Production

Logging
Up
Gradio Run
Down
Temperature Run
600
Perforations

Spinners

700

Flowmeter

800

150 BPD

80o 89o 90o 91o

Jan 1997
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing
 Schlumberger

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. INTRODUCTION – THE RESERVOIR

A.1 Introduction – The Reservoir A-1
A.2 Fluids A-2
A.3 Fluid Flow A-8
A.4 Perforation A-12
A.5 Appendix A-14

B. PRODUCTION PROBLEMS
B.1 Saturation B-1
B.2 Cementing B-2
B.3 Corrosion B-3
B.4 Appendix – Conditions Promoting Corrosion B-5

C. MONITORING
C.1 Introduction C-1
C.2 Saturation Monitoring C-1
C.3 Cement Monitoring C-10
C.4 Corrosion Monitoring C-11

D. DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION LOGGING

D.1 Definition of Production Logging D-1
D.2 History of Production Logging D-1
D.3 Uses of Production Logging D-1
D.4 Production Logging Measurements D-3
D.5 Production Logging Environment D-4
D.6 Logging and Interpretation Procedures D-5
D.7 Production Logging Operations D-7

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Introduction to Production Logging

E. FLOW VELOCITY: SPINNER TOOLS

E.1 Introduction E-1
E.2 Spinner Tools E-1
E.3 Calibration and Intrepretation of Single Phase Flow
Using Spinner Data E-6
E.4 Slip Velocity E-10
E.5 Special Considerations E-11
E.6 Requirements E-11
E.7 Examples E-11
E.8 Answers E-16

F. FLUID DENSITY MEASUREMENTS

F.1 Fluid Density Measurements F-1
F.2 The Gradiomanometer* Fluid Density Tool F-1
F.3 Other Effects F-3
F.4 Current Gradiomanometer Tool F-4
F.5 Nuclear Fluid Density Tool F-5
F.6 The Capacitance (Dielectric or Watercut) Tool F-6
F.7 Flowrate Calculations Using Fluid Density and a Slip Model F-7
F.8 Summary F-9
F.9 Examples F-11

G. OTHER SENSORS
G.1 Pressure Measurement G-1
G.2 Temperature Measurement Techniques G-4
G.3 Caliper Tools G-8
G.4 Alternative Flow Measurement Devices G-10
Appendix A G-19
G.5 Fluid Sampling G-24
Appendix B G-26
Examples G-28

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 Schlumberger

H. SURVEY PLANNING
H.1 Introduction H-1
H.2 Objectives H-1
H.3 Types of Survey H-1
H.4 Data Gathering H-2
H.5 Summary H-5
H.6 After Survey Checks on Data Quality H-5
H.7 Specific Measurements H-6
H.8 Pressure Control Equipment For Production Logging Jobs H-6

I. COMPUTER EVALUATION METHODS

I.1 Computer Evaluation Methods I-1
I.2 Production Logging Quicklook Highlights I-1
I.3 Well Test Quicklook Highlights I-3
I.4 Advanced Computer Methods I-4
Appendix Field Computation Constants I-8

J. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
J.1 FloView Measurement J-1
J.2 Flagship Project J-17

K. EXAMPLES
K.1 Examples K-1
K.2 Answers K-6

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 Schlumberger

A . INTRODUCTION – THE
RESERVOIR

A . 1 INTRODUCTION - THE
RESERVOIR Here the questions are different. Here the em-
phasis is on production, fluids and pressures.
In the first “half” of a well’s life, it is drilled, We need to know:
cased, cemented, perforated and completed.
• Production flow rates
• Perforation efficiency
• Fluid mix
• Zone Production
• Pressures

Different techniques are employed. Well test-

ing, production logging and reservoir moni-
toring tools are used to answer most of the
questions. Some specialist devices such as cor-
rosion monitoring tools may be required. This
phase of the wells life lasts for a much longer
Lithology?
Porosity?
Cement Quality? time, often years; hence there will be a number
Saturation? of surveys during this time.
Fig. A1: Life of a well - Part 1 In the multiple well case the problem is com-
plicated, the questions become related to the
In an open hole well evaluation the questions space between the wells, the reservoir scale.
asked are simple, where is the oil and how How much hydrocarbon is in these wells? Where is it?
much is there. The question is effectively,
where will we perforate?

Is there communication What is the extent of this reservoir?

between these reservoirs? How much will it produce?
Will it require enhanced
recovery techniques?

Fig. A3: Reservoir Questions

Fig. A2: Life of a well - Part 2

In the second “half” of a well’s life the well is

produced, there may be workover activity and
recompletion.

(01/97) A-1
Introduction to Production Logging
Are the zones connected, are the beds continu-
ous and so on. These questions cannot be eas-
ily answered by measurements taken in a sin-
gle, or indeed, many wells. Interwell
measurements (well tests or crosswell seismic)
provide some of the answers. These tech-
niques are often, difficult to do and give incon-
clusive answers.
In addition, there is the question of time, how
long will it produce, will the fluid mix change,
are there any production problems developing.
The latter questions can only be answered with
surveys and tests over the producing life of the
reservoir.
The lithology of a reservoir is important in
open hole evaluation and the measurement of
the amount of hydrocarbon in place. There are
two major reservoir lithology types, clastics
and carbonates.
Clastics are composed of sandstones and
shales, the latter of limestone, dolomite and
evaporites such as salt or anhydrite. Sandstone
reservoirs are usually regular in formation
while carbonate reservoirs have very irregular
structures. Flow from the this type of reservoir
rock is often from fractures which can lead to
irregular flow patterns and even flow from
only those few perforations which intresect
with the fracture.
The sandstones are often completed on multi-
ple small zones of differing permeability. This
may mean that only some of the higher perme-
ability zones actually flow.
The description of the reservoir rock is usually
simple, sandstone or carbonate.
(01/97) A-2
A . 2 FLUIDS
Liquids are defined as fluids relatively free to
flow but restricted enough by cohesive forces
so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume.
Gases are defined as fluids relatively free to
flow but unresrtricted by cohesive forces so as
to have no definite volume.
Reservoir fluids need to be described in a dif-
ferent way from the rocks. The first definition
is one of contacts, where the fluids would be
in equilibrium. These are the gas-oil-contact,
the oil-water-contact and the gas-water-contact.
The latter is only possible in a well with gas
and water (no oil). The second definition is the
oil in place, the amount of hydrocarbon in the
reservoir. The final definition is one of the hy-
drocarbon properties, the gas-oil-ratio; how
much gas is in the oil. Due to the complexity of
the hydrocarbons in the reservoir there are
many other parameters which are needed to
fully describe the fluids.
A reservoir normally contains either water or
hydrocarbon or a mixture. The hydrocarbon
may be in the form of oil or gas. The specific
hydrocarbon actually produced depends on the
reservoir pressure and temperature. Other
gases can be found in wells, these include, he-
lium, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.
In most cases these occur as traces together
with the hydrocarbon and water normally
found.
The formation water is uniquely described by
its salinity which may be fresh or salty. Using
the reference of seawater with a salinity of
around 30000 ppm chlorine, this varies from
500 ppm to 250000 ppm; a wide range.
The amount and type of fluid produced de-
pends on the initial reservoir pressure, rock
properties and the drive mechanism. The major
rock property involved in production is the
permeability.
 Schlumberger

A . 2 . 1 Hydrocarbon Classification H H H
Hydrocarbons vary widely in their properties.
The first classification is by fraction of each H C H H C C H
component. This ranges from a dry gas which
is mostly C1 (methane) to tar which is mostly H H H
the heavier fractions. The black oil normally
found is between the two extremes, with some PARAFFIN SERIES, METHANE AND ETHANE
C1 and some heavier fractions.
H H
Every hydrocarbon extracted from a reservoir C
is of a different composition. H NAPTHALENE SERIES
H
C C
Typical hydrocarbons have the following com- H H CYCLOPENTANE
position in Mol Fraction:
H C C H
Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+ H H
Dry gas .88 .04 .04 .01 .01 .01
5 5 H
Condensate .71 .08 .04 .04 .04 .08
Volatile oil .6 .08 .05 .04 .03 .2 C
Black oil .41 .03 .05 .05 .04 .42 AROMATIC SERIES
H C C H
Heavy oil .11 .03 .01 .01 .04 .8 BENZENE
Tar/bitumen 1.0
Table A1: Hydrocarbon Types H C C H
C

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of car- H

bon atoms in the molecular chain.
Another way to describe the hydrocarbons is
by the mixtures of the groups of hydrocarbon
structure types. The three major groups are
shown. The simplest and most abundant is the
paraffin series, with the more complex struc-
tures in varying proportions.
Fig. A4: Hydrocarbon Structure
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane,
CH 4. Some heavier gases make up the rest.
Gas can contain impurities such as Hydrogen
Sulphide, H2S and Carbon Dioxide, CO2.
Gases are classified by their specific gravity
which is defined as:

"The ratio of the density of the gas to that of air

at the same temperature and pressure".
Gas specific gravity with respect to air should
not be confused with the specific gravity with
respect to water.

Oil is more complex than gas and has to be de-

fined in a more complete manner. The Gas-Oil
Ratio, GOR (symbol Rs) is a measure of how
much gas is in the oil and hence how light it is.
This is measured at a specific pressure, for ex-
ample the reservoir pressure.
The API gravity is a weight.

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Introduction to Production Logging

The table gives some typical values: The pressures in the oil and gas depend on the
gradients (densities) of these fluids. The dif-
GOR API Gravity ference in gradients with the water gradient
Wet gas 100mcf/b 50-70 depends on the specific gravity with respect to
Condensate 5-100mcf/b 50-70 water.
Volatile oil 3000cf/b 40-50
Black oil 100-2500cf/b 30-40
Heavy oil 0 10-30
Tar/bitumen 0 <10
Table A2: Hydrocarbon Classification

The specific gravity of an oil is defined as

 
131.5
API =   − 141.5
( )
o
 specific gravity 60o F 
 

A . 2 . 2 Reservoir Pressures and

Temperatures

Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by Fig. A6: Reservoir Temperatures

the gradient in the aquifer. The pressure in the
reservoir is controlled by the aquifer as it is
assumed that it is, somewhere, connected to
surface. This means that the pressure in the
water is effectively continuously controlled by
the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient
depends on the salinity of the water, the tem-
perature and the regional tectonic stresses. It is
usually constant over a large area. Although,
high pressures exist in some reservoirs.
Water Pressure
Gradient
The chart shows three possible temperature
gradients. The temperature can be determined
if the depth is known. Temperature in wells
depends on a regional gradient. There can be
local “hot spots” where this is sharply in-
creased. The temperature is measured during
each logging run. Local knowledge is impor-
tant.
Temperatures gradients are greatest near the
edges of the plates and lowest near the centres
of the old continental plates as these are the
thickest points of the crust.

Fig. A5: Reservoir Pressures

(01/97) A-4

A . 2 . 3 Hydrocarbon Phases
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.:
gas or oil. In a reservoir oil and gas exist to-
gether at equilibrium, depending on the pres-
sure and temperature. The behaviour of a res-
ervoir fluid is analyzed using the properties;
Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT).
There are two simple ways of showing this:
• Pressure against temperature keeping
the volume constant.
• Pressure against volume keeping the
temperature constant.
The pressure and temperature are two quanti-
ties that can be easily measured. Thus it is
useful to describe the fluids behaviour during
production in these terms. Experimentally it is
easier to measure pressure and volume hence
the classical experiment is done using these
parameters at a constant temperature.
Fig. A7: PVT Experiment
The easiest experiment is to keep the tempera-
ture constant, measuring volumes and pres-
sures.
Schlumberger
The fluid used is a pure, single component hy-
drocarbon. (This is not found in a reservoir
fluid which consists of a number of compo-
nents.) Starting in the liquid and increasing the
volume, the pressure drops rapidly with small
changes in volume until the first bubble of gas
occurs.
This is the Bubble Point.
Further increase in the volume causes no
change in the pressure until a point is reached
where all the liquid has vaporised.
This is the Dew Point.
Increasing the volume beyond this point causes
the pressure to drop, but much slower than
with the liquid phase.
The experiment is conducted at different tem-
peratures. The final plot of Pressure against
Temperature is made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the
Bubble Point and Dew Point, (for a single
component they coincide).
Liquid
Fig. A8: Pressure temperature phase diagram for a
single hydrocarbon component
This is a plot for the single hydrocarbon com-
ponent used in the experiment. The Vapour
pressure curve terminates in the Critical Point.
This is a unique point for any substance, pure
or a mixture. This is the point at which all
properties of the coexisting gas and liquid
phases become identical.
At pressures and temperatures above the criti-
cal point, for a single-component system, there
is only one fluid present and, depending on the
pressure and temperature, the fluid may have
the properties of a liquid or a gas.
(01/97) A-5
Introduction to Production Logging
The plot describes how this fluid behaves with
changing pressure and temperature.
If it starts in the liquid and the pressure is re-
duced, keeping the temperature constant, it will
cross the vapour pressure curve and become a
gas. Starting as a liquid at constant pressure
and increasing the temperature will also change
it to a gas.
Reservoirs do not have simple single-
component hydrocarbons. There is now an
envelope where two phases, oil and gas, exist
in equilibrium. This is due to there being both
heavy and light components in the fluid. The
Bubble Point and Dew Point curves still meet
at the critical point.
The critical pressure and temperature are no
longer necessarily the maximum pressure and
temperature (cricondentherm) at which liquid
and gas can co-exist. The shape of the enve-
lope and location of the critical pressure, criti-
cal temperature, maximum pressure, and cri-
condentherm are determined by the
composition of the mixture.
Fig. A9: Phase diagram for an oil reservoir
The Pressure/Temperature (PT) phase diagram
for an oil reservoir is used to describe how the
oil at reservoir conditions behaves when it is
produced to surface (Figure A9).
Point 'A' is the initial reservoir condition of
pressure and temperature.
(01/97) A-6
If the reservoir is produced at a constant tem-
perature until the fluid reaches the wellbore,
the line to Point 'B' is drawn. This represents
the flow of fluid from the reservoir to the
borehole.
The fluid travelling to surface now drops in
both temperature and pressure arriving at the
"separator conditions" (s) with a final volume
of oil and gas.
Gas condensates, as the name suggests, start
as a gas and condense out some liquid (Figure
A10. This type of gas reservoir is commer-
cially very good as the liquid can easily be
sold. Point 'C' is at the initial reservoir condi-
tions. The reservoir is produced at a constant
temperature from C to D. Fluids flowing up
the well now drop in temperature and pressure,
crossing the Dew point line and liquid con-
denses out.
At separator conditions (s) the result in both
liquid and gas on the surface.
Fig. A10: Phase diagram for a retrograde condensate gas
reservoir
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A (in Fig-
ure A10). Producing the well to separator con-
ditions B does not change the fluid produced.
The point B is still in the "gas region" and
hence dry gas is produced.
 Schlumberger

This is the final diagram for the reservoir flu-

ids. This is a dry gas which never enters the
envelope under any normal producing condi-
tions.

For an adiabatic expansion, where no heat is

added to keep the temperature constant, the
temperature of gases tends to increase for pres-
sure drops above maximum pressure and de-
crease (normal Joule-Thompson effect) for
pressure drops below maximum pressure.

Each reservoir fluid has a unique phase dia-

gram that usually changes with time (e.g.,
production). The relationship of the reservoir
fluid system, at reservoir pressure and tem-
perature, to its critical pressure, critical tem-
perature, and phase diagram determines the
state the fluids are in and the production
mechanism that may be encountered. The pres-
sure-temperature path taken by the fluids from
the reservoir to the stock tank or production
facilities will determine the percent of gas and
liquid present at a given time.
Another factor to consider with a multi-
component system has to do again with the
dual processes of phase change and solubility.
When fluids are separated at the surface either
a flash or a differential process is usually con-
sidered. A flash process is one in which the
composition of the system does not change. In
a differential process, gas is removed as it is
liberated and the composition of the system is
constantly changing. The composition of the
system at a given pressure and temperature will
then determine which components will change
phase and which components will come out of
solution with a further pressure-temperature
change. Therefore, even though the final pres-
sure and temperature may be the same for two
different separations of the same system, the
percent of liquid and gas present at the end will
be determined by the pressure-temperature path
taken.
A . 2 . 4 Fluid Volume Changes
As described, fluids at bottom hole conditions
produce different fluids at surface:
• Oil becomes oil plus gas.
• Gas usually stays as gas unless it is a
Condensate.
• Water stays as water with occasionally
some dissolved gas.
Fig. A11: Fluid changes from downhole to surface
The volume change has to be quantified. Sur-
face volumes are measured (production rates);
these need to be converted to downhole condi-
tions in order to compute how much has been
produced at reservoir conditions and hence
how much is left. This change in volume be-
tween downhole conditions and the surface is
described by the Formation Volume Factor:
Volume at Downhole Conditions
FVF =
Volume at Reference Conditions
Bo = formation volume factor for oil.
Bw = formation volume factor for water.
Bg = formation volume factor for gas.
Bw is around 1, as water is nearly incom-
pressible. Bo is measured in a PVT laboratory
experiment, it is just over 1, a typical value
would be 1.2.
Bg can be measured in the laboratory or using
empirical charts. This figure depends very
much on the pressure and is always very
small, in the order of 10-3. (See appendix at
the end of this section for methods of calculat-
ing these factors).

(01/97) A-7
Introduction to Production Logging

A . 2 . 5 Saturation A . 3 FLUID FLOW

The porosity of a formation has to be split Fluid flow in the casing and/or the tubing de-
between the fluids occupying the pore space. pends on the fluids flowing from the reservoir.
Saturation is the name given to the fraction of a An oil with a high gas-oil ratio will produce a
given fluid. lot of gas somewhere on its journey to the sur-
Formation saturation is defined as the fraction face, a low GOR oil will produce less gas. If
of its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a there is water production as well, three phase
given fluid. flow will exist in the tubing as the gas comes
out of solution and two phase (diphasic) flow
Volume of specific fluid
Saturation = in the casing/tubing before the gas has come
Total pore Volume out of solution.
These flow regimes cause problems for meas-
Definitions urements.
Sw = water saturation.
So = oil saturation. Flow in the casing and/or tubing is broken into
Sg = gas saturation. different regimes from Bubble flow, gas bub-
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation bles in oil, to mist flow, oil droplets in gas
= So + Sg (Figure A13). The actual flow regime encoun-
tered in the well depends on the flow velocities
Saturations are expressed as percentages or and gas-oil ratio.
fractions, e.g. Water saturation of 75% in a
reservoir with porosity of 20% contains water More than one type of flow will be present in
equivalent to 15% of its volume. the well as the pressure change and more gas
come out of solution.
FLOW REGIMES
102
LIQUID VELOCITY

10
REGION I

REGION II REGION III

N
TIO
SI
AN
TR

1
BUBBLE FLOW

MIST FLOW
SLUG FLOW
PLUG FLOW
10 -1 1 10 102 10 3
GAS VELOCITY

Fig. A13: Fluid phases in the wellbore

Fig. A12: A unit volume of the reservoir rock is di-
vided into its matrix, and fluid parts. The total fraction
of fluids is the porosity, φ. This is further split into the
fractions of each fluid present.
The graphical representation in Fugure A12
shows the simple porosity model split now
between water and hydrocarbon. The volume
of a fluid is the porosity times the saturation.
A.3.1 Single Phase Flow
Single phase fluid flow is the simplest type of
flow; even so, it can cause problems with sen-
sor response. Single phase flow can be di-
vided into two basic types of flow: laminar
and turbulent.

(01/97) A-8
 Schlumberger

Laminar flow is a smooth flow in which fluid 10000 Reynolds Number v Flow rate
elements follow paths that are straight and par- for 1.0g/cm 3 fluid

allel to the walls containing the fluid. The ve- Turbulent flow
locity of the fluid varies from 0 at the container
transition zone
wall to a maximum at the center for a pipe or
wellbore. The velocity profile shape is para-
bolic.
1000
Turbulent flow is characterized by random,
irregular movement of the fluid elements

Reynolds number
Laminar flow
throughout the fluid except at the container
wall. The velocity again varies from 0 at the
wall to a maximum at the center, but with a
much flatter profile. Velocity profiles for
laminar and turbulent flows are illustrated in
Figure A14. 100

˚
pipe od
3
4
5
6
velocity = 0
8
at pipe wall
10
10 100 1000
Flow rate in barrels/day
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow Fig. A15: Chart to determine the flow type depending
Fig. A14: Flow occurs in two types, laminar flow and on the flow rate and the pipe size.
turbulent flow. The profile is different and hence so is
the flow measured by the tools. Figure A16 illustrates the ratio of average ve-
locity to center velocity versus Nre for water
or air in a smooth pipe.
Reynolds number, Nre can be used to deter-
mine if flow is laminar or turbulent. 9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0

ρvd
5.0

N re =
4.0
x1000 Reynolds Number

µ 3.0

2.0

Where:
1.0 Turbulent Flow
.9
ρ = fluid density .8
.7
.6
v= average fluid velocity .5
.4
d = pipe diameter .3

µ =
Transition
fluid viscosity .2

Laminar flow
If Nre is greater than approximately 4,000, the
flow is turbulent. The relationship of Rey- 1.0 .9 .8
Average Velocity
.7 .6 .5

nolds number to flow rate is illustrated in Fig- Centre Velocity

ure A15. Fig. A16: The flowrate at the centre is different from
the average flowrate depending on the flow type. The
chart shows how this changes with Reynolds number
and hence the flow type.

(01/97) A-9
Introduction to Production Logging

The average or superficial velocity v, for

laminar flow from Poiseuilleus law, can be
calculated as follows:

4q q
v= =
πd 2 A

v is what a flowmeter attempts to measure.

The velocity profile may not be symmetric due

to pipe ovality, pipe roughness, proximity to
fluid entries, or other causes.

The velocity a tool sees will depend not only

on the actual fluid velocity profile, but also on
tool size (spinner size) relative to pipe size,
tool centering, tool configuration (cages and
centralizers), and whether annular flow is a
factor (in-line spinners and tracer tools).
(Figure A17).

Diverter flowmeters do not eliminate all of the

above problems because of leakage around and
through the diverter elements or petals, but di-
verter flowmeters can minimize some of the
problems.

For a given set of conditions, spinner speed

is a function of fluid velocity, viscosity, den-
sity, blade angle and condition, and bearing
friction.

Fig. A17: Flowmeters measure different flowrate de-

pending on the flow type and also their position in the
borehole.

(01/97) A-10
 Schlumberger

A . 3 . 2 Multiphase flow
Multiphase flow is a much more complex phe-
nomena than single phase flow. Unless the
fluids are a homogeneous mixture, the phases
will move at different velocities. The light
phase will move faster than the heavy phase
because of the density difference between the
two phases. This difference in velocities is
called the slip velocity.

Qh = Yh Qt - Yh (1 - Yh) Vs A

Qh = heavy phase flow rate

Yh = heavy phase hold up
Qt = total flow rate
Vs = slippage velocity
A = flow area
Fig. A19: Flowmeters may read two different types of
Slip velocity is the reason water holdup is not flow in deviated wells
equal to water cut. This will be covered in
more detail in the section on multiphase flow
interpretation. A flowmeter in segregated flow may exhibit a
response resembling downflow (Figure A19).
In a deviated well the situation is further com- The light phase moving up the high side of the
plicated as the fluids will gravity segregate un- pipe will drag heavy phase with it. Some of
less the flow velocity is high enough to ensure this heavy phase will fall out and flow down
complete mixing. the low side of the pipe. This can occur where
the heavy phase is water, even if no water is
Slippage
Velocity
being produced at the surface. A spinner, as in
vs ft/min the diagram, may see this down flow. What
140
other sensors see will depend on whether they
120 get a representative fluid sample in their meas-
uring section.
100

80
The temperature of a moving fluid at any point
in a well is a function of many parameters. Oc-
60 casionally, simplifying assumptions can be
made and a temperature log may be used quan-
40
40˚ titatively for flow rates. It is usually much
20
30˚
20˚
better as a qualitative indicator of fluid quanti-
10˚ ties and types.
0˚
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Vw When fluids undergo a sufficient pressure
drop, some energy is expended in the form of
Fig. A18: The chart shows the changes in slippage
velocity with hole deviation (Vw is the water or heavy sound. These sounds can be related at times to
phase) velocity fluid types and quantities. The energy ex-
pended per unit time is proportional to the
Figure A18 is the result of flow loop work re- pressure drop times the flow rate.
lating slip velocity to hole angle for kerosene
and water flow in a five inch pipe with the Multiphase flow discussion has been limited to
water flow not over approximately 400 B/D. two phase flow for two reasons. First, models
A few degrees of deviation can make large or correlations describing three phase flow of
changes in flow regime.

