Module

MALAYSIA
POLYTECHNICS
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
MODULE J3008
FLUID MECHANICS
Farha binti Mohd Fadzli (POLISAS)
Halimah binti Mohd Yusof
(POLISAS)
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
FLUID MECHANICS
J3008/0/2
BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

J3008 FLUID MECHANICS
Name : Farha binti Mohd Fadzli

Address : Department of Mechanical Engineering
Polytechnic of Sultan Hj Ahmad Shah
25350 Semambu
Kuantan, Pahang
Telephone No. : 03-5661300 ext. 320
e-mail : fliffypunye@yahoo.com
Qualifications : Dip. Of Mech. Eng with Education (KUiTTHO)
Position : Polytechnic Lecturer
Name : Halimah binti Mohd Yusof

Address : Department of Mechanical Engineering
Polytechnic of Sultan Hj Ahmad Shah
25350 Semambu
Kuantan, Pahang
Telephone No. : 03-5661300 ext. 320
Qualifications : Dip. Of Mech. Eng with Education (KUiTTHO)
Position : Polytechnic Lecturer
What Do You Think Of This Module?
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A. FORMAT 1 2 3 4
1 The pages are organized in an interesting manner.
2 The font size makes it easy for me to read the module.
The size and types of pictures and charts used are suitable for
3
the input.
4 The pictures and charts are easy to read and understand.
5 The tables used are well-organised and easy to understand.
6 The arrangement of the Input makes it easy for me to follow.
7 All the instructions are displayed clearly.
B. CONTENTS 1 2 3 4
8 I understand all the objectives clearly.
9 I understand the ideas conveyed.
10 The ideas are presented in an interesting manner.
11 All the instructions are easy to understand.
12 I can carry out the instructions in this module.
13 I can answer the questions in the activities easily.
14 I can answer the questions in the self-assessment.
15 The feedback section can help me identify my mistakes.
16 The language used is easy to understand.
17 The way the module is written makes it interesting to read.
18 I can follow this module easily.
19 Each unit helps me understand the topic better.
I have become more interested in the subject after using this
20
module.
CURRICULUM GRID
The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by Malaysian
polytechnics.
No. TOPIC UNIT Total

Hours
1 Introduction to 1 4 Hours
Fluid (4H)
Mechanics
2 Fluid Static 2 3 12 Hours

( 4 H) ( 8 H)
3 Fluid Dynamic 4 5 10 Hours

(4H) (6H)
4 Loses of 6 6 Hours
Energy in (6H)
Pipelines
5 Nozzle 7 4 Hours
(4H)
UNIT 1 PRINCIPLE CONCEPTS OF FLUID MECHANICS
1.1 Temperature units
1.2 Measurement of Pressure Gauges
1.3 Physical Properties of Fluid
UNIT 2 FLUID STATIC

2.1 Pressure and Depth
2.2 Pascal Law and Hydraulic Jack
2.3 Buoyancy
UNIT 3 FLUID STATIC

3.1 Piezometer
3.2 Barometer
3.3 Bourdon Gauge
3.4 Simple Manometer
3.5 Differential Manometer
3.6 Inverted Differential Manometer
UNIT 4 FLUID DYNAMICS

4.1 Types of flow
4.2 Discharge, continuity equation and mass flowrate in pipe
4.3 The use of continuity equation
UNIT 5 FLUID DYNAMICS

5.1 Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2 The limits of Bernoulli’s Equation
5.3 Measurements of Fluids in Motion
UNIT 6 ENERGY LOSS IN PIPELINES
6.1 Velocity profile in circular pipe

6.2 Types of Head Loss in pipelines
6.3 Flow characteristic at the entrance and exit of the pipeline.
6.4 The Head Loss Equation for flowrate from the reservoir to the
horizontal and inclined pipes.
6.5 Pipeline Problems
UNIT 7 NOZZLE
7.1 Types and shapes of nozzles
7.2 Critical Pressure Ratio
7.3 Pressure, temperature and cross-sectional Area, A of a throat of
entrance and exit
7.4 Maximum mass flow
7.5 Uses of Nozzles
MODULE GUIDELINES
To achieve maximum benefits in using this module, students must follow the
instructions carefully and complete all the activities.
1. This module is divided into 7 units.

2. Each page is numbered according to the subject code, unit and page number.
J3008 / 1 / 5
Subject Unit 1 Page Number 5
3. The general and specific objectives are given at the beginning of each unit.
4. The activities in each unit are arranged in a sequential order and the
following symbols are given:
OBJECTIVES
The general and specific objectives for each learning topic are stated
in this section.
INPUT
This section introduces the subject matter that you are going to learn.
ACTIVITIES
The activities in this section test your understanding of the subject
matter. You have to complete this section by following the
instructions carefully.
FEEDBACK
Answers to the questions in the activity section are given here
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Self-assessment evaluates your understanding of each unit.
FEEDBACK OF SELF-ASSESSMENT
This section contains answers to the activities in the self-assessment.
.
5. You have to follow the units in sequence.

6. You may proceed to the next unit after successfully completing the unit and
you are confident of your achievement.
GENERAL AIMS
This module is prepared for students in the third semester who are following the
Diploma in Mechanical Engineering programmes and student in fourth semester of
the Certificate programmes in Malaysian Polytechnics. It aims to expose students to
the Mechanical Engineering concept in each unit and to lead them towards self-
directed learning or with guidance from their lecturers.
PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE
The prerequisite for this module is a successful completion of module J 2006.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. identify temperature units

2. describe the measurement of pressure gauges
3. define physical properties of fluid
4. define and differentiate between pressure and depth
5. state the Pascal’s Law and solve calculation related to a Hydraulic Jack
6. understand the concept of buoyancy
7. understand the mechanism of a Piezometer, Barometer, Bourdon Gauge
8. solve calculation involving Simple Manometer, Differential Manometer
and Inverted Differential Manometer.
9. define and differentiate the types of flow
10. define Flowrate, Continuity Equation and Mass Flowrate in horizontal pipes
and inclined pipes.
11. understand the principle of Bernoulli’s Equation
12. define the limits of Bernoulli’s Equation
13. solve calculation related to the measurements of fluids in motion
14. understand the velocity profile in circular pipe
15. differentiate the types of Head Loss in pipelines
16. determine the flow characteristic at the entrance and exit of the pipeline.
17. understand the Head Loss Equation for flowrate from the reservoir to the
horizontal and inclined pipes.
18. solve calculation problem related to the pipeline problems
19. differentiate the types and shape of nozzles
20. define Critical Pressure Ratio
21. find pressure , temperature and cross-sectional Area, A of a throat of entrance
and exit
22. define and understand the term of the maximum mass flow
23. understand the use of nozzles
TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES NEEDED
1. Calculator
REFERENCES
Douglas,J.F (1993). Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics – Volume 1; Longman;

Singapore.
Douglas,J.F, J.M Gasiorek & J.A Swaffield (1996). Fluids Mechanics – (3rd ed);
Longman; Singapore.
Eastop,T.D & A. McConkey (1983). Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering

Technologists (3rd ed); Longman; New York.
Janna, William S.(1987). Introduction To Fluid Mechanics (2nd ed); PWS Publishers;
Massachusetts.
Mohd Gomenon bin Su (1989). Teknologi Haba & Bendalir; Delta; Selangor
Munson,Bruce R, Donald F.Young &Theodore H.Okiishi(1998). Fundamentals of

Fluid Mechanics-(3rd ed);John Wiley & Sons,Inc; Canada
Prasuhn, Alan L (1980). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics; Prentice-Hall; London
R.S Khurmi (1975). A Text Book of Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic
Machines; S. Chand & Co; New Delhi.
PRINCIPLE CONCEPTS OF FLUID MECHANICS J3008/1/1
UNIT 1
PRINCIPLE CONCEPTS OF FLUID MECHANICS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To know, understand and apply the measurement of temperature,

pressure and physical properties of fluid.
Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you should be able to :
 list the temperature scales.
 convert the temperature to Celsius (ºC), Fahrenheit (ºF),

Rankine (R), Kelvin (K) scales.
 define Pressure ( P ) , Atmospheric Pressure (Patm) , Gauge

Pressure ( PG ) , Absolute Pressure ( PA ) and Vacuum ( Pv )
 calculate pressure gauge using the formula given.
 differentiate mass density ( ρ ), specific weight (  ),

specific gravity ( s ) , specific volume ( v ) and viscosity.
 calculate fluid properties using the formula given.
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Mechanics - Introduction

Fluid Mechanics is a section of applied mechanics, concerned with the static and
dynamics of liquids and gases.
Knowledge of fluid mechanics is essential for the chemical engineer, because the
majority of chemical processing operations are conducted either partially or totally in
the fluid phase.
The handling of liquids is much simpler, cheaper, and less troublesome than handling
solids.
Even in many operations a solid is handled in a finely divided state so that it stays in
suspension in a fluid.
Fluids and their Properties
Fluids
In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Although
different in many respects, liquids and gases have a common characteristic in which
they differ from solids. Both are fluids, but lacks the ability of solids to offer a
permanent resistance to a deforming force.
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces,
however small they may be. Conversely, if a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing
forces acting and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes
upon which they act.
INPUT
1.1 TEMPERATURE UNITS
Temperature scales are defined by the numerical value assigned to a standard fixed
point. By international agreement the standard fixed point is the easily reproducible
triple point of water. These are represented by the state of equilibrium between steam,
ice and liquid water.
In this unit we learn how to convert temperatures into Celsius, Fahrenheit Kelvin and
Rankine scales.
The Celsius temperature scale uses the unit degree Celsius (ºC), which has the same
magnitude as the Kelvin. Thus the temperature differences are identical on both scales.
However, the zero point on the Celsius scale is shifted to 273K, as shown by the
following relationship between the Celsius temperature and the Kelvin temperature:
T C  T K   …(1)
273
By definition, the Rankine scale, the unit of which is the degree Rankine (R) is
proportional to the Kelvin temperature according to
T R   1 .8T K …(2)

A degree of the same size as that on the Rankine scale is used in the Fahrenheit scale,
but the zero point is shifted according to the relation
T F   T R  …(3)
460
substituting Eqs. (1) and (2) into Eq. (3), it follows that
T F   1.8T C   32
Example 1.1
Convert 200ºC to K.
Solution to Example 1.1
K  C  273
 200  273
 473 K
Example 1.2
Convert 250 ºC to ºF
F  32  1.8C
 32  1.8250
 482 F
Example 1.3
Convert 365 ºF to R
R  460  F
 460  365
 825 R
Example 1.4
Convert 200 ºF to R
R  460  F
 460  200
 660 R
Example 1.5
Convert 450 R to K
R
K
1.8
450
 1 .8
 250 K
Example 1.6
Convert 410 K to ºF
F  1.8 K  273  32
 1.8 410  273  32
 278.6F
ACTIVITY 1A
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT

INPUT…!
1.1 Write the formula to convert the following temperature scales.
ºC to K
ºF to R
R to K
1.2 Solve the problems below:
i) Air entering a wet scrubber is at 153 ºC. What is the temperature expressed in
degree Rankine?
ii) The gas stream temperature entering a fabric filter is 410 ºF. What is the
temperature expressed in degree Kelvin?
FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 1A
1.1
ºC to K K = ºC + 273
ºF to R R = 460 + ºF
R to K R
K =
1.8
1.2
i) Convert temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit.

ºF = 32 + 1.8ºC
ºF = 32 + 1.8(153)
= 307 ºF
Convert temperature from Fahrenheit to Rankine.

R = ºF + 460
R = 307 + 460
= 767 R
ii) Convert temperature from Fahrenheit to Rankine.
R = ºF + 460
R = 410 + 460
= 870 R
Convert temperature from Rankine to Kelvin.

R
K
1.8
870
 1.8
 483 K
INPUT
1.2 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE
Fluid will exert a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with. Since these
boundaries may be large and the force may differ from place to place it is convenient
to work in terms of pressure, p, which is the force per unit area.
Force
pressure
 Area over which the force is
applied
Units : Newton’s per square metre, Nm-2,kgm-1s-2. (The

same unit is also known as Pascal, Pa i.e 1 Pa = 1Nm-2)
Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar,
where 1 bar = 105Nm-2
1.3 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE GAUGES
Absolute Pressure, Gauge Pressure, and Vacuum

In a region such as outer space, which is virtually void of gases, the pressure is
essentially zero. Such a condition can be approached very nearly in a laboratory when
a vacuum pump is used to evacuate a bottle. The pressure in a vacuum is called
absolute zero, and all pressures referenced with respect to this zero pressure are
termed absolute pressures.
Many pressure-measuring devices measure not absolute pressure but only
difference in pressure. For example, a Bourdon-tube gage indicates only the difference
between the pressure in the fluid to which it is tapped and the pressure in the
atmosphere. In this case, then, the reference pressure is actually the atmospheric
pressure. This type of pressure reading is called gauge pressure. For example, if a
pressure of 50 kPa is measured with a gauge referenced to the atmosphere and the
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, then the pressure can be expressed as either p = 50
kPa gauge or p = 150 kPa absolute.
Whenever atmospheric pressure is used as a reference, the possibility exists
that the pressure thus measured can be either positive or negative. Negative gauge
pressure is also termed as vacuum pressure. Hence, if a gauge tapped into a tank
indicates a vacuum pressure of 31 kPa, this can also be stated as 70 kPa absolute, or
-31 kPa gauge, assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa .
1.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure, patm

- The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere many miles high. The pressure
due to this atmosphere at the surface of the earth depends upon the head of
the air above the surface.
- The air is compressible, therefore the density is different at different height.
- Due to the weight of atmosphere or air above the surface of earth, it is
difficult to calculate the atmospheric pressure. So, atmospheric pressure is
measured by the height of column of liquid that it can support.
- Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 101.325 kN/m2, which is
equivalent to a head of 10.35 m of water or 760 mm of mercury
approximately, and it decreases with altitude.
1.3.2 Gauge Pressure, pG
- It is the pressure, measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum; in other
words the atmospheric pressure at the gauge scale is marked zero.
- The gauge pressure can be either positive or negative depending on
whether the pressure is above atmospheric pressure (a positive value) or
below atmospheric pressure (a negative value).
1.3.3 Absolute Pressure, pA

- It is the pressure equal to the algebraic sum of the atmospheric and gauge
pressures.
Absolute pressure  Gauge pressure  Atmospheric pressure
p A  pG patm
1.3.4 Vacuum, pv
- In a perfect vacuum which is a completely empty space, the pressure is zero.
gauge pressure +ve Local

Pgaug atmosphe
e ric
pressure
pressure –ve reference
absolute pressure absolute pressure
Figure 1.2 Pressure

Gauges
Example 1.7
Define the following terms :

i. Pressure (p )
ii. Atmospheric Pressure ( patm)
iii. Gauge Pressure ( pG )
iv. Absolute Pressure ( pA )
v. Vacuum ( pv )
i. Pressure ( p ):
Pressure is force ( F ) per unit area ( A ).
ii. Atmospheric Pressure ( patm) :

The pressure due to atmosphere at the surface of the earth depends
upon the head of the air above the surface.
iii. Gauge Pressure ( pG ) :

It is the pressure, measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
iv. Absolute Pressure ( pA )

It is the pressure that equals to the algebraic sum of the atmospheric
and gauge pressures.
v. Vacuum ( pv )
A completely empty space where the pressure is zero.
What is the pressure gauge of air in the cylinder if the atmospheric gauge is
101.3 kN/m2 and absolute pressure is 460 kN/m2.
pA = 460 kN/m2
patm = 101.3 kN/m2
pG = ?
With reference to the formula below :
Absolute pressure, pA = Gauge pressure, pG + atmospheric pressure, patm
Therefore ,
pG = pA – patm
= 460 – 101.3
2
= 358.7 kN / m
ACTIVITY 1B

INPUT…!
1.3 Label the diagram below :
b Local
atmospher
ic pressure
reference
c
a d
1.4 A Bourdon pressure gauge attached to a boiler located at sea level shows a reading
pressure of 7 bar. If atmospheric pressure is 1.013 bar, what is the absolute pressure in
that boiler (in kN/m2) ?
FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 1B
1.3
b = gauge pressure +ve

Local atmospheric pressure reference
d = pressure –ve
a = absolute pressure d = absolute pressure

1.4
pA = ?
patm = 1.013 bar
pG = 7 bar
With reference to the formula below :
Absolute pressure,pA = Gauge pressure,pG + atmospheric pressure,patm
Therefore ,
pA = pG + patm
= 7 x 105 + 1.013 x 105
= 801300 N/m2
2
= 801.3 kN / m
INPUT
1.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUID
Fluid properties are intimately related to fluid behaviour. It is obvious that different
fluids can have grossly different characteristics. For example, gases are light and
compressible, whereas liquids are heavy and relatively incompressible.
To quantify the fluid behaviour differences certain fluid properties are used. The fluid
properties are mass density, specific weight, specific gravity, specific volume and
viscosity.
1.4.1 Mass density, ρ is defined as the mass per unit volume.

