SO2.

S(s)+O2(g)SO2(g)
Sulphur
ii. sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.

STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide

i.
The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over
vanadium(V) oxide
V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur
trioxide
SO3.
2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)

ii. The optimum used are

a) Temperature:450-500°C
b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible.

Sulphur dioxide and
oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in
the
converter.

STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid

i. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 to

form oleum
H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H2SO4.

SO3(g)+H2SO4(l)H2S2O7(l)
Oleum
H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)
ii. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly
into water.

SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq)

5
 iii. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the
reaction is vary
vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a result, alarge cloud of sulphuric acid
fumes is
produced, which is corrosive and causes severe air pollution.

The Contact Process

Sulphur Oxygen

In the converter
S(s) + 2SO(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
O2(g)SO2(g) Temperature: 450-500°C
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
Unreacted
Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide
Oxygen 2%so2 is
flowed back
to converter
SO2(g) +
together with
H2SO4(aq)H2S2O7(l)
oxygen
H2S2O7(l) +
H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)
Outline Of Contact process

SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

6
 1. Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-product of contact process. It is a colourless
and
poisonous gas with a vary pungent smell.
2. Sulphur dioxide which escape into the air causes air pollution.
3. Sulphur dioxide is an acidic which dissolves in water to form sulphurous
acidic, H2SO3.
In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form
sulphurous acidic.

SO2(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO3(aq)

4. Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produce sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which

falls to the
earth as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily oxidised in the air to form
sulphur
trioxide. Sulphur trioxide dissolve in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.

SO3(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO4(aq)

Acid rain and environmental pollution

7
 (NH3)
Properties of ammonia

1. A colorless, pungent gas.

2. Its molecular formula is NH3
3. It is extremely soluble in water.
4. It is a weak alkali.
5. It is about one half as dense as air.
6. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce ammonium chloride.

NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

7. Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts with dilute acids in neutralization

to produce salts. For examples:

NH3 + HNO 3 → NH4NO 3

2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4) 2 SO4

8. Aqueous solutions of ammonia produces OH − ions (except Na+ ion, K+ ion,

and Ca 2+ ion) forming metal
Fehydroxides
3+ precipitate.
+ 3OH− → Fe(OH) 3

Brownprecipitate

Mg2+ + 2OH− → Mg(OH) 2

Whiteprecipitate

8
9. Some metal hydroxides such as zinc hydroxide and copper (II) hydroxide
dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to 2+form complexes.
Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3→ [Zn(NH3)4] + 2OH−

Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3→ [Cu(NH3)4] 2+ + 2OH−

9
USES OF AMMONIA

1.Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses.

2.It uses:

i. In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate,

ammonia nitric,
ammonia phosphate and urea.
ii. To manufacture nitric acid and explosive.
iii. In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon.
iv. As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy stains in the
kitchen.

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS

1.The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:

i. It colourless and has a pungent odour.

ii. It is vary soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution.
iii. It less dense then water.
iv. It easily liquified (at about 35.5°C) when cool.

2.The chemical properties of ammonia gas:

a)Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

b)The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become

alkaline.
Thus aqueous ammonia solution:

i. Turns red litmus paper blue.

ii. Reacts with acid to form only salt and water neutralization reaction.

NH3(aq) + HCI(aq)  NH4CI(aq)

2NH3 + H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)

iii. Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.

Fe²+(aq) + 2OH(aq)  Fe (OH)2(s)

(Form ammonia solution) Dirty green precipitate

10
MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY

1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the Haber

process. In this
Process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen
gas in the
Volume ratio 1:3.
2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The
hydrogen gas
is obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalyses reaction of
natural gas,
CH4, with steam.

CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g)

3.The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst
under
controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas.

i. Temperature: 450-500°C
ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii. Catalyst used: Iron fillings

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

4.Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into
ammonia
gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over
the catalyst
again in the reactor chamber.
5.The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses
into a
liquid in the cooling chamber.

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 The Haber Process

Nitrogen Hydrogen

N2 and H2 are mixed in the proportion of

1:3 In the reactor chamber Unreacted N2 and
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NHIn(g)cooling chamber
3
H2 gases
Temperature: 450-500°C
Liquid
Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
Outline ammonia
Catalyst used: Iron fillingsprocess
Of Habert

AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS

1. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are

necessary for
growth and cell repair.

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 2. Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air
although it is
abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds
from soil
through their roots.
3. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and
ammonia salt which
are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.
4. Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.

NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq)  NH4NO3(aq)

Ammonium nitrate

3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq)  (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonium phosphate

2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Ammonium sulphate

ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN METALS

1. The atoms of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes the
metal to have a high density

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 2. The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong. More
heat energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that the atoms are
further apart during the melting. This is why metals usually have high melting
point.
3. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by vibration.
This makes metal good conduct of heat.
4. The freely moving outermost electrons within the metal’s structure are able
to conduct electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors.
5. Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged orderly in
a regular layered pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of atom
slide easily over one another. This makes pure metals soft, malleable and
ductile.