(01/97) A-11
Introduction to Production Logging
oil, gas, and water are limited. Second, sen-
sors do not exist to properly measure three
components. Under the proper conditions,
tool combinations using both density and ca-
pacitance measuring devices can be used for
quantitative interpretation in a three phase envi-
ronment.
A . 4 PERFORATION
Perforation is the most popular method of res-
ervoir completion. The objective is to create a
path for flow from the formation to the well
through the casing and cement. The require-
ment is thus for a hole to be made in the cas-
ing, cement and into the formation for a short
distance. Standard perforations have an en-
trance hole of about 0.4” and a penetration of
around 20”.
It is made using a perforation gun system.
Gun systems use three components:
• Detonator - primary high explosive
ignited by heat or shock
• Primacord - secondary high explosive
ignited by the detonator, burns at 8400
m/sec
• Shaped charges - create the perfora-
tions, detonated by the primacord.
The detonator starts the reaction, the primacord
propagates it and the shaped charge makes the
holes.
Shaped Charges are the most important part of
the system. They were developed shortly after
World War II from the military bazooka
weapon.
There are three basic elements of a shaped
charge (Figure A20):
• case (Steel or Aluminium).
• cylinder of high explosive & a primer.
• conical metallic liner.
(01/97) A-12
Case
Primacord
Primer
Charge
Explosive
Charge
Liner
Fig. A20: Shaped charge design
It was found that the conical shape produced a
depression/hole in a metal target. The addition
of the liner increased the efficiency of the sys-
tem. Modern liners are made of powdered
metal and leave a powder residue at the end of
the perforation. A typical charge has only
about 20 grams of explosive material.
Slug Jet
p=100GPa
500 m/s
Tip
7000 m/s
Fig. A21: Jet Formation
The explosion forces the liner to flow inwards
and out. It forms into a characteristic shape,
the jet (Figure A21), which is moving rapidly
and has extremely high pressures at the tip.
The pressure causes the material in the path of
the jet of metal to move out of the way creating
the perforation tunnel into the formation.
The dimensions of the perforation, length of
the tunnel, and the diameter of the entrance
hole are linked and depend on the geometry of
the shaped charge.
If the liner opening is widened the entrance
hole size increases but the penetration de-
creases. These type of charges are used for
applications such as gravel pack.

There are a number of decisions to be made in
the planning of a perforation job.
The first is which perforation method to use:
• overbalanced or
• underbalanced
Overbalanced perforation is made with the
wellbore pressure higher than the reservoir
pressure and so there is invasion once perfo-
rated. Underbalanced perforation means that
the reservoir produces once the perforation is
made.
In the first case the well is controlled using the
normal rig blow out prevention system. In the
latter special pressure control equipment may
be required.
The next question is the type of gun system;
• casing guns
• through tubing guns or
• tubing conveyed guns.
These three systems are summarised as fol-
lows;
Casing Gun
• Well Pressure > Formation Pressure
• Overbalanced perforating
• Large diameter carrier gun
• Carried on an electric line
The advantage of a casing gun completion is
that all perforation material is carried inside the
carrier hence it is protected from the well flu-
ids. The resulting debris is also brought out of
the well in the same carrier. The carrier can be
either re-usable or not depending on the type of
operation being performed. The more complex
gun types are all “throw-away” type carriers.
The disadvantage of overbalanced perforation
is that the mud in the well bore will enter the
well as it is at a higher pressure.
Schlumberger
Through Tubing
• Well Pressure < Formation Pressure.
• Completion and final surface production
equipment, or a temporary completion
and testing facilities are in place
• Underbalanced perforating, with pres-
sure control equipment
• Through tubing gun (small guns)
• Gauges can be run with the string
• Carried on an electric line
Through tubing perforation eliminates the in-
vasion problem and gives the formation the
chance to flow immediately. The disadvantage
is that smaller guns have to be used, which
means either smaller charges in a small carrier,
or larger charges exposed to well fluids and
debris left in the well. The choice depends on
the type of well being perforated.
Tubing Conveyed Perforating
• Perforation gun is carried on either the
drill pipe or on tubing.
• Well Pressure < or > Formation Pres-
sure
• Large interval of perforation in one run-
in-hole
• High explosive content, perforation
spacing
• Gauges can be run at the same time
Tubing conveyed perforation (TCP) connects a
carrier gun to the end of the drill pipe or tub-
ing. The gun can be fired by a number differ-
ent types of detonators such as drop bar, pres-
sure firing heads or inductive coupling. The
choice depends on the conditions and type of
well.
The advantages of this method are mainly the
long interval(s) possible and the possibility of
a simultaneous well test using downhole
gauges.
(01/97) A-13
Introduction to Production Logging
The final decisions on the perforation are the
shot density, the number of shots per foot,
spf, (the current maximum is 21 spf.) and the
Phasing - the directions of the perforations
(Figure A22). This ranges from 0˚ to 30˚/60˚.
The number of shots per foot depends on the
application and the reservoir parameters. The
objective is to obtain the best flow efficiency
most economically. Computer programs exist
which allow the reservoir engineer to select the
best combination of shots per foot and phas-
ing. Gravel pack completions normally have
very high shot densities.
Shaped charges
shots
per
foot
Perforation
90° phasing
Directions
Fig. A22: Perforation characteristics are the number of
shots per foot of gun (spf) and the phasing of these
shots.
(01/97) A-14
A . 5 APPENDIX
Fluid parameters
Various fluid physical properties affecting pro-
duction logging are changed by pressure and
temperature and these changes need to calcu-
lated.
There are several reasons for wanting to cal-
culate these changes. One is to be able to cal-
culate downhole fluid densities for use in
holdup calculations. Another is to be able to
convert downhole flow rates to surface rates
and vice-versa. Another is to be able to correct
sensor response for fluid effects. Also, it is
helpful to know how many fluid types will be
present downhole when logging.
The physical properties of usual interest are
solubility, formation volume factor, bubble
point pressure, compressibility, natural gas
deviation factor, density, and viscosity.
A number of charts, nomographs, and equa-
tions are available to estimate the properties.
However, they are empirical and may not accu-
rately describe a particular hydrocarbon system
and should be used only if a more accurate
model for the fluids in question is not avail-
able.
The publication “Fluid Conversions in Pro-
duction Log Interpretation” contains all the
relevant charts together with examples on their
use.
 Schlumberger

B . PRODUCTION PROBLEMS

B . 1 SATURATION Measuring water movements helps to detect

and survey the rise of the water/oil contact,
Saturation, as well as having a “radial” com- locate water fingers which could give un-
ponent in the form of invasion has a time com- wanted water production.
ponent. As the reservoir is produced the water
moves in to vacate the space left by the pro-
ducing oil. This process continues until the oil
saturation equals the residual value.
Invaded
Virgin Zone
Zone

oil
oil

water
water

Matrix OIL

Fig. B1: Saturation in a reservoir is broken down into

the virgin and invaded zones during the drilling and WATER
open hole phase. During production the saturation
changes reflect the movements of the reservoir fluids.

High Permeability
Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or Layer
all of their peripheries by aquifers. The aqui-
fers may also be so large compared with the
reservoirs they adjoin as to appear infinite for
all practical purposes, and range down to those OIL
so small as to be negligible in their effect on
reservoir performance. When pressure de-
creases due to oil production, the aquifer reacts
to offset or retard pressure decline providing a
source of water influx or encroachement.

Water may be injected to supply external en-
ergy to improve the recovery of hydrocarbons.
The injected water may advance evenly or may
channel through the streaks of better perme-
ability leaving hydrocarbons behind the water
front.
Fig. B2: This, multiple zone reservoir, is now pro-
ducting water from one layer. Water fingering in this
higher permeability zone has created the problem.
A reservoir consisting of multiple layers and
completed in several together can eventually
give rise to a situation as pictured in Figure
B2. The high permeability layer is producing
water.

(01/97) B-1
Introduction to Production Logging
B . 1 . 1 Crossflow
Thief zones can be defined as those zones that
are considered open to the wellbore either by
perforations or openhole completion which due
to zone pressure differences remove fluids
from the wellbore. The pressure differences
are caused by zones depleting faster due to
higher permeability. Hence, in the illustration
above, the middle zone may become a thief
zone as it produces.
P1
High Permeability
P3>>P2
Layer
P2
P3
Fig. B3: Crossflow from a lower zone to a higher one.
This phenomena happens in any direction.
In the case of a production well the thief zones
are generally most noticeable when the well is
in a shut-in surface condition. In this condi-
tion the higher pressure zones will tend to feed
fluid into the lower pressure zones.
(01/97) B-2
In some cases this could be a hydrocarbon, in
other cases water, but in all cases it generally
makes the surface production rates unusable in
predicting individual zone balance of material
equations. It also reduces the potential pro-
duction of the well and reservoir.
In the case of injection wells the thief zones on
an injection profile may appear as higher injec-
tivity zones, depending on their relative perme-
ability to the other injection zones. In most
cases these thief zones will continue to take
fluid from other zones, even when the surface
injection rate is zero. This can largely distort
any balance of material calculations if only the
surface rates are applied to all the downhole
zones.
In either the producing or the injecting profile it
is important to know the dowhole profile of the
well for both the active and passive surface
conditions. In a producing well a thief zone
could be decreasing the overall surface pro-
duction of hydrocarbons, or downhole it could
be dump flooding a potential hydrocarbon zone
with water. In most situations the most seri-
ous effects of a thief zone on overall well pro-
ductivity will be in those areas where the wells
are on quota and may, therefore, be shut in for
a large percentage of the time. In injection
wells specific zone pressure may not be as well
supported as believed if only injection profiles
are monitored and no attention is paid to the
shut-in state.
B . 2 CEMENTING
Cementing of the casing in place is one of the
most vital operations in the drilling phase. It is
necessary to have a perfect seal between zones
to avoid unwanted fluid production or reser-
voir contamination. Cement slurry is pumped
behind the casing to the required height. It is
left to set for some time before any other op-
erations.
The cement quality has to be evaluated before
the completion and any repairs made at that
time. It is also essential to properly evaluate
any measurement in cased hole.
One of the major difficulties in cementing is the
presence of gas zones. These will cause prob-
lems if precautions are not taken during the
cement job.
 Schlumberger

B . 2 . 1 Channeling Channeling may occur in three conditions.

Channeling is generally defined as the ability
of fluids to move in the region of the produc- These conditions are:
tion casing annulus because of a lack of hy- • Oil or gas well with water channeling up
draulic isolation between the casing and the from a lower zone
cement or the cement and the formation. • Oil or gas well with water channeling down
from a higher zone
• Oil well with gas channeling down from a
higher zone

B . 3 CORROSION
Corrosion encountered in the Oil Industry in-
volves several mechanisms, generally classi-
fied into three main categories:

• Electrochemical Corrosion
• Chemical Corrosion
Unwanted fluid
flow • Mechanical Corrosion

B.3.1 Electrochemical corrosion

Bad Cement This type of corrosion is caused by phenomena
that involve passage of current between one or
several metals and an electrolyte, with transfer
of ions and electron (Figure B5).

Electrochemical corrosion accounts for the

majority of observed downhole casing corro-
sion, and is mainly detected on the outer casing
walls. Metal is attacked in four different ways:

a) Generalized Galvanic Corrosion

b) Crevice Corrosion
Fig. B4: A cement channel from the lower zone to the c) Pitting Corrosion
upper results in the production of unwanted fluids.
d) Intergranular Corrosion.
In injection wells channeling can permit the Conductor
injected fluid to enter undesirable zones, thus
reducing the overall effectiveness of either sec- e–
ondary or tertiary recovery systems. Pressure
maintenance and flushing will not necessarily
prolong the productive life of a well; instead, it
may actually shorten the productive life by Anode Cathode
providing a breakthrough into the wrong
zones.

Channeling in producers can lead to the pro-

duction of unwanted fluids; i.e., water from Metal ions (M+) Electrolyte
wet zones or gas from the gas cap or gas zone.
In some cases this unwanted production can
render a well totally nonproductive. Fig. B5: General mechanism for electrochemical
corrosion

(01/97) B-3
Introduction to Production Logging

B . 3 . 2 Chemical corrosion The casing string(s) could leak allowing fluid

This type of corrosion involves chemical reac- to escape into another layer. This not only
tion which may not produce appreciable volt- causes a loss in production but could contami-
ages. Five different mechanisms are known to nate water zones (Figure B7).
contribute to chemical corrosion:
a) Direct chemical attack
b) H2S attack (Sour corrosion)
c) CO2 attack (Sweet Corrosion)
d) Hydrogen attack
e) Bacterial attack

B . 3 . 3 Mechanical Corrosion
There are two basic mechanisms for mechani-
cal corrosion:
a) Stress Corrosion Casing
Leak
b) Erosion Corrosion

B . 3 . 4 Production Problems and

Corrosion
There are many potential problems caused by
the numerous corrosion mechanisms. Any of
the components of the completion string can
leak – packers, tubings, etc., (see Figure B6).
This will cause mixed production which could
lead to further problems such as crossflow.

Fig. B7: Corroded casing allows fluids to escape back

into a reservoir zone.

Tubing
Leak
Packer
Leak

Fig. B6: Leaks in the tubing and packer cause

production problems.

(01/97) B-4
 Schlumberger

B . 4 APPENDIX: CONDITIONS PROMOTING CORROSION

The conditions of the well tubulars, together with the presence of oxygen-rich, saline and corrosive
fluids play a major role in the corrosion initiation and propagation. Figure B8 shows the conditions
that promote the various corrosion mechanisms and Figure B9 locates them with respect to a sche-
matic completion string.

Saline/
DOWNHOLE Poor Single Collars
Cement Joint oxyg. Form. Solid
TYPE Condt. Move.
OF Metal Casing Casing Fluid B.H.
Prop. Anom. Stress Corrosive
CORROSION
Fluids
Galvanic
Electro- Crevice
Pitting
chemical
Intergranular

Chemical
H2 S
Chemical C O2
Bacteria
Hydrogen

Stress
Mech.
Erosion

Fig. B8: Conditions promoting corrosion

(01/97) B-5
Introduction to Production Logging
B . 4 . 1 Conditions
• Poor quality cementation: In a poor ce-
ment job, casing is exposed to saline formation
water, acting as an electrolyte. Some shallow
formation waters contain dissolved oxygen
which accelerates corrosion rates. Non-sulfate
resistant cement (construction cement) breaks
down rapidly and exposes the casing to corro-
sive aquifer water.
• Metal properties: Most casings show
variation in metallic properties, from joint to
joint, across the same joint, and from joint to
collar. This produces galvanic cells, and is
seen on electromagnetic logs as a variation in
joint conductivity and magnetic permeability.
• Casing anomalies: localized casing
anomalies can promote galvanic and pitting
corrosion.
• Corrosion at collars: collars are normally
stressed and distorted, and present gaps. They
often are starting points for galvanic, pitting,
and crevice corrosion.
• Casing stress: Stressed sections of casing
can accelerate corrosion because of their dis-
torted lattice structure. Hydrogen cracking oc-
curs when hydrogen ions diffuse into the
stressed metal.
• Saline formation fluids: they act as an
electrolyte and promote electrochemical and
chemical corrosion. Notice that overall cor-
rosivity of saline solutions increases with sa-
linity to about 5% NaCl, and then decreases
because of reduced oxygen solubility. Above
15% NaCl, the saline solution is less corrosive
than fresh water.
• Oxygenated fluids: either meteoric forma-
tion waters or injection water not treated can
cause electrochemical and chemical attack. No-
tice that, for carbon steel, oxygen dissolved in
water is about 80 times more corrosive than
(01/97) B-6
CO2 and about 400 times more corrosive than
H 2S.
• Borehole corrosive fluids: Spent acids,
brines, or H2S and CO2 in the production
stream can promote chemical corrosion.
• Fluid and solid flow: Erosion corrosion
is caused by high velocity fluids, turbulence,
sand production.
• Bacterial growth: Anaerobic Sulfate Re-
ducing Bacteria synthesize H2S and promote
chemical and pitting corrosion.
B . 4 . 2 Measures to prevent or remedy
corrosion
Several measures are available to prevent or
remedy corrosion in completion strings. They
are listed here for information and not dis-
cussed in any details as each one is the domain
of specialists:
• Engineering design
• Selection of materials and alloys
• Coatings
• Good cementing
• Choice of completion fluids
• Inhibitors and biocides
• Cathodic protection
• Run tubing and casing patches
• Workover to replace tubulars
• Tie-back liners
• Changes in completion
Useful elements to design prevention and re-
medial programs can be obtained from corro-
sion evaluation and monitoring using wireline
logging tools.
 Schlumberger

STRESS
ACID

OXYGENATED/
SALINE FLUIDS POOR
CEMENT

CORROSIVE
ANNULUS FLUID

BIMETALLISM
H2S CORROSIVE
CO2
FORMATION
+ FLUID
STAGNANT H2O
FLUIDS

Fig. B9: Location of Corrosion in Wells

(01/97) B-7
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) B-8
 Schlumberger

C . MONITORING
WATER AND
SOME OIL OIL

C . 1 INTRODUCTION
Monitoring is a term applied to the continual
checking of a parameter. In the reservoir con-
text applied to production logging this has
three different types;

• saturation monitoring
• cement monotoring
• corrosion monitoring.
Fig. C1: Saturation changes through the reservoir lay-
Saturation monitoring follows the changes in ers cause problems if some beds have a higher
fluid content of the reservoir. This is important permeability.
in production logging when investigating water
(or gas) flows.

Cement quality is important when investigating Porosity %

unexplained fluid flows. Corrosion checks the 50 0
status of the casing and tubing giving prior original water
warning of potential problem areas such as in place
P
leaks. e
r
C . 2 SATURATION MONITORING f
o
To achieve optimum hydrocarbon recovery, Remaining
r
the monitoring of water saturation at regular a
hydrocarbon
intervals is essential. This is achieved by t
measuring the water saturation in different i
portions of the field and then drawing contour o
maps of iso-saturation curves. n
s
Measuring water movements helps to detect displaced hydrocarbon
and survey the rise of the water/oil contact,
locate water fingers or bypassed hydrocar-
bons, estimate the residual oil saturation and
evaluate the efficiency of water-flooding proj-
ects. Proper monitoring allows to take the nec-
essary steps to maximise the final recovery.

In the left hand well in Figure C1 there is a

breakthrough in some of the layers, they have
depleted faster. They have higher permeabili-
ties and will now produce water. An additional
problem of crossflow may occur if these zones Fig. C2: This figure shows the change over time of the
have lower pressures than the others. amount of hydrocarbon in the layers. Zones with poten-
tial problems will show greater depeletion than the rest.
Monitoring would see this problem early in the
reservoir’s life allowing it to be dealt with in
time.

(01/97) C-1
Introduction to Production Logging
A reservoir consisting of multiple layers and
completed on several together can eventually
give rise to a situation as pictured in Figure
C2.
Reservoir evaluation and saturation monitoring
through casing are generally performed in two
ways. One measures the decay of thermal neu-
tron populations (TDT-P*, pulsed neutron
capture) and the other determines the relative
amounts of carbon and oxygen in the forma-
tion of inelastic gamma ray spectroscopy, as
used in the GST* or RST* (induced gamma
ray spectroscopy). Because chlorine has a
large neutron capture cross section, the PNC
technique provides good results in areas with
highly saline formation waters.
Both use an electronic source and pairs of de-
tectors measuring gamma rays.
Lithology?
Cement quality?
Fluids ?
Hole size
Fig. C3: Factors affecting cased hole monitoring tools
A number of unknowns affect both tools;
• PNC - fluid salinity, lithology
• C/O - lithology
• Both - hole size, cement quality,
borehole salinity/fluid
When the formation water is not sufficiently
saline or when its salinity is unknown, the car-
bon-oxygen method provides a more reliable
answer, and the PNC data may not be inter-
pretable.
C/O measurements are best in carbonates be-
cause it also contains carbon, giving a better
statistical measurement.
(01/97) C-2
In large holes both tools have problems. Poor
cement will add to the problems as the fluid
behind the casing may be unknown. In the C/O
case the borehole fluid is not a problem for the
large tool, however it must be known for the
smaller device. The borehole capture cross
section is measured with the PNC tools but in
some cases it may cause problems.
C . 2 . 1 PNC Interpretation
The log reading is a linear mixture of the ma-
trix and the fluid:
Σ log = Σ f φ + (1 − φ)Σ ma
The fluid term can be expanded to:
Σ f = Σ w S w + (1 − S w )Σ h
Hence if Σ w , Σ ma , Σ h and the porosity, φ are
known the saturation Sw can be obtained.
The equation linking the log reading and the
formation is linear. The unknowns are the
capture cross sections for the water, hydrocar-
bon and matrix plus the porosity. The latter can
be measured with the tool but it is preferable to
use open hole data.
The capture cross-section for the matrix is eas-
ily found if the lithology is known.
Lithology Capture Cross Section
Limestone 7cu
Sandstone 4.2cu
Dolomite 4.7cu
Salt 754cu
Anhydrite 12.5cu
Clay (pure) 14-24cu
Table C1: Matrix capture cross sections
The matrix capture cross sections come from
the lithology of the formation. One problem is
the presence of clay. Both the quantity and
type are important as some clay minerals have
a high capture cross section compared to sand-
stone.

The capture cross-section of the hydrocarbon
depends on its type, oil or gas, temperature
and pressure and GOR. Charts in the standard
Chart Book can be used to determine the cor-
rect values.
The capture cross-section of the water depends
on the salinity. There is also a minor tempera-
ture and pressure dependence.
The values can be obtained from the Chart
Book if the formation water salinity is known.
The values for the fluids are easier to find as
they depend on known phenomena.
Σ w
Σ log
Sw = 100%
Σ ma
Σ H
Sw = 0%
POROSITY
Fig. C4: Crossplot of Porosity versus capture cross-
section used to find the parameters and compute the
water saturation
An alternative to using charts to find the pa-
rameters is to use a crossplot of capture cross
section, Σ against porosity, φ (Figure C4).
From equations 1 and 2
If φ = 0, the intercept is at Σma.
If φ = 1, and Sw = 0, the intercept is Σh.
If φ = 1, and Sw = 1, the intercept is Σw
Schlumberger
Once the parameters have been found the
equation can be solved for Sw.
The problems with using this type of log is that
there has to be a good contrast between the hy-
drocarbon point and the water point for this
technique to work. This requirement limits the
technique to high salinity formation waters.
The matrix point can be difficult to find in a
shaly formation if there are no 100% shale
zones.
The value of Sw can be seriously affected if
there are any elements with a high capture
cross-section in the water. An example of this
is gadolinium with a capture cross-section of
30000. A small amount will increase the Sw
significantly. Using the graphical method
should eliminate this problem.
Gas and oil have very different capture cross-
sections. The correct one has to be used.
Time lapse is a standard technique of monitor-
ing wells. A base log is run shortly after pro-
duction. The log is interpreted and can be
matched to the open hole evaluation, thus
checking the chosen parameters. Some time
later, a monitoring log is run. The change in
saturation is then given by:
∆Σ
∆Sw =
φ( Σ w − Σ h )
The matrix term has dropped out.The resulting
saturation is more accurate than a stand-alone
value.
The base log has to be run late enough for the
filtrate to have dissipated but early enough so
that depletion is not significant. The match
with the open hole evaluation fixes such prob-
lems as uncertainty with the shale content or
the porosity. The only match is saturation.
The difference between the monitoring log and
the base log is the depletion.
(01/97) C-3
Introduction to Production Logging
Fig. C5: Time lapse saturation monitoring example
Figure C5 shows an example of time-lapse
monitoring. The open hole computed log is
displayed with three computed TDT logs that
were run over several years. The rise in the
oil/water contact between logs runs is obvious.
Water fingering has also developed in an upper
high-permeability zone.
(01/97) C-4
This type of survey is normally performed in
several wells of the same reservoir. This al-
lows one to map the water saturation and
monitor the water front advances.
Time-lapse maps of saturation values over an
entire reservoir area provide a powerful aid in
predicting future performance of the field. The
three time lapse maps shown in Figure C6
were made over a number of years and show
the progression of a waterfront in a single zone
in this carbonate formation.
Fig. C6: Time lapse map
The main areas of water encroachement can be
clearly seen. The maps were constructed using
open hole and TDT log data from 40 wells.
Similar maps can be made for each layer or
sublayer to monitor water movement.