( SI units, kg/m3 )
mass, m

 volume,
V
1.4.2 Specific weight,  is defined as the weight per unit
volume. ( SI units, N/m3 )

weig
htvolu
,W
 me,
V
 gmgV
(where g = 9.81m/sec2)
In SI units the specific weight of water is 9.81 x 1000 = 9810 N/m3

1.4.3 Specific gravity or relative density, s is the ratio of the weight of the substance
to the weight of an equal volume of water at 4 ºC.
s

subs wa

stante
ce
subsr
tan 
ce
wa
1.4.4 Specific volume, v is defined as the reciprocal of mass density. It is used to
te
mean volume per unit mass. (SI units, m3/kg ).
r


1

volume,V
mass,
m
1.4.5 Viscosity
A fluid at rest cannot resist shearing forces but once it is in motion, shearing
forces are set up between layers of fluid moving at different velocities. The
viscosity of the fluid determines the ability of the fluid in resisting these
shearing stresses.
Example 1.9
What is the mass density, ρ of fluid (in kg/m3) if mass is 450 g and the volume is 9
cm3.
m

V
3
450 10
 9 106
3 3
 50 10 kg / m
Example 1.10
What is the specific weight,  of fluid (in kN/m3) if the weight of fluid is 10N and the
volume is 500 cm2.

W

V
3
10 10
 500 106
= 20 000 N/m3
3
 20 kN / m
Example 1.11
What is the specific gravity of fluid in Example 1.10.

 subs tan ce
s
 water
3
20 10

10009.81
 2.039
Example 1.12
What is the specific volume, v of fluid in Example 1.9.

V
v
m
6
9 10
 450 103
5 3
 2 10 m / kg
ACTIVITY 1C

INPUT…!
1.5 Match the following
weight,W
Specific ρ volume,V
gravity N/m3
volume,V
mass, m
Specific 
volume
m3/kg
mass, m
Mass s volume,V
density
kg/m3
Specific  for subs tan ce
v
weight  forwater
FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 1C
1.5
weight,W
Specific ρ volume,V
gravity N/m3
volume,V
mass, m
Specific 
volume
m3/kg
mass, m
Mass s volume,V
density
kg/m3
 for subs tan ce
Specific v
weight
 forwater
SELF-ASSESSMENT
You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section
and check your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment. If you
face any problems, discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.
1.1 Convert the temperatures below according to the specified scales:
a) 175 ºC to ºF, K and R.
b) 518 ºR to ºC, ºF and K.
c) 214 ºF to ºC, R and K.
d) 300 K to ºC, R and ºF.
1.2 Assume the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3 at atmospheric pressure 101
kN/m2. What will be:
a) the gauge pressure
b) the absolute pressure of water at a depth of 2000 m below the free surface?
1.3 Determine in Newton per square metre, the increase in pressure intensity per
metre depth in fresh water. The mass density of fresh water is 1000 kg/m3.
1.4 Given specific weight of fluid is 6.54 kN/m3 and its mass is 8.3 kg, calculate
the following:
a) volume of fluid
b) specific volume of fluid
c) density of fluid
1.5 Given oil specific gravity is 0.89, find :

a) density of oil
b) specific weight of oil
c) specific volume of oil
FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT
Answers :
1.1 a) 347 F,807 R,448.3 K ,
b) 58 F,287.7 K,14.7 C ,
c) 674 C,374.4 R,101.4 K
d) 27 C,80.6 F,540.6 R
1.2 a) 117.72 kN/m2 ,
b) 218.72 kN/m2
1.3 9.81 x 103 N/m2
1.4 a) 0.072 m3
b) 0.0015 m3/kg
c) 691.67 kg/m3
1.5 a) 0.89 x 103 kg/m3
b) 8730.9 N/m3
c) 0.00112 m3/kg
FLUID STATIC J3008/2/1
UNIT 2
FLUID STATIC
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To know, understand and apply the concept of pressure and buoyancy
 explain the relationship between pressure and depth.
 define Pascal Law and apply the concept into the Hydraulic Jack.
 solve problems related to the Hydraulic Jack.
 explain the concept of Buoyancy.
INPUT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid Pressure and Depth
A fluid is a substance that flows easily. Gases and liquids are fluids, although
sometimes the dividing line between liquids and solids is not always clear. Because of
their ability to flow, fluids can exert buoyant forces, multiply forces in a hydraulic
systems, allow aircraft to fly and ships to float.
The topic that this unit will explore will be pressure and depth. If a fluid is within a
container then the depth of an object placed in that fluid can be measured. The deeper
the object is placed in the fluid, the more pressure it experiences. This is because of the
weight of the fluid above it. The more dense the fluid above it, the more pressure is
exerted on the object that is submerged, due to the weight of the fluid.
The formula that gives the pressure, p on an object submerged in a fluid is:
p  gh
Where,
 (rho) is the density of the fluid,
 g is the acceleration of gravity
 h is the height of the fluid above the object
If the container is open to the atmosphere above, the added pressure must be included if
one is to find the total pressure on an object. The total pressure is the same as absolute
pressure on pressure gauge readings, while the gauge pressure is the same as the fluid
pressure alone, not including atmospheric pressure.
Ptotal = Patmosphere + Pfluid

Ptotal = Patmosphere + ( ρgh )
Pascal is the unit of pressure in the metric system. It represents 1 Newton/m2.

2.2 PRESSURE AND DEPTH
In Unit 1, we have defined the meaning of ‘pressure’. In this unit we will learn about
the relationship between pressure and depth.
When a liquid (such as water, oil etc) is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all points
on the sides and bottom of the container. This force per unit area is called pressure. If F
is the force acting on an area a, then intensity of pressure is :
p

F
A
The direction of this pressure is always at right angle to the surface, with which the
fluid at rest, comes into contact.
The intensity of pressure at any point is the force exerted on an unit area at that point
and is measured in Newtons per square metre, N/m2 (Pascals). An alternative metric
unit is bar, which is in N/m2.
In this section, we are going to look into the relationship between depth and pressure.
Figure 2.1
Consider a vessel containing some liquid as shown in Figure 2.1. We know that the
liquid will exert pressure on all sides and the bottom of the vessel. Let a cylinder be
made to stand in the liquid as shown in the figure. The weight of liquid contained in
the cylinder is ωhA where ;
= Specific weight of the liquid

( where is water = 1000 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2)
h = Height of liquid in the cylinder
A = Area of the cylinder base
The pressure, at the bottom of the cylinder, will be due to the weight of the liquid
contained in the cylinder. Let this pressure be p.
Then,
weight of liquid in the cylinder

p Area of the cylinder base
h A
p  which can also be shown as ,
A
p  gh
This equation shows that the intensity of pressure at any point, in a liquid, is
proportional to its depth as measured from the surface (as is constant for the given
liquid).
It is thus obvious, that the pressure can be expressed in either one of the following two
ways :
 As force per unit area ( N/m2)
 As height of equivalent liquid column
Example 2.1
a) Find the density of pressure p at a depth below the surface of a liquid of specific
weight = ρg if the pressure at the free surface is zero.
b) A diver is working at a depth of 20 m below the surface of the sea. How much greater
is the pressure intensity at this depth than at the surface? Take into consideration
specific weight of water is 10000 N/m3.
Solution to Example 2.1 (a)
Liquid of
specific
weight w
h
Cross-
sectional
area A
Figure 2.2
The column of liquid (Figure 2.2) of cross-sectional area A extending vertically

from the free surface to the depth h is in equilibrium to the surrounding liquid under the
action of its weight acting downwards. The pressure force on the bottom of the column
acting upwards, and the forces on the sides due to the surrounding liquid must act
horizontally since there can be no tangential (shearing) forces in the liquid at rest.
For vertical equilibrium :
Force exerted on base = Weight of column of liquid
Intensity
pressure area base  Weight per unit volume  volume of column
of
pA  . Ah
p  h  g since  g
h
Since the same relation applies wherever the column is taken, it follows that :
The intensity of pressure is the same at all points in the same horizontal plane in
a liquid at rest.
Solution to Example 2.1 (b)
Putting = 10000 N/m3 and h = 2.0 m
Therefore,
p = 1000 x 20
= 200000 N/m2
2
= 200 kN / m
Example 2.2
Find the height of a water column which is equivalent to the pressure of 2 N/m2.
( Take into consideration specific weight of water, water = 1000 kg/m2 x 9.81 m/s2 )
Taking the formula p = h

Putting p = 2 N/m2 and ωwater = 1000 kg/m2 x 9.81 m/s2
Therefore,
h= 2
9810
h = 2.04 m
ACTIVITY 2A

INPUT…!
2.1 Match the symbols below with their respective meanings.
Specific weight of the liquid

h
Intensity of pressure
w
Area of the cylinder

p
A
Height of liquid in the cylinder
2.2 Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1. exerts at all points on the sides and bottom of the container when a liquid
(such as water, oil etc) is contained in a vessel.
2. (Pascal) is the measurement unit for the intensity of pressure at any point with
reference to the formula p = F / A.
3. p  gh h
or
4. Pressure can be expressed in two ways if force per unit area ( N/m2) and of
equivalent liquid column are given.
5. We can summarize that, intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in
all .
2.1
h
Specific weight of the liquid
Intensity of w
pressure
p
Area of the cylinder
Height of liquid in the cylinder A
2.2
1. Force exerts at all points on the sides and bottom of the container when a liquid (such
as water, oil etc) is contained in a vessel.
2. N/m2 (Pascal) is the measurement unit for the intensity of pressure at any point with
reference to the formula p = F / A.
3. p  gh or p  h
4. Pressure can be expressed in two ways if force per unit area ( N/m2) and height of
equivalent liquid column are given.
5. We can summarize that, intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in
all directions.
INPUT
2.2 PASCAL LAW AND HYDRAULIC JACK
Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics
Hydraulic system uses an incompressible fluid, such as oil or water, to transmit forces
from one location to another within the fluid. Most aircraft use hydraulics in the braking
systems and landing gear. Pneumatic systems use compressible fluid, such as air, in
their operation. Some aircraft utilize pneumatic systems for their brakes, landing gear
and movement of flaps.
Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a
confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container.
A container, as shown below, contains a fluid. There is an increase in pressure as the

length of the column of liquid increases, due to the increased mass of the fluid above.
For example, in the Figure 2.3, P3 would be the highest value of the three pressure
readings, because it has the highest level of fluid above it.
Figure 2.3
If the container had an increase in overall pressure, that same added pressure would
affect each of the gauges (and the liquid throughout) in the same way. For example p1,
p2, p3 were originally 1, 3, 5 units of pressure, and if 5 units of pressure were added to
the system, the new readings would be 6, 8, and 10.
Applied to a more complex system below (Figure2.4), such as a hydraulic car lift,
Pascal's law allows forces to be multiplied. The cylinder on the left shows a cross-
section area of 1 square meter, while the cylinder on the right shows a cross-section area
of 10 square metre. The cylinder on the left has a weight (force) of 1 kg acting
downward on the piston, which lowers the fluid 10 metres. As a result of this force, the
piston on the right lifts a 10 kg weight a distance of 1 metre.
The 1 kg load on the 1 square metre area causes an increase in pressure on the fluid in
the system. This pressure is distributed equally throughout and acts on every square
metre of the 10 square metre area of the large piston. As a result, the larger piston lifts
up a 10 kg weight. The larger the cross-section area of the second piston, the larger the
mechanical advantage, and the more weight it lifts.
W2 = 10 kg
W1 = 1 kg
A1 = 1 square metre
A2 = 10 square metre D1= 10 meter

D2 = 1 meter
Figure 2.4
The formulas that relate to this are shown below:
p1  p2 (since the pressures are equal throughout)
Since pressure equals force per unit area, then it follows that
F1 F2
A1  A2
It can be shown by substitution that the values shown above are correct,
1 kg 10 kg
1 square  10 square metre
metre
Because the volume of fluid pushed down on the left side equals the volume of fluid
that is lifted up on the right side, the following formula is also true.
V1  V2
by
substitution,
A1  D1  A2  D2
A = cross sectional area
D = the distance moved
Or
A 1 D2
2
A
D1
2.2.1 Pascal Law for Pressure At A Point
Pressure at any point is the same in all

directions.
This is known as Pascal Law and applies

to fluids at rest
By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism

which contains a point p, we can establish a relationship between the three
pressures px in the x direction, py in the y direction and pz in the z direction
normal to the sloping face. (Figure 2.5)
px
Pz
Py
Figure 2.5
The pressure p at a point in a fluid can be expressed in terms of the

height h of the column of the fluid which causes the pressure, or which would
cause an equal pressure if the actual pressure is applied by other means.
We know that p = h = ρg and the height, h is called the pressure head
at that point. It is measured as a length (e.g in meters) of fluid. The name of fluid
must be given because the mass density is different for each liquid.
Example 2.3
Find the head, h of water corresponding to an intensity of pressure, p of 340 000 N/m2.
Take into consideration that the mass density, ρ of water is 103 kg/m3.
Since p = ρgh
Head of water , h  p
g
 340000
3
10 x9.81
= 34.7 m
2.2.2 Hydraulic Jack

A Hydraulic Jack is used to lift a heavy load with the help of a light force.
Below is a diagram of a hydraulic jack (Figure 2.6). A force, F is applied

to the piston of the small cylinder and forces oil or water out into the large
cylinder thus, raising the piston supporting the load, W.
The force, F acting on area, a produced a pressure p1 which is

transmitted equally in all direction through the liquid. If the two pistons are at
the same level, the pressure, p2 acting on the larger piston must equal p1.
p1  p2
F
Area , a
W
p1
Area, A
p2
Figure 2.6
Example 2.4
A force, P of 500 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of a hydraulic jack. The area, a
of a small piston is 20 cm2 while the area, A of a larger piston is 200 cm2. What mass
can be lifted on the larger piston?
F = 800 N
W
Area ,
a = 20 cm2 p1 p2
Area,
A = 200 cm2
Putting F = 800 N, a = 20/1000 m2 , A = 200 / 1000 m2

p1  p2
F W
a = A
A
So that WF
a
2.0
= 800  = 8000 N
0.2
W
Mass lifted =
g
80000
 9.81
= 815.49 kg
ACTIVITY 2B

INPUT…!
2.3 A force, P of 650 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of an hydraulic jack. The area, a
of a small piston is 15 cm2 and the area A of a larger piston is 150 cm2.
What load, W can be lifted on the larger piston if :

(a) the pistons are at the same level ?
(b) the large piston is 0.65 m below the smaller piston ?
(c) the small piston is 0.40 m below the larger piston ?
Consider the mass density ρ of the liquid in the jack is 103 kg/m3
2.3
(a) if the pistons are at the same level
F
Area , a
W
p1
Area,
p2 A
F
Now p1 = and p2 =
W
a
A
p1 = p2 ,
F W
a = A
Or
a
F = W
A
Thus, the small force F can raise the larger load W because the jack has a
mechanical advantage of A/a.
Putting F = 650 N, a = 15/1000 m2 , A = 150 / 1000 m2
F W
a = A
So that A
W F
a
1.5
= 650 
0.15
= 6500 N
(b) if the large piston is 0.65 m below the smaller piston ?
F
Area , a
p1
h W
p2 Area, A
If the larger piston is a distance h below the smaller piston, the pressure p2 will be
greater than p1, due to the head, h by an amount ρg, where ρ is the mass density of the
liquid and g is the gravity. Take into consideration g = 9.81 m/s2
p2  p1  gh
F
p  650 4 2
 43.3 10 N / m
a  15 4
1
10
3 3
Putting ρ  10 kg / m , h = 0.65 m and g = 9.81 m/s2
p2  p1  gh
p 2  43.3 10  10  9.81 0.65
4 3
4
= 43.3  10  6376.5
= 439.38 kN
and
W  p2 A
3 4
= 439.38 10  150 10
 6.59 kN
(c) the small piston is 0.40 m below the larger piston ?
F
Area , a
W
p2
h
Area, A
p1
If the smaller piston is a distance h below the larger piston, the pressure p1 will be
greater than p2, due to the head, h by an amount ρg, where ρ is the mass density of the
liquid and g is the gravity. Take into consideration g = 9.81 m/s2
p1  p2  gh
W
p 
2
A
3 3
Putting ρ  10 kg / m , g = 9.81 m/s2 and h = 0.40 m
p1  p2  gh
so
p   gh
F W
but p1 = 1
a
A
F W
=  gh
a ⎛ FA ⎞
so W= 
⎜ gh ⎟ A
⎝a ⎠
⎛ 850 ⎞
W=⎜
 1000 9.81 
0.4 ⎟ 1.5
⎝ 0.15 ⎠
W = 2.614 kN
INPUT
2.3 BUOYANCY
Principle of Archimedes
Upthrust on body = weight of fluid displaced by the body
Archimedes
Principle states
that the buoyant
force on a
submerged object
is equal to the
weight of the fluid
that is displaced
by the object.
Figure 2.7 Buoyancy
If the body is immersed so that part of its volume, v1 is immersed in a fluid of

density, 1 and the rest of its volume, v2 in another immiscible fluid of mass density  2 .
The upthrust will act through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid, which
is called the centre of buoyancy.
Upthrust on upper part, R1 = 1 gv1

acting through G1, the centroid of v1,
Upthrust on lower part,R2 =  2 gv2

acting through G2, the centroid of v2,
Total upthrust = 1 gv1 +  2 gv2
The positions of G1 and G2 are not necessarily on the same vertical line, and the
centre of buoyancy of the whole body is, therefore, not bound to pass through the
centroid of the whole body.
Example 2.5
A rectangular pontoon has a width B of 6 m, a length l of 12 m, and a draught D of 1.5

m in fresh water (density 1000 kg/m3). Calculate :
a) the weight of the pontoon

b) its draught in sea water (density 1025 kg/m3)
c) the load (in kiloNewtons) that can be supported by the pontoon in fresh water if
the maximum draught permissible is 2 m.
When the pontoon is floating in an unloaded condition,
Uptrust on immersed volume = weight of pontoon
Since the uptrust is equal to weight of the fluid displaced,
Weight of pontoon = weight of fluid displaced,
So, W    g  B l  D
a) In fresh water,   1000 kg / m and D = 1.5 m ;