Layer of atom slide

Force

Metals are ductile

The shape of the

Force metal change

Matel are malleable

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WHAT ARE ALLOYS?

1. Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low
resistance to
Corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily.
2. To improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of another
element (usually
Metal) is added to form another alloy.
3. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non-metal) in a
specific
Proportion. For example:
a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin)
b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)

4. The purposes of making alloys include the following:

a)Increase the strength
i. Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of carbon is
added to iron, an
Alloy, steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel
becomes.
ii. Pure aluminum is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper and
magnesium
Are added to aluminum, a strong, light and durable alloy call duralumin is
produced.
b)Improving the resistance to corrosion
i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of
carbon, 18% of
Chromium and 1% of nickel does not rush. These properties make stainless
steel suitable
For making surgical instrument and cutlery.
ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy which
is known
As brass develops a high resistance to corrosion.
c) Enhancing the appearance
i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but
also has a more
Beautiful white silvery appearance.
ii. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has
an attractive
Silvery, bright appearance is formed which is suitable for making coins.

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 Alloy Composition Properties Uses
High carbon steel 99% iron Strong, hard and • Making of cutting
1% carbon high wear tools, hammers
resistance and chisels
Stainless steel 80.6% iron Do not rust and • Making of
0.4% carbon tarnish, strong and surgical
18%chromium durable instrument,
1% nickel knives forks and
spoons
Brass 70% copper Hard, do not rust, • Making of
30% zinc bright appearance ornaments,
electrical wiring
and plug.
Bronze 90% copper Hard, do not • For casting bells,
10% tin corrode easily and medals, swords
durable and statues
Pewter 90% tin Ductile and • Making of
2.5% copper malleable, white ornaments,
0.5% antimony silvery souvenirs and
appearance mugs
Duralumin 95% aluminum Light, strong and • Making part of
4% copper durable aircrafts and
1%magnesium racing cars
Cupronickel 75%copper Attractive, silvery • Making of silver
25%nickel appearance, hard coins
and tough

Composition, properties and uses of alloys

The formation of alloy

16
 The meaning of polymers
1. Polymers can be defined as large molecules composed of
numerous smaller, repeating units known as monomers which are
joined by covalent bonds.
2. Polymerization is the chemical process by which the monomers are
joined together to form the big molecule known as the polymers.
3. There are two types of polymerization process:
a) Addition polymerization
b) Condensation polymerization
4. A polymer is a very big molecule (macromolecule). Hence, the
relative molecular mass of a polymer is large.
5. The properties of polymer are different from its monomers.
6. Polymers can be divided into two types:
a) Naturally occurring polymers
1. This type of polymer exists in living things in nature like the
plants and animals.
2. Examples of naturally occurring polymers are:
a) Protein
b) Carbohydrate
c) Natural rubber
3. Naturally occurring polymers are formed by the joining
of monomers by polymerization.
4. Protein is formed by the joining of monomers known
as amino acid.
5. Carbohydrate is formed by the joining of monomers
known as glucose.
6. Natural rubber is formed by the joining of monomers
known as isoprene.

17
 b) Synthetic polymers
1. These types of polymer are man-made by chemical
process in the laboratories.
2. The raw material for synthetic polymers is obtained from petroleum.
3. The types of synthetic polymers include:
a) Plastics
b) Fibers
c) Elastomers
4. Examples of plastics are
polythene(polyethylene),polyvinylchloride(PVC), polypropene
(polypropylene), polystyrene , Perspex and bakelite.
5. Polythene and PVC are produced by addition
polymerization
6. Examples of synthetics fibres are nylon and terylene.
They are produced by condensation polymerization.

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Advantages of synthetic polymers
Strong and light
Cheap
Able to resist corrosion
Inert to chemical reactions
Easily moulded or shaped and be coloured
Can be made to have special properties

Environmental pollution caused by synthetic polymers

a) As most of polymers are non-biodegradable, they will
not decay like other organic garbage.
b) Burning of polymers release harmful and poisonous
gases.