Figure C7 shows the relative errors in the
computation of the saturation with changes in
the capture cross section accuracy. Using the
chart, for a 1 cu error in Σ, at 20% hydrocar-
bon volume the error in saturation is around
40%.
Fig. C7: Errors in the computed saturation for an error
in the capture cross section
This a similar chart to the previous example,
this time with the porosity as the changing
quantity. In this case a 6p.u. error in porosity
again gives a 40% error in the saturation.
Fig. C8: Errors in saturation computation with errors
in porosity
Schlumberger
If the pulsed neutron is used alone (no open
hole data) the combination of these errors
could result in a large discrepancy. Using the
open hole measurement for the porosity is a
fisrt step in improving the accuracy of the
technique. The addition of an early monitoring
run to compare with the original open hole val-
ues and subsequent monitoring passes gives
the best possible answers.
C . 2 . 3 Carbon Oxygen Logging
Fig. C9: Spectra of some of the elements by induced
gamma ray spectroscopy
The first stage of the measurement computes
the individual elements from the spectra
(Figure C9). This is very statistical. The next
step takes large windows over the expected
carbon and oxygen peaks to give a statistically
good measurement. The combination of these
two gives an accurate carbon- oxygen ratio
which can then be transformed into saturation.
(01/97) C-5
Introduction to Production Logging
The plot in Figure C10 is of the Far C/O ratio
against the Near C/O. The combination gives
both the formation water percentage Sw and
the borehole percentage Yo. This plot is for the
RST-B* tool, which has the ability to compute
both the formation and borehole percentages.
The shape of the plot depends on the lithology.
Sw=0, Yo=100
Far C/O ratio
Sw=0, Yo=0 Sw=100, Yo=100
Sw=100, Yo=0
Near C/O Ratio
Fig. C10: Crossplot of the Far C/O versus the Near
C/O. The plot end points give the relative amounts of
each element in the borehople and the formation
The smaller tools have a plot which has less
spread and the near and far detectors “see” al-
most the same thing, hence it can only distin-
guish the formation percentage. The borehole
fluid must be known in this case.
C . 2 . 4 Example
Fig. C11: Initial field map showing the original oil
water contact
(01/97) C-6
Figure C11 shows the original oil water con-
tact (OOWC) at X370 ft . The field has 12 oil
wells which have produced a total of 7 million
barrels and have estimated remaining reserves
of another 9 million barrels. Initial production
from these wells oscillated from 650 to 1360
BOPD and most had early water production
due to the active water drive in the reservoir.
The drastic increase in water production forced
the closure of all producers with the exception
of well A-1, which was still producing aroung
800 BOPD with no water. The water produc-
tion per well is shown in the structural map
(Figure 12). The large proportion of unrecov-
ered reserves from these 12 wells and the be-
lief that water production was caused by local-
ized coning tempted the operator to consider
re-entry horizontal wells to tap the remaining
reserves.
Fig. C12: New map after high water cut in the
production
The lack of accurate production data and sur-
veys of any type in the watered-out wells
prompted the use of the RST tool for surveys
designed to locate the oil water contact (OWC).
Well A was selected for the survey since it is
located downdip fromm the wells abandoned
due to excessive water production. The nearby
well A-3 was producing 75% water until it was
shut in June 1993.
 Schlumberger

Fig. C13: Monitoring log run in the field shows oil remaining at the top of the well

(01/97) C-7
Introduction to Production Logging

This new level of the oil-water contact con- Porosity %

firmed additional recoverable reserves which 50 0
easily justify a horizontal well re-entry pro- original water
gram. Two wells have now been selected, A-2 in place
and A-3, to tap part of these additional re- P
e
serves. r
f
o
Remaining
r
hydrocarbon
a
t
i
o
n
s
apparent displaced
hydrocarbon

Fig. C14: Final map with the correct new oil-water-

contact

This shows the new OWC after the surveys

and the trajectory of the two wells planned to Fig. C15: Depletion seen on the monitoring log could
tap the reserves. be simply an acid effect

C . 2 . 5 Problems in saturation Hydrochloric acid is used in the stimulation of

monitoring
A major problem in carbonates is the composi-
tion. In the cased hole this becomes more diffi-
cult as it affects the interpretation directly in the
figure of the matrix capture cross section. If
the composition is known from the open hole
logs the value is easily obtained. If there is no
open hole data available the best method is a
graphical solution. In the lower porosities this
may be difficult to handle.
carbonate formations. The residual products of
the reaction contain chlorine. The pulsed neu-
tron capture measurement reacts to this ele-
ment. In the normal case this is contained only
in the water, hence the tool “sees’ the differ-
ence between oil and water. The monitoring
log is run soon after the original open hole set.
The depletion seen on this diagram is false as it
corresponds to acidised zones seen by the tool
as water, i.e. depletion. This effect does not
dissipate until the zone actually produces wa-
ter.

(01/97) C-8
 Schlumberger

Difference Σ2 - Σ1 = Acid Effect Gamma Ray Open Hole

Capture Cross section Σ Gamma Ray Cased Hole
60 0
0 200

x100 original GR
x50

Scale effect
x100
x200

x150

x300

Fig. C16: Base log compared to first monitoring log
distinguishes the acid effect
The solution to the acid effect is to run a log
soon after completion. This log is compared
with the open hole saturation (Figure C16).
Any difference seen at this stage is due to the
acid effect. This figure is then used in future
jobs to eliminate the erroneous indication of
water influx.
Fig. C17: Gamma ray peaks on the log are due to ra-
dioactive scale build-up
Carbonate reservoirs often exhibit high and
random gamma ray regions in cased hole.
Compared to an open hole log these are com-
pletely anomalous (Figure C17). The problem
is caused by the build up of radioactive scale
on the insides of the casing. This scale is
formed from barium and strontium salts preci-
pated out of produced formation waters. The
amount of these substances is small and will
not cause a problem for any other evaluation.

(01/97) C-9
Introduction to Production Logging

C . 3 CEMENT MONITORING
The cement quality has to be evaluated before
the completion and any repairs made at that
time. It is also essential to properly evaluate
any measurement in cased hole.

There are two varieties of tool in current use:

• Cement Bond Log (CBL) - Variable Density

Log (VDL)
CBL measures the amplitude of signal
reflected from the casing wall. The
higher the amplitude the lower the
amount of cement.

VDL image of the recorded wavetrain. The

only log to see beyond the first casing
into the formation.

• Pulse Echo type tool

measures the acoustic impedance of
the casing-cement interface using
ultrasonics.

The latter tool is either segmented using indi-

vidual transducers or rotating covering the en-
tire casing

The cement bond log-variable density tool uses

a standard sonic tool to make the measurement.
(Refer to Figure 18.) This is the traditional tool
and serves well to identify the quality of the
cement job. The amplitude of the first arrival
reflects how much energy has been absorbed
by the casing. If the casing if free, no cement,
most of the signal is reflected. If the casing is
well cemented, little signal returns.
It has an added advantage in seeing the bond
from cement to formation, which the other
tools cannot, using the Variable Density Log
(VDL).
Fig. C18: Typical CBL-VDL log. The first track has
the gamma ray curve for correlation, plus a casing colar
locator. The second track has the cement bond log. In
this presentation good cement is shown by the shading.
The final track contains the VDL.
The VDL looks at the complete wavetrain
hence sees further into the casing formation
interface. The Variable Density trace is a valu-
able part of cement bond logging. As it looks
at the entire wave-train it contains information
not seen by any other measurement.

(01/97) C-10
 Schlumberger

first arrivals
later arrivals from
from casing cement
interface casing formation
interface

Fig. C19: The VDL is a method of displaying the full

wave.

The log is simply made by looking at half of

the wavetrain with black (or a colour) for the
peaks and white (or a colour) for the troughs
(Figure 19). The colour or even grey images
show a much clearer picture of how the wave
is being affected by the casing(s), cement and
formation. It is possible to identify, free pipe,
fast formations and the formation-cement bond
using this curve.

The pulse-echo tools use either an array of ul-

trasonic transducers or a single rotating trans-
ducer. Both methods produce a “map” of ce-
ment quality around the borehole (Figure 20).
Combining both types of tools provides the
best possible picture of the cement quality.
Fig. C20: This is part of the display of an ultrasonic
The display shows a typical log with the entire cement evaluation tool. It shows the entire casing in
casing shown in tracks one and three. Brown tracks one and three, with brown indicating cement and
indicates cement and blue water or no cement. blue water or no cement. The red colour is gas.
The red colour is gas. The second track shows
a composite picture of the cement quality giv-
ing a percentage bond at a given depth. Here C . 4 CORROSION MONITORING
yellow is cement and blue water. A range of different wireline logging tools is
available for monitoring the conditions of cas-
ings.

The main tools described in the previous sec-

tions can be categorized into three main
groups: (1) Ultrasonic Tools, (2) Electrical and
Electromagnetic Tools, (3) Mechanical Tools.
These tools use different physical principles,
and have different ranges of application and
different environmental limitations. Their az-
imuthal and vertical sampling rates, and their
resolution are also different. In most circum-
stances, no single tool can give quantitative
information about the corrosion situation. In
multiple strings, outer string conditions must
also be monitored.

(01/97) C-11
Introduction to Production Logging

It is therefore advisable to acquire data from
more than one corrosion tool, and combine the
information to accurately describe the casing
conditions. Time lapse measurements may also
be necessary to refine the interpretation and
detect the advance of corrosion. Location of
corrosion and tool combinations more likely to
detect and quantify it are schematically shown
in Figure C21.

CORROSION MONITORING TOOLS

Inner Outer
casing casing
Fig 9-1
inner casing outer casing
external corrosion pits & holes
METT + PAT
time lapse UCI
PAT

inner casing outer casing

internal corrosion metal loss
METT METT + PAT
PAT time lapse
TGS-MFC

tubing
internal PAT
corrosion inner casing TGS-MFC
pits & holes (internal)
TGS/MFC UCI
METT
single casing PAT
external corrosion CET
UCI

CORROSION single casing METT

PREDICTION PAT
internal corrosion
---- CPET ---- CET
TGS-MFC
UCI

Fig. C21: Corrosion occurrence and tool selection

Tool Definitions

METT* - Multi Frequency Electromagnetic Thickness Tool

PAT* - Pipe Analysis Tool
TGS* - Tubing Analysis Sonde
MFC - Multi Fingered Caliper
UCI* - Ultra-Sonic casing Inpection
CET* - Cement Evaluation Tool
CPET* - Cathodic Protection Evaluation Tool

(01/97) C-12
 Schlumberger

TGS /
METT MPAT PAT
CPET CET UCI
MFC
INTERNAL CORROSION
EXTERNAL CORROSION
SINGLE
PITS ON OUTER WALL
PITS ON INNER WALL

CASING CORROSION RATE TL TL TL

CATHODIC PROTECTION EVL.

TOTAL CORROSION TL
DUAL CORROSION RATE TL
Inner
CORROSION LOCATION: Casing
INNER OR OUTER STRING ? TL
CASING
AIR OR GAS
FILLED BOREHOLE
COND- CIRCUMFERENTIAL up to 7''
MFC
TGS
ITIONS COVERAGE
9 5/8 ''
GOOD FAIR TL = Time-Lapse
Fig. C22: Corrosion tool applications

Corrosion cannot be avoided. Proper evalua- • obtain as much information as possible

tion of corrosion is an aid in managing it, and
in reducing the cost associated with prevention
and repairs of corrosion damage.
For a successful evaluation of corrosion it is
recommended to:
• understand the geological environment, the
formation type, the fluids present around
the casing.
about the well completion.
• plan base logs early in the life of a well to
obtain an undisturbed time-zero picture.
• select the proper combination of corrosion
measurement tools, adapted to the well en-
vironment.
• use results from one well to refine the ac-
quisition program and the interpretation of
other wells in a field.

(01/97) C-13
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) C-14

D . DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION
LOGGING
D . 1 DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION
LOGGING
Production logging is the measurement of fluid
parameters on a zone-by-zone basis to yield
information about the type and movement of
fluids within and near the wellbore.
Production logging is intended primarily for
measuring the performance of producing
wells. It provides diagnostic information, pin-
points where fluids such as water, oil and gas
are entering a well and gives an indication
about the efficiency of the perforations.
Traditional production logging involves four
measurements - flow, density, temperature and
pressure. However, only the flow and density
readings are used in traditional quantitative
production logging analysis. Temperature and
pressure data have normally been used in a
qualitative way to compute in-situ flow prop-
erties and locate zones of entry of fluid into a
well.
D . 2 HISTORY OF PRODUCTION
LOGGING
Modern Production Logging is far from the
early beginnings of the technique, with highly
accurate sensors all on a single tool with si-
multaneous acquisition. However a lot of sen-
sors go back some considerable time. Tem-
perature surveys were first used in the mid
1930s. One use was the estimation of the top
of the cement behind the casing. The setting
process of the cement is an exothermic reac-
tion, it gives off heat. Hence the temperature
sensor “sees” where there is cement in the
well. (Note; this method is still used, in order
to work well the log has to be run less than 12
hours after the cement has been pumped.)
By the late 1950s and early 1960s the basic
sensor types had been developed as individual
tools. The surveys required a seperate pass to
obtain flowmeter, gradiomanometer, tempera-
ture and so on. 1970 saw the sensors packaged
together in one tool, meaning a more efficient
Schlumberger
single run in the hole. The individual meas-
urements still had to be run one at a time. By
the end of the decade advances in electronics
allowed everything to be recorded in a single
pass across the zone of interest. This had many
advantages not least the savings in time.
Improvements continued through the 1980s to
the present day with better sensors, especially
pressure gauges, and deployment methods.
The latest tool uses completely new technology
to measure a flow profile for the individual
fluid phases all around the borehole.
D . 3 USES OF PRODUCTION
LOGGING
Production Logging is put to many uses de-
pending on the reservoir type, well conditions
and the perceived problem. (See Figure D1).
Some of the major ones are:
1. Evaluate completion performance
- New wells
- Injection wells
- Re-completions
2. Monitor reservoir performance & variations
- Flow profile
- Well test
- Completion Efficiency
3. Diagnose well problems
- Water entry
- Gas entry
- Leaks and mechanical
problems
- Flow behind casing
4. Other
- Guidance for workover
- Information for enhanced oil
recovery projects
- Identify boundaries for field
development
(01/97) D-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Casing
Leak

Tubing
Leak
Packer
Leak

P1 oil

P2>>P1

Bad Cement

Unwanted
fluid flow
P2

Fig. D1: Common problems encountered in the producing wells.

Some are due to mechanical problems others to the reservoirs

(01/97) D-2
 Schlumberger

D . 4 PRODUCTION LOGGING
MEASUREMENTS

D . 4 . 1 Tools
Production logging tools consist of a number
of sensors which make the measurements in-
side the well (Figure D2). The main types are:

1. Flowrate (fluid velocity) measurement

- Spinner rotation

2. Fluid density measurement

- Differential pressure
- Gamma ray attentuation

3. Well bore temperature

- Variance in resistance

4. Well bore pressure

- Strain gauges
- Crystal gauges

A number of auxiliary measurements are used

to augment or assist in the analysis of the ma-
jor logs. They are:

- GR /CCL for correlation

- Caliper (mechanical)
Flowmeter
- Fluid sampling
- Noise Logs
- Tracer surveys
- Water Flow Log

Fig. D2: A typical production logging tool string con-

tains a number of sensors

(01/97) D-3
Introduction to Production Logging

D . 4 . 2 Applications of specific
measurements Up
Gradio Run
Each sensor has some specific uses, most are
utilised in combination, however, to give a to- Down
tal answer for the well/reservoir. Temperature Run
600

1. Flowmeter
- Determine producing zones
- Stimulation evaluation

Perforations
- Secondary recovery
- Flow potential evaluation (SIP,
AOF)
Spinners
2. Temperature
- Location of production or injection
700
zones
- Monitor frac performance
- Gas entry
- Fluid movement behind pipe
- Fluid conversions

3. Fluid Density
- Determine volumetric flow in two
phase flow
- Show entry points in three phase
flow
4. Pressure
- Well test analysis (kh, skin)
- Reservoir extent, boundaries
- Fluid conversions
- AOF, SIP determination
800
Fig. D3: A typical production log.
D . 5 PRODUCTION LOGGING
ENVIRONMENT
The production logging environment is very
different from that of open hole logging.
Firstly in place there is normally a completion,
which can take many forms. The reservoir
zone may be open hole, perforated casing or
gravel pack. There may be single or multiple
zones and single or multiple tubings.

The log is normally run in dynamic conditions,

the well is flowing mixtures of liquids and
gases.

- Oil, water, polymers.

- Methane +, N2, CO2, H2S, He.

(Quite often there are solids present - forma-

tion, frac propant, paraffin, scale, diverter
balls, etc.)

Hence care and attention has to be taken in the

logging program so that the maximum infor-
mation is obtained to answer the problem.

(01/97) D-4

D . 6 LOGGING AND INTERPRETA-
TION PROCEDURES
The procedure to ensure a successful produc-
tion log is simple and can be broken down into
three steps,
- programming the job,
- running the job and
- interpreting the data.
D . 6 . 1 Programming the job
The first step starts with defining the problem:
e.g. Oil production is falling, water cut
is increasing.
Then list and quantify symptoms and well
conditions, for example:
• Water Cut has increased from 2% to
15% in six months
• Total production has fallen from 800 to
500 B/D
• GOR - 350 cu ft/bbl
• Tubing head pressure - 1200 psia
• Oil gravity - 30 oAPI
• Gas gravity - 0.7
Then define sensors needed and technique nec-
essary to gather required data. (Mechanical
configuration of the well must be considered.)
This may include:
• Fluid velocity, density, pressure, and
temperature need to be measured
• Data is to be taken vs depth and vs time
with the well flowing and static
• 5 1/2-in. casing set to 9550 ft. 0˚ devia-
tion
• 2 7/8-in. tubing set to 9350 ft.
• Perforations - 9400-9450 / 9460-9475
• Fill (TD ?)
Schlumberger
Then determine if there is a reasonable possi-
bility of solving the problem with available
sensors. For instance:
• The well is producing above the bubble
point (down hole) and downhole water
production is greater than 10% of the to-
tal downhole flow.
D . 6 . 2 Running the job
The second step starts with gathering all the
required data.
• Calibrate the tools
• Maintain depth control
• Record data optically and magnetically
D . 6 . 3 Interpreting the data
Choose a Single or Biphasic interpretation
model. Select Computer interpretation or
manual. In both cases the general equations are
the same.
Qh = Yh Qt - Yh (1 - Yh) Vs A
Ql = Qt - Qh
Qt - Total flowrate
Qh - Heavy phase flowrate
Ql - Light phase flowrate
Yh - Heavy phase holdup (decimal percent
by volume)
Vs - Velocity of the light phase relative to
the heavy phase
A - Cross-sectional area
Finally produce the answer (see Figure D4).
(01/97) D-5
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. D4: The result of a production log interpretation

(01/97) D-6
 Schlumberger

D . 7 PRODUCTION LOGGING Gamma ray plus collar log will be on depth

OPERATIONS with the openhole logs.
Production logging sensors are available in
many configurations depending on their in-
tended use. Casing Collar
Locator

Communication between the operating com-

Gamma Ray
pany and the service company is very impor-
tant for successful production logging. In any
form of well servicing, good communications
are wise; but, in production logging, good
dialogue is critical to solving production prob-
lems. It is also essential for acquiring good
base data to more accurately monitor well per-
formance and to solve future production prob-
lems.

Although there are many types of sensors, this

does not necessarily imply that several trips
into the well will be needed to solve a particu-
lar problem. Acquisition of the various forms
of data can often be accomplished with one trip
into the well by multiplexing the signals from
the combined tool string. In addition to rig
time savings and convenience, the reduced
number of trips into the hole can produce less
disturbance of the production profile as a result
of fewer pressure releases with the surface Flowmeter
pressure control equipment; this helps assure
that all the sensors are logging the flow condi-
tions with simultaneous measurements.

D.7.1 Depth Control

Casing Collar Locator Section

Figure D5 shows a combination tool. The tool
has several production logging sensors and a
casing collar locator section. As with most
tools run in casing, it is very important that
casing collars be recorded. Collars are the
only positive depth control link between the
production logging sensors and the formation
strata.
Gamma Ray Log
The other half of depth control is a gamma ray
log run in casing simultaneously with a casing
collar log. The gamma ray in casing is depth
matched to the openhole logs; therefore, the
casing collars that were recorded simultane-
ously will be on depth, or correctly depth
matched, relative to the openhole logs. Any
subsequent services run in casing with a casing
collar locator that is depth-matched to the
Fig. D5: Standard tool string showing the casing collar
locator and gamma ray
This procedure is necessary for the depth
measurement accuracy required for perforat-
ing, plugs, packers, etc. If cement evaluation
is run, a gamma ray and collar locator are usu-
ally combined with the cement evaluation tool,
typically a sonic device, to acquire depth con-
trol data simultaneously with cement informa-
tion. These logs are not absolutely essential if
the production logging tool string contains a
gamma ray section; however, the gamma ray -
collar log is usually run for perforating accu-
racy far in advance of the decision to run pro-
duction logging tools that may contain a
gamma ray.

(01/97) D-7
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) D-8
 Schlumberger

E . FLOW VELOCITY: SPINNER TOOLS

E . 1 INTRODUCTION
E . 1 . 1 Basic Flowmeter Uses
• Determine producing zones
• Stimulation evaluation
• Secondary recovery
• Flow potential evaluation (SIP, AOF)
E . 2 . 1 General Tool description
The flowmeter is used for flowrate evaluation
and recording production or injection profiles.
It uses a spinner, centrally located in the cas-
ing.
Electrical
Connection

E . 1 . 2 Flow Measurement
Downhole flow velocity surveys are usually
made with spinner devices. However there are
a number of other methods of measuring the
flowrate: Magnet

• Tracer surveys Pickup Coil

• Noise Logs Spinner
• Water Flow Log

These methods will be dealt with in the Section

on Other Sensors. Under certain conditions
flow metering can also be accomplished using
data from fluid density and temperature de-
vices. These surveys are much less common.

E . 2 SPINNER TOOLS
Spinner devices utilize a spinner or impeller,
which is essentially a fan blade turned by the
flowing fluid. This is the same principle that
causes an unplugged window fan to turn in a
breeze and allows a car engine to move a car
with an automatic transmission although there
is no direct coupling between the engine and V T
the wheels.

In the flowmeter application, the spinner

revolutions generate electrical currents or
pulses that are measured by the surface equip-
ment and converted into spinner revolutions
per second (rps). Knowledge of a particular
spinner performance allows the conversion of
the rps into fluid flow velocity.
t
Fig. E1: The general principle of a spinner tool. Fluid
moves past the spinner causing it to rotate.
The rate of rotation of the spinner, rps, is a
function of the velocity, vf, of the incident
fluid.
rps = f(vf)

(01/97) E-1
Introduction to Production Logging

A permanent magnet is attached to the shaft of

the spinner which is mounted between hydrau-
lic bearings (refer to Figure E1). The rotation
of the spinner induces an a.c. signal in a
pickup coil.

The output sinusoidal voltage, V, and fre-

quency, ω, are proportional to the rate at which
the spinner rotates.

V α rps, ω α rps
˚
Electronics detect and count the zero crossings
of the sinusoid.

E . 2 . 2 Types of Spinner Devices

Spinner devices are of the following three ba-
sic types:
• High Flowrate Tools
• Low to Intermediate Flowrate Tools
• Low Flowrate Tools

E.2.3 Continuous Flowmeter

High Flowrate Tools or Continuous Flowme-
ters (Figure E2) descend through tubing and
perform their function below tubing without
changing their shape for the measurements.

This configuration can result in less accuracy

due to the small diameter; however, their sim-
pler operation can produce better reliability.

The small diameter may allow eccentering in

casing; this can cause erroneous flow sampling Fig. E2: Continuous Flowmeter Tool*.
in deviated holes where gravity segregation of
fluids occurs.

(01/97) E-2
 Schlumberger

Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000

Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
Makeup Length (in.) 24.0

Type (CFS*) H/N J/P K/Q

Tool OD (in.) 1 11/16" 2 1/8" 2 7/8"

Weight (lbs) 7.0 7.5 8.0
Spinner OD (mm) 31 42 61
Spinner Pitch(mm)
2 blades 41.2 41.2 41.2
4 blades 123.6 123.6 123.6
Slope (rps/100ft/min)
2 blades 11.1 11.9 11.2
4 blades 4.0 4.5 4.6
Threshold (ft/min)
2 blades 10.3 10.9 2.7
4 blades 4.7 3.5 1.0
Resolution (rps) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Range (rps) <200 <200 <200
Accuracy (%) 10 10 10
Table E1: Continuous Flowmeter Tool Types.

E . 2 . 4 Low to Intermediate Flowrate

Tools
Low to Intermediate Flowrate Tools or Full-
bore Flowmeters (Figure E3) descend through
tubing, then they expand their spinner diameter
by unfolding their blades to occupy most of the
inner casing diameter.
Fig. E3: Fullbore Flowmeter Tool*.
Strong centralizers protect the spinner blades
from striking the casing wall. These fullbore
flowmeters are more complex mechanically Maximum Pressure (psi) 20000
than the other continuous devices, but they of- Maximum Temperature (°F) 392
fer less probability of erroneous flow sampling Weight (lbs) 11
from eccentering. They give far better results Makeup Length (in.) 35.1
in low flowrates than the other types of con-
tinuous tools.

They also cause less pressure drop across the

tool than the petal or basket type devices,
which facilitates less alteration of the natural
fluid flow path in the well while logging. Be-
ing a continuous device, these tools supply
more complete readings in less logging time
than the station-type instruments.

(01/97) E-3
Introduction to Production Logging

FBS–C* more logging time and also creates the risk of

The high resolution kit increases the number of omitting valuable data from the intervals that
magnets from the standard 2 to 6. This effec- are not logged or sampled. Diverter flowme-
tively multiples the response by a factor of 3. ters were preceded by the packer flowmeters
that used wellbore fluids to inflate a bag
FBDS-A* around the tool; though quite complex and no
- Full bore spinner giving sense of rotation longer generally available, the packer flowme-
- Active sensor and electronics upper section. ter was an excellent step toward low volume
logging.
- Can be adapted from existing FullBore
Spinner.
Uses same cage and blades as FBS.
- Output signal independent of rotation speed:
sensitive at very low rotation speeds.
- Better resolution than existing FBS-C
- 20,000 psi / 175 degC / 1-11/16" diameter.

Casing Size (in.) 1 5 6 5

4 / 6 / 9 /
2 8 8
Cage OD (in.) 4 5 6 8
Spinner OD (in.) 2.75 3.5 5.0 7.0
Spinner Pitch 120 73 35
(mm)
Slope 5.2 4.3 7.2 5.7
(rps/100ft/min)
Threshold 2.5 0.8 3.24 9.0
(ft/min)
Range (RPS) <100
<100
Table E2: Fullbore Flowmeter Tool Types.