3
Therefore,
Weight of pontoon,
W = 1000  9.81  6 12  1.5 N
W  1059.5 kN
b) In the sea water,   1025 kg / m ; therefore,

3
W
Draught in sea water, D 
gBl
3
1059.5  10
=
1025  9.81  6  12
 1.46 m
c) For maximum draught of 2 m in fresh water,
Total uptrust = weight of water displaced

=gBlD
= 1000  9.81 6 12  2 N
= 1412.6 kN
Load which can be supported = Upthrust – weight of pontoon

= 1412.6  1059.5
= 353.1 kN
ACTIVITY 2C

INPUT…!
2.4 Define the Archimedes Principle.
2.5 Consider a barge filled with rock. The barge is 7 m wide, 17 m long, and 2.5 m
deep. If the barge and rock weigh 2.0 MN, determine the depth of submergence
of the barge in water as shown in the figure below.
Rock
Barge
d
17 m
2.5 m
Submergence Depth
2.4
Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force on a submerged object is
equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object.
2.5
The specific weight of water is 9,800 N/m3 (or 9.8 kN/m3). From the buoyancy
concept, the volume of displaced fluid (water) must balance the weight of the
barge. Thus,
Wbarge = FB = water Vbarge
Substituting volume Vbarge with 1 w d, we have:
Wbarge = water l w d = (9.8 kN/m3)(17 m)(7 m) d
Or
Wb arg e
d  9.8 kN / m3 17 m7
 
m
Substituting the weight of the barge gives:
d
9.8 kN 2.1
/ m 17 m7
3MN
m
 1.71m
SELF-ASSESSMENT
You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section and check
your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment. If you face any problems,
discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.
2.2 In a hydraulic jack a force F, is applied to a small piston that lifts the load on the
large piston. If the diameter of the small piston is 15 mm and that of the large
piston is 180 mm, calculate the value of F required to lift 1000 kg.
2.3 Two cylinders with pistons are connected by a pipe containing water. Their
diameters are 75 mm and 600 mm respectively and the face of the smaller piston
is 6 m above the larger. What force on the smaller piston is required to maintain
a load of 3500 kg on the larger piston?
2.4 A rectangular pontoon 5.4 m wide by 12 m long, has a draught of 1.5 m in fresh
water (density 1000 kg/m3). Calculate:
(a) the mass of the pontoon,
(b) its draught in the sea water (density 1025 kg/m3).
2.5 A ship floating in sea water displaces 115 m3. Find

(a) the weight of the ship if sea water has a density of 1025 kg/m3,
(b) the volume of fresh water (density 1000 kg/m3) which the ship would
displace.
Answers :
2.1 68.2 N
2.2 276 N
2.3 a) 97000 kg ,
b) 1.47 m
1.4 a) 118000 kg ,
b) 118 m3
UNIT 3
FLUID STATIC
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To know, understand and apply pressure measurement using

piezometer, barometer, bourdon gauge and manometers.
 explain the concept of pressure measurement using piezometer.
 solve problems related to piezometer.
 explain the concept of pressure measurement using barometer.
 solve problems related to barometer.
 sketch, label and explain the working principle of bourdon

gauge
 explain the concept of pressure measurement using

manometers.
 solve problems related to the use of simple manometer.
 solve problems related to the use of differential manometer.
 solve problems related to the use of inverted differential

manometer.
INPUT
3.1 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
3.2 PIEZOMETER ( Pressure Tube )
Figure 3.1: Piezometer inside a pipe
A Piezometer is used for measuring pressure inside a vessel or pipe in which

liquid is there. A tube may be attached to the walls of the container (or pipe) in
which the liquid resides so that liquid can rise in the tube. By determining the
height to which liquid rises and using the relation p1 = ρgh, gauge pressure of
the liquid can be determined. It is important that the opening of the device is to
be tangential to any fluid motion, otherwise an erroneous reading will result.
Although the Piezometer tube is a very simple and accurate pressure measuring
device, it has several disadvantages. It is only suitable if the pressure in the
container (pipe or vessel) is greater than the atmospheric pressure (otherwise
air would be sucked into system), and the pressure to be measured must be
relatively small so that the required height of column is reasonable. Also, the
fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be measured must be a liquid
rather than a gas.
Example 3.1
3
A pressure tube is used to measure the pressure of oil ( mass density, 640 kg / m ) in a
pipeline. If the oil rises to a height of 1.2 above the centre of the pipe, what is the
gauge pressure in N / m 2 at that point? (gravity = 9.81 m/s2)
Putting
  640kg / m3
and
h  1.2m
We know
p  gh
that,
So, p  640  9.811.2

2
p  7.55 kN / m
3.3 BAROMETERS
Figure 3.2: Mercury Barometer
A Barometer is a device used for measuring atmospheric pressure. A

simple Barometer consists of a tube of more than 30 inch (760 mm) long
inserted into an open container of mercury with a closed and evacuated end at
the top and open tube end at the bottom and with mercury extending from the
container up into the tube. Strictly, the space above the liquid cannot be a true
vacuum. It contains mercury vapour at its saturated vapour pressure, but this is
extremely small at room temperatures (e.g. 0.173 Pa at 20oC). The atmospheric
pressure is calculated from the relation patm = ρgh where ρ is the density of
fluid in the barometer. There are two types of Barometer; Mercury Barometer
and Aneroid Barometer.
Example 3.2
Describe with a sketch, one method of measuring atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum (zero pressure)
Mercury sp.wg, ωm h
p p
pA
Figure 3.3
A Mercury Barometer in its simplest form consists of a glass tube, about 1 m

long and closed at one end, which is completely filled with mercury and inverted in a
bowl of mercury (Figure 3.3). A vacuum forms at the top of the tube and the
atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the mercury in the bowl supports a
column of mercury in the tube height, h.
Example 3.3
What is the atmospheric pressure in N/m2 if the level of mercury in a Barometer
(Figure 3.3) tube is 760 mm above the level of the mercury in the bowl? Given the
3 3
specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and specific weight of water is 9.8110 N / m .
If A is a point in the tube at the same level as the free surface outside, the pressure pA
at A is equal to the atmospheric pressure p at the surface because, if the fluid is at rest,
pressure is the same at all points at the same level.
The column of mercury in the tube is in equilibrium under the action of the force due
to pA acting upwards and its weight acting downwards; there is no pressure on the top
of the column as there is a vacuum at the top of the tube.
So,
p A  area column A  specific weight of mercury  specific weight water

of of
p A  A   m  ah
or
p A  m h
Putting
h = 760 mm = 0.76 mm
While
 m  specific gravity of mercury  specific weight water
of
 m  13.6  9.81103 N / m 2
From
pA   m  h
So
3 2
p A 13.6  9.8110  0.76 N / m
2
 101.3 kN / m
3.4 BOURDON GAUGE
Figure 3.4
Bourdon Gauge is used to measure pressure differences that are more than 1.2 bar.
The pressure to be measured is applied to a curved tube, oval in cross section. Pressure
applied to the tube tends to cause the tube to straighten out, and the deflection of the
end of the tube is communicated through a system of levers to a recording needle. This
gauge is widely used for steam and compressed gases. The pressure indicated is the
difference between that communicated by the system to the external (ambient)
pressure, and is usually referred to as the gauge pressure.
The pressure sensing element is a tube of oval cross-section bent to a circular

shape.
One end of the tube is fixed to the gauge case and is connected to the fluid whose
pressure is to be measured.
The other end is closed and is free to move as it is connected via mechanical
linkage and gear sector to a pointer.
As measured fluid pressure increases above the surroundings, the tube cross-
section tends to become circular and causes the tube to deflect at the second end.
This motion is transmitted via linkage to the pointer, which would directly indicate
on the calibrated scale or dial on the gauge pressure.
ACTIVITY 3A

INPUT…!
3.1 What is the maximum gauge pressure of water of height 1.5 m that can be measured
by a Piezometer? If the liquid had a relative density of 0.85 what would the
maximum measurable gauge pressure?
3.1
Gauge pressure, p = gh
For water,
p = watergh
p = 1000 x 9.81x 1.5
p = 14715 N/m2 (or Pa)
p = 14.715 kN/m2 (or kPa)
For Liquid,
p = liquidgh
liquid = water x relative density
p = 1000 x 0.85 x 9.81 x 1.5
p = 12507.75 N/m2 (or Pa)
p = 12.5 kN/m2 (or kPa)
INPUT
3.5 MANOMETERS
The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement in the
manometer or liquid gauge. We can measure comparatively high pressures and
negative pressures with the manometer. The following are a few types of manometers:
a) Simple manometer,
b) Differential manometer and
c) Inverted differential manometer.
3.4.1 SIMPLE MANOMETER
A simple manometer is a tube bent in U-shape. One end of which is attached to

the gauge point and the other is open to the atmosphere as shown in (Figure
3.5)
The liquid used in the bent tube or simple manometer is generally
mercury which is 13.6 times heavier than water. Hence, it is also suitable for
measuring high pressure.
Now consider a simple manometer connected to a pipe containing a
light liquid under high pressure. The high pressure in the pipe will force the
heavy liquid, in the left-hand limb of the U-tube, to move downward. This
downward movement of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb will cause a
corresponding rise of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb. The horizontal
surface, at which the heavy and light liquid meet in the left-hand limb is known
as a common surface or datum line. Let B-C be the datum line, as shown in
Figure 3.5.
P
sQ
Figure 3.5
Let h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb above the common
surface in cm.
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb above the common
surface in cm.
p A = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of water in cm.
 P = Specific weight of the light liquid
sQ = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
The pressure in the left-hand limb and the right-hand limb above the datum
line is equal.
Pressure pB at B = Pressure pC at C
Pressure in the left-hand limb above the datum line
P
Imagine that
the right limb
is hidden.
pB = Pressure, p A at A + Pressure due to depth, h1 of fluid P

= pA   P h1
= pA   P gh1
Specific weight,
 = g
Thus pressure in the right-hand limb above the datum line;
Imagine that
the left limb is
hidden.
sQ
pC = Pressure pD at D + Pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q

But pD = Atmospheric pressure = Zero gauge pressure
And so, p = 0   h
C Q 2
= 0  Q gh2
Since pB  pC ,
p A   P gh1  Q gh2
so,
p A  Q gh2   P gh1
Example 3.4
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Figure 3.6 is used to measure the gauge
pressure of water (mass density ρ = 1000 kg /m3). If the density of mercury is 13.6 ×
103 kg /m3, what will be the gauge pressure at A if h1 = 0.45 m and D is 0.7 m above
BC.
ωwate
r
ωmercury
Figure 3.6
Considering
 Q  13.6  103 kg / m3
P  1.0  103 kg / m3
h1  0.45 m
h2  0.7 m
the pressure at left-hand limb;

pB = Pressure, p A at A + Pressure due to depth, h1 of fluid P
= pA   P h1
= pA   P gh1
the pressure at right-hand limb;
pC = Pressure pD at D + Pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q
pC = 0   h
Q 2
= 0  Q gh2
Since pB  pC
p A   P gh1  Q gh2
p A  Q gh2   P gh1
3 3
 13.6 10  9.81 0.7 1.0 10  9.81 0.45
2
 88976.7 N / m
3 2
 88.97  10 N / m
If negative pressure is to be measured by a simple manometer, this can be

measured easily as discussed below:
In this case, the negative pressure in the pipe will suck the light liquid which will pull
up the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb of the U-tube. This upward movement of the
heavy liquid, in the left-hand limb will cause a corresponding fall of the liquid in the
right-hand limb as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7
In this case, the datum line B-C may be considered to correspond with the top
level of the heavy liquid in the right column as shown in the Figure 3.7.
Now to calculate the pressure in the left- hand limb above the datum line.
Let h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb above the common
surface in cm.
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb above the common
surface in cm
pA = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of water in cm.
sP = Specific gravity of the light liquid
sQ = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
Pressure pB at B = Pressure pC at C
Pressure in the left-hand limb above the datum line;
pB = Pressure p at A + Pressure due to depth h of fluid P + Pressure due to

A 1
depth h2 of liquid Q
= pA  h  h
P 1 Q 2
= p A   gh   gh
P 1 Q 2
Pressure in the right-hand limb above the datum line;
pC = Pressure pD at D
But pD = Atmospheric pressure
And so, p = patm
C
Since pB  pC
p A   P gh1  Q gh2  pD
p A  pB
 P gh   gh2 
1 Q
Example 3.5
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Figure 3.8 is used to measure the gauge
pressure of a fluid P of density ρ = 1000 kg/m3. If the density of the liquid Q is 13.6 ×
103 kg/m3, what will be the gauge pressure at A if h1 = 0.15 m and h2 = 0.25 m above
BC. Take into consideration patm = 101.3 kN/m2.
Figure 3.8
Putting ,
3
ρQ = 13.6  10
ρP = 1000 kg/m3
h1 = 0.15 m
h2 = 0.25 m
pressure at left-hand limb;

pB = Pressure p at A + Pressure due to depth h of fluid P + Pressure due to
A 1
depth h2 of liquid Q
= pA  h  h
P 1 Q 2
= p A   gh   gh
P 1 Q 2
pressure at right-hand limb;

pC = Pressure pD at D
pD = Atmospheric pressure
pC = p
atm
Since pB  pC ,
p A   P gh1  Q gh2  pD
p A  pB  P gh1  Q gh2 

 101.3  13.6  103  9.81 0.15  1000  9.81 0.25
2
 70835.1 N / m
2
 70.84 kN / m
ACTIVITY 3B
3.2 A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure which is more than the
atmospheric pressure in a pipe, the water being in contact with the mercury in
the left-hand limb. The mercury is 20 cm below A in the left-hand limb and 25
cm above A in the right-hand limb, sketch the manometer.
3.3 The U-tube manometer measures the pressure of water at A which is below the
atmospheric pressure. If the specific weight of mercury is 13.6 times that of
water and the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2, find what is the absolute
pressure at A when h1 = 10 cm, h2 = 25 cm and the specific weight of water is
9.81×103 N/m3.
3.2
3.3
pB  p A   air h1   mercury h2
2
pC  p at  101.3 kN / m
m
pB  pC
p A   air h1   mercury h2  patm
p A  patm   air h1   mercury h2
p A 101.3 10  98100.1  981013.60.25