Methods to overcome the environmental pollution caused

by synthetic polymers
a) Reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic polymers
b) Develop biodegradable polymers

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 Some Common Addition Polymers

Name(s) Formula Monomer Properties Uses

Polyethylene ethylene
–(CH2-CH2)n– soft, waxy solid film wrap, plastic bags
low density (LDPE) CH2=CH2

Polyethylene ethylene electrical insulation

–(CH2-CH2)n– rigid, translucent solid
high density (HDPE) CH2=CH2 bottles, toys

Polypropylene propylene atactic: soft, elastic solid similar to LDPE

–[CH2-CH(CH3)]n–
(PP) different grades CH2=CHCH3 isotactic: hard, strong solid carpet, upholstery

Poly(vinyl chloride) vinyl chloride

–(CH2-CHCl)n– strong rigid solid pipes, siding, flooring
(PVC) CH2=CHCl

Poly(vinylidene chloride) vinylidene chloride

–(CH2-CCl2)n– dense, high-melting solid seat covers, films
(Saran A) CH2=CCl2

Polystyrene styrene hard, rigid, clear solid toys, cabinets

–[CH2-CH(C6H5)]n–
(PS) CH2=CHC6H5 soluble in organic solvents packaging (foamed)

Polyacrylonitrile acrylonitrile high-melting solid rugs, blankets

–(CH2-CHCN)n–
(PAN, Orlon, Acrilan) CH2=CHCN soluble in organic solvents clothing

Polytetrafluoroethylene tetrafluoroethylene non-stick surfaces

–(CF2-CF2)n– resistant, smooth solid
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2 electrical insulation

Poly(methyl methacrylate) –[CH2- methyl methacrylate lighting covers, signs

hard, transparent solid
(PMMA, Lucite, Plexiglas) C(CH3)CO2CH3]n– CH2=C(CH3)CO2CH3 skylights

Poly(vinyl acetate)
(PVAc) vinyl acetate
–(CH2-CHOCOCH3)n– soft, sticky solid latex paints, adhesives
CH2=CHOCOCH3

cis-Polyisoprene –[CH2-CH=C(CH3)- isoprene requires vulcanization

soft, sticky solid
natural rubber CH2]n– CH2=CH-C(CH3)=CH2 for practical use

Polychloroprene (cis +
–[CH2-CH=CCl- chloroprene synthetic rubber
trans) tough, rubbery solid
CH2]n– CH2=CH-CCl=CH2 oil resistant
(Neoprene)

Uses of synthetic polymers

20
WHAT ARE GLASS?

1. Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many
products are
made from glass because of its specials properties.

2. Glass is:
a. Transparent, hard but brittle.
b. A heat and electric insulator.
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack.
e. Easy to maintain.

Type of glass Composition Properties Uses

Fused glass SiO2: 100% • Transparent • Lens
• High melting • Telescope mirrors
point • Laboratory
• Good heat apparatus
insulator
Soda-lime glass SiO2: 75% • Low melting • Drinking glass,
Na2O:15% point, easily bottles
CaO: 9% molded into • Electric bulbs
Other:1% desired shape • Window glass
and size
• Low resistant to
chemical attacks
• Brittle
Borosilicate glass SiO2: 78% • Resistant • Cooking utensils
B2O3: 12% chemical attack • Laboratory
Na2O: 5% and durable glassware such
CaO: 3% • High melting as conical flaks
Al2O3:2% point and boiling tube
• Good insulator to
heat
Lead crystal glass SiO2: 70% • High refractive • Lenses and
(flint glass) Pbo/PbO2:20% index prisms
Na2O: 10% • High density • Decorative
• Attractive glassware and art
glittering object
appearance • Imation jewellery

21
 CERAMICS
1. Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay such as
kaolin to a
vary high temperature.
2. Ceramics have many special properties that make them one of the most
useful materials
in our everyday life. That:
a. Are hard, strong but brittle
b. Have high melting point and remain stable at high temperature
c. Are heat and electric instrument
d. Are resistant to corrosion and wear
e. Are chemically not reactive
f. Do not readily deform under stress

3. Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as
a. Construction materials
i. Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement,
sinks, and toilet
bowls.
ii. They are also used to make refractory bricks because high resistant to
heat.
b. Decorative items
i. To make pottery, china plates, and porcelain vases since they do not
tarnish easily and are
durable.
ii. They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles.
c. Electrical insulator
i. Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such
as toasters, fridges
and electrical plug.
Materials Melting point/ Density/G cm- Elastic Hardness/
° 3
C modulus/ GPa mohs
Oxide
ceramic 2054 3.97 380 9
Alumina,AL2O3 2574 3.01 370 8
Beryllia, BeO 2710 5.68 210 8
Zirconia, ZiO
Non-oxide
ceramics
Boron 2350 2.50 280 9
carbide,B4C3 2830 3.16 400 9
Silicon nitride,
Si3, n4 1900 3.17 310 9
Metals
Aluminium 660 2.70 70 3
Steel 1515 7.86 205 5

22
WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS?

1. A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that is formed

by two or
more different substances such as metal, glass, ceramic and polymer.
2. Some common composite materials are:
a. Reinforces concrete
b. Superconductor
c. Fibre optic
d. Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass

REINFORCES CONCRETE

1. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to

maintain. It is
more important construction materials.
2. The reinforces is a combination of concrete and steel.

SUPERCONDUCTOR

1. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but
20% of the
electric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission.
2. Super conductor are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity
at a
particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible.
3. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to
levitate a magnet.
Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at
about 552
km/h).
4. Superconductor are used to make chips for smaller and faster supercomputer.
Superconductor also play an important role in high speed data processing in
internet
communication.