E . 2 . 5 Low Flowrate Tools or

Diverter Flowmeters
Low Flowrate Tools or Diverter Flowmeters
descend through tubing, they then expand their Fig. E4: Petal Basket Flowmeter Tool
effective diameter below tubing to divert the
flow through an orifice containing a small di- • Petal Basket Flowmeter Sonde (PBFS–
ameter spinner (Figure E4). A/B/C*)
These devices have good fluid sampling char-
acteristics because the majority of the fluids – Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
moving in the casing must go through the – Maximum Temperature (°F) 300
spinner section; however, they may also create – The tool must be stationary before opening
pressure drops or changes that can cause fluid the basket to take a reading.
flow outside the casing if zone isolation does – The basket may be opened and closed under
not exist due to poor cement or vertical frac- surface control.
turing.

These devices usually have an umbrella con-

figuration that diverts the fluid into the orifice;
this generally results in a non-continuous or
station-type of data collection. This requires

(01/97) E-4
 Schlumberger

Types A B C • Inflatable Diverter Tool (IDT–A*)

Weight (lbs) 30 30 30
Makeup Length 86 74 74 Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
(in.) Maximum Temperature (°F) 300
OD (in.) 1.69 2.13 2.13 Weight (lbs) 30
Minimum Flow 50 60 70 Makeup Length (in.) 86.0
(bbl/d) Minimum Flow (bbl/d) 50
Maximum Flow 1500 2770 4500 Maximum Flow (bbl/d) 1500
(bbl/d)
Table E3: Petal Basket Flowmeter Types. • Standard CFS spinner

• Petal Basket Flowmeter Response

Mode 1
At low rates, the heavy phase segregates in the
tool/casing annulus. Pressure unbalance causes
leaking through the petals.
Mode 2
At intermediate rates the petals start to leak
upwards, the magnitude depending on the total
rate.
Mode 3
At high rates, the upwards leakage stabilizes at
a constant value, independent of the total flow
rate. The spinner rotation becomes a linear
function of the total flow rate.
Mode 4
Above a certain rate, the petals become de-
formed and the response becomes non-linear.
se
on
sp
Re

Mode 4
ak
Le
ro
Ze
3
e
od
M
2
e
od
M

Fig. E6: Inflatable Diverter Flowmeter tool. This de-

1
de vice uses the standard continuous flowmeter spinner.
Mo

– The basket is controlled from surface.

– The inflatable ring, controlled from surface,
minimizes the leaking past the petals.
Fig. E5: Petal Basket flowmeter response.

(01/97) E-5
Introduction to Production Logging

• Packer Fluid Analyser Tool (SPFT–A*) revolutions per second, such that the percent-
age flow contribution of each zone can be read
Max Pressure (psi) 15000
directly from the plot (assuming fluid viscosity
and density are consistent throughout the inter-
Max Temp (°F) 350
val).
Max Flow (bbl/d)
Basket Open 2000 For continuous flowmeters, where revolu-
Basket Closed 10000 tions per second (rps) are linear with flow rate,
Max Deviation (°) 60 the technique consists of plotting rps on the
Single phase (bbl/d) > 100 log. For petal-basket flowmeters, where revo-
Q in two phases (bbl/d) > 30 lutions per second (rps) are not linear with
o
flow rate, the technique consists of plotting
Q in two phases (bbl/d) > 400 flowrate from an appropriate chart on the log.
w
Accuracy (%) 10

Basket Size Small Large

Min Casing (ins) 1 7
4 /
2
Max Casing (ins) 7 5
9 /
8
Max Flow (bbl/d) 1800 1000

E . 2 . 6 Horizontal Flowmeters
Horizontal Flow (across the wellbore) is
measured by a fourth spinner flowmeter type.
These devices, though not common, can help
determine the presence or absence of produc-
tion from individual perforations, when perfo-
ration spacing is sufficient. These tools do not
generally offer flow profiling over long inter-
vals due to the plane of the spinner operation.

It is designed to operate when struck by a hori-

zontal force coming out of a perforation, and it
will not operate in a vertical flow condition or
in an openhole condition.
E.3 CALIBRATION AND INTER-
PRETATION OF SINGLE-
PHASE FLOW USING SPINNER
DATA
E . 3 . 1 Percentage Contribution of
Each Zone
Spinner revolution rate varies with fluid
flowrate. This relationship is generally linear
for continuous flowmeters, including fullbore
flowmeters, and it is generally non-linear for
petal-basket flowmeters; therefore, in single-
phase flow (oil only, gas only, or water only),
the flow profiling interpretation technique is
essentially the plotting of spinner data, in
Fig. E7: Petal Basket chart converting spinner output
to flowrate.
E . 3 . 2 Absolute Flow Rates
Spinner rate is a function of fluid viscosity and
density, in addition to velocity; therefore, ad-
ditional care must be taken if absolute
flowrates, rather than percentage contributions,
are desired from the flowmeter data, or if per-
centage contributions are desired in an interval
with varying viscosity or density. This is true
even in single-phase flow. Under these condi-
tions, the technique used for determining ab-
solute flowrates is the use of downhole cali-
brations.
(Note: When interpreting station-type data, and
during the data acquisition, it is wise to never
assume that flow contribution is linearly spread

(01/97) E-6
 Schlumberger

across a perforated interval; it is quite common An additional effect of friction on the spinner
to find the majority of fluids being contributed start up alters the curve at the beginning. This
by a small percentage of the perforations, pos- is the “Threshold” of the tool (figure E10).
sibly one or two holes in a zone with dozens of
perforations.)
Spinner
rps
E . 3 . 3 Downhole Calibrations
The ideal response of the spinner is a flowing
well would give a straight line plot through the increasing
origin (Figure E8). mechanical viscosity
effects

Spinner
Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity
rps UP
DOWN

increasing
viscosity

Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity

DOWN UP
Fig. E10: Mechanical effects are seen at very low
flowrates. It is effectively the flow needed to start the
spinner.
As the spinner is reading the fluid moving past
it, the fluid velocity can be replaced by the tool
velocity in the opposite direction to give the
final calibration plot.
Fig. E8: The ideal response of the spinner with fluid
velocity.
Spinner
rps
All fluids in the well are viscous to some de-
gree. The effect of this is to “shift” the curves
away from the ideal line (Figure E9). The increasing
slope of the line remains the same as this is mechanical viscosity
only dependent on the spinner geometry. effects

Tool Velocity Tool Velocity

Spinner UP DOWN
rps
increasing
viscosity
increasing
viscosity

Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity Fig. E11: This is the final plot with tool velocity sub-
DOWN UP stituted for fluid velocity.
The down passes in producing wells are posi-
increasing tive revolutions per second (rps). The up
viscosity passes are negative, if logged faster than fluid
flow, and positive, if logged slower than fluid
flow. These plots (Figures E10, and E11) are
for a stationary fluid and a moving tool, hence
Fig. E9: The effect of viscosity is to change the spin- represent zero flow. In a flowing well the line
ner response away from the ideal line. will be shifted to the left on the plot as the ve-

(01/97) E-7
Introduction to Production Logging

locity seen by the tool is now a combination of E . 3 . 4 Practical Downhole Calibra-

the tool velocity plus the fluid velocity, V f. tions
(Figure E12). In practice when performing downhole cali-
brations for absolute flowrates, a plot is con-
Spinner
structed using several logging passes. The
rps passes should be both up and down at various
cable speeds. The cable speed in feet per min-
Vf
ute is plotted on the x-axis for the various
Midpoint passes.
low
Tool Velocity roF
Ze If a sump (region of no flow below all perfo-
UP
rations) exists which can be logged, the cali-
Vf Tool Velocity
DOWN
bration data will establish the threshold value.
Vf (The assumption here is that the sump must
ow
Fl have the same fluid viscosity /density for the
o
Zer calibration to be valid.)

If the calibration passes are logged such that

Fig. E12: Flowing fluids add their velocity to that of
the tool changing the flow away from the zero calibra-
tion line.
Fluid moving in pipe flows faster in the center
of the pipe than it does near the casing wall.
Centralized flowmeters measure the flow in the
center of the pipe. As a result, the spinner
reading will be higher than the average fluid
velocity in the casing. A correction factor has
to be introduced to take this effect into account.
the down passes yield positive spinner veloci-
ties, and the up passes yield negative spinner
velocities (the preferred technique), then the
spinner threshold value is established by
translating the up/down graphs to position the
plot origin halfway between the x-axes inter-
sections of the down calibration line and the up
calibration line.

Vaverage = C ∗ Vf

The constant C, has been computed by ex-

periments in flow loops. A typical value is
0.83. (See Appendix 1 for more details).
Once the fluid velocity is found the flowrate,
q, (downhole) can be computed.

q = C ∗ Vf ∗ A

where,
C = velocity profile correction factor,
commonly 0.83.Better, use chart.
A = Area of flow. Use chart1 to convert
ft/min to flowrate for given casing.
Vf = Fluid velocity from zone calibration line. Fig. E13: Spinner example.

Typically, a plot is constructed from data just

above a set of perforations, where the flow
will be stable. In the data shown in Figure
1
Charts are available for all common casing sizes. E13, these would be the points labelled A, B,

(01/97) E-8
 Schlumberger

C and D. A straightline function will exist
with a vertical offset from the origin propor-
tional to the flowrate at the point where the data
were taken.
˚
In this example the casing was 7", 29 lbs/ft
and the velocity for 1000 bbl/day is 18.7
ft/min, hence the flowrates are:
QA = 320x(1000/18.7)x0.83 =14203 bbl/day
QB =215x(1000/18.7)x0.83 = 9543 bbl/day
QC = 80X(1000/18.7)x0.83 = 3551 bbl/day

Note: In the data set above there were some

“spin reversals”. This occurs when the velocity
of the tool is slower than the velocity of the
fluid.

Spinner, rps

Fig. E14: Crossplot from the spinners above. tool moving

slower than
The plot then becomes a calibration chart. The the fluid
fluid velocity can be read off the x-axis as the (+ rps)
difference between the threshold and the read-
ing.
Spinner
In this example (Figure E14) the threshold is Reversed
0, hence the fluid velocity can be directly read
off the charts.

Taking the reading at point C as an example,

the difference between the line for this point tool moving
and the zero flow line (D) is 80 ft/min. This is faster than
easily found by starting where line C crosses the fluid
the y-axis and going across until line D is (- rps)
reached and then reading down to the x-axis.

In a similar manner the values for B and A are

found to be 215 ft/min and 320 ft/min respec-
tively.

To translate this fluid velocity into the flowrate
the relationship between fluid flow volumes
and fluid velocity for a specific casing inside
diameter has to be determined. This is found
by consulting the appropriate chart (see chart at
end of this section).
Fig. E15: Spinner reversals.
E . 3 . 5 Two-Pass Technique
For percentage contribution calculations in
varying viscosity conditions, whether from
multiphase flow or single-phase flow with

(01/97) E-9
Introduction to Production Logging
multiple viscosities, a special technique called
the two-pass technique can be applied (Figure
E16). This technique consists of running a
continuous flowmeter pass against the flow
direction and a flowmeter pass with the flow
direction, but faster than the maximum fluid
flowrate. The two passes are then normalized
and shifted to overlay at the bottom of the well,
where no fluid flow occurs.
The amount of separation between the two
passes, after shifting, measured in log divi-
sions is linearly proportional to fluid velocity.
One hundred percent flow is at the point of
maximum deflection, which is usually above
all perforations on producing and injection
wells. Thief zones complicate the interpreta-
tion somewhat, but the principle remains the
same.
Fig. E16: Two passes of spinner, up and down are
overlain to eliminate the effects of changing viscosity.
A distinct advantage of this technique is that it
cancels the effect of viscosity changes. These
changes are essentially shifts in rps readings of
the same amount and direction on both passes.
Thus, the separation remains independent of
viscosity effects.
(01/97) E-10
If the "centerline" is defined as a line halfway
between the two curves, a centerline shift to
the right is a viscosity decrease; a centerline
shift to the left is a viscosity increase. If abso-
lute fluid velocity is desired from the two-pass
technique, and if multiple calibration passes
have been run, it can be computed from the
following equation:
 ∆rps 
Vf = 0.83 
 Bu + Bd 
Where:
Bu is the up calibration line slope in rps per
foot per minute.
Bd is the down calibration line slope in rps per
foot per minute.
Bu and Bd can, and often will, be slightly dif-
ferent numerically.
Although the foregoing comments focus on
fluid viscosity changes, the effects / assump-
tions regarding fluid density changes are simi-
lar.
E . 4 SLIP VELOCITY
The rise rate of fluids of different densities
makes interpreting data acquired in multiphase
flow more complex. This difference in rise
rate is called slip velocity. Slip velocity causes
a need for additional data to profile each phase.
This is accomplished by adding fluid density
information from a fluid density survey and by
using additional charts for the velocity of each
phase based on the composite fluid density,
composite fluid velocity, and slip velocity.
Multiphase interpretation techniques will be
discussed in the section on Fluid Density
Tools.
 Schlumberger

E . 5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS E . 7 EXAMPLES

When working with flowmeter data, particu-
larly data being used for the downhole calibra-
tion chart or the two-pass technique, great care
must be exercised to compensate the interpre-
tation when there is:
• Fill-up to the lowest perforation, which
prevents normalization in the sump
Example 1
Using the following flowmeter log determine
the percentaqge flow rate for each producing
level. Assume constant speed and single phase
flow.

• Flow below the lowest perforation, i.e., a

leaking plug, etc.

• Perforations above the bottom of the tubing

tail pipe

• Spinner reversal on the up passes being

used in the calibration chart for a produc-
ing well or down passes for an injection
well. (This is a problem only if an inter-
pretation is attempted in an interval where a
spinner reversal has occurred - and is not
included in the calibration chart data.)

• Production of fluids of varying viscosity

and/or density.

E . 6 REQUIREMENTS
It is impossible to analyze or calibrate flow-
meter spinner data unless information on the
well, fluids and conditions is complete. Hence
the requirements are:

• All Relevant Data

• Cement Bond Logs Example E1: Spinner log.
• Surface Rates
• PVT
• Well History
• Coherent Explanation
• Experience

Typical Downhole Fluid Properties:

Density/gm/cc Viscosity/cp

OIL 0.6 - 1.0 0.2 - 10

WATER ~1.0 0.2 - 1
GAS 0.05 - 0.2 0.01 - 0.07

(01/97) E-11
Introduction to Production Logging

Example 2
Construct a flowmeter calibration curve from pass zone A, rps zone B, rps cable speed
the following data in zones A and B of the dia- 1 +32 +5 50(down)
gram. 3 +35 +11 100(down)
5 +39 +13 120(down)
7 +41 +15 140(down)
2 +19 - 50 (up)
4 +16 - 80 (up)
6 +15 - 100 (up)

Determine the flowrate in bpd if the spinner is

recording 15rps. Tool speed is 67 ft/min. As-
sume a fluid velocity of 34.4 ft/min for
1000bpd.

Example 3
1) Construct the flowmeter calibration plot
from the following data. Note as there is no
zero flow line this will have to be created.

A pass
1
rps
+8
cable speed
50 (down)
3 +10 100 (down)
5 +12 150 (down)
2 +2 50 (up)
4 -2 180 (up)
6 -4 220 (up)
7 -6 250 (up)

2) Determine the flowrate above all the perfo-

rations if a fluid velocity of 29.9 ft/min is
equivalent to 1000 bpd.

3) If a single pass was logged down at 60

fr/min between the perforations and produced a
spinner reading of +6rps, what is the flowrate
B at that point.

4) At another point in the well three spinner

passes gave the following:

pass rps cable speed

1 +4 40 (down)
3 +7 100 (down)
Example E2: Well Diagram. 5 +9 140 (down)

Determine the production at this point.

(01/97) E-12
 Schlumberger

Example 4
This well is producting gas and liquid at surface.

Given the spinners recorded in the well determine the thief zones and the production zones in this
well.

Example E4a: Flowing Spinners.

(01/97) E-13
Introduction to Production Logging

Example E4b: Shut-in Spinners.

(01/97) E-14
 Schlumberger

Appendix 1: Flow Regimes Appendix 2: Maxis* Calibration

Classification Theory
˚
Threshold Intercept Ratio [TIRA]

TIRA =NTHR/(NTHR – PTHR)

:normally > 0.5

Total Fluid Velocity [VT]

VT = – VPCF•((1 – TIRA)•(NINT – NTHR)

+ TIRA•(PINT – PTHR))

Fig. E17: Calibration factor versus Reynolds number.

A curve-fit for this plot yields the following:

Define:
m = log10(NRe)

0.000 < m < 3.200 C = 0.5

3.200 < m < 3.348 C=1.0135m– 2.7432
3.348 < m < 3.554 C=0.4440m– 0.8360
3.554 < m < 3.850 C=0.1405m+0.2390
3.850 < m < ∞ C=0.0400m+0.6260

In most cases C = 0.83 will give satisfactory NTHR - Negative threshold

results (± 5%) PTHR - Positive threshold
NINT - Negative intercept
Example PINT - Positive intercept
VPCF - Velocity correction factor
ρ = 0.7 g/cm3
m = 0.5 cp
D = 6.184 in. (7", 29 lbs/ft Liner)

q(bbl/day) v (ft/s) N C
Re

100 0.031 2088 0.6214

200 0.062 4177 0.7477
500 0.156 10441 0.7868
1000 0.312 20883 0.7988
1500 0.467 31324 0.8058
2000 0.623 41766 0.8108
5000 1.558 104414 0.8268
10000 3.116 208828 0.8388
15000 4.673 313241 0.8458
20000 6.231 417655 0.8508

(01/97) E-15
Introduction to Production Logging

E . 8 ANSWERS Example 3
1) The response curve is drawn both for the
Example 1 positive and negative quadrants, parallel to line
1) compute the spinner deflection for the through the data points. It should go through a
maximum flow (top of the log) compared to threshold. The threshold is computed by taking
the zero flow zone at the bottom. the mid point between the positive and negative
This gives 14 rps. lines and moving this to the origin.
2) Find the additional spinner deflection in 2) The calibration line crosses the y-axis at
each of the other intervals, A, B, C. 5rps, this corresponds to 120 ft/min on the re-
These are: sponse curve.
The flowrate is thus
A = 3.6RPS
= (120/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 3331 bpd.
B = 2.1RPS
C = 8.3rps 3) 6 ft/min corresponds to 140 ft/min using the
response curve. At a tool speed of 60 ft/min
3) Determine the percentage contribution of this gives the average fluid velocity
each zone.
= (140-60)*0.83 = 66.4 ft/min
A = 3.6/14 = 25.7%
The flow rate is then
B = 2.1/14 = 15.0%
C = 8.3/14 = 59.3% = (66.4/29.9)*1000= 2221bpd

4) the calibration line for this pass crosses the

Example 2
The zero flow line should cross the x axis at a
threshold value of 6 ft/min.
The intersection of 15 rps with the response
curve gives a flow velocity of 140 ft/min.
Therefore the peak fluid velocity
= 140 - 67 ft/min = 73 ft/min
y-axis at 2 rps. This corresponds to 60 ft/min
using the response line. Hence the flowrate is
= (60/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 1666 bpd.
Example 4
The spinners are overlaying below 10408 indi-
cating zero flow here.

Correcting for the shape of the flow to obtain The down spinners decrease around 10350’
the average velocity before increasing again.

Average velocity = 73 * 0.83 ft/min The conclusion is that the top of the second set
= 60.6 ft/min of perforations or the bottom of the third set is
taking fluid produced from the lower interval.
The flowrate in bpd = (60.6/34.4)*1000 The increase at the top of the latter zone is due
= 1762 bpd. to production here.

Note: There are times when the zero flow The shut-in pass below shows the picture
curve cannot be logged due to debris in the clearly. Production from the lower perforation
well, not enough sump or a different viscosity is flowing into the second set of perforations.
fluid below the perforations. In this case the
line has to be created using the data from the
full flow and the threshold of the device. It is
drawn parallel to the full flow and goes
through the threshold.

(01/97) E-16
 Schlumberger

Fig. E18: Average Fluid Velocity vs. casing Size.

(01/97) E-17
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) E-18
 Schlumberger

F . FLUID DENSITY MEASUREMENTS

F . 1 FLUID DENSITY MEASURE- electronic cartridge

MENTS
The main purposes for making a density meas-
urement are; transducer

• Determine volumetric flow in two phase

flow
• Show entry points in three phase flow.
upper sensing bellows

There are two major types of fluid density

tools: slotted housing
spacing
2 feet
• Gradiomanometer* fluid density tool floating connecting tube

• Nuclear fluid density tool (gamma ray ab-

sorption).
lower sensing bellows

A third tool type works on a principle other

than fluid density, it is the capacitance or wa-
tercut tool.
expansion bellows
F . 2 THE GRADIOMANOMETER
FLUID DENSITY TOOL
F.2.1 Basic Theory
The gradiomanometer tool uses the pressure
differential between two pressure sensors
spaced a known distance apart; e.g., two feet;
to infer the density of the fluid between the Fig. F1: Typical gradiomanometer device.
sensors.
The example tool shown in Figure F1 uses a
There are several types of pressure sensors that bellows system. The bellows will compress
can be used in the gradiomanometer applica- with pressure. The lower set of bellows will
tion; these are discussed in some detail in the be slightly more compressed than the upper
Pressure Tool section. set. The mechanical linkage between the bel-
lows is constructed such that a rod moves in
proportion to the difference in compression
between the two sets of bellows.

A magnetic plunger on the end of the rod gen-

erates a signal in the transducer coil propor-
tional to the rod movement. This allows the
coil output to be calibrated in terms of fluid
density.

(01/97) F-1
Introduction to Production Logging

F . 2 . 2 Theory of measurement where,

P1, P2, PA and PB are described in Figure F2

and
g = acceleration of gravity
ρso = density of silicone oil at bottom hole
conditions

The calibration is only valid in undeviated

holes as the pressure differential between the
bellows is proportional to the vertical separa-
tion.

F . 2 . 3 Deviated Wells
When a well is deviated, the density from the
Gradiomanometer should be corrected as fol-
lows (Figures F3 & F4).

Fig. F2: Gradiomanometer scematic.

Assuming no deviation:

P2 = PB = PA + (PB – PA)
PB – PA = ρgh
P2 = PA + ρgh
P1 = PA + (P1 – PA)
P1 – PA = ρsogh
Fig. F3: Gradiomanometer in a deviated well.
P1 = PA + ρso gh

thus, P2 = PA + ρgh•cosθ
P1 = PA + ρsogh•cosθ
P2 – P1 = PA + ρgh – [PA + ρsogh]
P2 − P1
= ρ cos θ − ρso cos θ
gh
and,
P −P
ρ = 2 1 + ρso
P −P gh cos θ
ρ = 2 1 + ρso
gh

(01/97) F-2
 Schlumberger

fM = Moody friction factor1

ρ = Fluid Density (g/cm3)
v = Fluid Velocity (ft/s)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter (in.)

This correction is not made during data acqui-

sition but may be estimated from charts (Figure
F5) or using PL quicklook.

The chart contains the estimated friction cor-

rections for most ranges requiring corrections.
To use the chart, enter the downhole flowrate
Fig. F4: Correction chart for the gradiomanometer in at the depth where the gradio reading was
deviated holes. taken on the y-axis and intersect the proper
casing line drawn diagonally across the chart.
F . 3 OTHER EFFECTS 10 5

To make optimum use of the Gradiomanometer "

5/8
measurements, corrections to the recorded data 9
"
are sometimes necessary. The gradioma- 8
5/8
8
"
5/
nometer reading is not exclusively a function 6
Downhole flow rate

"
5/8
of fluid density (ρf). The true relationship is: 7

ρgradio = ρf (1 + K + F),
7"

5"
"
Where 5
1/2
4
1/2
"

10 4
K is a kinetic term and
F is a friction term.

In cases where the flow is less than 2,000 B/D

in casing, the friction term is negligible; there-
fore, ρgradio closely approximates ρf.
F . 3 . 1 Friction Term
Besides deviation effects, friction due to tool
movement in a moving fluid has an effect on
the pressure readings across the two ports for 10 3

the ∆p transducer. This friction term is associ- 1.01 1.02 1.05 1.10
ρgradio / ρ
1.20 1.50 2.0

ated with very high fluid velocities, which oc-

cur with high flowrates and small casing or Fig. F5: Gradiomanometer friction effect correction
tubing sizes. chart.

This effect is defined with the following equa- 1

The dimensionless Moody friction factor, fM , may be
tion: predicted satisfactorily from the iterative Colebrook equa-
tion:
(dP/dL)Friction=0.8085 fMρv2/D 1/√fM = 2log(D/e) + 1.14 – 2log(1 + 9.34(D/e)/(NRe√fM))

dP = Pressure Drop (psi) where,

e = Absolute Roughness (distance between
dL = Length (ft) peaks and valleys)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
e/D = Relative Roughness (dimensionless)
NRe = Reynolds Number
= 7.742x103Dvr/m
e/D may be obtained from charts.