3
2
 66965 N / m
2
 66.965 kN / m
INPUT
3.4.2 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
It is a device used for measuring the difference of pressures, between two

points in a pipe, or in two different pipes.
A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid with
two ends connected to two different points. We are required to find the difference of
pressure at these two points, as shown in Figure 3.9.
A differential manometer is connected to two different points A and B. A little
consideration will show that the greater pressure at A will force the heavy liquid in the
U-tube to move downwards. This downward movement of the heavy liquid, in the left-
hand limb, will cause a corresponding rise of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb as
shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9
The horizontal surface C-D, at which the heavy liquid meet in the left-hand limb, is
the datum line.
Let h = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb above the datum line.
h1 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb above the datum line
h2 = Height of the light liquid in the right-hand limb above the datum line
pA = Pressure in the pipe A, expressed in term of head of the liquid in cm
pB = Pressure in the pipe B, expressed in term of head of the liquid in cm
ωP = Specific weight of the light liquid
ωQ = Specific weight of the heavy liquid
We know that the pressures in the left-hand limb and right-hand limb , above the
datum line are equal.
Pressure pC at C = Pressure pD at D
Pressure in the left-hand limb above the datum line
pC = Pressure p A at A + Pressure due to depth h of fluid P

pC  p A   P h
pC  p A   P gh
Pressure in the right-hand limb above the datum line
pD = Pressure p A at A + Pressure due to depth h1 of fluid P + Pressure due to depth

h2 of liquid Q
pD  pB  Q h1  P h2
 pB  Q gh1   P gh2
Since, pC  p D
p A   P gh  pB  Q gh1   P gh2
p A  pB  Q gh1   P gh2   P gh
Example 3.6
A U tube manometer measures the pressure difference between two points A and B in
a liquid. The U tube contains mercury. Calculate the difference in pressure if h =1.5 m,
h2 = 0.75 m and h1 = 0.5 m. The liquid at A and B is water ( ω = 9.81 × 103 N/m2) and
the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Figure 3.10
Since C and D are at the same level in the same liquid at rest
Pressure p at C = Pressure p at D
P Q
For the left hand limb

pC  p A   h
For the right hand limb
p D  p B   h2  h1   sh1
 pB  h2  h1  sh1
since p  p
C D
p A  h  pB  h2  h1  sh1

Pressure difference p  p
A B
 h2  h1  sh1   h

 h2   h  sh1  h1
  h2  h    h1 s 1
 9.8110 0.75 1.5  9.8110 0.513.6 1
3 3
2 2
 54445.5 N / m  54.44 kN / m
ACTIVITY 3C
3.4 A U tube manometer measures the pressure difference between two points A
and B in a liquid. The U tube contains mercury. Calculate the difference in
pressure if h = 2.0 m, h2 = 0.35 m and h1 = 0.5 m. The liquid at A and B is oil (
s = 0.85 ) and the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
3.4
oil
mercur
y
Since C and D are at the same level in the same liquid at rest
Pressure p at C = Pressure p at D
C D

pC  p A   h
For the right hand limb
pD  pB  h2  sh1
since pP  pQ
p A  h  pB  h2  sh1
Pressure difference p  p
A B
 oil h2  sh1  oil h

 0.85 98100.35  13.6 98100.5  0.85 98102.0
2
 69626.475 N / m
2
 69.626 kN / m
INPUT
3.4.3 INVERTED DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
It is a particular type of differential manometer, in which an inverted U-tube is

used. An inverted differential manometer is used for measuring the difference
of low pressure, where accuracy is the prime consideration. It consists of an
inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the U-tube are
connected to the points where the difference of pressure is to be found out as
shown in Figure 3.10.
Now consider an inverted differential manometer whose two ends are

connected to two different points A and B. Let us assume that the pressure at
point A is more than that at point B, a greater pressure at A will force the light
liquid in the inverted U-tube to move upwards. This upward movement of
liquid in the left limb will cause a corresponding fall of the light liquid in the
right limb as shown in Figure 3.10. Let us take C-D as the datum line in this
case.
ωQ
ωP
Figure 3.11
Let h = Height of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb below the datum line,
h1= Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb below the datum line ,
h2= Height of the light liquid in the right-hand limb below the datum line,
ωP= Specific weight of the light liquid
ωQ= Specific weight of the heavy liquid
We know that pressures in the left limb and right limb below the datum line are
equal.
Pressure pC at C = Pressure pD at D
Example 3.7
The top of an inverted U tube manometer is filled with oil of specific gravity, soil=0.98
and the remainder of the tube with water whose specific weight of water, ω=
9.81×103 N/m2. Find the pressure difference in N/m2 between two points A and B at the
same level at the base of the legs where the difference in water level h is 75 mm.
Figure 3.12

pD  pA  h2  soh1
for the right hand limb
pC  p B   h1  h2

since,  pB   h1  h2
pC  pD
p B  h1  h2  p A   h2  sh1
pB  p A  h2  sh1  h1  h2
 h1  sh1
  h1 1  s
 9.8110 0.0751  0.98
3
2
 14.715 N / m
ACTIVITY 3D
3.5 An inverted U tube as shown in the figure below is used to measure the pressure
difference between two points A and B which has water flowing. The difference in
level h = 0.3 m, a = 0.25 m and b = 0.15 m. Calculate the pressure difference pB – pA if
the top of the manometer is filled with:
(a) air
(b) oil of relative density 0.8.
FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 3D
3.5
In either case, the pressure at X-X will be the same in both limbs, so that
p XX  p A  ga  mano gh  pB  g b  h
pB  p A  gb  a   gh  mano 
(a) if the top is filled with air ρmano is negligible compared with ρ. Therefore,
p B  p A  gb  a  gh
 gb  a  h
putting
 H
3 3
 10 kg / m , b  0.15 m, a  0.25 m, h  0.3 m :
 2O
pB  p A  103  9.810.15  0.25  0.3

3 2
 1.962 10 N / m
(b) if the top is filled with oil of relative density 0.8, ρmano = 0.8
 HO,
2
pB  p A  gb  a   gh  mano 

 10  9.810.15  0.25  9.81 0.3 10 1  0.8
3 3
 10  9.81 0.1  0.06

3
2
  392.4 N / m
SELF-ASSESSMENT
3.1 What is the gauge pressure of the water at A if h1 = 0.6 m and the mercury in
the right hand limb, h2 = 0.9 m as shown in the figure below?
3.2 In the figure below, fluid at A is water and fluid B is mercury (s =13.6). What
will be the difference in level h if the pressure at X is 140 kN/m2 and a =1.5 m?
X
3.3 Assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2 find the absolute
pressure at A in the figure below when
a) fluid P is water, fluid Q is mercury ω = 13.6, a = 1 m and h = 0.4 m.
b) fluid P is oil ω = 0.82, fluid Q is brine ω = 1.10, a = 20 cm and h = 55 cm.
3.4 In the figure below, fluid P is water and fluid Q is mercury (specific
gravity=13.6). If the pressure difference between A and B is 35 kN/m2, a = 1 m
and b = 30 cm, what is the difference in level h?
3.5 According to the figure in question 3.4, fluid P is oil (specific gravity = 0.85)
and fluid Q is water. If a = 120 cm, b = 60 cm and h = 45 cm, what is the
difference in pressure in kN/m2 between A and B?
3.6 In the figure below, fluid Q is water and fluid P is oil (specific gravity = 0.9).
If h = 69 cm and z = 23 cm, what is the difference in pressure in kN/m2
between A and B?
3.7 In question 6, fluid Q is water and fluid P is air. Assuming that the specific
weight of air is negligible, what is the pressure difference in kN/m2 between A
and B?
Answers:
1. 114.188 kN/m2
2. 1.164 m
3. a) 38.2 kN/m2
b) 93.8 kN/m2
4. 30.7 cm
5. -5.23 kN/m2
6. -1.57 kN/m2
7. 4.51 kN/m2
UNIT 4
FLUID DYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To know, understand and apply the mechanism of flow to simple
pipes.
 define types of flow
 define discharge, continuity equation and mass flowrate in pipes
 solve problems related to the use of continuity equation
INPUT
4.1 TYPES OF FLOW
4.1.1 Steady flow

The cross-sectional area and velocity of the stream may vary from cross-
section, but for each cross-section they do not change with time. Example: a
wave travelling along a channel.
4.1.2 Uniform flow

The cross-sectional area and velocity of the stream of fluid are the same at
each successive cross-section. Example: flow through a pipe of uniform bore
running completely full.
4.1.3 Laminar flow

Also known as streamline or viscous flow, in which the particles of the fluid
move in an orderly manner and retain the same relative positions in
successive cross-sections.
4.1.4 Turbulent flow

Turbulent flow is a non steady flow in which the particles of fluid move in a
disorderly manner, occupying different relative positions in successive cross-
sections.
4.2 Discharge and Mass Flowrate
4.2.1 Discharge
The volume of liquid passing through a given cross-section in unit time is
called the discharge. It is measured in cubic meter per second, or similar units
and denoted by Q.
Q  A.v
Example 4.1
If the diameter d = 15 cm and the mean velocity, v = 3 m/s, calculate the actual
discharge in the pipe.
Q  Av
d2
  v
4
 0.15
2
 3
4
3
 0.053 m / s
4.2.2 Mass Flowrate
The mass of fluid passing through a given cross section in unit time is called
the mass flow rate. It is measured in kilogram per second, or similar units and

denoted by m .

mAv
A1 v1 A2 v2
in ou
t
 
m1  m2
1 A1 v1   2 A2 v2
`Example 4.2
Oil flows through a pipe at a velocity of 1.6 m/s. The diameter of the pipe is 8 cm.
Calculate discharge and mass flowrate of oil. Take into consideration soil = 0.85.
Q1  A1v1
 0.08
2
 1.6
4
3 3
 8.042 10 m / s

m  Q
 0.8510008.042 10 
3
 6.836 kg / s
A very simple way to measure the rate at which water is flowing along the pipe is by
catching all the water that is coming out of the pipe in a bucket over a fixed time
period. We can obtain the rate of accumulation of mass by measuring the weight of the
water in the bucket and dividing this by the time taken to collect this water. This is
known as the mass flowrate.
Example 4.3
The weight of an empty bucket is 2.0 kg. After 7 seconds of collecting water the
weight of the bucket is 8.0 kg. Calculate the mass flowrate of the fluid.


mass flowrate, m mas flowrate in bucket
 s
time taken to collect the fluid
8.0  2.0
 7
 0.857 kg / s
ACTIVITY 4A

INPUT…!
4.1 List down four types of flow. Define any three types of flow that you have
listed.
4.1
1. Steady flow
The cross-sectional area and velocity of the stream may vary from cross-
section, but for each cross-section they do not change with time. Example: a
wave travelling along a channel.
2. Uniform flow
The cross-sectional area and velocity of the stream of fluid are the same at
each successive cross-section. Example: flow through a pipe of uniform bore
running completely full.
3. Laminar flow
Also known as streamline or viscous flow, in which the particles of the fluid
move in an orderly manner and retain the same relative positions in successive
cross-sections.
4. Turbulent flow
Turbulent flow is a non steady flow in which the particles of fluid move in a
disorderly manner, occupying different relative positions in successive cross-
sections.
INPUT
4.3 Continuity Equation

For continuity of flow in any system of fluid flow, the total amount of fluid
entering the system must equal the amount leaving the system. This occurs in
the case of uniform flow and steady flow.
P R
Q SYSTEM Q
P R
P R
Figure 4.1
QP = discharge through cross-section P-P

AP = cross-sectional area through P-P
vp = fluid mean velocity through P-P
QR = discharge through cross-section R-R
AR = cross-sectional area through R-R
vR = fluid mean velocity through R-R
QP =QR
Discharge at section P = Discharge at section R

QP = QR
AP vP = AR vR
Application
We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross sections that have
changes along their length. Consider the diagram below of a pipe with a
contraction.
Section 1 Section 2
Figure 4.2
A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the same
direction. By the continuity principle, the discharge must be the same at each
section. The mass going into the pipe is equal to the mass going out of the
pipe.
Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section 2

Q1  Q2
A1 v1  A2 v2
Example 4.4
If the area A1 = 10  10-3 m2 and A2 = 3  10-3 m2 and the upstream mean velocity,
v1=2.1 m/s, calculate the downstream mean velocity.
A1 v1
v 2
A2
10 10 2.1
3
 3 103
 7.0 m / s
Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands or diverges as in the figure
below.
Section 1 Section 2
Figure 4.3
Example 4.5
Referring to the Figure the diameter at section 1 is d1 = 30 mm and at section 2 is

d2=40 mm and the mean velocity at section 2 is v2 = 3.0 m/s. Calculate the velocity
entering the diffuser.

The downstream velocity only
changes from the upstream by
⎛ d ⎞2
v ⎜ 2⎟v the ratio of the two areas of the
1
⎜ 2 pipe. As the area of the circular
⎝d ⎠
1
pipe is a function of the
diameter, we can reduce the
⎛ 40 ⎞2 calculation further.
 ⎜ 30 ⎟ 3.0 A  d 2 / Thus,
4 d
2
⎝ ⎠v 2 v  2v
1  v
2
 5.3 m / s A1 2  d 12 / 4 2 d12 2
⎛ d ⎞2
 ⎜ 2 ⎟ v2
⎝ d1 ⎠
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/4/10
Another example in the use of the continuity principle is to determine the

velocities in pipes coming from a junction.
Figure 4.4
Total discharge into the junction = Total discharge out of the junction
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A1v1 = A2v2 + A3v3
Example 4.6
A pipe is split into 2 pipes which are BC and BD as shown in the Figure 4.5. The
following information is given:
diameter pipe AB at A = 0.45

m diameter pipe AB at B = 0.3
m diameter pipe BC = 0.2 m
diameter pipe BD = 0.15 m
Calculate:
a) discharge at section A if vA = 2 m/s

b) velocity at section B and section D if velocity at section C = 4 m/s
A B
D
Figure 4.5
a) Discharge at section A
QA  A A  v A 2
 0.45
 2
4
3
 0.318 m / s
b) Discharge at section A = Discharge at section B
QA  QB
A A v A  AB v B
A v
vB  A A
AB
0.318 4

 0.3
2
 4.5 m / s
For continuity of flow
QB  QC  QD
QD  QB  QC
  AB  v B    AC vC 
⎡  0.32 ⎤ ⎡  0.22 ⎤
⎢  4.5⎥  ⎢  4⎥
⎣ 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎦
3
 0.192 m / s
For pipe BD
QD  AD  vD
3
 0.192 m /
s
QD
vD 
AD
 10.86 m / s
0.192  4

 0.15
2
ACTIVITY 4B

INPUT…!
4.2 State the actual discharge equation for the following pipes.
5
2
1
7
Q1 =
Q2 =
Q7 =
4.2
5
2
1
7
Q1 = _Q2 +Q3_
Q2 = _Q4 +Q5 +Q6_
Q7 = _Q3 –Q8_
SELF-ASSESSMENT
4.1 Water flows through a pipe AB of diameter d1 = 50 mm, which is in series with
a pipe BC of diameter d2 = 75 mm in which the mean velocity v2 = 2 m/s. At C
the pipe forks and one branch CD is of diameter d3 such that the mean velocity
v3 is 1.5 m/s. The other branch CE is of diameter d4 = 30 mm and conditions are
such that the discharge Q2 from BC divides so that Q4 = ½ Q3. Calculate the
values of Q1,v1,Q2,Q3,D3,Q4 and v4..
C D
B
A
Answers:
4.1 Q1 = 8.836 × 10-3 m3/s
v1 = 4.50 m/s
Q3 = 5.891 × 10-3 m3/s
Q4 = 2.945 × 10-3 m3/s
d3 = 71 mm
v4 = 4.17 m/s
UNIT 5
FLUID DYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand the measurements of fluids in motion
 state and write Bernoulli Equation
 state the limits of Bernoulli’s Equation
 apply the Bernoulli Equation to calculate:

- Potential energy
- Kinetic energy
- Pressure energy
in
- horizontal pipe
- inclined pipe
- horizontal venturi meter
- inclined venturi meter
- small orifice
- simple pitot tube
 sketch, label and describe fluid motion mechanism in the

horizontal venturi meter.
INPUT
5.1 Energy of a flowing fluid

A liquid may possess three forms of energy:
5.1.1 Potential energy

If a liquid of weight W is at a height of z above datum line
Potential energy = Wz
Potential energy per unit weight = z
The potential energy per unit weight has dimensions of Nm/N and is measured
as a length or head z and can be called the potential head.
5.1.2 Pressure energy
When a fluid flows in a continuous stream under pressure it can do work. If the
area of cross-section of the stream of fluid is a, then force due to pressure p on
cross-section is pa.
If a weight W of liquid passes the cross-section

W
Volume passing cross-section =

W
Distance moved by liquid =
a
W
Work done = force  distance = p a 
a
p
=W
p p
pressure energy per unit weight = =
 g
Similarly the pressure energy per unit weight p/W is equivalent to a head and is
referred to as the pressure head.
5.1.3 Kinetic energy
If a weight W of liquid has a velocity v,

1W 2
Kinetic energy = v
2 g
2
Kinetic energy per unit weight = v
2g
The kinetic energy per unit weight v2
is also measured as a length and
2
g
referred to as the velocity head.
The total energy of the liquid is the sum of these three forms of energy
Total head = potential head + pressure head + velocity head