FIBRE OPTIC

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1. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light
wave.
2. Fibre optic is used in
a. Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked by fibre optic
cables.
b. Domestic cable television network
c. Closed circuit television security system.
3. Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number of instrument
which enable
the investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery.

FIBRE GLASS

1. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a
refractory
rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre.
2. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire
and water but
is brittle.
3. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new composite material fibre glass
reinforces
plastic is formed.
4. Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and
plastic. It is
a. Extremely strong
b. Light weigh
c. Resistant to fire and water
d. Can be molded, shaped and twisted

PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS

1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and

a small
amount of copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide,
photochromic glass is
formed.
2. The photochromic glass has a special properties. It darken when exposed to
strong
sunlight or ultraviolet.
3. Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.

24
1. Cleansing agents are chemical substance used to remove grease and dirt.

25
 2. There are two type of cleansing agents :

a) Soaps

b) Detergents

3. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that contains 12 to 18

carbon atoms per molecule.

4. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or vegetable oil by
saponification.

Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consists of

a long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogens) with a
carboxylic acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a
sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is soluble in
nonpolar substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end (the salt of a
carboxylic acid) is soluble in water. The structure of a soap molecule is
represented below:
O
||
CH3-CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2-
CH2- C-O− Na+

Non-polar hydrocarbon chain ionic end.

(Soluble in nonpolar substances) (Soluble in water)

Detergents are structurally similar to soaps, but differ in the water-soluble portion.
Three examples of detergents are shown below.

sodium alkyl sulfate

sodium alkylbenzene sulfonate

26
The History of Soap Manufacturing

1. Soap have been used for more than 3000 years. It was recorded that the
Babylonians were making soaps around 2800 B.C.

27
2. The ‘Purifying Oils’ were recorded on Hebrew tablets in 4000 B.C.

3. In ancients time, soap made from ashes of plants which contain sodium
carbonate and potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled with lime
(calcium oxide) to produce caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic
potash is then boiled with the animal fats to produce soap.

a) Ash + Lime boiled Caustic Potash

(K2CO3) (CaO) (KOH)

b) Caustic Potash + Animal Fats boiled Soap

4. In 1861, the Belgian Chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) discovered the

process to make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium
chloride) and calcium carbonate.

5. This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium

carbonate cheaply for industrial use. Sodium carbonate (often called soda
or soda ash) is used for making glass, soaps and detergents.

6. Michel Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was noted for his

research in the composition of animal fats is composed of fatty acids and
glycerol. This discovery contributed to the rapid development of the soap
and candle industry.

28
Preparation of Soap by Saponification

1. Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction between sodium

hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils.
This reaction is known as saponification.

2. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring ester molecules.
When fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as sodium
hydroxide, saponification occurs and the ester molecules are broken
down into soap and glycerol.

Fats or vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis soap + glycerol

3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions.

From the chemist aspect, soaps are sodium salts or potassium salts of
long chain carboxylic acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule).

4. Some examples of soaps are shown below.

a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa

b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa

c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa

Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptics

are added to soaps to enhance their marketability.

5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters commonly found in

animal fats and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated

29
 sodium hydroxide solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and
mixture of sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained.

CH2COOC17H35 CH2OH

CHCOOC17H35 + 3NaOH
CHOH

(heating)

CH2COOC17H35 3C17H35COONa +
CH2OH

Glyceryl tristearate Sodium stearate (soap)

Glycerol

6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium

chloride) to the reaction mixture.

7. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a

result, precipitation of soap occurs.

8. The properties of soap depend on :

a) The type of alkali used for saponification

b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.

9. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps

produced from potassium hydroxide are soft.

10. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or
olive oil) ae used for making soap.

The structure of Soap Molecule

30
1. When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium
ions and carboxylate ions (RCOO-). For example, sodium stearate
dissolves in water to form sodium ions and stearate ions.

C17H35COONa (s) + water C17H35COO- (aq)

sodium stearate stearate ions + Na + (aq)

2. The active substance in soap is the carboxylate ion, for example, stearate
ion. The stearate ion consist of two parts : the ‘head’ and the ‘tail’. The
‘head’ id negatively charged and the ‘tail’ is a long hydrocarbon chain.

3. The ‘head’ contains the -C-O- ions which dissolves readily in water
(hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the ‘tail’ contains a
long hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but
dissolves readily in oil.

4. Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium palmitate. Figure 5.2
shows the structure of the palmitate ion in soaps.

5. The figure 5.3 9a) shows the molecular model of palmitate ion and Figure
5.3 (b) shows the simple representation of the structure of the palmitate
ion.

(a) The molecular model of the palmitate ion.

