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Amplifier
• Various error terms arise in practical operational
amplifiers due to non-ideal behavior.
• Some of the non-ideal characteristics include:
1. Finite open-loop gain that causes gain error
2. Nonzero output resistance
3. Finite input resistance
4. Finite CMRR
5. Common-mode input resistance
6. DC error sources
7. Output voltage and current limits
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Finite Open-loop Gain
vo = Av = A(vs − v ) = A(vs − βvo )
id 1
v A
Av = o =
v s 1 + Aβ
Aβ is called loop gain.
For Aβ >>1,
1 R
A = = 1+ 2
ideal β R
1
v = vs − v = vs − βvo
R id 1
v = 1 v = βv Aβ v
1 R +R o o = vs − vs = s
1 2 1 + Aβ 1 + Aβ
R is called
β= 1 feedback
No longer zero, vid is small for
R +R factor.
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large Aβ. 2
Gain Error
Gain Error is given by
GE= (ideal gain)-(actual gain)
For non-inverting amplifier,
1 A 1
GE = − =
β 1+ Aβ β (1+ Aβ )
A 1
−
FGE = β 1+ Aβ =
1 1
≅
1 1 + Aβ Aβ
β
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Gain Error: Example
Problem: Find ideal and actual gain and gain error is percent
Given data: Closed-loop gain of 200 (46 dB), open-loop gain of op amp is
10,000 (80 dB).
Approach:Amplifier is designed to give ideal gain and deviations from ideal
case are determined. Hence, .
A 104
Av = = = 196
1 + Aβ 10 4
1+
200
200 −196
FGE = = 0.02
200
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Nonzero Output Resistance
Ro ⎛ ⎞
∴Rout = ⎜R + R ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1+ Aβ ⎝ 1 2 ⎠
Ro If A is infinite, Rout=0
Since, Ro/(1+Aβ)<<(R1+R2), Rout ≅
1 + Aβ
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Open-loop Gain Design: Example
• Problem: Design non-inverting amplifier and find
open-loop gain
• Given Data: Av=35 dB, Rout =0.2Ω, Ro = 250Ω
• Analysis:
Av = 1035dB / 20dB = 56.2 β= 1 = 1
Av 56.2
R
Rout = o ≤ 0.2Ω
1 + Aβ
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1 Ro ⎛ 250 ⎞
∴A ≥ ⎜
⎜ −1⎟⎟ = 56.2⎜⎜ −1⎟⎟ = 7.03×104 = 96.9dB
β R
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ 0.2
⎟
⎠
out ⎠
⎝
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Finite Input Resistance: Non-
inverting Amplifier
Assuming i-<<i2 implies i1 = i2.
R
v ≅ 1 v = βv
1 R +R o o
1 2
= β(Av )= Aβ(v x − v )
id 1
Aβ
v = v
1 1+ Aβ x
Aβ
vx − vx
Test voltage source vx is applied to 1+ A β vx
input and current ix is calculated. ∴ix = =
R (1+ Aβ )R
vx − v id id
ix = 1 v =i R ≅i R R = R (1+ Aβ )
R 1 1 1 2 1 in id
id
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Finite Common-Mode Rejection
Ratio (CMRR)
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Voltage Follower Gain Error due to
CMRR
Ideal gain for voltage follower is unity,
gain error
A
1−
GE = 1− Av = 2CMRR
⎛ 1 ⎞
1+ A⎜⎜1− ⎟
vs + v o ⎜
⎝ 2CMRR
⎟⎟
⎠
v = vs − vo v =
id ic 2 Since, both A and CMRR are
normally >>1,
(v + v ) ⎞
vo = A⎜⎜ (vs − vo )+ s o ⎟⎟
⎛
2CMRR ⎠ 1 1
⎝
GE ≅ −
⎛ 1 ⎞ A CMRR
A⎜⎜1+ ⎟
⎟⎟
vo ⎜
2CMRR First term is due to finite amplifier
Av = = ⎝ ⎠
vs 1+ A⎛⎜1− 1 ⎞
⎟ gain, second term shows that
⎜⎜ ⎟ CMRR may introduce an even larger
⎝ 2CMRR ⎟⎠
error.
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DC Error Sources: Input-Offset
Voltage
With inputs being zero, the amplifier To include effect of offset voltage
output rests at some dc voltage level ⎛ v ⎞
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