Total energy per unit weight = z  p 
v2
 2g
5.2 Definition of Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid is
the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point. The division
of this energy between potential, pressure and kinetic energy may vary, but the total
remains constant. In symbols:
v
p 2
H  z    2g 
cons tan t
Figure 5.1
By Bernoulli’s Theorem,
Total energy per unit weight at section 1 = Total energy per unit weight at section 2
2
p v p v
z1  1
 1
 z2  2
 2
 2g  2g Do you know :
z = potential head
p The Bernoulli equation is
= pressure head named in honour of Daniel
 Bernoulli (1700-1782).
v2 Many phenomena
= velocity head
2g regarding the flow of
H = Total head liquids and gases can be
analysed by simply using
the Bernoulli equation.
5.3 The limits of Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s Eqution is the most important and useful equation in fluid mechanics. It
may be written,
v2 v2
p p
z1 1  1  z  2  2
2g 1
2g
Bernoulli’s Equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they are :
 the flow is steady
 the density is constant (which also means the fluid is compressible)
 friction losses are negligible
 the equation relates the state at two points along a single streamline (not
conditions on two different streamlines).
5.4 Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to the following situations.
5.4.1 Horizontal Pipe
Example 5.1
36
m
Figure 5.2
Water flows through a pipe 36 m from the sea level as shown in figure 5.2. Pressure in
the pipe is 410 kN/m2 and the velocity is 4.8 m/s. Calculate total energy of every
weight of unit water above the sea level.
Total energy per unit weight

p
z  v2
 2g
 36  3 4.8 2
410 10

1000  9.81 2  9.81
 78.96 J / N
5.4.2 Inclined Pipe
Example 5.2
5 5m
m 3
m
Figure 5.3
A bent pipe labeled MN measures 5 m and 3 m respectively above the datum line. The
diameter M and N are both 20 cm and 5 cm. The water pressure is 5 kg/cm2. If the
velocity at M is 1 m/s, determine the pressure at N in kg/cm2.
Using Bernoulli’s Equation:

pN
zM  p v vN
M M  z  …(1)
  N
  2
g
2g
Discharge at section M = Discharge at section N

QM  QN
vM  aM  vN  aN …(2)
From (2),
vM  aM
vN 
aN
0.22
 1
0.052
 16 m / s
Given p M  5 kg / cm2
5  9.81
 0.0001
2
 490.5 kN / m
From (1), 2 ⎤
⎡v v2 pM
M   
pN  ⎢   zM  z ⎥ 
N
⎢⎣ 2g  ⎥⎤⎦
⎡1  162 490500
⎢   5  ⎥3  9810
⎣ 2  9.81 9810 ⎦
2
 382620 N / m
ACTIVITY 5A

INPUT…!
5.1 Define and write the Bernoulli’s Equation.
5.2 Water is flowing along a pipe with a velocity of 7.2 m/s. Express this as a velocity
head in meters of water. What is the corresponding pressure in kN/m2?
5.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of
fluid is the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any
point.
p v
Hz  2 cons tan t


2g
v
2
7.22
5.2 velocity head of water = H    2.64 m
2g 29.81
p
H  2.64

p  2.64
 2.649810
2
 25898.4 N / m
2
 25.9 kN / m
INPUT
5.4.3 Horizontal Venturi Meter
Venturi meter : It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a

non-viscous, incompressible fluid in non-rotational and steady-stream lined
flow. Although venturi meters can be applied to the measurement of gas, they
are most commonly used for liquids. The following treatment is limited to
incompressible fluids.
Converging
Throat
Cone
Entry Diverging Section
Direction of
Section
Leads 2
gauge 2
filled with v2
Section
1 x liquid in
pipeline,
1
v1 Spec.wt. of
gauge
liquid= g
Figure 5.4
The arrangement and mode of action of a Venturi Meter ( Figure 5.4 )
 The venture meter consists of a short converging conical tube leading
to a cylindrical portion called “throat” which is followed by a
diverging section.
 The entrance and exit diameter is the same as that of the pipe line into
which it is inserted. The angle of the convergent cone is usually 21 o,
the length of throat is equal to the throat diameter, and the angle of the
divergent cone is 5o to 7o to ensure the minimum loss of energy.
 Pressure tappings are taken at the entrance and at the throat, either
from the single holes or from a number of holes around the
circumference connecting to an annular chamber or Piezometer ring,
and the pressure difference is measured by a suitable gauge.
 For continuity of flow velocity v1 at the entry (section 1) will be less
than the velocity v2 at the throat (section 2) since a1v1 = a2v2 and a1 is
greater than a2. The kinetic energy in the throat will be greater than at
the entrance and since by Bernoulli’s theorem the total energy at the
two sections is the same, the pressure energy at the throat will be less
than that at the entrance. The pressure difference thus created is
dependent on the rate of flow through the meter.
Description: The Venturi tube consists of a plain tube

with a smooth constriction in its bore at the middle. It is
found in carburetors, fluid flow meters, and aircraft
airspeed indicators. This version is made of glass and has
three side tubes for attaching a manometer. When high
pressure air is applied from the air tank, the water level in
the three manometer legs is clearly different.
Adapted from :
http://demoroom.physics.ncsu.edu:8770/html/demos/353.
html
Derivation for the theoretical discharge through a horizontal venture meter and
modification to obtain the actual discharge.
From Figure 5.4
Putting ;
p1 = pressure of section 1
v1 = velocity of section 1
A1 = area of section 1
ω1 = liquid in pipeline (specific weight, spec.wg)
ωg = liquid in the gauge (specific weight, spec.wg)
g = gravity (9.81 m/s2)
z = height above datum
Bernoulli’s Equation for section 1 and 2 gives :

2 2
v p v p
z   1 z  2 2
1
1 1
2g  2g 
Ignoring losses for horizontal meter z1 = z2

2 2
v v p p
2 1
 1 2 ——————(1)
2g 
For continuity of flow, A v  A v , giving

1 1 2 2
A
v  1 v
2 1
A2
d2
where A 
4
Substituting in equation (1)
2
⎛ A1 2 ⎞ ⎛ p  p ⎞2
v1 ⎜  1⎟  2g ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜A 2 ⎟ ⎝  ⎠
⎝ 2 ⎠
So, v  A ⎡ 1p 2⎞
⎢2g⎜  ⎟⎤
1
1
A 
22 2
2
⎣⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎥
⎦
Discharge, Qtheory = A v  A1 2
A  p
——————(2)
1 1
A2
12 g
A2 H

Where H =
p1  p2
= pressure difference 
 A 2expressed as a head of the liquid
flowing in meter venturi.
If area ratio, m 
A1 equation (2) becomes,
A2
2gH
Q theory1 
A m2 
1
The theoretical discharge Q can be converted to actual discharge by
multiplying by the coefficient of discharge Cd found experimentally.
2gH
Actual discharge, Qactua  Cdtheory
  Cd 1 —————(3)
l Q A m2 1
If the leads of U-tube are filled with water,
p1  p2
 x   
g
p1  p2 ⎛ ⎞
H=   g
 1⎟
 x⎜ ⎠
⎝
Example 5.3
A venture tube tapers from 300 mm in diameter at the entrance to 100 mm in diameter
at the throat; the discharge coefficient is 0.98. A differential mercury U-tube gauge is
connected between pressure tapping at the entrance at throat. If the meter is used to
measure the flow of water and the water fills the leads to the U-tube and is in contact
with the mercury, calculate the discharge when the difference of level in the U-tube is
55 mm.
Using Equation (3),
2
Q actua  cd A1
l
g
So, H
x = 55 mm
m
2
g 
= 13.61

H = 0.055  12.6 = 0.0706 m2
Cd = 0.98
 3.1420.3  0.0706 m 2
2
A1
4
A d2
⎛ 12 ⎞ 2
⎟9
m  2  ⎜ 4
1 1
A2 d 2 ⎝ ⎠
2
Actual discharge, Qactual = 0.98  0.0706
9.81
Qactual = 0.0285m / s
3 0.693
81 
1
A horizontal venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.9 in a 75 mm
diameter pipe line. If the difference of pressure between the full bore and the throat
tapping is 34.5 kN/m2 and the area ratio, m is 4, calculate the rate of flow, assuming a
coefficient of discharge is 0.97.
From Equation
(3),
Qactua  cd A1 2
l
g
H
The difference of pressure head, H must be
m expressed in terms of the liquid
following through the meter, 2

H= p 1

3
34.5 10
= 3
0.9  9.8110
= 3.92 m of oil
3.1420.075
A1  2
2
 0.00441 m
4
m=4
Cd = 0.97
So,
2
Actual discharge, Qactual = 0.97  0.00441
9.81
Qactual = 0.0106 m / s
3 
3.92
16
 1
5.4.4 Inclined Venturi Meter
Derivation is an expression for the rate of flow through an inclined

venturi meter. This will show that the U-type of gauge is used to measure the
pressure difference. The gauge reading will be the same for a given discharge
irrespective of the inclination of the meter.
In Figure 5.5, at the entrance to the meter; the area, velocity, pressure
and elevation are A1, v1, p1 and z1 respectively and at the throat, the
corresponding values are A2, v2, p2 and z2.
 = spec. wt of
liquid in pipeline
A2, v2,
A1, v1, p2 and
p1 and z2
z1
Spec.wt = g
Z2
Z ( z1-y )
1 X
P Q
y
Figure 5.5
From Bernoulli’s Equation,

2 2
v p v p
z  1 1 z
1  
2 2
1
2g  2g 
⎧⎛ p1  p2 ⎞
 z ⎫z
2 2
v  v  2g
——————(1)
2 1 ⎨⎜ ⎟ 1
 2⎬
⎩⎝  ⎠ ⎭
For continuity of flow,
A1v1  A2 v2
or
A1
v  v  mv
2 1 1
A2
where
A1
m = area ratio =
A2
Substituting in equation (1) and solving for v1

⎧⎛ p1  p2 ⎞ ⎫
 z  z 
2 2
v  v  2g
2 1 ⎨⎜ ⎟ 1 2⎬
⎩ ⎝  ⎠ ⎭
⎡ ⎧⎛1 p 2 ⎞ ⎫
v1 
1
2⎨ z⎬⎥⎤
⎟ 12
m2 ⎣g ⎩⎜p  ⎠ z 
⎢
⎭
 1
⎝
⎦
Actual discharge, Qactual = Cd  A1  v1
Cd  A 1 ⎡ ⎧⎛ p1 ⎞
Qactu  ⎢2 ⎨p
2
⎟ 12z ⎬⎥
 z ——— (2)
al m 2  ⎣g ⎩ 
⎜ ⎠ ⎭
⎝ ⎫⎤ ⎦

Where Cd = coefficient of1discharge.
Considering the U-tube gauge and assuming that the connections are
filled with the liquid in the pipe line, pressures at level PQ are the same in both
limbs,
For left limb,

p z  p 2  wz1  y 
For right limb,

p  p   (z  y  x)  w x
2 2 g
z
Thus,
Pressure for left limb = Pressure for right limb
p 2    z1  y  
p2   (z2  y  x)  wg x
p2   z1   z2  p   z   y   x  w x
2 2 g
p1  p2 ⎛ g ⎞
  z1  z2  x⎜  1⎟
⎝  ⎠
Equation (2) can therefore be written
Cd ⎡ ⎛⎜g ⎞⎤
Q 2g 
actu
al Am12  ⎢⎣x ⎝ 1⎟
1 ⎥
⎠⎦
Example 5.5
A vertical venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.82 and has an
entrance of 125 mm diameter and throat of 50 mm diameter. There are pressure gauges
at the entrance and at the throat, which is 300 mm above the entrance. If the coefficient
for the meter is 0.97 and pressure difference is 27.5 kN/m2, calculate the actual
discharge in m3/s.
2
1
z1 z2
In equation (2),
Q Cd  ⎡ ⎧p1  2 ⎞ z 
 2⎨ ⎟ 12 ⎬⎥
actual

A1m
2 ⎛ p
⎢ ⎩
g⎜ ⎠z ⎫⎤ ⎭
⎣ ⎝ ⎦
 1 
This is independent of z1 and z2, so that the gauge reading x for a given rate of
flow, Qactual does not depend on the inclination of the meter.
Then,
Cd  ⎡ ⎧p1  2 ⎞ z 
Qactual  ⎢2 ⎨
⎛⎩p  ⎟ 12 ⎬⎥

A1m2
⎣ ⎜
g ⎠z ⎫⎤ ⎭
⎝ ⎦
 1 
So,
3.1420.125 2
A1 2  0.01226 m

4
p1  p2  27.5 103 kN / m 2
  0.82  9.81103 N / m2
z1  z2  0.3 m
d 2 ⎛ 125 ⎞ 2
m= 1 ⎜ ⎟  6.25
2
d2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
Cd = 0.97
Therefore,
Cd  ⎡ ⎧p12 ⎞⎟  z 
Qactual  ⎢2g⎛ p 12 ⎬⎥

A1m2
⎣⎨⎜
⎩ ⎠z ⎫⎤ ⎭
⎝ ⎦
 1 
Qactual  0.97  ⎡ ⎛27.5  ⎞

⎢2   0.3⎟⎥ = 0.01535m3 / s
0.01226 10
⎝ 0.82  9.81 ⎤
3
⎣
103⎠⎦
6.25
9.81⎜
2
 1
Example 5.6
The water supply to a gas water heater contracts from 10mm in diameter at A (Figure
5.6) to 7 mm in diameter at B. If the pipe is horizontal, calculate the difference in
pressure between A and B when the velocity of water at A is 4.5 m/s.
The pressure difference operates the gas control through connections which is taken to
a horizontal cylinder in which a piston of 20 mm diameter moves. Ignoring friction
and the area of the piston connecting rod, what is the force on the piston?
d d
1 2
p1,v1 p2v2
A B
Figure 5.6
In the Figure 5.6 the diameter, pressure and velocity at A are d1, p1 and v1 ; and at B
are d2, p2 and v2.
By Bernoulli’s theorem, for horizontal pipe,

2 2
v p v p
1
 1
 2
 2
2g  2g 
This equation can therefore be written,

2 2
p p v v
1 2
 2 1
 2g
For continuity of
flow,
A1v1  A2 v2
or
⎛ d 2 ⎞ ⎛ d 2 ⎞
⎜1 ⎟v1  ⎜2 ⎟v 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
then, 2 2
d v d v
1 1 2 2
So,
⎛d ⎞2
v  v ⎜ 1⎟
2 1
⎝ d2⎠
Putting v1  4.5 m / s , d 1 10 mm , d 2  7 mm
v 2  4.5⎛⎜10 ⎟⎞2
⎝7⎠
 9.18 m / s
and
2 2
p p v v
1 2
 2 1
 2g
pp 2
9.18  4.5
2
2
1 2  3.26 m
 2  9.81
p1  p2
  3.26 m
2
p1  p2  3.26 m 2  
Pressure difference, p  p 3 2
1 2  3.26  9.8110 N / m
3
 31.9 kN / m
d2 3
Area of piston = kN / m
4
 2
 0.000314 m

0.0202
We all know that, 4
Force, F = p  A
Where,
p = pressure and A = area
So,
3
Force on piston = 31.9 10  0.000314  10.1 N
ACTIVITY 5B

INPUT…!
5.3 To get through the Green Alien you should be able to answer his puzzles !
1. What does a Venturi Meter measure ?
2. Name me two types of Venturi Meter that you have

learnt in this unit.
3. Sketch a Horizontal Venturi Meter for me. (Label

the thoat, entry, diverging section and converging
cone)
4. What is denoted by  and g ?
If you get all the answers right, you will be sent to earth
immediately on the next space shuttle. Only smart people
can go and stay on the earth!
I think I got it all right !

5.3
1. What does a Venturi Meter measure ?