31
(b) The diagrammatic representation of the soap ion.

32
1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons
obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.

2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the

charge on the detergent ion.

a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle

contains a negatively charged ion.
Negatively
charged ion
Example: R – O – SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate)

b) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle

contains a positively charged ion.
Positively
+ - charged ion
Example: R – N (CH ) BR
3 3

c) Non ionic detergents

Example: R – O – CH2CH2OH

3. There are two types of anionic detergents :

a) Detergent molecule with a benzene ring such as sodium

alkylbenzene sulphonate.

33
 Where R represents
a long hydrocarbon
chain.

We can represent the detergent ion, alkylbenzene sulphonate ion, more simply
as :

b) Detergent molecule without a benzene ring such as sodium alkyl

sulphate.

We can represent the detergent ion, alkyl sulphate ion as:

R – OSO3

Preparation of Derterdents

1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with
chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.

34
 Steps 1:Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2: Neutralization with sodium hydroxide solution

2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan – 1 –ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH.

The detergent prepared from dodecan -1 –ol is called sodium dodecyl
sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name).
CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3-Na+ .

3. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. It can be

prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents
in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH2 , obtained from the cracking of
petroleum.

a) Step 1 : Alkylation

35
 Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic
molecule.

b) Step 2 : Sulphonation

Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid

acid to form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.

Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO 3H

to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid.

c) Step 3 : Neutralization

Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium

hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent

The Structure of Detergent molecule

36
When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form sodium ions (Na+)
and detergent ions. The detergent ions have the same basic structure as the
soap ions, that is consist of two parts :

a) The ‘ head’ is the sulphate group (-OSO3-), which is negatively

charged and hydrophilic (dissolves readily in water but not in oils
and grease).

b) The ‘tail’ is the long hydrocarbon chain, which is neutral and

hydrophobic (dissolves readily in oils and grease, but not in water).

alkyl sulphate ion

alkylbenzene sulphate ion

The cleansing of Soap and Detergent

1. The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their chemical

bonding and structures.

a) The ionic ‘head’ (negatively charged) is soluble in water

(hydrophilic) but insoluble in oily layer.

b) The long hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (neutral) is insoluble in water

(hydrophobic) but soluble in oily layer.

37
2. Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water because oil (a
covalent molecult0 is insoluble in water.

3. Lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth. When soap or detergent is added
to the dirty surface of a piece of cloth covered with a layer of oil or grease.

a) The negatively charged ‘head’ (hydrophilic) of soap ions or

detergent ions dissolves in water.

b) The hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (hydrophobic) of soap or detergent ions

dissolves in the layer of grease.

4. I the water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to be lifted off the
surface. This cause by the forces of attraction between the water
molecules and the negatively charged heads.

38
 The cleansing action of soap

5. On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is lifted from the
surface.

6. Emulsifying dirt in water

a) Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents to emulsify

oils and grease.

b) The process of emulsification breaks large drops of grease into

smaller droplets that floats in water. The greasy droplets repel on
another because they carry the same charge. As a result, the
grease is suspended in the solution.

39
c) When the cloth is rinsed with the water, the droplet will be carried
away.

d) The cleaning process become more efficient in the water

containing the soap or detergent solution is stirred

40
Additives in Detergent

1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types
of additives to :

a) Increase their cleaning power.

b) Make them attractive and saleable.

2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cle4ansing agents

(sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other
substances are additives. The examples of addictives and their functions
are described as follows:

3. Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10)

a) Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water. In the

presence of sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are
removed.

b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this

way, muddy dirt can be removed.

4. Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate

a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation

process. When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will
disappear.

b) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent are

sodium perborate (NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate decomposes

41
 in hot water to release oxygen (an oxidising agent) which is
responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action.

c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not
damaging to fabrics. When properly used, the perborate bleaches
make fabrics whiter than chlorine bleaches and the colourful dyes
of the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are removed.

d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can also

be used as bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium
hypochlorite is sodium chlorate (I).

e) Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty

stains. However, high concentrations of chlorine can be quite
damaging to fabrics. These bleaches do not work well on synthetic
fabrics (polyster fabrics), often causing a yellowing rather than the
desire whitening. Also chlorine causes the dyes on fabrics to fade.

5. Biological enzymes : Amylase, lipase, and protease

a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be

removed by the ordinary detergents because these types of stains
are insoluble in water.

b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein

molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids
produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing.

6. Brighteners

a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners

absorb the invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.

42
 b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the
blue light can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to
the yellow light reflected on old fabrics make them look white.

7. Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate

Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3) are used as

drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a
dry condition.

8. Stabilisers

a) The functions of stabilizers is to prevents the formation of foam.

b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the

pump working. So, washing powders for automatic washing
machine are made using detergents that are good at removing and
emulsifying grease, but do not produced foam.

9. Perfumes

Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.

43
The effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents

Advantages of soaps
1. Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is water does not
contain Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.

2. Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is

because soaps are made from chemical found in animals and plants. This
means that soaps are biodegradable, that is they can be composed by the
action of bacteria.

Disadvantages of soaps
1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains
magnesium and calcium salts.

2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in
hard water.

3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium

stearate and calcium stearate.

44
 4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater
containing dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to
produce carboxylic acids molecular size that are insoluble in water.

5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents
because they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic
ends (’head’) that dissolves in water.

Advantages of detergents
1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as
hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and
Ca2+ ions found in hard water.

2. The detergents ions (R –O – SO3- and R – SO3- )react with Mg+ and Ca2+
ions in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which
are formed are soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the
detergents are still active in hard water and lathers easily.

3. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure
of the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with
specific properties. Nowadays, different types of detergents have been
synthesised for specific uses such as shampoos and dish cleaner.

4. Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion

is acidic water do not combined with detergents ions.

Disadvantages of detergents

1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-

biodegradable, that is, they cannot decomposed by bacteria. As a result,
non-biodegradable detergents cause water pollution.

2. Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the growth of

water plants and algae. When the plants die and decay, they will used up
the oxygen dissolves in water. This will decrease the oxygen content in
water and kill fishes and other aquatic lives.

3. Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers
the water surface will prevents oxygen from dissolving in water. This

45
 condition will cause fish and other aquatic life ti die from oxygen
starvation.

4. Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases

chlorine gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills
aquatic life.

46
Types of additives and examples

1. Food preservative have been used since ancient times. Ancient civilization
used salt to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to improve the
flavor of food.

2. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for
specific purposes such as protection against bacterial attack or restoring
the colour of food destroyed during food processing.

3. Food additives are used :

a) To retard food spoilage and to preserve food (longer shelf life).

b) To make food taste better or smell better.

c) To add colouring to food so that the food looks fresher, more

interesting or more appealing.

4. There are two main groups of food additives :

a) Preservatives and antioxidants to protect food from being spoiled

by bacterial attact or atmospheric oxidation. In this way, the food
can be kept longer.

b) Flavouring agents, stabilizers, thickening agents (thickeners), and

dyes (colouring agents) to enhance the taste, smell and
appearance of the food.

5. Table below show a list of different types of food additives, their functions
and examples of each types.

Type of food Examples of food additive

additive
Preservatives Sodium nitrite ; sodium nitrate ; benzoic acid ; sodium
benzoate ; sulphur dioxide ; sodium sulphite ; sorbic acid ;

47
 sodium sorbate
Antioxidants Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) ; BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole)
; BHT (butylated hydrixitoluene) ; citric acid ; sodim citrate
Flavouring agents Monosodium glutamate (MSG) ; aspartame
Stabilisers and Gelatin ; acacia gum (agar)
thickening agents
Dyes (colouring Azo compounds ; tripheny compounds
agents)

Functions of food additives

Preservatives

1. Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent

the growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that
the food can be stored for a long time.

2. In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt, sugar
and vinegar were used to preserve food and to make the food taste better.

3. Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used, table below shows the types
of preservatives commonly used. Many of the preservatives are organic
acids and salts of organic acids.

Preservative Molecular formula Uses

Sodium nitrite NaNO2  To preserve meat, cheese and dried
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 fish.
 To prevent food poisoning in canned
foods.

48
  To maintain the natural colour of
meat and to make them look fresh
Benzoic acid C6H5COOH  To preserve sauce (olyster, tomato
Sodium C6H5COONa or chilli), fruit juice, jam and
benzoate margarine
Sulphur dioxide SO2  Used as bleaches and antioxidants
Sodium sulphite Na2SO3 to prevent browning in fruit juices.
 Maintain the colour and freshness of
vegetables.
 To prevents the growth of yeast

Antioxidants

1. Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the

oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.

2. Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when
exposed to air.

3. When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This
makes the food unpalatable. The rancid product are volatile organic
compound with foul odours (for example , butanoic acid, C3H7COOH).

4. Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried
foods to slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not
become rancid.

Flavouring agents

1. There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours and flavour
enhancer. They are added to foods to make them taste better.

49
 2. Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals
that are added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of
food.

3. An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG

is used to enhance the flavours of other foods.

4. Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as

peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial
sweeteners.

5. Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to

enhance the sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of saccharin
is banned in many countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has
largely replaced saccharin as the artificial sweetener or choice.

6. Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial
flavours. Table below shows some examples of esters that are used in
making drinks.

Ester Benzyl Octyl Ethyl

ethanoate ethanoate butanoate
Flavour Strawberry Orange Pineapple

Stabilisers and thickening agents

1. Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending of
foods.

2. Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the food
to mix together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and water.
Examples of stabilizers are gelatin and acacia gum.

3. Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For examples,

stabilisers are added to ice-cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth
and creamy.