(01/97) F-3
Introduction to Production Logging
The ρgradio/ρ ratio can be read from the x-axis
at the point of intersection.
Then, divide the ρgradio:ρ ratio value into the
ρgradio reading to obtain the corrected ρ value.
F . 3 . 2 Acceleration (kinetic term)
The kinetic term is observable when the veloc-
ity of the fluid across the upper part of the gra-
dio is significantly different from the velocity
across the lower part. This is commonly ob-
served when logging into the tubing, where the
fluid velocity greatly exceeds the velocity in the
casing. Acceleration of the fluid around the
tool produces additional pressure drops when
the point of acceleration is between the two
ports. In this case the kinetic term causes a
sharp increase or kick in the gradio reading.
Other kinetic kicks may be observed at points
of fluid entry, such as single perforations, or
any turbulent area in the casing.
(dP) = ρvL(dv/dL)
Acceleration
(dP/dL)Acceleration = 0.013474ρv(dv/dL)
dP = Pressure Drop (psi)
dL = Length (ft)
v = Fluid Velocity (ft/s)
ρ = Fluid Density (g/cm3)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter (ins)
m = Fluid Viscosity (cp)
F . 3 . 3 Acceleration (yo-yo)
Acceleration of the silicon oil column from tool
yo-yo causes a pertubation to the measurement
due to additional localised forces across the
delta-p sensor.
F . 3 . 4 Jetting effect
Pressure from jet entries impinging on the
pressure ports result in localised anomalies on
the fluid density.
An advantage of the pressure differential sys-
tem is that it has a very smooth readout com-
pared to the nuclear systems that exhibit statis-
tical variations.
A disadvantage of the pressure differential
system is the fluid flow around the tool can
cause friction effects that alter the apparent
(01/97) F-4
pressure differential, which produces errone-
ous fluid density readings.
F . 4 CURRENT GRADIOMANOME-
TER TOOL
A strain gauge diffused on a silicone diaphram
will distort if any pressure difference is applied
across it. This pressure difference is related to
the density of the fluid in the wellbore.
The Gradio sensor is a bridge circuit strain
gauge differential pressure transducer. The
sensor is voltage excited and its output signal
is input to a VCO.
The two pressure ports are spaced 21" apart.
The tubes are filled with silicone oil (DC-200)
of density 0.97 gm/cc at atmospheric condi-
tions. Traps eliminate water or gas contamina-
tion of the silicon column The output is cor-
rected for deviation, if a deviation value is
entered in the software. A built-in temperature
sensor allows corrections due to temperature
variations to be applied automatically. The
characterisation of the sensor is done at the
time of manufacture.The gradiomanometer
section is a detachable module and may easily
be removed from the sonde for maintenance.
The measurement range of the sensor is 0 to 2
gm/cc.
F . 4 . 1 Yo-Yo correction
This is done using a built in accelerometer.
The monoaxis servo-accelerometer provides a
measurement of the acceleration Az along the
tool axis:
Az = g * cos θ + At
where:
g = 9.80665 m/sec2
θ = angle between tool axis and vertical
At= tool motion term
The output from the gauge is converted to an
acceleration using:
• manufacturer's coefficients
• temperature from built-in RTD
 Schlumberger

To calculate θ, the measurement is averaged ⊇

over 7.5 ft, with an assumption that the tool
motion is eliminated. This gives output AZ.
The deviation angle,θ, is calculated as follows:

cosθ = AZ / g

The output AZC2 is the accleration averaged

over 1 ft.
It is used to correct the gradiomanometer for
yo-yo.

F . 4 . 2 Pressure sensor Calibration

A Master Calibration is performed with an
oven and dead weight tester every 6 months.
For proper tool operation, the coefficients ob-
tained from the master cal, along with the
PCOR table, must be entered correctly at the
time of logging.

Gradiomanometer specifications:

Silicon diaphram with a diffused strain gauge

(Endevco or PSOI)

Sensor2 Range Resolution Accuracy

Density 0–2 0.004 0.04

3
(g/cm )

F . 5 THE NUCLEAR FLUID

DENSITY TOOL*
The nuclear fluid density tool (Figure F6) op-
erates on a similar principle to the formation
density tools; i.e., a source of gamma rays is
positioned with respect to a detector of gamma
rays so that the wellbore fluid acts as an ab-
sorber. A high count rate indicates a fluid of
low density, and a low count rate indicates a
fluid of high density.
Fig. F6: Nuclear Fluid Density tool.
The advantage of the nuclear fluid density tool
over the gradiomanometer is that its measure-
ment is not affected by wellbore deviation or
by friction effects. However, since the tool
relies on radioactive decay, the readings are
subject to statistical variations. It should also
be noted that the measured quantity is the aver-
age density of the flowing mixture; thus, it is
subject to the same holdup effects as the gra-
diomanometer.

2
Endevco delta-P sensor is calibrated to 125 degC
The PSOI gauge is calibrated to 175 degC

(01/97) F-5
Introduction to Production Logging

F . 5 . 1 Specifications Nuclear Fluid

Densimeter (NFD–B*)

3 0.2 – 1.2
Range (g/cm )
3 0.01
Accuracy (g/cm )
3 1.25
Resolution (g/cm /decade)
Minimum Casing (ins) 5.0
Maximum Casing (ins) 12.0
⊇
High energy g-rays from a Cesium (Cs137)
chemical source reach the detector through
Compton scattering. The count rate measured
at the detector will depend on the electron den-
sity of the fluid around the tool.

Source collimators are available for fluid den-

sity measurement and gravel pack monitoring.

F . 6 THE CAPACITANCE
(DIELECTRIC OR WATERCUT)
TOOL
The third group of widely used tools for dis-
tinguishing water from hydrocarbons depend
for their operation on the difference between
the dielectric constant of water (≅ 80) and that
of oil or gas (≅6). A simple way to find the Fig. F7: Capacitance tool schematic.
dielectric constant of a fluid is to use the fluid
as the dielectric between the plates of a capaci-
tor. The capacitance may be found by classical fHUM = 1/R1(C1 + CHUM)
methods such as including it in an RC network
and finding the resonant frequency. fHUM(air) ≈ 13000 Hz
f (water) ≈ 6000 Hz
HUM
A conventional design is shown in the Figure f (oil) ≈ 11000 Hz
HUM
F7. Two cylindrical metal tubes are arranged
so that wellbore fluids flow through the annu- CHUM = CmCt/(Cm +Ct)
lar space between them. The raw readings of
such a device are in terms of a frequency. Ct = 2pεtεrL/ln(r1/r0)
Each tool will have a calibration graph to con-
vert a measured frequency to a watercut value.
These tools behave well, provided that the Cm = 2pεmεrL/ln(r2/r1)
continuous phase is oil. In practice, the meas- Ct = Capacitance of the teflon
urement may become unreliable if the watercut CHUM = Capacitance of the HUM
in the flowing mixture exceeds 30%. Cm = Capacitance of the mixture
εt = Dielectric constant of the teflon
εm = Dielectric constant of the mixture
εr = Dielectric constant of free space
r0 = 0.66 cm
r1 = 0.73 cm
r2 = 1.25 cm
L = 0.50 m

(01/97) F-6
 Schlumberger

F . 6 . 1 Specifications Hold-Up Meter Vo

(HUM–D*) Vw

Maximum Pressure (psi) 20000

Maximum Temp. (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 25
Makeup Length (ins) 72.0
Yw Range (±%)
Yw Accuracy (±%)

F . 7 FLOWRATE CALCULATIONS
USING FLUID DENSITY AND A
SLIP MODEL
To calculate the flowrate using fluid density,
the relationship between the heavy and light
phases must be examined. This is called the
Bubble Flow Model (Figure F8).

The bubble flow model assumes that the light

phase (oil) will rise at a velocity greater than
the heavier phase (water) due to the difference
in density. This velocity difference is called the
slippage velocity, vs. Vo=Vw+Vs
Vw
v s = v o – vw

The volume of casing occupied by water at any

given depth is defined as the water holdup,
Y w. y wA (1-y w A)

Yw + Yo = 1

The water hold up must not be confused with

the watercut which is the rate of water produc-
tion compared to the total production expressed Water Oil
as a percentage.

The total flowrate (Qt) is composed of both the

light phase flowrate (Qo) and the heavy phase
flowrate (Qw). This can be written:

Qt = Qo + Qw

(Note: Qo can be replaced by Qgas, where

applicable.) Fig. F8: Bubble Flow Model.

(01/97) F-7
Introduction to Production Logging

The flowrate of the heavy phase (Qw) is equal Qo = (1-Yw)vsA

to the percentage of the heavy (Yw) multiplied
by the casing area (A) multiplied by the veloc- This equation may be expressed as:
ity of the heavy phase (vw). That is:

Qw = Yw.A.vw QL = (1-Yw)vsA

The velocity of the heavy phase (vw) contains where QL is the light phase flow rate hence the
only one component. equation is applicable to both oil and gas rela-
tionships.
The light phase flowrate (Qo) is equal to the
product of the percent of light phase (1-Yw) The calculation of the cross sectional area as-
multiplied by the area of the casing (A) multi- sociated with the holdup must take into account
plied by the velocity of the light phase (vo). the presence of the device that is making the
measurement.
The equation is:
If,
Qo = (1-Yw).A.vo
A* = (π/4)(D2 – dt2)1/144
The velocity of the light phase (vo) is com-
posed of the heavy phase velocity (vw) and the QL = (1-Yw)vsA*(BPD)
slip velocity (vs).
Rearranging the expression becomes: A* = Effective Area for holdup measurement
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
Qo = (1-Yw)A(vw + vs) dt = Gradiomanometer Diameter
vs = Slippage Velocity
= Avw - A vw Yw + (1-Yw) vsA
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
Yw =Water Holdup
Adding Qo and Qw, Qt becomes:
The water holdup, Yw, may be obtained from
Qt = A vw + (1-Yw) vsA the Gradiomanometer response as follows:
Rearranging, ρ = Ywρw + Yoρo
gradio
Q t − (1 − Yw )vs A = Ywρw + (1 –Yw)ρo
vw =
A
Therefore, Yw = (ρ – ρo)/(ρw – ρo)
gradio

Qw = yw Qt - Yw (1-Yw) vsA The remaining unknown, the slippage velocity,

vs, may be obtained from experimental correla-
Since Qt = Qo + Qw, tions. (Use Figure F9 for liquids. In gas wells
use 60 ft/min, if no other information is avail-
If Qw equals zero, then Qt = Qo able.)

If Qo is substituted for Qt in the above equa-

tion the following expression is derived:

0 = YwQo-Yw(1-Yw)vsA

rearranging, this becomes:

(01/97) F-8
 Schlumberger

In deviated wells these charts can be used

(Figure F10).

F . 8 SUMMARY
ρ is influenced by following effects:
gradio

∆Pelevation : desired effect, gives ρf

-requires deviation correction since

∆P ~ρfghcosθ

Log outputs from current tools are available

deviation corrected or not.
Fig. F9: Standard chart for slippage velocity. ρf is progressively less accurate as deviation
approaches 90˚

∆P : fluid friction on tool/casing

friction

– negligible for Q < 2000 b/d

see chart to estimate effect on 111/16"
tool;
– assumes θ=0, monophasic and
roughness 0.0006"

Current logging software does not remove

friction to present on log but PL quick look
programs interpretation can estimate it.

∆P : fluid acceleration between

kinetic
measuring ports due to fluid
entries or diameter changes.
ρgradio gives a kick

ρgradio = ρ f. <va>. Dva / gh

kinetic

Fig. F10: Slippage velocity charts for deviated wells.

(01/97) F-9
Introduction to Production Logging

There are also local effects from perforation + ∆P from elevation

jets, turbulence, and non-axial flow.

Tool Yoyo : acceleration of silicon oil column + ∆P from friction

is corrected in by the latest tool using as accel-
erometer output. + ∆P from tool yo-yo
Hence:
+ ∆P from kinetic effect
∆P measured by tool =
+ ∆P from 'jetting' qualitative only

(01/97) F-10
 Schlumberger

F . 9 EXAMPLES
Example F1
Using the following recorded gradiomanometer data compute the heavy phase hold up above perfora-
tions A and B.

Example F1: Gradiomanometer log.

(01/97) F-11
Introduction to Production Logging

Example F2
Gradiomanometer reading is 0.63 g/cc
Deviation = 30˚
Flowrate = 20000 bpd
Casing = 7”, 26#

10 5

"
5/8
9
"
5/8 "
8 8
5/
6
Downhole flow rate

"
5/8
7

7"

5"
" "
1/2 1/2
5 4
10 4

10 3
1.01 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.50 2.0
ρ gradio / ρ
Example F2: Gradiomanometer Flow Correction Chart.

Questions
Correct the gradio reading for the deviation and flow rate.

(01/97) F-12
 Schlumberger

ANSWERS
Example F2
Example F1
Deviation
The spinner indicates the extent of the cross-
flow to be from 2470.5 to 2414.6 feet. As the
down flowmeter has a higher value than the up ρcor = ρgradio/cosθ
pass the fluid must be moving upwards.
θ = 30˚
By logging shut in and/or flowing passes at
three different flowrates (minimum) the spin- cosθ = 0.87
ner can be calibrated.
ρcor = 0.63/0.87 = 0.72
The average velocity can be estimated as
density = 0.72 g/cc
= (difference between the up and down spin-
ners)/ (Bu+Bd) Flowrate
= (0.42)/(0.053+0.058)*.83 = 3.14 ft/min. From the chart,

2) According to the shut in temperature passes ρcor /ρ = 1.027

theis zone is taking some of the fluid from
2469.5 - 2470.5 feet. ρ = 0.72/1.027 = 0.70 g/cc
3) The fluid flowing back from 2469.5-2470.5
is at or near the geothermal temperature for that
depth and the fluid warms the borehole as it
flows up to 2415 feet.

(01/97) F-13
Introduction to Production Logging

Appendix HUM Models

Segregated Model

CHUM = AYw + B

Parallel Model

CHUM = A/[B•ln(CYw + D) + E]

Yw = (r32 – r22)/(r32 – r12)

Dispersed Model

CHUM = A/[(B/ εm) + C]

Mixing Laws

εm = εwYw + εo(1 – Yw)

εm = εwYw2 + εo(1 – Yw) 2

εw ≈ 80.5
εo ≈ 4.0
εg ≈ 2.0

εfw = 94.88 – 0.2317T + 0.000217T2

εw = εfw – 0.1556 – 0.413S + 0.00158S2
T = Temperature (°F)
S = Salinity (kppm)

Fig. F11: Hold up meter models.

(01/97) F-14

G . OTHER SENSORS
G . 1 PRESSURE
G . 1 . 1 Uses of Pressure
• Well test analysis (kh, skin)
• Reservoir extent, boundaries
• Fluid conversions
• AOF, SIP determination
G . 1 . 2 Pressure Measurement
Techniques
There are many different ways of measuring
pressure. All pressure transducers operate on
the principle of converting pressure to me-
chanical displacement. This mechanical dis-
placement is then converted to an electrical
signal that can be used by measuring systems.
The mechanical displacement is accomplished
by the use of a force-summing device, a
mechanism by which the force of pressure is
balanced by an opposing force. This balancing
force can be generated by displacement in the
force summing device, or it can be externally
generated.
Force-summing devices take many forms. The
diaphragm, the bellows, and the bourdon tube,
are all of which are typical summing devices.
Regardless of the type of force-summing de-
vice, the displacement or generated force is
coupled to a transduction device.
The transduction device converts the displace-
ment or generated force into an electrical signal
or signal-generating form. That is, the force
can be converted directly into a voltage or cur-
rent signal, or it can take on an intermediate
form, such as a change in resistance or a
change in flux path length. A few transducers
combine the force-summing element and the
transduction element into one unit.
Transducers combining the two elements are
classified as direct-exposure transducers. This
class is best typified by the Hewlett-Packard
gauge in which a vibrating quartz crystal is di-
rectly exposed to the pressure so that the me-
chanical deformation occurs directly in the
transduction device.
Schlumberger
All other types of transducers are classified as
indirect-exposure devices.
Indirect exposure devices are typified by the
thin film strain gauge. In this gauge, the force-
summing device is a diaphragm and the
transduction device is a thin film strain gauge
bridge mounted on the back side of the dia-
phragm. The bridge configuration converts
pressure-induced resistance change into an
output voltage signal.
A more detailed discussion on transducer types
is given in the Appendix.
G . 1 . 3 Strain Gauge Transducers
The transduction element in the strain gauge
transducer is a resistor that is mounted in to the
force-summing device so as to cause the re-
sistor to be sensitive to strain. When the force-
summing device undergoes a displacement, the
strain-sensitive resistor changes its physical
length, thereby causing change in resistance.
This may be expressed as:
∆R
GF = R
∆L
L
where
GF = Gauge Factor
∆R = Change in frequency
R = Unstrained resistance
∆L = Change in length
L = Unstrainged length
Various types of strain gauge transducers have
different gauge factors.
There are four basic types of strain gauge
transducers. These four types with their corre-
sponding gauge factors are shown in Table
G1. A rule that applies to these transducers is:
the larger the gauge factor, the higher the out-
put of the device.
(01/97) G-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Type Gauge Factor

Unbonded Wire 4
Bonded Foil 2
Thin Film 2
Semiconductor 80-150
Table G1: Types of strain gauge transducers.

The gauge used in the standard tool is an un-

bonded wire transducer made of a tube sensing
member with a strain wrapped around it.

Two sets of strain wire are wrapped around the

upper part of a tube exposed to pressure, and
two other sets wrapped around the lower part
of the same tube, not exposed to pressure. The
active and reference windings on the outside of
the cylinder are kept in nitrogen at atmospheric
pressure.

The pressure applied causes the active part of

the cylinder to distort which changes the resis-
tance of the active winding.

A Wheatstone bridge is formed, the output of

which is a voltage function of the pressure
seen by the transducer. The pressure trans-
ducer output (voltage) will vary with tempera-
ture for any constant pressure.

Pressure correction for temperature is deter-

mined during Master Calibration, and ac-
counted for by the surface acquisition system,
using the PCOR table.

This unbonded resistive four arm strain gauge

has a built in Resistance Temperature Device
Fig. G1: Strain Gauge Transducer.
(RTD).

(01/97) G-2

A third order polynomial equation is used to
model its response:
P(V) = MG + MHV +MIV2 +MJV3
P: Absolute pressure (psi)
V: Ratio between output and exitation
voltage
Mi: Sensor coefficients
The sensor coefficients are a function of tem-
perature and are modelled as folows:
3 2
Mi(Rt) = Mi3 Rt + Mi2 Rt + Mi1 Rt + Mi0
Rt: Resistance value of RTD in ohms.
The sensor characterisation is done at the time
of manufacture and a Master Calibration is
done using a dead-weight tester. Corrections
are automatically applied by the software.
Advantages of this transducer are its excellent
accuracy, insensitivity to temperature and good
long-term stability and good dynamic re-
sponse, but with reduced measurement accu-
racy and resolution. Disadvantages of this
transducer are sensitivity to shock and vibra-
tion, hysteresis, and limited frequency re-
sponse.
Three gauges are available: 5 Kpsi, 10 Kpsi
and 20 Kpsi.
G . 1 . 4 Current developments
"Alpha" gauge replacement for the strain
gauge.
The "Alpha" gauge is a thin film transducer,
consisting of a resistor pattern making up an
active bridge.
The thin film strain gauge transducer, consist-
ing of a resistor pattern that is vapor or sputter
deposited onto the force-summing element.
Some units have the resistors mounted on a
diaphragm, and others have them mounted on
a beam that is linked to a diaphragm by a push
rod.
Schlumberger
Advantages of this transducer are excellent
long-term stability, excellent accuracy, low
hysteresis, and high temperature range.
Disadvantages are low output level and high
costs.
Specifications of the "Alpha" gauge:
pressure rating 17,000 psi
pressure accuracy +/- 17 psi
pressure resolution 0.1 psi
temperature rating 175 degC
Table G2: Alpha gauge specifications.
G . 1 . 5 Vibrating Crystal Transducer
In vibrating crystal transducers, a crystal is
forced by external electronic circuits to oscillate
at its resonate frequency. When external stress
is applied to the crystal via mechanical linkage
to the force-summing element, the resonate
frequency of the crystal shifts in proportion to
the stress. In at least one transducer of this
type the force-summing element is the crystal
itself.
This is a direct-conversion type transducer in
which the transduction element is also the
force-summing element. The vibrating crystal
is usually manufactured out of quartz because
of its excellent elastic properties, long-term
stability characteristics, and ease of vibrational
excitement.
The way the quartz crystal is cut (the orienta-
tion of the crystal faces) determines its reso-
nant frequency and its sensitivity to pressure
and temperature.
(01/97) G-3
Introduction to Production Logging

used to compensate for temperature effects. Its

oscillator runs at 4.992 Mhz.

A mixer derives the difference frequency of the

two crystals, which is 8 kHz to 25 kHz.

The relationship between pressure and fre-

quency, as a function of temperature, for the
crystal pair, is defined by 16 unique coeffi-
cients.These coefficients are calculated yearly,
during the tool's master calibration, performed
in a dedicated oil bath calibration cell. The
pressure range during calibration is from 200
to 11000 psi.

This device has the following specifications:

Maximum Pressure (psi) 12000

Maximum Temperature (°F)
2813B 300
2813C 350
2813E 350
Weight (lbs) 22.0
Makeup Length (ins) 57.6
Resolution/1sec (psi) 0.01
Repeatability (psi) 0.4
Range (psi) 200 – 11000
Table G3: HP gauge specifications.

psi Reading(%) Temp (°F)

0.5 0.025 1.8
1 0.1 18
5 0.25 36
Fig. G2: Crystal Gauge schematic.
Table G4: HP Accuracy at thermal equilibrium.

Advantages of the vibrating crystal transducer

are its excellent accuracy, resolution, and long-
term stability.
Disadvantages are its sensitivity to temperature
and high cost.
The Hewlett Packard Gauge is used. Borehole
pressure distorts a quartz crystal, which is
controlling an oscillator. The measure crystal
resonates from 5.000 MHz to 5.017 MHz,
which corresponds to a pressure range of 0 psi
to 12000 psi.
The quartz measure crystal is also sensitive to
temperature. A reference crystal isolated from
well pressure but not borehole temperatiure is
The most recent HP gauge has an improved
dynamic response to a step change in tem-
perature.
G . 2 TEMPERATURE MEASURE-
MENT TECHNIQUES
G . 2 . 1 Uses of Temperature Data
• Location of production or injection
zones
• Monitor frac performance
• Gas entry
• Fluid movement behind pipe
• Fluid conversions.

(01/97) G-4
 Schlumberger

G . 2 . 2 Temperature Measurement This quadratic in T may be solved in real time.

Most temperature tools work on a similar prin-
ciple, utilizing the varying electrical conductiv-
ity of a thin wire that accompanies changes in
ambient temperature.
In the standard the variations in resistance of a
platinum resistor are measured using a Wheat-
stone bridge.
In practice the sensor measurement range is -
13˚F to 347˚F. This corresponds to a sensor
resistance of 408 to 759 Ohms. The nominal
resistance is 453 Ω at room temperature of 32
degF. the temperature resolution is 0.0014˚ F
if the log is recorded at 1800 fph.
G . 2 . 3 Temperature Log Interpretation
Temperature Log interpretation is often quali-
tative. For example the qualitative evaluation
of fluid flow as indicated by departures from
the geothermal gradient. The geothermal gra-
dient is the natural, fairly linear, increase in
temperature with formation depth. Given the
opportunity to stabilize under static conditions,
a borehole will exhibit the geothermal gradient;
therefore, actual temperature readings that de-
part from the geothermal gradient accompany
flow conditions, which can be inferred from
these readings.

The temperature survey can see behind pipe( as

Temperature do the tracer, noise logging and Water Flow
sensitive Log). Usually, the distinction cannot be made
resistor regarding flow in casing versus flow behind
casing. A flow survey inside the casing has to
be used in conjunction to fully evaluate the
situation.

Another important use of the measurement is to

Fig. G3: Temperature tool.
The changing resistance is modelled as follows
for temperatures in excess of 0 °C,
2 strate some of the many uses of the tempera-
Rt = R0(1 + AT + BT )
supply the temperature (T) portion of PVT type
equations and charts. Temperature information
is critical to the determination of gas expan-
sion/compression, GOR, and oil shrinkage
from downhole to surface conditions and vice
versa.
The following illustrations and cases demon-
ture log.

A = a(1 + 0.01d) B = – ad•10-4

T = Temperature (°C)
Rt = Resistance in Ohms at temperature, T
R0 = Resistance in Ohms at 0°C (453W)
3.91x10-
3
a =
d = 1.49

(01/97) G-5
Introduction to Production Logging

G . 2 . 4 Case 1 Flowing wells In this case the well is producing gas through
the perforations. Once again the spinner reacts
Liquid to the flow. The temperature exhibits an initial
decrease before increasing as in the liquid case.
Spinner Temperature The perforations are producing liquid giving a
change in the spinner. The temperature in-
creases above the geothermal gradient towards
an asymtote.

This is due to the adiabatic expansion of the

geothermal gas as it entres the borehole.
gradient

G . 2 . 5 Case 2 Channeling

Liquid
Spinner Temperature

Water
Flow

geothermal
gradient

Fig. G4: Well producing liquid.

Gas
Spinner Temperature

Water Flow
behind
casing

geothermal
gradient

Fig. G6: Liquid Channeling.

In the case of a liquid channeling behind the

casing the temperature will show an increase
gas before the spinner reacts to the flow. The latter
flow
device only measures inside the casing while
the temperature sees both inside and outside.

Fig. G5: Well producing Gas.

(01/97) G-6
 Schlumberger

Gas
Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient

Flow
Fig. G8: A leak zone above the perforations. The
behind the fluid leak produces an anomalous drop in temperature.
casing

Fig. G7: Gas Channeling.