It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a non-viscous, incompressible
fluid in non-rotational and steady-stream lined flow.
2. Name me two types of Venturi Meter that you have learnt in this unit.
Horizontal Venturi Meter and Inclined Venturi Meter.
3. Sketch a Horizontal Venturi Meter for me. (Label the throat, entry, diverging
section and converging cone)
Diverging
Converging section
cone
throat
entry
4. What is denoted by  and g ?

 denotes the specific weight of lead gauge filled with liquid in pipeline and g
denotes the specific weight of gauge liquid.
Just Kidding !
You are already on earth, your answers are correct,
Just sit there and continue your studies.
INPUT
5.4.5 Small Orifice

The Venturi Meter described earlier is a reliable flow measuring
device. Furthermore, it causes little pressure loss. For these reasons it is widely
used, particularly for large-volume liquid and gas flows. However this meter is
relatively complex to construct and hence expensive especially for small
pipelines. The cost of the Venturi Meter seems prohibitive, so simpler device
such as Orifice Meter is used.
The Orifice Meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole
drilled in it. There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another
just downstream. There are three recognized methods of placing the taps and
the coefficient of the meter will depend upon the position of the taps.
The principle of the orifice meter is identical with that of the venturi
meter. The reduction at the cross section of the flowing stream in passing
through the orifice increases the velocity head at the expense of the pressure
head, and the reduction in pressure between the taps is measured by a
manometer. Bernoulli's equation provides a basis for correlating the increase in
velocity head with the decrease in pressure head.
From Figure 5.7 the orifice meter is attached to the manometer. There
are Section 1 (entrance of the orifice) and Section 2 (exit of the orifice also
known as vena contracta).
Section 1 :
A1, v1, p1
Section 2 :
A2, v2, p2
Figure 5.7
Section 1, given :
Section 2, given :
From Bernoulli’s Equation,
Total energy at section 1 = Total energy at section 2

2 2
p v p v
  
12 2 1 ——————(1)
 2g  2g
2 2
v v p p
2 1
 1 2 ——————(2)
2g 
z1 = z2 because the two parts are at the same level
We know that,
QAv
For continuity of flow, Q1 = Q2
or
A1v1 = A2v2
So,
A1v
v2 = ——————(3)
1
A2
Putting (3) into (2),
2 2
v v p p
2 1
 1 2 ——————(2)
2g 
A1v
v2 = ——————(3)
1
Then, A2
2
v ⎡A
2 ⎤ p p
⎢ 2  1⎥ 
1 1 1 2
2g ⎣ A2 ⎦ 
So,
⎛p
2⎜12 ⎟
p⎞
v1  g⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
A
⎜1
2
⎜A2 ⎟
⎝1⎟
2⎠
But,
p1  p2
H= 
And,
2
A
1
m=A 2
So,
2
v1 
g
mH
2

To determine the actual discharge, Qactual ;
1
Qactual  Cd A1  v1
So,
2gH
Qactual  Cd 
A1 
m2
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge. 1 

Example 5.7
A meter orifice has a 100 mm diameter rectangular hole in the pipe. Diameter of the
pipe is 250 mm. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = 0.65 and specific gravity of oil in the
pipe is 0.9. The pressure difference that is measured by the manometer is 750 mm.
Calculate the flow rate of the oil through the pipe.
Given,
d1 = 100 mm = 0.10 m
d2 = 250 mm = 0.25
Cd = 0.65
ωoil = 0.9
p1 - p2 = 750 mm = 0.75 m
So,
d 2
A1 
4
3.1240.25
 2  0.049m
2
p p
H  1 2 ⎡ ⎤
 x ⎢   1⎥Hg
oil ⎣ oil ⎦
⎡13.6 ⎤
 0.75 
⎢ 0.9 1⎥
⎣ ⎦
 10.58 m
d
2
0.252
m 1
=
0.10 
2 2
d2
 6.25
Therefore,
2
Qactual = C d  A1
g
mH
2
 2
Qactual = 0.65  0.049
1 6. 
9.81
10.58
 252
3
 0.074m / s

5.4.5.1 Types of orifice 1
1. Sharp-edged orifice, Cd = 0.62
2. Rounded orifice, Cd = 0.97
3. Borda Orifice (running free), Cd = 0.50
4. Borda Orifice (running full), Cd = 0.75
5.4.5.2 Coefficient of Velocity, Cv

h x
A y
B
Figure 5.8
From Figure 5.8 ,
x = horizontal falls = velocity  time = v  t

y 1 1
= vertical falls = gravity time
2 = gt
2

2
h = head of liquid above the orifice
Cv v
= Coefficient of Velocity = C 
v 2gH
t = time for particle to travel from vena contracta A to point B
Coefficient of Velocity, Cv = Actual velocity at vena contacta

Theoretical velocity
v
C v
2gH
Example 5.8
A tank 1.8 m high, standing on the ground, is kept full of water. There is an orifice in
its vertical site at depth, h m below the surface. Find the value of h in order the jet may
strike the ground at a maximum distance from the tank.
xvt
and
1
y= gt
2
Eliminating t these
2
equation give,
2v y
x
g
y = 1.8 – h
h = head of liquid above the orifice
 v
Cv
2gH
t = time for particle to travel from vena contracta A to point B
Putting y  1.8  h and v  C

v 
2
So, g
x
2 v 2gh  2
h
  1.8 
h g
C4g
2 1.8
C
x
h g
v
h
 2Cv h1.8  h
Thus x will be a maximum when h1.8  h is maximum or,

h1.8  h
h  1.8  2h  0
So,
h  0.9 m
Example 5.9
An orifice meter consists of a 100 mm diameter in a 250 mm diameter pipe (Figure
5.9), and has a coefficient discharge of 0.65. The pipe conveys oil of specific gravity
0.9. The pressure difference between the two sides of the orifice plate is measured by a
mercury manometer, that leads to the gauge being filled with oil. If the difference in
mercury levels in the gauge is 760 mm, calculate the flowrate of oil in the pipeline.
Pipe Area, A1
P1 P2
V1
V2
X
Orifice area A2 CC
Figure 5.9
Let v1 be the velocity and p1 the pressure immediately upstream of the

orifice, and v2 and p2 are the corresponding values in the orifice. Then, ignoring
losses, by Bernoulli’s theorem,
2 2
p v p v
1
 1 2 2 ——————(1)
 2g  2g
2 2
v v p p
2 1
 1 2 ——————(2)
2g 
z1 = z2 because of the two parts are at the same level
We know that,
QAv
For continuity of flow, Q1 = Q2

or
A1v1 = A2v2
So,
A1v
v2 = ——————(3)
1
A2
Putting (3) into (2),

2 2
v v p p
2 1
 1 2 ——————(2)
2g 
A1v1
v2 = ——————(3)
A2
Then,
⎤ p p
v1 ⎡ A1
2 2
⎢ 2  1⎥ 
1 2
2g ⎣ A2 ⎦ 
So,
⎛p ⎞
2⎜1 2⎟
p
v1  g⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜A 1
⎜A2 ⎟
2
⎝1⎟
2⎠
This equation can therefore be written,

⎛ p  p2 ⎞
2
A
v  2g ⎜ 1 ⎟ ——————(4)
1 
1
A
2 2
2
⎝  ⎠
So, 
a
Actual disch arg e  coefficient

disch arg e  theoretical disch arg e
of
Qactual  Cd  A1 ——————(5)

v1
Putting v1 into (5)

⎛ p  p2 ⎞
2
A
Q  Cd  2g ⎜ 1 ⎟ ——————(6)
A1
actual a 2 2
1 2
⎝  ⎠
but, A
2
A
m = 1A 2 
2
so putting m into (6),
Cd ⎛ p ⎞
Qactual  Cd  A1  2 ⎜ 12 ⎟
p
g⎝  ⎠
A1
m
Considering the U-tube gauge, where pressures are equal at level CC
2
p1   x 1p2   q x
p1  p 2 ⎛ p1  p2 ⎞
x
⎜ ⎟
  ⎝ ⎠
Putting
x  760 mm  0.76 m and,
 g 13.6
  15.1
 0.9
p1  p2
  0.76 14.1  10.72 m oil
of
Cd  0.65
d 2 2
A1  0.0497 m
4

d
2 0.252
A1
m  1
  15.1
A2 d2
2
0.10 2
2
m  6.17
0.65 
Qactual  2 
0.0497
9.8110.72
6.17

3
 0.00524 14.5  0.0762 m / s
5.4.6 Simple Pitot Tube
Figure 5.10 Pitot Tube
- The Pitot Tube is a device used to measure the local velocity

along a streamline (Figure 5.10). The pitot tube has two
tubes: one is a static tube (b), and another is an impact
tube(a).
- The opening of the impact tube is perpendicular to the flow

direction. The opening of the static tube is parallel to the
direction of flow.
- The two legs are connected to the legs of a manometer or an

equivalent device for measuring small pressure differences.
The static tube measures the static pressure, since there is no
velocity component perpendicular to its opening.
- The impact tube measures both the static pressure and

impact pressure (due to kinetic energy).
- In terms of heads, the impact tube measures the static

pressure head plus the velocity head.
h
H
A B
Figure 5.11 Simple Pitot Tube

Actual Velocity, V
 From Figure 5.11, if the velocity of the stream at A is v, a particle moving

from A to the mouth of the tube B will be brought to rest so that v0 at B is
zero.
By Bernoulli’s
2
Theorem
2
: Total Energy at A = Total Energy at B or
p v p v
1
 1 2 2 ——————(1)
 2g  2g
p
 Now d 
 and the increased pressure at B will cause the liquid in the
vertical limb of the pitot tube to rise to a height, h above the free surface so
p
that h  d  0 .

p0  p
 Thus, the equation (1) v2   h or v  2
2g  g
h
 Although theoretically v  , pitot tubes may require calibration.

 C
The actual velocity is then given by v where C is the
2
coefficient of the instrument.
g

2
h
g
 h

Example 5.10
A Pitot Tube is used to measure air velocity in a pipe attached to a mercury

manometer. Head difference of that manometer is 6 mm water. The weight density of
air is 1.25 kg/m3. Calculate the air velocity if coefficient of the pitot tube, C = 0.94.
vair  C 2
g
pwater  pair H
ghwater  ghair
hwater  water  hair  air
1000
h  0.006   0.006 
water
water
air 1.25
 4.8
So, m
v  0.94 2  9.81 4.8

 9.12 m / s
ACTIVITY 5C

INPUT…!
5.4 Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
1. The Orifice Meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it.
There is a upstream from the orifice plate and another just
downstream.
2. The reduction of pressure in the cross section of the flowing stream when passing
through the orifice increases the at the expense of the
pressure head. The reduction in pressure between the taps is measured by a
manometer.
3. The formula for Meter Orifice actual discharge, Qactual. =
4. The Pitot Tube is a device used to measure the local velocity along a streamline.
The pitot tube has two tubes which are the and the
.
5. Although theoretically v   , pitot tubes may require .
2
g
6. The actual velocity is given by where C is the coefficient of the
h
instrument.

5.4
1. The Orifice Meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it. There
is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just downstream.
2. The reduction pressure in the cross section of the flowing stream when passing
through the orifice increases the velocity head at the expense of the pressure head.
The reduction in pressure between the taps is measured by a manometer.
3. The formula for Meter Orifice actual discharge, Qactual. =

2
Qactual   A  v and Qactual = Cd  A1 g
Cd 1 1
mH
2

1
4. The Pitot Tube is a device used to measure the local velocity along a streamline. The
 tube.
pitot tube has two tubes which are the static tube and the impact
5. Although theoretically v   , pitot tubes may require calibration.

2
g
6. The actual velocity is given by h v   where C is the coefficient of the
instrument.  C 2
g
h

SELF-ASSESSMENT
5.1 A venturi meter measures the flow of water in a 75 mm diameter pipe. The
difference between the throat and the entrance of the meter is measured by the
U-tube containing mercury which is being in contact with the water. What
should be the diameter of the throat of the meter in order that the difference in
the level of mercury is 250 mm when the quantity of water flowing in the pipe
is 620 dm3/min? Assume coefficient of discharge is 0.97.
5.2 A pitot-static tube placed in the centre of a 200 pipe line conveying water has
one orifice pointing upstream and the other perpendicular to it. If the pressure
difference between the two orifices is 38 mm of water when the discharge
through the pipe is 22 dm3/s, calculate the meter coefficient. Take the mean
velocity in the pipe to be 0.83 of the central velocity.
5.3 A sharp-edged orifice, of 50 mm diameter, in the vertical side of a large tank,

discharges under a head of 4.8 m. If Cc = 0.62 and Cv = 0.98, determine;
(a) the diameter of the jet,
(b) the velocity of the jet at the vena contracta,
(c) the discharge in dm3/s.
Answers :
5.1 40.7 mm
5.2 0.977
5.3 (a) 40.3 mm
(b) 9.5 m/s
(c) 12.15 dm3/s

LOSSES ENERGY IN PIPELINES J3008/6/1
UNIT 6
ENERGY LOSS IN PIPELINES
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To know, understand and apply Bernoulli’s equation to pipeline

systems
Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit, you should be able to :
 sketch the velocity profile in circular pipe system
 explain and calculate energy loss in pipeline system
 calculate and apply energy loss equation from reservoir
 solve problem related to the pipeline system
INPUT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
A pipe is defined as a closed conduit of circular section through which the

fluid flows, filling the complete cross-section. The fluid in the pipe has no free
surface. It will be at a pressure which may vary along the pipe. Losses of energy in a
pipeline cannot be ignored. When the shock losses and friction loss have been
determined, they are inserted in Bernoulli’s equation in the usual way.
v2 v2
p p
1 1  z 2  2 z h
 g2g 1
 g2g 2
Velocity profile in circular pipe system (refer Figure 6.1)
rough pipe wall
smooth pipe wall
Figure 6.1
Losses of energy in pipe line are due to :

a) shock loss at sudden enlargement
b) shock loss at sudden contraction
c) frictional resistance to flow
d) loss at entry
e) loss at rounded exit
6.2 SHOCK LOSS AT SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.2 shows the loss of head when a pipe undergoes a sudden increase in
diameter. To calculate the loss the following equation is given.
v 12v 2
Loss of head at enlargement, L

2g
h
When,
v1 = velocity in the smaller pipe upstream of the enlargement
v2 = velocity in the larger pipe
If hL = head lost at the enlargement, then by Bernoulli’s theorem,
v2 v2
p p
1 1  2  2  h
2g2g L
Special case: When a pipe discharges into a large reservoir through a sharp
exit, conditions are equivalent to a sudden enlargement (refer Figure 6.2).
v1 = pipe velocity = v
v2 = reservoir velocity = 0
Figure 6.3
 2
Loss of head at sharp exit into reservoir, L v 2g
h
If the exit is rounded, this loss is greatly reduced and is usually negligible
Example 6.1
A pipe carrying 1800 l/min of water increases suddenly from 10 cm to 15 cm diameter.
Find
a) the head loss due to the sudden enlargement
b) the difference in pressure in kN/m2 in the two pipes
a) 1 liter = 0.001 m3
1800 l = 1.8 m3
3 3
Q  1.8 m / min  0.03 m / s
QA = A A v A = A B v B
So that
vA =Q/AA
0.03  3.8917 m / s

0.1 2
 4
vB =Q/AB
0.03

0.152
 4
 1.697 m / s
Head loss of enlargement, hL =

v vB 2
A
2g
3.8197  1.697 2

29.81
 0.2294 mof water
b) Difference in pressure;
2 2
p v Bp B v
A
 A z A    z  h B L
g 2g g 2g
zA=zB
p p  2
v v
2
A B
 B A
h L
g 2g
p A  pB  1.697  3.8197  0.5969810

2 2

19.62
 3602.56 N / m
2
6.3 SHOCK LOSS AT SUDDEN CONTRACTION
Figure 6.4
In a sudden contraction, the flow converges to form a vena contracta at section

(3) in the smaller pipe. The loss of energy in the convergence from sections (1)
to (3) is small and the main loss occurs in the enlargement from sections (3) to
(2). It is usual to ignore the loss from sections (1) to (3) and treat the loss from
(3) to (2) as if it was due to a sudden enlargement from the area of the vena
contracta ac to the area a2 of the smaller pipe.( Figure 6.4 )
vC  v2 2
Loss of head =
2g
For continuity of flow

a2 v2  aC vC
aC
If the coefficient of contraction = C 
C
vC
a2 v 2
vC 
aC
1
 v
CC 2
⎞2
⎛1 2
v2
Loss of head at sudden contraction, hC  
⎜ ⎝ Cc⎠1⎟ 2g
Special case: if the entrance of a pipe line from a reservoir is sharp (no
rounded or bell-mouthed) it is equivalent to a sudden contraction from a pipe
of infinite size to that of the pipe line. The loss of head at sharp entrance is
1⎛v 2
Loss of head at sharp entrance,  ⎜⎟
C ⎞2 ⎝⎠
2g
h
v = velocity in the pipe

Example 6.2
A pipe carrying 0.06 m3/s suddenly contracts from 200 mm to 150 mm diameter.
Assuming that the vena contracta is formed in the smaller pipe, calculate the
coefficient of contraction if the pressure head at a point upstream of the contraction is
0.655 m greater than at a point just downstream of the vena contracta.
Inserting this expression2

for the loss
2
of head
2
in Bernoulli’s equation,
p v p v v ⎛ 1 ⎞2
 1 1 2 2 2⎜  1⎟
g g 2g 2g ⎝ CC ⎠2
v ⎡ ⎛ 1
2
⎞2 ⎤ v
2g
pp
 2 ⎢1  ⎜ 
1⎟ ⎥ 
1 2 1
g 2g ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2g
⎣
CC
p1  p2
Given,  0.655
g
Using the continuity of flow Q = Av for velocity v1 and v2.