50
 4. In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not separate from
water. This means that the stabilisers improves the stability of some foods
such as ice-cream and salad dressings (mayonnaise).

5. Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in ice-cream, particles of

chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad
dressing will separate as soon as mixing is stopped.

6. Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods to thicken the
liquid and to prevent the foods from becoming liquid. Thickening agents
(also called thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in foods to
produce a jelly-like structure.

7. Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatin and pectin are
added to help jams and jellies to set.

Dyes

1. Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give
them colour so as to improve their appearance.

2. Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food
processing. The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to :

a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing.

b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of

foods.

c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.

3. Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically
prepared. The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl
compounds. Both these compounds are organic compounds.

4. The synthetic dyes , brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound.

The synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo
compounds.

51
 5. Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N =
N -, and are usually yellow , red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl
compounds are organic compounds containing three phenyl groups,
-C6H5, and are usually green. Blue or purple in colour.

Effect of food additives on health

1. The types of food additives allowed and the quantity permitted are
controlled by the 1983 Food Act and the 1985 Food Regulation.

2. The permissible quantity depends on the type of food and the food
additives. For example, benzoic acid added must not exceed 800 mg per
kg in cordial drinks, whereas sodium nitrite must not exceed 100 mg per
kg in meat product.

3. The excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged period of time will
ruin our health. The side effects arising from taking food additives are
allergy, cancer, brain damage and hyperactivity.

4. Allergy

a) Food additives such as sodium sulphite (preservative), BHA and

BHT (antioxidants), MSG (flavouring) and some food colours (e.g,
Yellow No. 5) can cause allergic reactions in some people.

b) The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, chest pain and

difficulty in breathing. This condition is called the ‘Chinese
restaurant syndrome’

c) The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite in food can cause

‘blue baby’ syndrome that is fatal for babies. This syndrome is due

52
 to the lack of oxygen in the blood. Hence, the use of nitrate and
nitrite is allowed in baby foods.

5. Cancer

a) Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens. Sodium nitrite

(a preservative) is a potent carcinogen.

b) The nitrite react with the amines in food to produce nitrosamine

which can cause cancer.

6. Brain damage

Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time can cause brain
damage. In this condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is disrupted
and this cause brain damage.

7. Hyperactivity

a) Food additives such as tartrazine can cause hyperactivity.

b) Children who are hyperactivity become very active, find it difficult

to relax or sleep and are very restless.

The rationale for using food additives

Advantages
1. To prevent food spoilage

a) Oxidation and microorganism (bacteria, fungi) are the main causes

in the decomposition of food. In hot climate, meat and fish rot
easily. The use of preservatives is an effective way to prevent food
spoilage and to ensure that foods can be supplied throughout the
year.

b) If preservative are not used, food spoilage might drastically reduce

the food supply, making foods to cost more.

53
 c) Few deaths are associates with the use of food additives. However,
many people die due to food poisoning caused by bacterial toxins.

2. To improve nutritional value

During food processing, vitamins and minerals may be destroyed. Thus,

additives that improve nutrition can be added. These additives include
vitamin B, C and D, and minerals such as iron. The addition of these
additives increase the nutritional value of foods.

3. For medical reasons

a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make foods and drinks sweet
without using sugar. These food additives are particularly useful as
artificial sweeteners for diabetic patients.

b) Artificial sweeteners give the sweet taste but without adding

calories to the food. Thus, they can be used to reduce obesity.

c) Potassium iodide is added to table salt to reduce the incidence of

goitre.

d) Vitamin C is added to friut juices to prevent scurvy. Vitamin D is

added to margarine to prevent rickets.

Disadvantages

1. Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and flavour

enhancers is excess quantities over a long period of time is detrimental to
health.

2. Some food additives are used to make foods look more appealing. These
additives have little nutritional value. Eating such foods increases the risk
of health hazard.

54
 3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients, such as
vitamins A and D, or of trace elements, such as copper and zinc. Eating
foods with excessive amounts of nutrients can ruin our health.

Sources and uses of traditional medicines

1. A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce

pain and suffering due to illnesses.

2. Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such as

plants and animals without being processed chemically.

3. Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and roots,
animals and animal part to cure diseases.

4. Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The

sources and uses of some herbal medicines are shown in table below :

Plant Part of the plant Uses

used
Garlic Corm  For preventing flu attack
 For reducing high blood
pressure
Ginger Rhizome  For treating stomach pain
(horizontal due to wind in the stomach
underground stem)  For supplying heat energy
and leaves to keep the body warm
 For preventing flu attack
Aloe vera Leaves  For preventing itchy skin
 For treating burns
(scalding) on the skin
Lemon (lime) Fruits  For treating boils or
abscesses on the skin

55
  For preventing flu attack
 For treating skin diseases
Quinine Bark of Chinchona  For treating malaria
tree  For preventing muscle
cramps
Ginseng Roots  As a tonic to improve the
overall health of human
beings
 For increasing energy,
endurance and reducing
fatigue
Lemon grass Stem/leaves  Has antibacterial and
antifungal properties
 For treating cough
Tongkat Ali Roots  As a tonic for after a birth
and general health

Modern medicines

1. Before the 20th century, most medicines were extracted from plants
(herbal medicines). Since 1900. Thousands of modern drugs have been
synthesised from organic compound.

2. Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their effects on

the human body.

3. Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics, antibiotics,

psychotherapeutic drugs.

4. Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic name. For example, the
analgesic aspirin (generic name) is sold under different brand names such
as Caprin and Disprin. Similarly, paracetamol (generic name) is sold under
the trade name of Panadol.

5. Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active ingredients prepared

in different forms, such as capsules, pills, solutions or suspensions. For
example, Alka-Seltzer (used as an antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3), citric acid and aspirin. It is the sodium bicarbonate then
neutralizes the excess stomach acid.

56
Fucntion of each type of modern drug

Analgesics
1. Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are
aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesics are sometimes called
painkillers.

2. Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is powerful

painkillers.

3. Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.

4. Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory action

a) The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains

two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group.
Thus, aspirin is aicidc in nature.

b) Uses of aspirin

Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain.

Aspirin is used to :

(i) Reduce fever

(ii) Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches

(iii) Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints

(iv) Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and

reduce the risk of the heart attack and strokes.

5. Paracetamol

a) Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike

aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.

57
 b) Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever
and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.

c) Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms such as fever,

bone aches and runny nose.

6. Codeine

a) Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

b) Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror to moderate

pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and
morphine are narcotic drugs

c) Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.

Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine

1. Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious

microorganism.

2. Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.

3. Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.

4. Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections

such as influenza, measles, or small pox.

5. Penicillin

a) Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.

b) Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as

pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.

c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it

cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.

6. Streptomycin is the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.

Psychotherapeutic medicines

58
1. Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating mental or
emotional illnesses.

2. Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups as shown in

table below :

Types of psychotherapeutic Example

drugs
a) Stimulants Caffeine, amphetamine
b) Antidepressant Prozac
c) Antipsychotic Chloropromazin
agents

3. Stimulants

a) Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that stimulate

(excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.

b) Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to

prepare for demanding or energetic activities.

c) Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic, less tired and
more cheerful.

d) Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines. Caffeine is

a week, naturally occurring stimulant and is found on coffee, tea and
Cola drinks.

e) Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and increase

alertness and physical ability.

59
 f) Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates, as well as
the blood pressure. As a result, it causes the body to postpone the
need of sleep and can reverse, partially and temporarily, the
symptoms of fatigue.

4. Antidepressants

a) Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depression are

caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.

b) People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They experience a

loss of interest in everyday activities such as work or hobbies.

c) There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special

chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brain and a person’s
mood. If these chemicals get too low, the person may feel
depressed.

d) Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’s level of

neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.

e) Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.

5. Antipsychotic medicines

a) Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which people lose touch

with reality. People with psychosis may,

 Hear voice and see things that are not really there (hallucinations)

 Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)

b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that are classified

under ‘ psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias (madness), psychotic
depression, mania and so on.

c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Their mood changes

rapidly from high spirit to deep depression.

d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to help the person

live a more normal life.

60
 Side effects of traditional medicines

1. It is generally believed that traditional medicines have little side effects

compared to modern medicines. In fact, traditional medicines are
sometimes used to counteract the side effects of some modern medicines.

2. However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period may cause
hearing loss. German health officials recently reported 40 cases of liver
damage which were linked to the herbal medicine containing kava-kava.

3. While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health experts have
insufficient data about how it affects patients.

4. The World Health Organisation( WHO) hopes to set up a global monitoring

system to monitor the adverse side effects of traditional medicines.

Side effects of modern medicines

Type of modern
Side effects
drug
 Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is vey
acidic.
Aspirin
 Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic
attacks
 People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and
talkative.
 Psychologically additive and can cause heart attack.
Amphetamines  Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behavior
and decrease appetite.
 Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and
trembling hands.
Codeine  Can cause addiction.
 Can cause allergic reactions.
Penicillin
 Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.
 Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.
Streptomycin
 Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.

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 Stimulants  Can cause addiction.
 Can cause addiction.
Antidepressants
 Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.
 Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention,
Antipsychotic constipation.
drugs  Can cause tremor and restlessness.
 Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy)

Correct ways of using medicines

In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the
medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed, what
special diet should be followed, what are the side effects, and what storage
conditions are needed. In addition, we should note the following points :

1. Self-medication

Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other

people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to him concerning the
medicine to be taken.

2. Follow the instructions given

Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist concerning the

dosage and method of taking the medicine.

3. Medicines for adult and children

Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.

4. Side effects

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 Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or other
effects of the drugs.

5. Expiry date

Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take medicines after
their expiry dates.

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