Once again, in the case of gas there is an initial

decrease in the temperature. The log sees a
small decrease as the gas enters the space be-
hind the casing as the expansion here is small.
There is a larger effect as it enters the borehole,
seen as well by the spinner.

G . 2 . 6 Temperature Profile Examples

The following examples show some of the
uses to which temperature profiles can be put.
The catalogue is not exhaustive but serves as
templates on which to base interpretations.
Fig. G9: Time lapse temperature profiles are used to
detect which reservoir layer is gaining or losing fluid
due to crossflow. In this example layer A is probably
communicating with layer B.

(01/97) G-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. G10: This shows the standard profile expected Fig. G12: This is the opposite to the previous exam-
under normal producing conditions. ple as this time the crossflow is from the lower zone
upwards.

G . 3 CALIPER TOOLS
G . 3 . 1 Caliper measurement
Caliper tools are manufactured in many con-
figurations; but, the basic operation is similar
throughout the industry. Most caliper tools
use a system of two or more arms or fingers
that are mechanically coupled to a variable re-
sistor with a voltage output proportional to the
arm/finger position. The position is propor-
tional to hole diameter.

Fig. G11: Crossflow from an upper to lower zone

produces this temperature profile.

(01/97) G-8
 Schlumberger

Caliper

Casing/ hole size

change

Fig. G13: Caliper tool.

Spinner RPS
A typical caliper tool is illustrated in Figure
G13. Calipers, of course, are very important Fig. G14: Caliper and Spinner logs in changing casing
in openhole or new well logging because so size.
many interpretation parameters require hole
diameter information. At first consideration, one might assume that
flowmeters in cased wells would not require a
A recent advance in sonic technology has cre- caliper log; however, partially collapsed casing
ated devices called acoustic calipers. These can cause flowmeter anomalies that are very
tools use ultrasonic sound waves that echo off mysterious without hole diameter data. Also,
the inside casing wall and return to the tool. seriously corroded casing can create other
The time for this round trip, along with fluid questions that are difficult to answer. Caliper
travel time information, generates excellent, logs provide clues that help.
accurate caliper data, usually in several direc-
tions across the pipe. These systems are gen- The example in Figure G14 shows a typical
erally better than mechanical calipers for iden- case where the casing size changes, changing
tifying corrosion problems and other defects the fluid velocity and hence the spinner re-
resulting in minor dimension changes. sponse. Without the caliper information this
could be misinterpreted as a flow increase.
G . 3 . 2 Caliper log example
In production logging in cased hole and open-
hole (barefoot) completions, the caliper infor- Max Pressure (psi) 15000
mation is essential to the interpretation of spin- Max Temp (°F) 350
ner and tracer data for flowrate calculations. Weight (lbs) 25
(An exception to this is when using Makeup Length (ins) 76.5
petal/basket and packer flowmeter devices as Range (ins) 2 – 18
these tools force the fluid through a known Resolution (ins) 0.06
orifice or passageway, which negates the need Accuracy (ins) 0.1
for caliper information.)
Table G5: caliper Tool Specifications.

(01/97) G-9
Introduction to Production Logging

G . 4 ALTERNATIVE FLOW • Identification of water flowing in the tubing

MEASURING DEVICES annulus
The spinner flowmeter is the most common • Low water flowrate measurement
device for measuring the flowrate in wells.
However, there are some cases where other The Water Flow Log (Figure G15) is an exten-
techniques are better, for example the detection sion of the Saturation Monitoring tools meas-
of flow behind casing. urement. It employs a pulsed neutron generator
to activate a small volume of the oxygen in the
Three principle methods are: water in and around the borehole. The acti-
vated isotope is N 16 which has a half life of
• Water Flow Log* around 7 seconds. As it decays it emits a high
• Noise Logging energy gamma ray.
• Tracer Surveys
If the water is stationary the decay of the ex-
cited nuclei is predictable and exponential. On
G . 4 . 1 Water Flow Log the other hand, if it is flowing, the motion of
Uses of the water flow log include: the excited volume is monitored by each of the
• Detection and quantification of water flow- tools three detectors (Near, far and Gamma
ing in cement channels. Ray). Even very low flow creates a dis-
cernable trace over the background.

Fig. G15: Theory of Water flow logging.

(01/97) G-10
 Schlumberger

The tools software analyses the recorded gama

ray profile and computes the flow velocity in
ft/min. A volumetric flow is also estimated.

The red curve on these examples is the normal

decay expected. The dark blue curve is the ac-
tual decay measured, normal decay plus flow-
ing water signal.

The blue area under the curves shows the

flowing signal. The program has estimated
flows in these two cases, one inside and one
outside the casing.

Flow can be detected from very low to very

high velocities and flowing in either up or
down directions (Figure G17).

Fig. G16: Examples of flow detected by the Water

Flow Log.

Fig. G17: Tool configurations for upflow and downflow.

(01/97) G-11
Introduction to Production Logging
The advantages of this method of flow meas-
urement is that no radioactive material is intro-
duced into the well. The disadvantage is that it
only measures the flow of water.
G . 4 . 2 Noise Logging
Uses of Noise Logging include:
• Channels behind casing
• Producing perforations
• Tubing or casing leaks
• Zones of lost circulation while drilling
Noise in a well that causes tool response is a
function of the acceleration, or turbulence, of a
fluid moving across a pressure differential.
Noise = f (∆P,Q)
where;
∆P - pressure differential
Q - flowrate
By varying the pressure differential, flow rate,
or both, various types of noise can be gener-
ated. The noises can be characterized and
categorized into different groups by examining
the frequency spectrum of the total signal.
G . 4 . 2 . 1 Noise Logging Tool
A typical noise logging tool (Figure G18) con-
sists of a transducer that converts sound to an
electrical signal. The transducer is designed to
respond to sound originating in any direction
around the borehole; therefore, it has no direc-
tional properties. An amplifier, contained in the
tool, transmits the signal up the cable.
The proper tool response depends upon a metal
to metal contact; therefore, the tool is run
without centralization. Sound transmission to
the transducer is not efficient without the cas-
ing-tool contact. The tool does not emit any
sound energy. It only responds to sound
originating in or around the wellbore.
(01/97) G-12
Fig. G18: Noise Logging Tool.
A typical logging operation consists of posi-
tioning the tool at selected depths and allowing
the signal generated by the transducer to be
processed by the surface instrumentation. The
time required at each station is about one to
two minutes. This allows the tool to respond
to wellbore noise without being affected by
extraneous noises caused by cable and tool
movement.
During these stationary readings, the surface
instrumentation analyzes the signal being sent
up the cable. A frequency separation network
provides the means to separate the cable signal
into the following frequency cuts: 200 Hz;
600 Hz; 1,000 Hz; and 2,000 Hz. The 200 Hz
cut passes all frequencies above 200 Hz; the
600 Hz cut passes all frequencies above 600
Hz, and so on.
At each station, a peak mV reading is recorded
for each frequency cut. These values are plot-
ted as a set of points on a logarithmic grid.
The selection of the spacing between readings
will vary from one set of well conditions to
another. Station spacings of 20 feet to 50 feet,
while noise values are low, is common. In
zones of interest, spacings of 10 feet or less
between stations is necessary for detailed
analysis.
 Schlumberger

G . 4 . 2 . 2 Interpretation
The sound detected by the noise tool in a well
is generated by the turbulent flow of the fluids,
either in the casing or in the casing-formation
annulus. Outside the casing, a pressure differ-
ential caused by restrictions in the casing-
formation annular space creates the necessary
turbulence to generate sound that can be de-
tected by the noise tool.

Fig. G20: Expected noise levels at a perforation.

A pressured drop at the point or hole causes
turbulent flow to occur and creates a peak in
the noise level at the hole.

Fig. G19: Expected noise levels in a channel.

Several situations can exist in a well that can
produce high noise levels. Figure G19 illus-
trates typical noise levels possible in an interval
with fluid flow in a casing-formation channel.

A pressure differential allows fluid to flow into

the channel from the higher pressured sand, A,
to the lower pressured sand, B. At the face of
sand A, a pressure drop occurs as fluid flows
out of the sand and into the channel. Notice
the increase in noise level at sand A as a result
of this turbulent flow. As flow continues up-
ward, a restriction in the channel creates an-
other pressure drop, and another high level of
noise is observed. As flow enters the lower Fig. G21: Expected noise levels for gas production.
pressured sand B, another increase in noise is
observed due to the pressure drop across sand
B. Figure G21 depicts a gas entry from the perfo-
rations 8,320 feet to 8,350 feet. Above 8,300
Figure G20 illustrates a noise peak associated feet, the discontinuous phase in the wellbore is
with a point fluid entry (producing perfora- gas, and the sound attenuates quite rapidly. A
tions) or fluid exit (casing or tubing leak). standing column of water begins about 8,350
feet, and it will be noticed, that below the liq-
uid level, the sound attenuates much slower.

(01/97) G-13
Introduction to Production Logging

G . 4 . 2 . 3 Channel Flowrate Calcula-

tions From The Noise Tool
Several factors inject inaccuracies into any cal-
culations involving noise logs; such as, dis-
tance from the noise source, perforation size
and condition, sonde-to-casing contact, a liq-
uid or gas environment, etc. The following
procedures for calculating flowrates were de-
rived by Exxon Production Research Company
(EPRCo).

The test facility used for noise tool standardi-

zation is located at the EPRCo. facility. It con-
sists of a 6" O.D. casing, approximately 4 ft.
in length. Standing vertical, the standard
Exxon noise tool is positioned inside 2-inch
tubing placed inside the casing. The inside of
the tubing contains kerosene, and it is pres-
sured to 1,000 psi prior to injecting air or liq-
uid into one of three intake valves affixed to
the casing.

Inside the casing, cement is poured between

two plates. A one-inch gap created by the
plates provides the channel through which air
or liquid is injected into the casing; this creates
a number of specific noise responses. The
data gathered is presented in the next sections.

G . 4 . 2 . 4 Single-Phase Flowrate
Calculations
A correlation in the lab between the noise level
above 100 Hz (N1000) and the ∆p x q has been
developed and is well documented. The equa-
tion, derived as a result of this correlation, for
a single-phase leak is:

∆p x q = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)
Fig. G22: Expected noise levels for flow behind casing.
where
In Figure G22, the noise tool identifies move- ∆p is in psi
ment behind the casing. A grouping of sands q is in K cu ft/day and
beginning from approximately 10,700 feet to N*1000 is the corrected peak-to-peak amplitude
9,900 feet appears to be supplying the energy of the 1,000 Hz curve.
to cause communication to occur between
those sands and a zone at approximately 8,700 The single phase can be gas or water. Since
feet. Above the 8,700 foot zone the noise at- this relation gives only ∆p x q,an independent
tenuation dies out, indicating no further ∆p must be used to calculate q.
movement up the hole.

(01/97) G-14
 Schlumberger

Where,

∆p = Pressure drop between two points,

psi
q = Flowrate

N*1000 = Noise level measured above 1,000

Hz and expressed in peak-to-peak
millivolts

Note: the graph represents both water and gas,

indicating this calculation is valid for both as
long as only one phase is flowing in the chan-
nel.

To illustrate the use of the single-phase equa-

tion, the following is given:
Fig. G23: Frequency response for single phase flow.
Figure G23 illustrates why the 1,000 Hz fre- Gas Phase in Channel
quency cut was used in the first equation. The
noise frequency spectrum peaks between the ∆p = 90 psi
1,000 Hz and 2,000 Hz frequency cuts in a N*1000= 12 peak-to-peak millivolts
dramatic manner. A typical log response is
presented in Figure G24, and it illustrates how
the frequency cut curves from 1,000 Hz and If
below tend to have the same value. The 2,000 ∆pq = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)
Hz curve has a distinctly lower value. = 5 x (12 - 6)

= 30 psi x k cu ft / D
Then
q = 30/∆p = (30 psi x k cu ft/D)/90psi

q = 0.33 k cu ft / D

Note: This flowrate is at downhole conditions.

If water had been flowing in the channel in-
stead of gas, the conversion of k cu ft / D to
B/D is as follows:

q = 0.33 k cu ft/D x 1000/5.61 = 59 B/D

Fig. G24: Sound Intensity for single phase flow.

A leak-rate correlation was established for a
single-phase flow in the casing annulus. Al-
though there is considerable scattering of data
points, a best-fit line gives the equation for the
straightline segment for ∆p x q:

∆pq = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)

(01/97) G-15
Introduction to Production Logging
G . 4 . 2 . 5 Two-Phase Flowrate
Calculations
For a two-phase leak into a channel, we can
proceed without a knowledge of ∆p. In the
two-phase noise spectrum, a large component
resides in the 200 Hz to 600 Hz range, see
Figure G25.
Fig. G25: Frequency response for two phase flow.
This lower frequency component is a result of
the slugging about of a liquid in a channel as
the gas pushes it back to enter. This slugging
action is proportional to the flowrate of the gas
and is not as dependent as a single-phase entry
on the geometry of the channel. The
straightline equation of a two-phase, gas-liquid
leak into a channel is:
q=
( N*200 − N*600 ) − 10
20
The frequency curves in Figure G26 illustrate
how the larger component of 200 Hz separates
itself from the other frequency cut curves.
(01/97) G-16
The N* value referred to in the equations are
log values of mV that have been normalized
(corrected) for wellbore geometry, electric line
attenuation, and other appropriate corrections
that must be made for valid quantitative cacula-
tions.
Fig. G26: Noise levels for two phase flow.
The noise level, N, taken from a log must be
normalised to fit the reference conditions, see
Appendix for the method.
G . 4 . 2 . 6 Production Profile Calcula-
tions from the Noise Tool
Single-Phase Flow Past Sonde
The flow of a fluid past the noise sonde creates
turbulence and will radiate noise. This is re-
ferred to as a free-flow situation, since a leak
expansion is not the source of the noise.
The noise created by flow past the tool can be
proportionately written:
N600 ≅ ∆pq
Where;
q = The Volumetric Flowrate
∆p = The Pressure Drop across the Tool
 Schlumberger

From fluid dynamics; ρq 3

= 2
∆p = 1 C ρV 2  πD2p 
2 D  
 4 
Where;
ρ = Fluid Density (lb / cu ft)
ρq 3
V = Fluid Velocity Noise =
CD = 4 x 10-6; for turbulent flow D 4p
Where;
Since, V = q/As
We have: Dp = Perforation Diameter
q2
N 600 = C Dρ 2 ∗ q Because the noise tool encounters a viscous
As fluid, the relationship ρq/µ should be used;
Where; therefore,
CD = An audible drag coefficient
CD for turbulent flow is 4 x 10-6  ρq p 
3
ρ4 q 3p
π
( ) (
As = id pipe + od pipe ∗ id pipe − od pipe
4
) N*600 = 3 4 =  1.3  = χ3
µ D p  µD p 

As = Cross-section for flow past the tool, ft2 χ can be referred to as the jet or perforation
The flowrate calculation for this equation is: parameter.

1 The following technique will allow for the de-

 As2 N*600  3 termination of the percent flow from the perfo-
q=  −6  rations.
 4.10 ρ 
1. Determine N*600 from station reading
G . 4 . 2 . 7 Calculation Of Flow From through the perforated interval.
Perforations
2. Next, determine χ from the above stated
Single-Phase Flow
Since the porous surface area of a deep, clean relationship.
perforation is greater than the cross-sectional
area of the hole in the casing, the last accelera- 3. Sum the χ values for each set of perfora-
tion of the fluid occurs at the casing wall. The tions.
perforation acts like an orifice.
4. Using the total of all χ values throughout
In the noise relationship, the perforations, determine the percent contri-
bution from each set.
Noise ≈ ∆p x q

Substituting the orifice equation for ∆p

ρq 2
Noise = ∗q
Ap2

(01/97) G-17
Introduction to Production Logging

G . 4 . 2 . 8 Noise Propagation • Liquid or gaseous environment - Sound

A factor in the interpretation of the noise log is attenuates faster in a gaseous environment
noise propagation away from a noise source as opposed to a liquid environment. The
before noise levels subside. This condition is liquid level is usually recognizable on a
dependent on several factors: log;

• Frequency of the noise - Higher frequen- • Contact with the casing - Contact between
cies have a higher rate of attenuation; the sonde and the casing wall acts to in-
crease the distance required for noise from
a source to subside.

(01/97) G-18
 Schlumberger

APPENDIX A Where;
N = Log value
Conversion Of Log Noise Levels To Fm,t = The combined Meter and Tool Gain
Standard Values
The noise level, N, taken from a log must be factors, see Table G1
multiplied by four normalizing factors to adjust FL = Line Factor, corrects for 5/16 in. ca-
it to the conditions of the EPRCo standard. bles and larger and for 7/32 in. cables
or smaller
If N* denotes the normalized value, then: FG = Wellbore Geometry Factor, see Table
G2.
N* = N x Fm,t x FL x FG

Sonde Manufacturer Unit Measured by Com- Factor to Convert Unit

bined Sonde and Surface to EPRCo. Standard
Panel* Millivolts
McCullough Wireline Services Standard Millivolts 1
Pengo Industries Standard Millivolts 1
Dresser Wireline Services Standard Millivolts 1
SIE Industries Standard Millivolts 1
Gearhart Industries One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts
Squire-Whitehouse Corp. One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts
Exxon Production Research One-half of Standard 2
Co. Millivolts

*Listed companies maintain uniformity within ± 3 decibels, that is, within a factor equal to:

(10)±3/20 = 0.707 - 1.414

Standard measurement sensitivity is 1.0 x 106 std. millivolts/psi (RMS), referred to as normal gain. Most companies
can reduce the gain by a factor of 10.

Table G6: Meter and Tool gain Factors.

Number Of Pipes Shielding Fluid Content Of Pipes Multiplying Factor, F g

Sonde

One Liquid 1.0

Gas 2.0
Two (tubing plus casing) Liquid in Both 2.0
Liquid in one, gas in the other 4
Gas in both 8
None (leak into string containing Single-phase flow 0.20
sonde)
Gas-liquid flow 0.06

Table G7: Well Geometry factor.

(01/97) G-19
Introduction to Production Logging

G . 4 . 3 Tracer Tools If radioactive material is present at any point

G . 4 . 3 . 1 Tool Theory
Some applications of radioactive tracer logging
are:
• To check for packer, casing, or tubing
leaks;
• To identify channeling;
• To establish injection profiles on injector
wells;
• To imply production profiles from injection
profiles on production wells during injec-
tion testing; and
• To establish flow profiles in low flow ar-
eas of producing wells. (Tracer logging in
producing wells requires special consid-
erations. This will be addressed later in
this section.)
other than the perforated intervals, channeling
or vertical fracturing is likely. The detection of
channels with ejector tools and nonejector tools
will be discussed in detail later in this course.
Flow profiling with these tools will be dis-
cussed in this section.
Tools in the second category generally consist
of two basic downhole components. The first
component is a chamber that will hold a small
amount of radioactive material and will eject a
controlled amount of this material into the
borehole. The second component is a multiple
detector system that can monitor the movement
and location of the tracer fluid that has been
released. The types of ejectors and detector
systems vary with tool application and sophis-
tication.
⊇˚

Most of these applications require logging

techniques and interpretation methods unique
to the problem.

Tracer tools can be placed into two basic cate-

gories. These are:

1) Gamma ray tools that do not have downhole

ejectors for releasing radioactive material, and

2) Gamma ray tools that have downhole ejec-

tors in combination with multiple gamma ray
detector.

The first category is comprised of tools that are

essentially the same as those used for openhole
logging. These are usually smaller diameter
tools for through- tubing application. The
more common sizes are 13/8-inch and 111/16-
inch.

In addition to flow profiling with the controlled

time technique and traditional openhole log-
ging, these tools are often used for channel
detection by comparing logging runs made
before and after injecting fluids containing ra-
dioactive material into the well. The difference
in the two runs will identify where radioactive
materials are present.

Fig. G27: Tracer Ejector tool configuration.

(01/97) G-20

The tool configuration depends on the fluid
flow direction. If logging an injection well,
the configuration will normally be one detector
above the ejector and two spaced detectors be-
low. In a producing situation, two detectors
are placed above the ejector and one detector is
placed below. The purpose of the single de-
tector on the opposite side of the ejector from
the flow direction is for detecting unexpected
flow reversals produced by thief zones and for
identifying channels behind casing, where
fluid is flowing opposite the direction of the
wellbore fluids. The purpose of the two adja-
cent detectors is for flow profiling as a func-
tion of flow time between the two detectors.
The principle of ejector tracer logging is the
releasing of a radioactive isotope that dissolves
in the wellbore and becomes part of the well-
bore fluid. The tracer material moves at the
same velocity as the wellbore fluid. A meas-
urement of the elapsed detection time between
the two detectors, along with knowledge of the
tool configuration, is enough information for
computing fluid flowrate.
This assumes, of course, that the tool is not
moving. Unlike the controlled time survey,
the tool diameter must be considered in the
flowrate computation because it subtracts from
the casing internal cross-sectional area. This
will be discussed further in the interpretation
section.
The sensitivity of the detectors to gamma rays
allows the system to monitor radiation changes
inside the casing wall and outside the casing
near the casing wall. The actual depth of in-
vestigation of the gamma ray detector depends
on the type of detector, scintillation or Geiger-
Mueller, and the magnitude of the radiation. In
most cases, it can be estimated at one foot.
Water-, oil-, or gas-soluble tracer materials can
be used. Water soluble material is the most
common.
Schlumberger
Dual Tracer Ejector Tool (TEE–EA*)
Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 38
Makeup Length (in.) 97.4
Table G8: Tracer Ejector Tool Specifications.
3 γ-Ray Detectors
TEE–EA Built-in
SGC–R Above or Below
ATE–CB Built-in
gamma-Ray Spacers AH–99 (36 ins)
Well-site radioactivity generator
Technetium 99 (Tc99)
Half-life, t = 6.0 hrs
γ-Ray energy 0.740 MeV
Tracer fluid kept 20 – 40 psi above well-bore
pressure. Ejection time variable between 20ms
and 5.1s.
G . 4 . 3 . 2 Tracer Log Interpretation
Using Data From Nonejector
Tools (Controlled Time Sur-
vey)
In terms of flow metering, the primary appli-
cation of gamma ray tools without ejectors is
the controlled time survey. This technique
consists of placing radioactive material in the
injection fluid stream at the surface with the
tool stationary downhole waiting for the radio-
active material to pass the detector. When in-
creased radiation is observed, the time of day
and depth are noted and the tool is moved far-
ther downhole. When the radiation is ob-
served again, the time of day and depth are
noted once more.
The elapsed time is the travel time required for
the fluid to move the distance between the two
depth intervals. This distance over time can be
computed as velocity in feet per minute. The
flow volume can be determined from the ap-
propriate chart for the specific casing size and
weight. This technique is primarily used for
injection profiling. An actual log may or may
not be recorded.
(01/97) G-21
Introduction to Production Logging
Tracers, in general, are less common under
production conditions because the presence of
radioactive material at the surface could cause
safety and legal issues. As mentioned earlier,
radioactive materials can be logged in produc-
ing wells with special considerations. These
are discussed at the end of this section.
G . 4 . 3 . 3 Tracer Log Interpretation
Using Data From Ejector
Tools
Profiling with the tracer ejector tools involves
two basic types of logging techniques; these
techniques are:
• Velocity Shots and
• Controlled Interval Shots
Velocity Shot Interpretation
The recording of a velocity shot consists of
ejecting a small slug of radioactive material into
the flowstream and measuring the time lapse
between detections of this slug by two separate
detectors spaced a known distance apart. The
two detectors eliminate the necessity of estab-
lishing the exact entry time of the slug into the
flowstream. The number and spacing of the
velocity shots depend on the vertical resolution
required in the definition of the injection pro-
file. Typically, the velocity shots are recorded
on time drive with the tool stationary in the
well. The flowrate computation from a veloc-
ity shot can be obtained by reading the amount
of time (t) required for the radioactive slug to
travel the spacing distance (d) between the two
gamma ray detectors.
The flowrate is then:
q = d x A/t.
The flowrate in barrels per day can be ex-
pressed in terms of the casing and tool size.
These dimension variables are sometimes
combined into a chart (available from the
service company) for a specific tool.
Flowrates calculated from the preceding equa-
tion can be somewhat high. If the percentage
flow profiling is the objective, the foregoing
equation is sufficient. If a high degree of ab-
solute flow accuracy is desired, a correction
chart should be requested from the service
(01/97) G-22
company. In the absence of a chart for a spe-
cific tool, the 0.83 factor (similar to the full-
bore flowmeter) is a reasonable approximation
to use.
It is important to remember that the flowrate
calculated with the preceding equation will be
an average of the flowrates existing at each
detector. The flowrates at the detectors may
not be identical; they , in fact, won't be if a
flowrate change occurs within the detector
spacing interval. If a finer vertical resolution is
needed, a technique of using more velocity
shots within the perforated interval can greatly
enhance the vertical resolution. The increase in
time, t, as the tool is positioned at lower points
in the perforated interval allows the construc-
tion of a flow profile with improved vertical
resolution.
Example: If detector spacing is 6 feet, but a 2-
foot vertical resolution is desired, the proce-
dure would be to:
Take a velocity shot in the full-flow regime
above the perforations. This will yield the full-
flow velocity, v1.
Take a velocity shot with the lowest detector 2
feet into the top of the perforations. Any in-
crease in the time between detectors, t, can be
fully assigned to the change in flowrate across
the top 2 feet of perforations.
This process will continue in a similar manner
for all other zones and will give good vertical
resolution over a long interval. The ratio of
velocities in the perforated interval to v1 will
give the factor by which the total flow must be
multiplied to give a flow profile in flowrate
units. This technique assumes that the flow
distribution is linear over the interval of tool
movement.
If any error enters the computation within a
zone, it will be carried throughout the zone. It
will not be corrected until the next zone, where
velocity is constant between detectors.