Q
v
1
A1
0.06  4
  0.2 2
 1.91m / s
Q
v
2
A2
0.06  4

 0.15
2
 3.4 m / s
Thus,
3.42 ⎡
⎛ 1 1.91
2
2
⎞ ⎤
0.655  2  9.81⎢1  ⎜C  ⎥  2 9.81
1⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ C ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛1
⎞
2
⎤
12.86  11.6⎢1  ⎜C  ⎥  3.65
1⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ C ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1 16.51
⎞
2
⎤
⎢1  ⎜ C  ⎥  11.6  1.39
1⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ C ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛1 2
⎜ ⎞
 1⎟  0.39
⎝ ⎠
CC
⎛1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟  1  0.625
⎝ CC ⎠
1
 1.625
CC
coefficient of contraction, CC  0.615

6.4 FRICTION LOSS
Figure 6.5
When there is a loss of head due to friction in a pipeline in terms of the
velocity head; we assume that the frictional resistance per unit area of the pipe
wall is proportional to the square of the mean velocity of flow.
Consider a cylinder of fluid of length L completely filling the pipe of cross
sectional area A and moving with a mean velocity v ( Figure 6.5).
The force acting on the cylinder is the force due to pressure difference and the
force due to frictional resistance. Since the velocity is constant and there is no
acceleration, the resultant of these two forces in the direction of motion must
be zero.
2
Loss of head due to friction, hf  4 fL
d2g
v
Example 6.3
Determine the loss of head due to friction in a pipe 14 m long and 2 m diameter which
carries 1.5 m/s oil. Take into consideration f = 0.05.

2
4 fL v
hf 
d 2g
40.0514 1.5
2

 29.81
2
 0.16 m of oil
ACTIVITY 6A

INPUT…!
6.1 Water flows vertically downwards through a 150 mm diameter pipe with a
velocity of 2.4 m/s. The pipe suddenly enlarges to 300 mm in diameter. Find
the loss of head. If the flow is reversed, find the loss of head, assuming the
coefficient of contraction now being 0.62.
6.1
loss of head at sudden enlargement, hL
v1  v2 2
hL 
2g
using continuity of flow,
Q1 = Q2
A1v1 = A2v2
Av
v2  1 1
A2
2
d v
 1
2
1
d2
0.152 2.4

0.32
 0.6 m / s
v1  v2 2
hL 
2g
2.4  0.62
  0.165 m
29.81
loss of head at sudden contraction, hC

2
⎛ 1 ⎞2 v
hC  ⎜  1⎟ 2
⎝ CC ⎠ 2g
⎛ 1 ⎞2
2.42
 ⎜0.62 1⎟ 29.81
⎝ ⎠
 0.110 m
INPUT
6.4 PIPELINE PROBLEMS
All pipeline problems should be solved by applying Bernoulli’s theorem

between points for which the total energy is known and including expressions
for any loss of energy due to shock or to friction, thus
p1 v 2 p2 v
2

 g 2g
1  z1 
  2 z2  shock loss  frictional loss
2g
g
6.4.1 Discharge to atmosphere
Friction in pipe  2
4 fL v
d 2g
2
1v
Loss at entry 
22
g Figure 6.6
To understand the discharge to atmosphere, let’s look at Example 6.4.
Example 6.4
Water from a large reservoir is discharged to atmosphere through a 100 mm

diameter pipe 450 m long. The entry from the reservoir to the pipe is sharp and
the outlet is 12 m below the surface level in the reservoir. Taking f = 0.01 in
the Darcy formula, calculate the discharge.(refer to Figure 6.6)
Apply Bernoulli’s theorem to A and B, assuming velocity at A is zero and that

pA = pB = atmospheric pressure
Total energy at A = Total energy at B + loss at entry + frictional loss
v2 2
H 1v  4 fL v
2
2g 2 2g d 2g
Putting H = 12 m, f = 0.01, L = 450 m, d = 100 mm = 0.1 m
v2 ⎛ 1 4 fL ⎞
H 1 
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
2g 2 d
v2 ⎛ 4  0.01 450 ⎞
 
⎝ ⎟⎠
0.1
v2
 181.5
2g
v  1.14 m / s
Discharge   d 2
v
4
 0.1
2
 1.14
4
3 3
 8.96 10 m / s
6.4.2 Pipe in series
Loss at enl arg ement

v  v2 
2

1
2g
Figure 6.7
To understand the pipe in series, let’s look at Example 6.5.
Example 6.5
Water is discharged from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 39 m

long. There is a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 50 mm for the
first 15 m from the entrance. The pipe then enlarges suddenly to 75 mm in
diameter for the remainder of its length. Taking into account the loss of head at
entry and at the enlargement, calculate the difference of level between the
surface of the reservoir and the pipe exit which will maintain a flow of 2.8
dm3/s. Take f as 0.0048 for the 50 mm pipe and 0.0058 for the 75 mm pipe.

1 2 1 2
Q d v  d v
1 1 2 2
4 4
4Q
v  2
1 d1
3
4  2.8 10

 0.05
2
 1.426 m / s
4Q
v 2
2 d 2
3
4  2.8 10

 0.075
2
 0.634 m / s
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to A and B at which pA = pB = atmospheric

pressure and vA = 0, for unit weight
Total energy at A  total energy at D  shock loss at B  frictional loss in BC

 shock loss at C  frictional loss in CD
There is no shock loss at D as discharge is to atmosphere.
2
Total energy at D v 2
2g
0.6342

29.81
 0.020 m
2
1v
Loss at entry, B 1
2 2g
1 1.426
2

2 29.81
 0.052 m
2
4 fL v
Frictional loss in BC 1 1
d1 2g
40.004815 1.426 
2

0.050 29.81
 0.597 m
Shock loss at C
v  v2 
2

1
2g
1.426  0.6342

29.81
 0.032 m
2
4 fL v
Frictional loss in CD 2 2
d 2 2g
40.005824 0.634
2

0.075 29.81
 0.152 m
Difference of level = H = 0.02 + 0.052 + 0.597 + 0.032 + 0.152
= 0.853 m of water
6.4.3 Hydraulic Gradient
Figure 6.8
To understand the hydraulic gradient, let’s look at Example 6.6.
Example 6.6
Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline which is 150 mm in diameter for

the first 6 m and 225 mm in diameter for the remaining 15 m. The entrance and
exit are sharp and the change of section is sudden. The water surface in the
upper reservoir is 6 m above that in the lower. Tabulate the losses of head
which occur and calculate the rate of flow in m3/s. Friction coefficient f is 0.01
for both pipes.
Since d1 = 150 mm and d2 = 225 mm
⎛ 225 ⎛9⎞
 ⎞2 v2  ⎜ 4 ⎟ 2
v1 ⎜150 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The losses are

2
1v
Loss at entry 1
2 2g
1 ⎛ 9 ⎞2 v 2
 ⎜ ⎟ 2
2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 2g
2
 2.53v 2
2g
2
4 fL v
Frictional loss in 6 m pipe 1 1
d1 2g
40.016 v1
2

0.15
2g 2
 1.6 1 v
2g
⎛ 9 ⎞ 2 v 22
 1.6⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ 2g
2
 8.1v 2
2g
Shock loss at enl arg ement

v  v2 
2

1
2g
v 2⎛9 ⎞2
 2 ⎜  1⎟
2g ⎝ 4 ⎠
2
 1.56v 2
2g
2
4 fL v
Frictional loss in 15 m pipe 2 2
d 2 2g
40.0115 v2
2

0.225 2g
2
 2.67v 2
2g
2
Shock loss at exit v 2
2g
2
 1.00v 2
2g
2 2 2 2 2
Total loss of head = 2.53 v2  8.1 2 v1.56 2  2.67
v 2  1.00 v2 v
2g 2g 2g 2g 2g
2
 15.86v 2
2g
Applying Bernoulli’s Equation to A and B for unit weight
Total energy at A  total energy at B  losses
Pressures at A and B are equal and if the reservoirs are large the velocities will be
zero. Taking datum level at B,
H = 0 + losses
2
6  15.86v 2
2g
so
6
v2 

2
g/s
 2.72 m
15
.8
6
d2
Discharge  v
4
 0.225
2
 2.72
4
3
 0.185 m / s
ACTIVITY 6B

INPUT…!
6.2 According to the figure below, list out the losses of head which occur, giving
an expression for each.
Answers:
6.1 The losses of head which will occur are as follows:

2
1v
1. Loss at entry 1
2 2g
2
4 fL v
2. Friction loss 1 1
d1 2g
v1  v2 2
3. Loss at sudden enlargement 
2g
2
4 fL v
4. Friction loss 2 2
d 2 2g
2
5. Loss at exit v 2
2g
SELF-ASSESSMENT
and check your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment If you
6.1 Water is discharged from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 80 m
long. There is a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 250 mm for the
first 50 m. The outlet is 35 m below the surface level in the reservoir. The pipe
then enlarges suddenly to 450 mm in diameter for the reminder of its length.
Take f = 0.004 for both pipes. Calculate the discharge.
6.2 Two reservoirs have a difference in level of 9 m and are connected by a pipe
line, which is 38 mm in diameter for the first 13 m and 23 mm for the
remaining 6 m. Take f = 0.01 for both pipes and CC = 0.66. Calculate the
discharge.
6.3 A pipe carrying 0.056 m3/s suddenly changes diameter from;

a) 200 mm to 150 mm
b) 300 mm to 150 mm
c) 450 mm to 150 mm
Find the loss of head and the pressure difference across the contraction in each
case, given CC = 0.62.
Answers:
6.1 Q = 0.623 m3/s
6.2 Q = 0.00345 m3/s
6.3 (a) 0.19 m, 0.54 m

(b) 0.19 m, 0.673 m
(c) 0.19 m, 0.699 m
UNIT 7
NOZZLES
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand the mechanism of flow in nozzles
 sketch and differentiate the types and shapes of nozzles
 define Critical Pressure Ratio
 calculate cross-sectional area, A and the temperature of a throat at

entrance and exit
 calculate maximum mass flow
 define and differentiate the use of nozzles in :

- steam turbine
- gas turbine
- jet engine
- flow measurement
- rocket propulsion
- steam injector
- injector
INPUT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Nozzle
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure.
It is a duct of smoothly varying cross-sectional area in which a steadily flowing fluid
can be made to accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct.
There are many applications in practice which require a high-velocity stream of fluid,
and the nozzle is the best means of obtaining high-velocity, thus nozzles are used in
steam and gas turbines, in jet engines, in rocket motors, in flow measurement, and in
many other applications.
When a fluid is decelerated in a duct, causing a rise in pressure along the stream, then
the duct is called a diffuser; two applications in practice in which a diffuser is used are
the centrifugal compressor and the ram jet.
Nozzles and Diffusers

A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure. A
common example would be a nozzle used at the end of a garden hose !
A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down.

Several types of pumps operate by using shaft work to turn an impeller which will
increase the kinetic energy of the fluid, followed by a diffuser that converts some of
the kinetic energy to an increased pressure.
Nozzle Diffuser
Figure 7.1 Nozzle & Diffuser

7.2 Types and shapes of nozzles
Typical nozzle cross-sectional areas of particular interest are shown in

Figure 7.2
InletOutlet
Figure 7.2
a) Convergent Nozzle
Figure 7.3
 The convergent nozzle in which the cross-section converges from the entry
area to a minimum area which is the exit.
b) Convergent – divergent nozzle
inletthroatoutlet
Figure 7.4
 Figure 7.4 shows a convergent-divergent nozzle.

 It can be seen from the inlet area the nozzle converges to a minimum area
called the throat and then to the outlet area.
7.3 Critical Pressure Ratio
- It has been stated before, that the velocity at the throat of a correctly
designed nozzle is the velocity of sound.
- The flow-up to the throat is sub-sonic while the flow after the throat is
supersonic. It should be noted that a sonic or supersonic flow requires a
diverging duct to accelerate it.
- In the same way, for a nozzle that is convergent, the fluid will attain sonic
velocity at the exit if the pressure drop across the nozzle is large enough.
- The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic velocity is attained to
the inlet pressure of a nozzle is called the critical pressure ratio.
 1
Critical temperature ratio, Tc⎛ pc ⎞

T1  ⎜
 2
-  
p1 ⎟ ⎝⎠ 1
⎞  / 
pc⎛2 1
- Critical pressure ratio,  ⎜⎟
p1 ⎝ 1 ⎠
7.4 Maximum Mass Flow
- Consider a convergent nozzle expanding into space, the pressure of which

can be varied, while the inlet pressure remains fixed. The nozzle is shown
diagrammatically in the Figure 7.5.
- When the back pressure, pb is equal to p1, then no fluid can flow through
the nozzle. As pb is reduced the mass flow through the nozzles increases,
since the enthalpy drop, and hence the velocity increases. valve

- However, when the back pressure reaches
the critical value, it is found that no further p1  Back
reduction in back pressure can affect the press, pb
mass flow.
Figure 7.5
- When the back pressure is exactly equal to the critical pressure, p c then the
velocity at exit is sonic and the mass flow through the nozzle is at a
maximum value. The exit pressure remains at pc, and the fluid expands
violently outside the nozzle down to the back pressure.
- It can be seen that the maximum mass flow through a convergent nozzle is
obtained when the pressure ratio across the nozzle is the critical pressure
ratio. Also, for a convergent-divergent nozzle, with sonic velocity at the
throat, the cross-sectional area of the throat fixes the mass flow through the
nozzle for fixed conditions.
- When a nozzle operates with the maximum mass flow, it is said to be

choked. A correctly designed convergent-divergent nozzle is always
choked.
7. 4 Cross-sectional area, A and temperature of a throat at entrance and exit
Consider a stream of fluid at pressure p1, enthalpy h1, and with a low velocity
C1. It is required to find the shape of duct which will cause the fluid to
accelerate to a high velocity as the pressure falls along the duct. It can be
assumed that the heat loss from the duct is negligibly small
(adiabatic flow, Q = 0), and it is clear that no work is done on or by the fluid
(W = 0). Applying the steady-flow energy equation :
2 2
C1 C2
h1 Q  2h 
 2W 2
1 X 2
A1 A2
h h
1 2
C 1 C2
X
Figure 7.6
 Applying the steady-flow energy equation, between section 1 and any other
section X-X where pressure p1 , enthalpy h1 , and with low velocity C1. It is
required to find the shape of duct which will cause the fluid to accelerate to
high velocity as the pressure falls along the duct. Figure 7.6
 It can be assumed that the heat loss from the duct is negligibly small, and it is
clear no work is done on or by the fluid. Applying the steady-flow energy
equation which is :
2
h1 1Ch  C2
2 2 ------------(1)
or can be written like these,

C 2 2 h1 h   12 ------------(2)
C
C h1 C 12 ------------(3)
2 
h fluid velocity is C and h is an enthalpy)
(where
 In most practical applications the velocity at the inlet to a nozzle is negligibly
small in comparison with the exit velocity. It can be seen from equation (5),
that a negligibly small velocity implies a very large area, and most nozzles are
in fact shaped at inlet in such a way that the nozzle converges rapidly over the
first fraction of its length :
C 2 h1  h12
 C
 And neglecting C1 this gives,

C 2h1  h
 Since enthalpy is usually expressed in KJ/kg, then an additional constant of 103

will appear within the root sign if C is to be expressed in m/s,
2  44.72
1 (where 1 kJ=103
Nm) 03
 C  44.72 h1
 Hence,
 h m / s
 If the area at the section X-X is A, and the specific volume is v :

CA
Mass flow rate, ------------(4)
m v
or
Area per unit mass velocity , A  v ------------(5)

C
m
 Then substituting for the velocity C, from equation (3),
v
Area per unit mass flow
 2(h1  h)  1
C2
Example 7.1
Air at 8.6 bar and 190C expands at the rate of 4.5 kg/s through a convergent-
divergent nozzle into a space at 1.03 bar. Assuming that the inlet velocity is
negligible, calculate the throat and the exit cross-sectional areas of the nozzle.
The nozzle is shown diagrammatically in figure below. The critical pressure ratio is
given by,
1 C 2
8.6 bar 1.03 bar
C1=0 C2
pc ⎛
 1.4
⎜ 2 ⎞ ⎟ 1  ⎜⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎟0.4
p 1 2.4  0.528
1 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
pc  0.528  8.6  4.54 bar

Also,
Tc 2 1
T1  
  1.2
1
190  273
T   385.8 K
c
1.2
RTc 287  385.8 3
vc    0.244 m / kg
5
pc 10  4.54
Then,
Cc    1.4  394 m / s
And, 287 
R
Cc T 44.77
 385.8  C pT  T 
 44.72
c 1 c
h1


Cc  44.75 1.005  394 m / s
h
463 
c 
385.8
To find the area of the throat,

mV 4.5  0.244 2
Ac  C c   0.00279 m
c 394
Area of 6 2
throat  0.00279 10  2790 mm
Using equation for a perfect gas,
T ⎛p
 1/
⎞ 0.4 / 1.4
 ⎜⎛ 8.6 ⎞⎟  1.835
1
 ⎜ 1⎟
T2 ⎝ p2 ⎝ 1.03 ⎠
⎠
 252 K
463
T2 
1.835
RT2  287  252  0.702 m3 / kg

v
2
 p2 5
10 1.03
Then,
C2  44.72   44.72 c p  T2  
h1 T 1

C2  44.72 1.005  651 m / s
h2
 463 
Then to find the exit area,
252

mv2  4.5  0.702  0.00485 m2

A C
2
2 651
6 2
Exit area  0.00485 10  4850 mm
ACTIVITY 7A

INPUT…!
7.1 Sketch two types of nozzles
7.2 Define :
(a) critical presssure ratio
(b) maximum mass flow
7.3 A fluid at 6.9 bar and 93C enters a convergent nozzle with negligible
velocity, and expands isentropically into a space at 3.6 bar. Calculate the outlet
temperature and mass flow per m2 of exit area.
(a) when the fluids is helium (Cp=5.23 kJ/kgK)