Controlled Interval Shots (Tracer L o s s
Method), Injection Wells Only
The controlled interval technique or tracer loss
method in an injection well requires the ejec-
tion of a large slug of iodine (I131) above the
perforations and the ability to rapidly lower the
tool to other points downhole while repeatedly
recording the arrival of the slug.
The number of times a slug can be detected
depends primarily on casing size and injection
rate.
In high flowrate injection wells the technique
may be very difficult to implement.
The flowrate at each point (Qi) can be accom-
plished by comparing the area (Ai) under each
of the detection peaks with the area (A100) of
the first detection peak recorded above the per-
forations. The flowrate, Qi, will be a fraction
of the total flowrate above all perforations
(Q100). Note that this is done with one de-
tector; therefore, flowrate calculations are not a
function of time.
This method works well with these assump-
tions:
• The gamma ray intensity is proportional to
the tracer concentration in the wellbore,
• The tracer material loss is proportional to
the flow into a zone compared to total
flowrate.
• The tracer material is uniformly mixed in
the wellbore fluids, and
• No part of the slug is at a zone of fluid exit
when the measurement is taken.
The major drawbacks of this technique are:
• The lack of vertical resolution and
• The maximum rate limitations.
Schlumberger
G . 4 . 3 . 4 Tracer Logging In Producing
Wells (Special Considera-
tions)
Safety in radioactive material handling is a
major consideration when running tracer logs
on a producing well.
Establishing flow profiles in producing wells
using tracer logging is not highly recom-
mended unless certain conditions are met.
The well should be producing into a closed
gathering system, such as a pipeline or holding
tank, where the radioactive iodine will be di-
luted to the extent that authorities would con-
sider it safe before any person could come into
contact with the fluids. If a holding tank is
used, it should be sealed. The fluids should be
left in storage for at least 60 days, or the time
necessary to allow the iodine to reach a level
considered not harmful to humans or the sur-
rounding environment.
Another interpretation consideration is that
most producing wells are diphasic; therefore, it
is advantageous to have iodine that is soluble
in each phase. If two types of iodine are run,
and a fluid density tool is also run, the tracer
can be used to make accurate predictions on the
volume and type of fluid production from vari-
ous zones in a producing well.
For higher flowrates a flowmeter is more accu-
rate than a tracer.
For low rates, below approximately 100 B/D,
the tracer is more accurate. These guidelines
are also true for injection logging.
(01/97) G-23
Introduction to Production Logging

G . 5 FLUID SAMPLING

Production Fluid Sampler Tool* (PST-C*)

Fig. G28: Operation of the fluid sampler tool, PST.

(01/97) G-24
 Schlumberger

G . 5 . 1 Tool Theory
The solenoid valve is closed before sampling, Maximum Pressure (psi) 10000
keeping the hydraulic fluid in the chamber. At Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
the sample depth it is opened. Well pressure Weight (lbs) 44.1
forces the floating piston up, the hydraulic Makeup Length (in.) 110.4
fluid goes through a choke into the upper 3 656
Sample Size (cm )
chamber. When the floating piston reaches the
stop on the shaft it moves the entire shaft up, Table G9: Tool specifications.
pulling the seal piston into position at the bot-
tom of the sample chamber.
Maximum Pressure (psi) 10000
The shaft is locked with a mechanical lock. Test Pressure (psi) 15000
Minimum Temperature (°F) – 65
The hydraulic choke regulator is designed in Maximum Temperature (°F)
such a way that the sampling time is constant Transport/Storage 185
for any well-bore pressure and is approx. two PVT Transfer 350
minutes. Weight (lbs) 26.9
Length (in.) 34.1
Production Fluid Sampler Tool (PST-C) Outside Diameter (in.) 3.0
3 730
Capacity (cm )
Table G10: Sample receptacle specifications.

Fig. G29: Production Sampling Tool schematic.

(01/97) G-25
Introduction to Production Logging
APPENDIX B
Other Types Of Pressure Transducers
The various types of transducers are described
in the following paragraphs.
Capacitive Transducer
Pressure displacing the force-summing element
in this transducer causes a change in capaci-
tance. If a diaphragm is used, it may be one
plate of the capacitor, or if a bourdon tube is
used a movable plate may be mechanically
coupled to the end. Regardless of the method
used, the measurement force is reflected by a
change in capacitance. The basic output of the
capacitive transducer is a frequency signal,
which digitial circuits can use directly. Addi-
tional electronic circuits can convert the fre-
quency signal into a voltage or current signal.
The advantages of the capacitive transducer are
excellent frequency response, low hysteresis,
good linearity, and excellent stability and re-
peatability.
The disadvantages of the transducer are high
sensitivity to temperature variations and vibra-
tion, and requirements of additional electronic
circuits to produce a voltage or current output.
Differential Transformer
In the differential transformer type transducer a
transformer core is mechanically linked to the
force-summing element. Displacement of the
force-summing element produces unbalance
within the secondary windings of the trans-
former, yielding two out-of-phase AC signals
of amplitude difference proportional to the dis-
placement. Additional electronic circuitry is
required to convert these signals into usable
electrical signals.
Advantages of this transducer are high output
levels, low hysteresis, and infinite resolution.
Disadvantages are the AC excitation required,
low frequency response, and sensitivity to
shock and vibration.
(01/97) G-26
Variable Inductance Transducer
In the variable reluctance/inductance transducer
a flux linkage bar is mechanically linked to the
force-summing device. This could be a dia-
phragm, a bellows, or a bourdon tube. The
flux linkage bar is in the magnetic path of an E-
core transformer. When pressure is applied,
the displacement causes a change in the E-core
magnetic flux density, resulting in a trans-
former output proportional to the pressure ap-
plied.
Advantages of this transducer are its medium
level output and rugged construction.
Disadvantages are the requirement for AC ex-
citation, poor linearity, and susceptibility to
stray magnetic fields.
Force Balance (Servo) Transducer
The force balance transducer is a closed loop
servo system that uses a displacment sensor to
monitor a force-summing element, such as a
diaphragm or bourdon tube. The displacement
sensor, which can be any of the transduction
elements used in other types of transducers,
produces a displacement signal proportional to
the applied force. The displacement signal
causes an actuator to generate a force opposing
the applied pressure force to restore the force-
summing element to the null position.
Advantages of this transducer are its high accu-
racy, excellent resolution, high output levels,
and good stability.
Disadvantages are its large size, sensitivity to
shock and vibration, low frequency response,
and requirement for complex electronic cir-
cuits.
Piezoelectric Transducer
When strain is applied to an asymmetrical
crystalline material, such as barium, titanite,
quartz, or rochell salt, an electrical charge is
generated. When a piezoelectric crystal is cou-
pled to a force-summing element, the generated
charge can be made proportional to the applied
pressure. An electronic charge amplifier is
used to convert the transduction signal (charge)
into a voltage signal.

Advantages of this transducer are very high
frequency response (250 Hz), small size, rug-
ged construction, and ability to accept large
over-pressures without damage.
Disadvantages are temperature sensitivity, in-
ability to make static measurements, and spe-
cial electronics required.
Potentiometric Transducer
A simple transducer can be constructed by
coupling the wiper of a multiturn potentiometer
to an amplifying mechanical linkage attached to
the force-summing element.
Advantages of this transducer are low cost,
high-level output, and simple electronic cir-
cuits.
Disadvantages are limited life, poor resolution,
large hysteresis, and low frequency response.
Other Strain Gauge types
Bonded Foil Transducer
The bonded foil strain gauge transducer, con-
sists of a printed circuit resistor pattern on an
insulator that is bonded to the force-summing
element. Deformation of the force-summing
element results in a change in the resistance of
the bonded foil. Generally, these foil patterns
are used in a full, four-arm active bridge con-
figuration.
Advantages of this gauge are good accuracy,
rugged construction, small temperature effects,
and resistance to shock and vibration.
Disadvantages of this gauge are low level out-
put, medium frequency response, limited tem-
perature range, and poor long-term stability.
Semiconductor Transducer
The semiconductor strain gauge transducer,
consists of a piezoresistive element diffused
directly into bulk silicon material. This ele-
ment is then mechanically coupled to a force
summing element, such as a diaphragm or
bellows.
Schlumberger
The principal advantages of this gauge are low
cost (due to automation of the transducer
manufacturing process) and high output level.
These transducers can be constructed with in-
tegral amplifiers that give them high output
level (10 volts) and low output impedance.
Disadvantages of semiconductor gauges are
medium accuracy, hysteresis, and poor long-
term stability. Semiconductor technology
could become a significant factor in future
transducer performance.
Vibrating Wire Transducer
In this transducer, a thin wire is connected in
tension to a force-summing element and is
caused to vibrate under the influence of a mag-
netic field. The frequency of vibration of the
wire is directly related to the tension in the
wire. The wire can be coupled to the force-
summing element so as to cause either an in-
crease or decrease in the tension. Additional
electronics are required to maintain oscillation
of the wire and, thus, to provide an electrical
output. The output can be a frequency signal
converted for direct use by digital circuits.
Advantages of the vibrating wire transducer are
its very high accuracy, low hysteresis, and ex-
cellent long-term stability.
Disadvantages of the vibrating wire transducer
are its sensitivity to shock and vibration, tem-
perature sensitivity, and the requirements for
additional electronics.
SUMMARY
The foregoing discussion described devices
used for wireline logging applications and for
long term placement in the well with later re-
trieval. Those that are placed in the well and
retrieved later (or run in and out of the well on
a slick line with no electrical conductors) must
have memory devices or charts for later refer-
ence. Those used on a wireline usually read-
out in real time and are presented a logging
film, scaled in psi, in a manner similar to other
logging data.
(01/97) G-27
Introduction to Production Logging

EXAMPLES
Example G1
This well was completed as an oil well but not long after starting production the GOR increased
sharply.

The question is:

Is there gas breakthrough in the completed zone or

Is gas channeling from above?

A full set of logs was run with both shut in and flowing passes. The flowing gradio showed a drop in
density in the top 0.5m of the perforations, with the flowmeter showing an increase in flow at this
point. The logs shown are the temperature both shut-in and flowing.

Example G1: Temperature data.

(01/97) G-28
 Schlumberger

ANSWERS

Example G1
The flowing temperature shows the gas entry at the top of the perforations. The shut in passes suggest
that this is coming from above. The slope changes on the curves indicate 3931 and another change
around 3924m.

(01/97) G-29
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) G-30

H . SURVEY PLANNING
H . 1 INTRODUCTION
Planning is the most important facet of a suc-
cessful production logging job. It should in-
clude extensive communication with the serv-
ice company providing the services.
Planning should start with defining the objec-
tives of the proposed survey.
H . 2 OBJECTIVES
• Monitoring Well Performance
• Evaluation Of Completion P erformance
• Well Problem Diagnosis.
The specific objective will guide the selection
of the sensors to be employed and the logging
program to be used.
The next step is to analyze the downhole ex-
pected injection or production rates. This
would include the number of phases or fluid
types encountered by the logging tool and also
the well status. This analysis will reveal if the
tool resolution is adequate to define the prob-
lem and also to select the type of survey to be
run.
To illustrate, if it were desired to detect a one
B/D water entry in a two-thousand B/D oil
producer, the tool must have an accuracy of
+0.05%. Downhole flowrates of the various
phases must be analyzed to define if a produc-
tion logging sensor is capable of the required
accuracy.
Additionally, sensors must have adequate tem-
perature and pressure ratings to function prop-
erly in the well. Pressure and amount of cor-
rosive gases, H2S and CO2, must also be
considered.
After it is determined that a production logging
program is capable of defining a production or
injection problem, you must acquire the needed
data to plan the production logging program
and decide the type of survey.
Schlumberger
H . 3 TYPES OF SURVEY
Production logs can be acquired in a number of
different modes depending on the requirements
of the problem and the well status.
H . 3 . 1 Continuous Log v Depth
• Flow Profiling
• Temperature Survey.
Record of Pressure, Temperature, Flowmeter
and Fluid Density over zones of interest.
Determines a quantitative flow profile in the
case of monophasic or diphasic downhole
fluid flow by using PLQL* (Production Log-
ging QuickLook) interpretation software. For
three phase flow qualitative interpretation, for
example, fluid entry points may be possible.
Gives a temperature profile in real time which
can be used to ascertain fluid movement both
in front of and behind the casing.
Multiple passes are made: besides being neces-
sary for flowmeter calibration these act as Re-
peat Sections as for 'conventional' logging.
Data from multiple passes both up and down
are generally merged into one or more coher-
ent presentations in order to highlight features
for interpretation and LQC purposes.
Temperature, Density and Pressure from the
slowest down undisturbed pass are preferred.
They can be combined with a saturation moni-
toring tool survey.
(01/97) H-1
Introduction to Production Logging
H . 3 . 2 Stationary Logging
• Transient Pressure Record
• Station Log For Flow Profile.
Record of Pressure, temperature, flowmeter
and fluid density at a fixed point in the well as
a function of time.
Primarily used to record P vs. t for transient
analysis of build ups and drawdowns to de-
termine:
• Permeability
• Skin
• Other Reservoir parameters e.g.,
areal extent, PI, AOF.
All data is recorded on magnetic tape and
would also be selectively sampled into mem-
ory in real time.
Data in memory can be analysed in real time
with WTQL* (Well Test QuickLook) using a
wide variety of industry standard plots ac-
cording to the client's requirement.
Data presentation is generally in the form of
listings and plots and not a conventional
'log'.
A separate application is recording stationary
measurements during flow profiling. These
can be used to aid interpretation and can be in-
corporated into the PLQL software.
H . 3 . 3 Survey by Well Status
Flowing Survey
Made with well flowing (or injecting) with sta-
ble conditions downhole.
Depth and station logging yields :
• fluid entry or injection points
• nature and volumetric flowrate of each phase
over different zones in the well (monophasic
or diphasic flow).
Well Shut In
Well shut in at surface, stable conditions
downhole.
(01/97) H-2
Depth logging plus station logging by zone
gives:
• check on flowmeter calibration prior to open
well
• evidence of crossflow or leaks
• borehole fluid interfaces
• temperature profile.
Transient Survey
Made as surface flowrates are changed ie:
• Build Up as Production is decreased or
stopped.
• Drawdown as Production is started or in-
creased.
• Injection as Injection is started or in-
creased.
• Fall Off as Injection is decreased or
stopped.
Log vs. time yields Kh, Skin, P*, geometry
Survey continues until stable trends are ob-
served.
H . 4 DATA GATHERING
The accompanying form can be utilized to or-
ganize this data gathering process. It is ex-
tremely important to provide a detailed well
sketch that indicates the dimension of all asso-
ciated well hardware. This is necessary for log
interpretation information as well as for run-
ning the logging equipment.
Christmas tree information is needed for rig-
ging up.
Other information can be included in the re-
marks section of the production logging ques-
tionnaire. Information that could be of signifi-
cance to the logging operation includes:
How was the well completed? For instance,
can casing damage be expected if expendable
guns were used?
Does the well have paraffin or scale deposits?
Does the well produce sand or formation fines?
Were frac balls used in the well?
Can casing deformation be anticipated based
on the field history?

All this information can be used in equipment
selection to minimize plugging or stoppage or
for sensor operation.
All openhole and cased hole logs should be
reviewed prior to the logging operation. This
review will often provide invaluable informa-
tion that can be used in planning and running
the sensors, and the logs should be available
during the logging operation.
Quite often these logs can be used to estimate
expected flow profiles from a computer analy-
sis, such as Nodal design programs. Use of
this information can be used in some cases to
compare to recorded flow profiles. The fol-
lowing illustration is an example of situation
where the predicted profile matches the actual
flowmeter. The subsequent illustration is an
example of a production problem defined by
not matching the predicted profile.
In some wells base production logs were run
to analyze flow profiles and pressures for
evaluation of completion techniques or to plan
stimulation operations. These logs should also
be available.
Before calling out the logging company, it is
recommended that you run a dummy in the
well to verify entry into the well. Usually the
logging companies will provide a dummy for
this purpose, and the procedure can often
eliminate unnecessary expense if well condi-
tions prohibit descent into the well.
Proper sensor selection is of the utmost im-
portance. This is often related to the flowrates
and size of the casing and tubing. The correct
flow measuring device has to be selected.
The procedure for running the logs should be
determined before the actual operation to pro-
Schlumberger
vide an efficient job that records sufficient data
for proper interpretation. These procedures are
often determined by the stability of the
flowrates. Good flow profiles require stable
flowrates. In some cases wells obtain stable
flowrates in short times, while others require
days. If shut-in information is required, this
can often be obtained before the flowing runs,
if stable flowing rates can be achieved in a
short time after shut in. If this is not the case,
the flowing profiles should be run first.
If it is determined that flowing profiles should
be run before static runs to ensure stable flow
conditions, it is imperative that a swab valve be
present so that rig-up of equipment can done
while the well is flowed through the produc-
tion line. In all cases, a recording of surface
pressures should be made during the entire op-
eration.
Flowing runs should be recorded at different
cable speeds in both up and down directions.
Data should be recorded to establish a good
response line for the profiles. A minimum of
three up and three down runs is required. Af-
ter this is accomplished, station readings can
be recorded at points of interest to aid the in-
terpretation.
Valuable information can often be obtained by
recording data going in the well prior to re-
cording flow profiles. This is particularly true
of temperature data. In some cases, stationary
data should be recorded at various depths in
the well. Data of this type can be important for
detecting fluid levels and other functions.
Time allocation is an important consideration.
The jobs can frequently be run more safely
during daylight. In some cases this may even
dictate the time of year an operation can be
planned.
(01/97) H-3
Introduction to Production Logging

JOB PLANNING DATA SHEET

To perform a successful Production Logging job as much of the following information as available
should be given to the service company before the job.
COMPANY _______________________ DATE________
FIELD _______________________________________
WELL NAME __________________________________
CLIENT REPRESENTATIVE ______________________

DATE OF INITIAL PRODUCTION___________________

INITIAL RATE _____________ WITH CHOKE OF ______________
PRESENT RATE Qo _______ Qg________ Qw _______
WITH CHOKE OF _______________________________________
PRODUCTION METHOD _________________________

PRESSURES
CASING TUBING
FLOWING ____________@BH SURFACE FLOWING __________
SHUT-IN _____________@BH SURFACE SHUT-IN ____________
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE (PB) __________________________
PRESS. USED TO CALCULATE Bo & m* ______________________

TEMPERATURES
FLOWING ____________@BH PB TEMP ____________________
TEMP. USED TO CALCULATE Bo, m, & PB *_________________
*Needed if Bo, PB, and m (oil viscosity) are not available

RESERVOIR AND FLUID PROPERTIES

OIL
OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR ________________________
TANK GRAVITY ____________________________@ ________oF
DENSITY _________________________________________@BH
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

GAS
GRAVITY_________________ DENSITY _______________@BH
G.O.R. ___________________ 1/Bg _______________________
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

WATER
SALINITY _________________ DENSITY________________@BH
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

RESERVOIR DATA
DRAINAGE AREA _________________________________ACRES
DRAINAGE AREA SHAPE FACTOR _________________________
WELLBORE RADIUS _______ft POROSITY __________________
TOTAL COMPRESSIBILITY _______________________________
FORMATION THICKNESS ________________________________

WELL TEST DATA

TEST OBJECTIVE ______________________________________
TEST TYPE ____________________________________________

TOTAL PRODUCTION TIME ___________________hrs.

(If production history varies, use form below)

WELLHEAD SKETCH
Indicate tubing and casing diameter and grade, position and nature of valves, perforations, deviation, cementation, wellhead
connections, permanent depth datum, and all pertinent data on mechanical arrangement of well.

(01/97) H-4

H . 5 SUMMARY
Discuss Logging Program
• Why is survey being run?
• Objectives of the survey?
• Contingency or back up plans
• Any other operations e.g. workover or
logging linked to the present job results?
• Who in the client organisation will take
decisions?
• When are final results to be presented?
• Expected job start date.
Know In Advance
• Wellhead pressure
• Expected GOR
• Expected flowrates, BHP and BHT
• Acid, H2S, CO2 content
• Hydrates possibility
• Well deviation.
Know The Completion String
• Minimum restrictions
• Liner size
• Distance from WEG to top perforation
• Distance from bottom perforation to
Hold up Depth
• Wellhead connection type.
Check The Rig Up
• Available height
• Deck space
• Power point position
• Voltage and power rating of supplies
• Air supplies and capacity
• Crane size and specifications
• Number of tugger's on rig floor.
Cables must be selected to take account of the
well conditions and nature of the fluids. Of
particular interest are:
• Surface pressure
• GOR
• H2S, CO2 presence
• Temperature and expected duration of
exposure
• Depth and deviation.
Schlumberger
Note that no cables exist which can withstand
an acid environment more than 1-2%. Cables
will disintegrate rapidly on exposure to even
moderate concentrations of HCl acid.
H . 6 AFTER SURVEY CHECKS ON
DATA AND DATA QUALITY
H . 6 . 1 General Information
- Well sketch with:
• Perforation Details
• Deviation
• Casing Sizes and Weights
• Completion String, depths and sizes.
- Tool sketch with:
• Tool Lengths
• Tool Measure Points
• Tool OD's
• Accesory description and position
• Tool String Weights
• Spinner type and cage size.
- Remarks with:
• Correlation Log identified
• Production and pressure data
• PVT data
• Log Objectives/purpose of survey
• Summary of log technique/method
• Sequence of events
• Comments on unusual or anomalous re-
sponses
• Note of any events affecting interpreta-
tion
• Summary of results.
H . 6 . 2 Logs versus depth
• All passes on depth, or depth offset indi-
cated
• CCL/ GR present on all passes
• Logging speed, direction, and well con-
dition indicated in tails for each pass
• Perforations shown on all passes
• At least two runs at slow speed (1 up, 1
down) unless precluded by jetting from
perfs
• For the CPLT the parameter SOM should
be set to MANU for depth logging.
(01/97) H-5
Introduction to Production Logging
H . 6 . 3 Logs versus time
• All readings stable before a rate change
• Depth of tool indicated on station logs.
H . 7 SPECIFIC MEASUREMENTS
H . 7 . 1 Flowmeter
• Logging speeds held constant over inter-
pretation zones
• Logging speeds evenly spaced
• Correct spinner pitch & dia. chosen for
flow rate/casing
• Stationary readings made between perfo-
rations at each flowrate
• No scales wrapping, scales adjusted to
reasonable values
• In situ calibration shown for shut in and
flowing surveys
• Repsonse slopes and thresholds match
expected values
• Multiple repeat passes made if stabilisa-
tion a problem.
• Total flow compares to surface rate
± 10%
• Tool constants should reflect the flow-
meter(s) types used
• Flowmeter properly centralized.
H . 7 . 2 Density
• For CPLT*: coefficient attached for all 4
sensors
• For PTS *'PCOR' tables of pressure
gauge attached.
• VCO calibrations made downhole close
to zone of interest
• Before survey check film made and at-
tached
• Fluid density shows expected value in
sump; agrees with gradient from ma-
nometer.
• Water cut matches measured values
± 10%
• Up and down passes repeat within
± 0.02 gm/cc
• Depth of any fluid interfaces noted
• Stationary readings recorded.
(01/97) H-6
H . 7 . 3 NFD* (nuclear densimeter)
• Shop calibration attached, less than 2
months old.
H . 7 . 4 Strain Gauge Pressure
• Master calibration < 6 months old, data
attached on print
• VCO calibrations made downhole
• Gradient survey taken while running in
• Stationary readings taken between perfo-
rations
• P vs. t listings during transient surveys
attached.
H . 7 . 5 Thermometer
• VCO calibration performed downhole
• Shut in survey recorded down at slow
speed during run in
• Stationary readings recorded between
perforations.
H . 7 . 6 Crystal Pressure Gauge
• Listing of calibration coefficients at-
tached:valid 2 years
• Pressure stabilised before transients in-
troduced
• Static, stabilised readings agree with
strain gauge.
H . 7 . 7 Caliper
• Before survey calibration attached to
print.
• Survey logged up at < 2000 ft/hr
• Caliper matches expected casing i/d
• Tubing shoe noted and reported.
H . 8 PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIP-
MENT FOR PRODUCTION
LOGGING JOBS
Most service company wellhead equipment are
standard off-the-shelf items supplied by com-
panies such as Bowen. Special equipment
such as ultra-high pressure (20,000 psi) or
H 2S service (up to 15,000 psi) require a long
lead time. There are only a few sets of this
equipment manufactured. All equipment