(b) when the fluid is ethane (Cp=1.66 kJ/kgK)
Assume that both helium and ethane are perfect gases, and the respective
molecular weights as 4 and 30.
FEED BACK ON ACTIVITY 7A
InletOutlet
7.1
b) Convergent Nozzle
b) Convergent – divergent nozzle
inletthroatoutlet
7.2
a) critical presssure ratio
- The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic velocity is
attained to the inlet pressure of a nozzle.
b) maximum mass flow
- The flow through a convergent nozzle that can be obtained
when the pressure ratio across the nozzle is the critical pressure
ratio.
7.3 Solution :
a)
It is necessary first to calculate the critical pressure in order to discover
whether the nozzle is choked or not.
Ro
We know that, R
M
Therefore for helium,
8314
R  2079 Nm / kg K
4
Then,
p  R 
C 
1
So,
 1 R 2079
  Cp  105  5.24  1.66
1
   1.66
1  0.397
Then using equation for critical pressure ratio,
p ⎛ 2
 /  1
c
⎜ ⎟⎞
p1 ⎝   1⎠
1.66 / 0.66
⎜⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎟  0.488

⎝ 2.66 ⎠
pc  0.488  6.9bar
Critical pressure p  3.37 bar

c
The actual back pressure is 3.6 bar, hence in this case the fluid does not reach
the critical conditions and the nozzle is not choked. The nozzle is shown
diagrammatically in the figure below :
1 2
6.9 bar 3.6 bar
Then,
T ⎛  1/
p ⎞ 0.397
 ⎜⎛ 6.9⎟⎞  1.295
1
⎜ ⎟ 1
T2 ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎝ 3.6 ⎠
93  273
T  282.5 K
2
1.295
So,
C2  44.72  44.72 c  T2 
T 1
C2  44.72 5.2336  935 m / s

Also, 6 
282.5
RT 2079  282.5 3
v  p22  105  3.6  1.63 m / kg
2
So,
 A2C2  1 935  573 kg / s
m
V2 1.63
Mass 2
flow per m exit area  573 kg / s
b) Using the same prosedure for ethane, we have,
Ro
R
M
Therefore for ethane ,
8314
R  277.1 Nm / kg K
30
Then,
p  R 
C 
1
So,
 1 R 277.1
 Cp  103 1.66  0.167
  1
 1.2
1  0.167
Then using equation for critical pressure ratio,
p ⎛ 2
 /  1
c
⎜ ⎟⎞
p1 ⎝   1⎠
1.2 / 0.2
⎜⎛ 1 ⎞⎟  0.566

⎝ 1.1⎠
pc  0.566  6.9 bar

Critical pressure p  3.91 bar
c
The actual back pressure is 3.6 bar, hence in this case the fluid reaches critical
conditions at exit and the nozzle is choked. The expansion from the exit
pressure of 3.91 bar down to the back pressure of 3.6 bar must take place
outside the nozzle. The nozzle is shown diagrammatically in the figure below :
1 2
3.6 bar
3.91 bar 6.9 bar
Then,
Tc ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞ 1
 ⎟
T1 ⎝   2 ⎠ 1.1
366
T T   332.7 K
2 c
1.1
So,
C 2  Cc   1.2   333 m / s
 277.1
Also
R 332.7
, T
c

277.1 332.7
RT 3
v  p22  105  3.91  0.236 m / kg
2
So,
 A2C2 1 333
m V   1412 kg / s
2 0.236
Mass
2
flow per m exit area  1412 kg / s
INPUT
7.4 The nozzle can be used in the following application :
Steam turbine, gas turbine, jet engine, flow measurement, rocket propulsion,
steam injector and an injector itself.
But do you know that :
All jet engines have a nozzle at the back of the engine. It is the
exhaust duct of the engine. The air from the turbine blades and
the engine mixes together in the nozzle and makes a big force
that blasts out at the back of the engine. It is this power that
pushes, or thrust, the airplane forward.
a) Steam Turbine
 Of all the heat engines and prime movers the steam turbine is the nearest to
the ideal and it is widely used in power plants and in all industries where
power and/or heat is needed for processes; such as pulp mills, refineries,
petro-chemical plants, food processing plants, desalination plants, refuse
incinerating and district heating plants.
 Operation principle : In principle, the impulse steam turbine consists of a

casing containing stationary steam nozzles and a rotor with moving or
rotating buckets. The steam passes through the stationary nozzles and is
directed at high velocity against the rotor buckets causing the rotor to rotate
at high speed.
 The following events take place in the nozzles:

 The steam pressure decreases.
 The enthalpy of the steam decreases.
 The steam velocity increases
 The volume of the steam increases.

b) Gas Turbine
 A gas turbine has a compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. The

turbine and the compressor are on the same shaft. The compressor raises
the pressure of atmospheric air and sends this air to the combustion
chamber. Here, a fuel (oil, gas, or pulverized coal) burns, raising the
temperature and increasing the heat energy. The hot gas in the turbine
expands to develop mechanical energy, as expanding steam does in a
steam turbine.
 The basic parts of a turbine are the rotor, which has blades projecting
radially from its periphery; and nozzles, through which the gas is
expanded and directed. The conversion of kinetic energy to mechanical
energy occurs at the blades. The basic distinction between the types of
turbines is the manner in which the gas causes the turbine rotor to move.
 The main use for the gas turbine in the present day is in the air-craft field,
and the large unit of a gas turbine is used for electric power generation and
for marine propulsion.
Translated from a Korean text : The development of gas turbine can make us fly in the sky, explore the
seven seas and generate electric power that we use everyday to make life better !
c) Jet Engine
 Jet engines move the airplane forward with a great force that is produced
by a tremendous thrust and causes the plane to fly very fast.
 All jet engines, which are also called gas turbines, work on the same
principle. The engine sucks air in at the front with a fan. A compressor
raises the pressure of the air. The compressor is made up of fans with many
blades and attached to a shaft. The blades compress the air. The
compressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an electric spark lights the
mixture. The burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle, at the
back of the engine. As the jets of gas shoot backward, the engine and the
aircraft are thrust forward as shown in Figure 7.7.
 In a jet engine airplane, thrust is a result of hot gases (exhaust) rushing out
of the engine's nozzle. The action of the gases rapidly moving backward
causes a reaction in the air. The air puts out a force equal to the thrust, but
in the opposite direction, moving the airplane forward.
Figure 7.7
d) Flow Measurement
 A nozzle is used frequently as a flow meter by inserting it into a pipeline
and measuring the pressure drop or the differential between the inlet and
the throat. This pressure must be kept small, and is measured by a water or
mercury manometer.
 A convergent nozzle can be used in a pipeline as shown in the Figure 7.8.

The different levels in the manometer is ∆ p / w , where ∆ p is the pressure
difference between section 1 and 2, and w is the specific weight of the
manometer liquid.
 Eddies are set up as the fluid leaves the nozzle and the kinetic energy of
the jet is dissipated irreversibly. This means that some of the pressure
drop, ∆ p , is not recovered, and so the nozzle causes a loss of pressure in
the pipeline.
 The pressure loss can be reduced by using a convergent-divergent nozzle

in the pipeline. The pressure loss can be reduced by using a convergent-
divergent nozzle as shown in Figure 7.9. Since the nozzle in Figure 7.9 is
far from choked condition, it acts as a venturi meter. The flow is expanded
down to the throat at section 2, and diffused from 2 to 3.
 In this way, the pressure drops to the throat, ∆ p , is almost completely

recovered in the diffuser portion, and the pressure loss in the pipeline due
to the venturi meter is much smaller than that due to a convergent nozzle.
Figure 7.8 Figure 7.9

Convergent Nozzle Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
e) Rocket Propulsion
 One very important use of the nozzle is as a
means of propolsion. Since the fluid
flowing through the nozzle is accelerated
In 1926, Robert relative to the nozzle, then by Nowton’s
Goddard tested the third law, it follows that the fluid exerts a
first liquid-propellant trust on the nozzle in the opposite direction
rocket engine. His to the fluid flow.
engine used
gasoline and liquid  In the jet aeroplane and the ram-jet the
oxygen. The basic atmospheric air is drawn in, compressed,
idea is simple. In heated, and allowed to expand through a
most liquid- nozzle, leaving the aircraft at high velocity ;
propellant rocket the rate of change of momentum of the air
engines, a fuel and backwards relative to the aircraft gives a
an oxidizer (for reactive forward trust to the aircraft.
example, gasoline
and liquid oxygen)
 In order to achieve jet-propelled flight in
are pumped into a
space, where there is no atmosphere to be
combustion
drawn into the vehicle, it is necessary that
chamber. There
the fuel plus its oxidant should be carried in
they burn to create
the rocket. This is known as the rocket
a high-pressure and
propolsion.
high-velocity stream
of hot gases. These
 A rocket operating on a chemical fuel
gases flow through
consists of tanks containing the chemical
a nozzle that
propollent, and a rocket motor (or rocket
accelerates them
engine) which consists of a combustion
further (5,000 to
chamber and a convergent-divergent nozzle.
10,000 mph exit
Some way of introducing the propellant
velocities being
from the tanks to the combustion chamber
typical), and then
is also necessary, and this can be done by
they leave the
using a pump or by having an additional
engine.
tank of compressed nitrogen.
 When a pump is used it can be driven by a

small turbine using the propellant as fuel. A
simple line diagram of a rocket is shown in
Figure 7.10.
Figure 7.10
Adapted from
www.HowStuffWorks.com
f) Steam Injector
 Steam injector is widely used in the steam locomotives and is one of the
components used in the nuclear power plants.
 In the steam engine of the steam locomotive, the water supply to the boiler
is provided by two live steam injectors, or one live steam and one exhaust
injector on larger locomotives. Injectors work because steam under the
same pressure and conditions flows from a contracted nozzle at a much
greater velocity than water. The steam cone, or nozzle, regulates the
quantity of steam used by the injector. It is both convergent and divergent
in order to direct the flow of steam into the combining cone and gives it
the maximum possible velocity. (Figure 7.11)
 The condensation of the steam jet and the transfer of its energy to the
water takes place in the combining cone which receives the steam and
water. In condensing, the steam gives up its velocity to the water, which is
then further accelerated by the vacuum in the combining cone caused by
the reduction in the volume of the steam when condensed by the water.
 At the inlet end is a jet consisting of a mixture of steam and water, while
the outlet end has a jet of hot water flowing at high velocity but very low
in pressure. Steam injectors are very efficient and waste very little heat as
the steam used is returned to the boiler as hot water.
Boiler
Water
Delivery pipe
Steam
Figure 7.11
g) Injector
 One of an example of an injector is a fuel injector. It is an electronically
controlled valve. It is supplied with pressurized fuel by the fuel pump in
your car, and it is capable of opening and closing many times per second.
Figure 7.12
 When the injector is energized, an electromagnet moves a plunger that

opens the valve, allowing the pressurized fuel to squirt out through a tiny
nozzle. The nozzle is designed to atomize the fuel -- to make the fuel as
fine a mist as possible so that it can burn easily.
 The injectors are mounted in the intake manifold so that they spray fuel
directly at the intake valves. A pipe called the fuel rail supplies pressurized
fuel to all of the injectors.
Figure 7.12
Adapted from
A fuel injector firing

ACTIVITY 7B

INPUT…!
4
1 s t a u b i n
h
3 p o p l i o n
u 2
r 7
6 t o t p
9 t r
5 f w e t
11 r s
c e
10 b o e r u
n
12 a l e 8 j t
13 I j e o r
s
Horizontal :
1. The is widely used in power plants and all industries where power
or heat is needed for processes.
3. Marine use the gas turbine to delevop mechanical energy.
5. A nozzle is used as a by inserting it into a pipeline.
6. A differential between the inlet and the of a flow meter is called the
pressure drop.
8. In the aeroplane the atmospheric air is drawn in, compressed, heated, and
allowed to expand through a nozzle.
10. In the steam engine of steam locomotive, the water supply to the is
provided by two live steam injectors.
13. When an injector is energized, an electromagnet moves a pluger that opens the
,allowing the pressurized fuel to squirt out through a tiny nozzle.
Vertical :
2. The basic parts of a turbine are the , which has blades projecting
radially from its periphery.
4. Jet engines move the airplane forward with a great force that is produced by a
tremendous and causes the plane to fly very fast.
7. The can be reduced by using a convergent-divergent nozzle in
the pipeline.
9. A rocket operating on a chemical consists of tanks containing the
chemical propellent.
11. The steam or nozzle regulates the quantity of steam used by the injector.
4
1 s t e a m t u r b i n e
h
3 p r o p u l s i o n
u 2
s r 7
6 t h r o a t p
9 t r
5 f l o w m e t e r
11 u r s
c e s
10 b o i l e r u
n r
12 v a l v e 8 j e t
l
o
13 I n j e c t o r s
s
SELF-ASSESSMENT
7.1 Calculate the throat and exit areas of a nozzle to expand air at the rate of 4.5
kg/s from 8.3 bar, 327C into a space at 1.38 bar. Neglect the inlet velocity
and assume isentropic flow.
7.2 It is required to produce a stream of helium at the rate of 0.1 kg/s travelling at
sonic velocity at a temperature of 15C. Calculate the inlet pressure and
temperature required assuming a back pressure of 1.013 bar and negligible
inlet velocity. Calculate also the exit area of the nozzle. Assume isentropic
flow and helium is a perfect gas of molecular weight = 4 and =1.66.
7.3 Recalculate problem 1 assuming a coefficient of discharge is 0.97 and nozzle

efficiency is 0.92.
NOZZLES J3008/7/27
Answers :
7.1 3290 mm2 , 4850 mm2
7.2 2.077 bar, 110C , 592 mm2
7.3 The throat diameter = 20.5 mm & the exit diameter = 34 mm

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h p
FEEDBACK 1ON SELF-ASSESSMENT

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MALAYSIA

BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

Name : Farha binti Mohd Fadzli

Name : Halimah binti Mohd Yusof

Title of Module: Module Code :

Student’s Name: Registration No. :

Please use the following scale for your evaluation:

Instruction : Please  on the space provided.

No. TOPIC UNIT Total

2 Fluid Static 2 3 12 Hours

3 Fluid Dynamic 4 5 10 Hours

UNIT 2 FLUID STATIC

UNIT 3 FLUID STATIC

UNIT 4 FLUID DYNAMICS

UNIT 5 FLUID DYNAMICS

UNIT 6 ENERGY LOSS IN PIPELINES

6.1 Velocity profile in circular pipe

1. This module is divided into 7 units.

Subject Unit 1 Page Number 5

5. You have to follow the units in sequence.

PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE

The prerequisite for this module is a successful completion of module J 2006.

1. identify temperature units

Douglas,J.F (1993). Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics – Volume 1; Longman;

Eastop,T.D & A. McConkey (1983). Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering

Munson,Bruce R, Donald F.Young &Theodore H.Okiishi(1998). Fundamentals of

Prasuhn, Alan L (1980). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics; Prentice-Hall; London

PRINCIPLE CONCEPTS OF FLUID MECHANICS

General Objective : To know, understand and apply the measurement of temperature,

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you should be able to :

 list the temperature scales.

 convert the temperature to Celsius (ºC), Fahrenheit (ºF),

 define Pressure ( P ) , Atmospheric Pressure (Patm) , Gauge

 calculate pressure gauge using the formula given.

 differentiate mass density ( ρ ), specific weight (  ),

 calculate fluid properties using the formula given.

Fluid Mechanics - Introduction

Fluids and their Properties

1.1 TEMPERATURE UNITS

T F   1.8T C   32

Solution to Example 1.1

Solution to Example 1.2

Solution to Example 1.3

Solution to Example 1.4

Solution to Example 1.5

Solution to Example 1.6

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT

1.1 Write the formula to convert the following temperature scales.

1.2 Solve the problems below:

i) Convert temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit.

Convert temperature from Fahrenheit to Rankine.

Convert temperature from Rankine to Kelvin.

1.2 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE

Units : Newton’s per square metre, Nm-2,kgm-1s-2. (The

Absolute Pressure, Gauge Pressure, and Vacuum

1.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure, patm

1.3.3 Absolute Pressure, pA

Absolute pressure  Gauge pressure  Atmospheric pressure

gauge pressure +ve Local

absolute pressure absolute pressure

Figure 1.2 Pressure

Define the following terms :

Solution to Example 1.7