should be certified by shop testing, usually on
a quarterly schedule.
Various equipment configurations and capa-
bilities are listed on the following table.
A typical set of pressure equipment is illus-
trated in the Figure H1. Descriptions of the
various components follow.
Fig. H1: Well Head Equipment.
Schlumberger
H . 8 . 1 Christmas Tree Adapter
The Christmas tree adapter connects the service
company wellhead equipment to the well. The
numerous configurations of wellhead fittings
require a proper adapter be available. These
connections are subject to the full wellhead
pressure whenever the well is open, and the
service companies must have control over the
maintenance and reliability of the connections.
H . 8 . 2 Blowout Preventer (BOP)
The blowout preventer is located immediately
above the Christmas tree adapter. The device
has rubber-faced rams that close against the
cable to contain the well while the tool is in the
hole. The rams are closed either hydraulically
by a cylinder operated with a hand pump or
manually by a hand wheel. BOPs that are hy-
draulically closed must be hydraulically
opened, and BOPs that are manually closed
must be opened by the hand wheel.
On jobs with pressures in excess of 5,000 psi,
or when the well fluid is gas, regardless of
pressure, a special dual ram preventer with a
grease injection port should be used. A
grease-sealed BOP is the only method of ob-
taining an absolute seal against gas with a BOP
closed on a stranded line.
H . 8 . 3 Lubricator Riser
The lubricator riser pipe, blowout preventer,
and tree flange form an extension of the well
above the master valve. The riser pipe above
the master valve must be the length of the en-
tire downhole tool string plus three feet. Long
risers contribute to the difficulty of the job.
This can be overcome by installing a hydrauli-
cally operated lubricator valve (e.g., a Baker-
Subsea Lubricator Valve #738-20) below the
rig floor; this permits the tubing to act as a
riser. The service company needs only a short
riser above their BOP for emergency work on
their cable.
H . 8 . 4 Grease Seal Equipment
Well fluid is prevented from leaking around the
cable by running the cable through several feet
of flow tube with an inside diameter approxi-
mating the cable diameter. A viscous grease is
pumped into the close fitting annular space
between the hole and cable at a pressure above
well pressure. Grease is easier to seal than
well fluid; therefore, well fluid does not leak
(01/97) H-7
Introduction to Production Logging
past the grease on moving or stationary cables.
More grease leaks as the cable is moving.
Some grease leaks into the well and some leaks
to the outside along the cable. The grease es-
caping to the outside is returned to the surface
by a flowhose.
To seal the cable in emergencies or for pro-
longed periods, a rubber pack-off gland is as-
sembled above the flow tube. A hand pump is
used to activate the packing gland, and a rub-
ber sleeve is compressed around the cable by a
hydraulically operated piston.
H . 8 . 5 Optional Equipment
Ball Safety Valve
An automatic safety valve is available to shut in
the well in case the cable is pulled off the tool
and is blown out of the hole. The ball valve is
installed at the top of the rise, just below the
grease head. The valve is closed by the flow
of well fluid out the top of the riser; once
closed, it remains closed by pressure inside the
lubricator.
Tool Catcher
A tool catcher is available for the 5,000-psi and
10,000-psi equipment. The purpose of a tool
catcher is to save a fishing job if the tool is
pulled into the top of the lubricator and the ca-
ble is pulled off. The tool catcher is installed
just below the grease head or just below a ball
valve, if one is used. When actuated, the tool
catcher will latch onto the cable head fishing
neck and hold the tool suspended in the lubri-
cator.
Tool Trap
A mechanical tool trap can be used to trap tools
inside the lubricator. This is an alternative to
the tool catcher. The 5,000 psi trap is manu-
ally opened, and the 10,000-psi models are
hydraulically opened to allow tools to pass
downhole. The pivoted trap inside the tool
deflects upward to let tools enter the lubricator;
it then falls across the lubricator to prevent
tools from falling downhole. The cable can
move freely with the trap open or closed.
(01/97) H-8
Bell Line Wiper
A Bell Rubber Company Model HR Stripmas-
ter Oil Saver, otherwise known as the Bell
Line Wiper, may be installed above the grease
head. The Bell Line Wiper provides an effec-
tive means of cleaning the line of grease, and it
is particularly recommended in pollution-
sensitive areas. Since the Bell Line Wiper has
only 3,000 psi working pressure, it must not
be used in lieu of the regular hydraulic packing
gland to pack off the cable in emergency high-
pressure situations. When used with the spe-
cial kit with a 100-psi relief valve between the
wiper and the greasehead packoff, the wiper is
limited to a wiping action only.
Accessory Equipment
Accessory equipment consists of the grease
pump and hoses; test, bleedoff, and equalizer
manifolds; pressure gauge; and a wellhead
pressure recorder.
Grease Pump
There are two grease pumps available. One
pump is for operating at pressures up to 5,000
psi, and the other pump is for operating at up
to 15,000 psi.
High-Pressure Grease Hoses
The pressure ratings of high-pressure grease
hoses corresponds to the pump units with
which they are used. On 15,000-psi (WHE-C)
equipment, steel pipe and swivel fittings are
used instead of rubber hoses. Steel pipe is op-
tional for 10,000-psi (WHE-B) equipment; the
figure to the right illustrates a typical set of
pressure equipment for 10,000 psi.
Grease
For pressures below 5,000 psi and tempera-
tures above 40oF, Texaco MARPAC II grease
may be used; however, the greases listed be-
low are preferred:
Chevron Oil Company, ALTA VIS
Grade 150 for -30˚F (-35˚C) to +30˚F (-1˚C)
Grade 1000 for +30˚F (-1˚C) to +70˚F
(+21˚C)
 Schlumberger

Grade 7500 for 70oF (21oC) and above • Ensure that you have sufficient riser
available to accomodate toolstring
Inhibitor must be added when H 2S is encoun-
tered. • Ensure that lubricator valve is run on
semi submersibles
H . 8 . 6 Wellhead Equipment Pointers
• Use two grease injection points on high
GOR wells. Ensure adequate grease
• Select WHE to match expected wellhead supply and flowtubes, according to local
pressure, maximum tool diameter and procedures.
service (H2S/standard)
For Example:
• Select grease tubes to match actual meas-
ured cable diameter over complete length
0 -5K Liquid 3 flowtubes
of cable
0 -5K Gas 4 flowtubes
5-10K Liquid 4 flowtubes
• Purge all hydraulic control lines of air
5-10K Gas 5 flowtubes
before connecting

• Operationally check all items when as-

sembling before job • Ensure you have enough weights for
pressures and flowrates expected.

(01/97) H-9
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) H-10
 Schlumberger

I. COMPUTER EVALUATION METHODS

I . 1 COMPUTER EVALUATION I . 2 . 1 Procedure
METHODS Step 1
Production logging lends itself to computerised Gathering the data.
evaluation methods. There are many programs
available to perform everything from a simple Overlays of spinners, temperatures, and Gra-
spinner calibration to a sophisticated multi- diomanometers.
phase flow analysis.
Step 2
Field acquisition systems have a choice of two Tabular listing of the spinner data and cable
systems depending on the intended use of the velocity.
survey:
Crossplot of spinner and cable velocities.
• Production Logging Quicklook*
• Well Test Quicklook*

I . 2 PRODUCTION LOGGING
QUICKLOOK HIGHLIGHTS
• Quantitative interpretation at the wellsite.
• Up/down passes memorised in real time.
• Sensor data is averaged and tabulated by
zone. Stationary flowmeter data can be
added in.
• Produce composite films and data tapes
of selected data from these different
passes.
• Choose the best data for the interpreta-
tion and log quality control before the
tool is brought out of the well.
Fig. I1: Model crossplot for computer calculations.
• Gradio data, corrected for friction is used
with spinner and well data to determine
individual downhole flowrates by zone. Step 3
NFD density can be used. Gradiomanometer data and flowmeter data are
• Downhole flowrates are converted to merged to give a two-phase flow profile
surface rates using standard fluid con-
versions and client supplied PVT/fluid I.2.2 Flowrate Interpretation
data.
• Uses Spinner calibration
• Output the zoned interpretation results in
a standard customer listing, as well as a • Uses input parameters
cumulative surface flow rate log with an • Uses Data PL entries
adjacent well sketch. Computed
flowrates are presented graphically in the For each zone calculate the following quantities
form of a log alongside the raw sensor and store in the QPL table:
data for ease of interpretation.
• Listing of results in client oriented for- - Spinner calibration lines:
mat. - Slope, intercept, correlation
- Friction corrected fluid density (optional):
FDEN*

(01/97) I-1
Introduction to Production Logging

- PVT parameters: Rs,Bo,Bg1,µ, Step 4

The computer will output a graphic flow pro-
- Expected densities: GASD*, OILD*, file:
WATD*
- Holdups: Yw,Yo,Yg (2 phases only) • Log data
- Total & Slip velocity: Vt,Vs • Downhole fluid properties
- Downhole Rates: QTD*,QGD*,QOD* • Interpretation results at downhole condi-
- Surface Rates: OILQ*,GASQ*,WATQ* tions
• Interpretation results at surface condi-
The computer can then output a more under- tions.
standable listing of all the data, including:
I . 3 WELL TEST QUICKLOOK
QPL Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 HIGHLIGHTS
GASQ 10297.5 6148.17 3019.1 31.680
OILQ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WATQ 732.952 600.648 530.77 0.0
• Real-time monitoring and analysis of pres-
surface sure transient tests using data recorded
rates against time with tool stationary .
QTD 12569.7 7682.77 4009.1 36.370
QGD 66.4584 39.7631 19.529 .20420 • Selected number of data points stored in
downhole memory as acquisition to tape (permanent
rates storage) proceeds.
QOD 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
VT 573.013 350.233 182.76 1.6580
• Stored data are then used to produce inter-
tot./slip
velocity pretation plots and listings to determine the
VS 0.0 0.0 0.0 136.70 current state of the test.
MUHH .017892 .017899 .01791 .01794
BG1 154.947 154.620 154.59 155.13 • A wide variety of plots can be produced as
PVT data the test continues.
BO 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
RS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 • Plots and listings are displayed on
YO 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 screen,film or printer in concise,easy to
Holdups read format.
YW .058310 .078181 .13239 .97270
PSLO .051632 .053272 .05294 .05321
PINT -687.37 -418.96 -217.1 2.2543
• Straight lines can be fitted to any part of the
SPINNER curve.
PCC .996942 .999419 .99887 .99996
LQC ! • Slopes and intercepts are computed for
NSLO 0.0 0.0 0.0 .06177 each line, and interpretations can be per-
NINT 0.0 0.0 0.0 -7.249 formed using this data as appropriate.
NCC 0.0 0.0 0.0 .99997
GASD .132650 .132370 .13234 .13281 • Listings are adjustable in terms of number
PVT data and frequency of outputs presented.
OILD 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WATD .990773 .990137 .98969 .98962
FDEN .182688 .199431 .24585 .96623
CDIA 3.9600 3.96000 3.9600 3.9600
from
DPL/user
QIOP 2.00000 2.00000 2.0000 2.0000

Table I1: Summary Listing for a four zone survey.

(01/97) I-2

I . 4 ADVANCED COMPUTER
METHODS
The use of more powerful computers allows
the interpreter to utilise more complex models
to analyse the production logging data. The
current production log interpretation program
used in the computing centres is called
PLGLOB*, (Production Log Global).
The program applies an inverse solution ap-
proach to determine individual flow rates of
oil, gas and water. It proposes a solution and
then tests whether it fits with the production
logging measurement. Via successive itera-
tions, the program finds the flow rates that are
in the best global agreement with the measured
log data, hence the name.
Interpreting conventional two phase flow has
traditionally been carried out using empirical
correlations based on field or laboratory ex-
periments. However these correlations do not
cover the full range of flow conditions en-
countered in the well.
The PLGLOB program overcomes this by in-
corporating a general liquid/gas flow model
developed by Dukler. This model relates the
superficial gas and liquid velocities to the type
of flow regime and was derived by close ex-
amination of gas-liquid flow mechanisms.
Duklers work has also been corroborated by
field and laboratory observations.
Fig. I2: Dukler Model for multiphase flow.
Figure I2 shows a typical Dukler flow regime
map.
Schlumberger
In general, the flow patterns can be classified
into five categories depending on the distribu-
tion and velocity of the gas.
When the gas velocity in the borehole is low,
the bubbles tend to be small and rise faster than
the liquid phase, this is termed bubble flow.
When the liquid flow rate is high, gas is dis-
persed into smaller widely separated bubbles, a
dispersed bubble regime. When the gas flow
rate increases the bubbles tend to coalesce
forming large and elongated bubbles separeted
by slugs of liquid containing smaller bubbles,
this is called slug flow.
At even higher gas flow rates, the flow regime
becomes chaotic, producing a frothy mixture
containing some larger elongated bubbles,
termed froth flow.
At very high gas velocities, the gas becomes
the continuous phase and contains tiny droplets
of liquid which form a mist hence the name
mist flow.
The diagram below (Figure I3) explains how
the PLGLOB program works.
Step 1 - Initialisation
The program first assumes flow rates for gas,
oil and water in the well which lie within
arange specified by the analyst. These can be
chosen by examining the surface flow rates.
Using these estimated flows, the superficial
velocities for oil and gas (defined as the indi-
vidual flow rate divided by the cross sectional
area) can be determined. These initial estimates
are then fed into a flow model. The flow model
steps are shown in the right hand side of the
diagram.
Step 2 - Flow Model
Input data such as individual phase flow rates,
well deviation, pipe and tool diameters and the
superficial velocities are used to compute the
hol-up values of each phase. This is achieved
using the simple bubble flow volumetric
model.
Step 3 - Separating the liquid and gas
phases
The next stage employs the Dukler model to
find the flow regime, the superficial gas veloc-
ity and the friction gradient. This requires in-
(01/97) I-3
Introduction to Production Logging
formation on liquid and gas flowrates, densi-
ties and viscosities, the gas/liquid interfacial
tensions, average borehole pressure for the
interval being examined, pipe roughness and
well deviation.
Step 4 - Sepearating oil from water
Using another volumetric model, developed by
Choquette and modified by Piers, the program
computes the superficial oil velocity. This
needs details about the hold up of oil and water
derived from Step 1, densities of water and oil
and deviation.
Step 5 - Iteration
The outputs from Steps 1, 2 and 3 are fed into
Step 1 and the program iterates until the com-
puted superficial oil and gas velocities stabi-
lise.
Step 6 - Tool response calculations
At this point the porgram takes all the outputs
from the flow model and feeds each of these
Fig. I3: PLGLOB flow chart.
(01/97) I-4
into tool response equations which compute
the theoretical response for each sensor.
The difference between the real an simulated
values for each tool is defined in terms of co-
herence.
Step 7 - Comparing responses
Once every tool response has been computed,
the program combines all the simulated re-
sponses and examines how they differ, in a
global way, from all the measured values. This
enables a global incoherence value to be deter-
mined.
The flow rates of the individual phases are then
changed to minimise this value.
The output showing flow values for each
phase also includes information on how the
simulated values compared with those meas-
ured.
 Schlumberger

The example in Figure I4 shows how the spin-

ner values did not agree with the rest of the
sensors. The program has computed a “new”
spinner response.

Fig. I5: Raw logged data suggesting crossflow.

The PLGLOB analysis of this data set (plus the
flowing passes) shows clearly that there is a lot
of crossflow into zone 1, both of water and
oil.

Fig. I4: Example of PLGLOB computation with the

spinner data reconstructed based on the other
measurements.
The spinner in this zone was influenced by low
flowrates and the high viscosity of the fluid
entering the well. The other sensors gave a
more coherent answer.

This is a data set logged over several passes

while the well was shut in (Figure I5). The
spinner shows cross-flow between zone 1 and
zones 3 and 4. The temperature show no
change over the interval from zone 5 to zone 1
with respect to time. This suggests an upward
flow in this interval.

Above zone 1 there is a tendency towards the

thermal gradient indicating no flow in this re-
gion. This means that the only flow is in the
region of the five perforated zones.

(01/97) I-5
Introduction to Production Logging

In the example in Figure I6, there are three

phases flowing in the well. In addition there is
a possibility of channelling to be investigated.
An additional measurement is added to the tool
string to assist in this complex picture, the
Water Flow Log.

The lowest zone in the well, below perfora-

tions 3, shows some suggestion of flow on the
temperature, it is relatively constant. The spin-
ner is also very constant and the gradioma-
nometer shows a single phase fluid (inside the
casing). The Water Flow Log identifies water
flowing outside the casing from below the
lowest perforation.

The PLGLOB analysis shows flows of this

water from zone 3 plus oil and gas. (The well
is producing below bubble point).

Fig. I6: PLGLOB output for the raw data.

(01/97) I-6
 Schlumberger

Fig. I7: Multiphase flow example using the Water Flow Log in addition to the standard sensors.

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Introduction to Production Logging

APPENDIX FIELD COMPUTATION CONSTANTS

BS Bit Size
SGSN Strain Gauge Serial Number
PCTS Pressure Correction Temperature
Source
CDAT Calibration Date
PDES Plot Destination
PZOF Presentation Zone Offset used in
the computation of interpretation
zones
TCSH Thru Tubing Caliper Shift
Table I2: Field computation constant mnemonics.

Data Selection

PGS Pressure Gauge

Selection
PVTS PVT data Selection
CALC Uses calcu-
lated values
QPL Use current
(manual)
QPL data en-
tries
RHOS Density Selector
WFDE From CPLT
RHOF From NFD
GRHO From GMS
PRH From PTS
(deviation
corrected
with shift)
UPRH From PTS
(uncorrected)
UFWD From
CPLT(uncorr
ected)
SPIS Spinner Selector (e.g. SPIN or
S1F,S2F)
TMPS Temperature (e.g. WTEP
selector or PTEM)
Table I3: Data Selection Constants.

(01/97) I-8
 Schlumberger

QIOP Flow Interpretation Option

FDEN Fluid Density
FLOW Flowmeter
AUTO Largest of flows from Density or
Flowmeter
VTS Total Velocity Selector
DEPT Depth from logs up and down
TIME From stationary readings
ATIM Similar to TIME but with auto loading
of DPL tables
DFM Direction of Fluid Motion
UP Producing well
DOWN Injection well
VPCF Velocity Profile Correction Factor:
**use chart**
FCHD Flag for Cased Hole Diameter
CSID Casing ID constant
CALI Caliper (TCS output)
PTHR Positive Threshold – From
CP41,TIRA calculated
NTHR Negative Threshold – Automatically
during QINT
TIRA Threshold Intercept Ratio – From
PTHR, NTHR
SRS Spinner Reponse Slope – Used to cal-
culate total velocity from stationary
data present in the DPL 0SPI entries
when VTS=(A)TIM
CSID Casing ID. Should be set correctly.
SVAM Minimum acceptable spinner value.
Used to eliminate spinner values close
to zero. Default is 1.0
Table I4: Flowrate computation constants.

DEVI Deviation used for: slip velocity algorithm

correcting gradio if
RHOS=RHOF,
UPRH, UFWD
FDSH Fluid Density Shift Linear shift applied to all FDDP entries (DPL tables)
in order to compute FDEN (QPL table entry)

GFCF Gradio Friction Determines whether friction corrections are to be ap-

Correction Flag plied to FDDP when the QINT task is done / not done
(YES/NO) in the case of a water-only fluid model; otherwise,
uses heaviest hydrocarbon viscosity (MUHH) esti-
mates friction on tool and casing using effective fluid
velocity, Moody friction factor and iterative loop.
Table I5: Density computation constants.

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Introduction to Production Logging

FMOD Fluid Model e.g. OW,OG,W, etc.

Selected during INTE task de-
pending on which of the following
constants are set.

GGRA Gas Gravity

OGRA Oil Gravity
WSAL Water Salinity
Table I6: Fluid parameter computation constants.

In addition, the following must be set

From the Client.

GOR Gas Oil Ratio, or Watch Units.

BPP Bubble Point Pressure and
BPT Bubble Point Temperature

Program will calculate the following data for each level.

GDD Gas Downhole Density

ODD Oil Downhole Density
WDD Water Downhole Density
PVTS= QPL
BG1 1/Bg,formation gas volume
factor forces to use current
B0 Oil formation volume factor
QPL entries
RS Solution GOR
MUHH Viscosity heaviest hydrocarbon
Table I7: Program calculated constants.

If any of above have been manually set, then computations will no longer be performed and values set
will be used.

(01/97) I-10
 Schlumberger

J. NEW DEVELOPMENTS

J . 1 FLOVIEW MEASUREMENT
J . 1 . 1 Introduction
Interpretation of PL data and determination of
downhole flow profile under single phase
flowing conditions is usually a straightforward
task. Multiphase flow is a more complex phe-
nomenon, as holdup, slippage velocity and
phase segregation complicate the flow behav-
ior.

Holdup can be defined as the ratio of a given

pipe cross section occupied by a particular
fluid phase. Under multiphase conditions, the
light phase moves faster than the heavier one
by a magnitude known as Slippage Velocity.
The direct relationship between the density dif-
ference of coexisting fluids, the holdup, and
the slippage velocity has been presented ear- Fig. J1: Spinner tool in deviated well with multiphase
lier. For the interpretation of production logs flow.
conducted under multiphase flow conditions, Figure J2 below shows the holdup and veloc-
determination of downhole holdup is of major ity profile of the light and heavy phases as a
importance. function of deviation. The plots show that
both holdup and velocity change significantly
The primary tools used to calculate holdup are as a function of deviation within the cross sec-
Gradiomanometer type tools which measure tion of the pipe.
the downhole fluid density. However, the
complex behavior of wells flowing under multi
phase conditions pose major difficulties to the
interpretation of flow profile using such con-
ventional sensors. These complications be-
come more severe in deviated wells, as in-
creasing deviation affects the flow regime,
phase segregation and velocity distribution.

For example, a spinner flowmeter in segre-

gated flow may exhibit a response resembling
down flow (Figure J1). This is due to the light
phase moving up the high side of the pipe and
the heavy phase falls out and flows down the
low side of the pipe. This can happen even if Fig. J2: Water-oil stratified flows in 5.5 in. casing -
no water is produced at the surface. water cut is 50%.

(01/97) J-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Usually, when the holdup of one phase is ated with interpretation. The tool hardware is
small, Gradiomanometer type tools have diffi- schematically illustrated in Figure J4.
culties providing a reasonable phase split. The
reason is the magnitude of the density change Relative
due to the existence of the second phase is Bearing
small and remains within the accuracy of the
tool (Figure J3).

Electronic
Boards

Caliper
Sensor

Probes

Fig. J3: Standard gradio response in multiphase flow.

In addition, most Gradiomanometer tools de-
fine the fluid density by means of differential
pressure transducers, which can be severely
affected by high turbulence, known as the jet
effect
Also, high flow rates affects the density meas-
urements due to friction, which has to be cor-
rected before holdup computations. The next
section briefly describes a new sensor de-
signed to overcome some of the problems as-
sociated with multiphase flow in deviated and
horizontal wells.
DEFT-A
Fig. J4: FloView Tool configuration.
Four probes are symmetrically located below a
centralizer arm, capable of providing four in-
dependent digital holdup measurements on a
given cross sectional area of the pipe. Other
measurements of the tool include relative
bearing and 1-axis caliper. The relative bearing
measurement gives the position of each probe
with respect to the cross sectional area of the
pipe.

J.1.2 New Production Logging

Sensor – FloView
A new Production Logging tool sensor has
recently been introduced to better handle some
of the interpretation problems related to multi-
phase flow in wells. The FloView tool is
mainly designed to be integrated with the con-
ventional production logging tools. The tool
enhances the capability of the analyst to deter-
mine the downhole phase split and water
holdup, and eliminate the uncertainties associ-

(01/97) J-2
 Schlumberger

Bubble Count

Friction effects

Probe
3rd Oil entry

Jetting, Venturi
effects

1
Probe 2nd Oil entry
signal
0

Fig. J5: FloView measurement technique.

Ist Oil entry
Figure J5 schematically shows the working
principle for a single probe. A signal is con-
Water entry
tinuously applied to the probe tip. If the probe
is located in a conductive media (water), the
current is returned through the earth connec- Stagnant water
tion. If the probe is surrounded by a non-
conductive media (oil or gas bubble), the re- Mud

turned current drops significantly. Therefore, Gradiomanometer

Holdup
the high and low signals measured across a Density
threshold band by the probe allows the tool to
discriminate hydrocarbon (oil and/or gas) and Fig. J6: FloView versus standard gradio measurement.
water phases.
Figure J6 shows a schematic comparison be-
Water holdup is calculated based on the ratio of tween the measured bubble count, holdup,
the time domain where the voltage is above the fluid image and gradiomanometer response in
affixed threshold. Bubble count is calculated oil/water flow. The density measurement can
based on the number oscillations of the voltage be particularly difficult to interpret in wells
across the threshold. Therefore, computation with a standing water column where digital
of water holdup and bubble count can be done holdup measurement removes the ambiguity.
for each probe independently, and averaged
over each sampling interval. The measurement In deviated and horizontal wells, availability of
is digital and does not require a prior calibra- independent holdup values for each probe is of
tion. significant importance, where water holdup in
the upper and lower sections within the pipe
The advantages of this technology are: might be different.
• The measurement (holdup) is not af-
fected by complications due to jet effect,
friction and very high/low water cut val-
ues. This significantly improves the ver-
tical resolution of the tool.
• Individual fluid entry locations can be
determined quite accurately.
• The four independent probe holdup
measurements can be used quantitatively
in the interpretation.
• A fluid image across the cross section of
the pipe is also generated from the meas-
ured probe data.

(01/97) J-3
Introduction to Production Logging

Figure J7 shows recent holdup images from

horizontal conduits, measured with a two tan-
dem FloView combination, where a larger
wellbore area is covered (8 probes). The im-
ages reflect the segregated nature of the flow,
where quantitative oil and water holdup values
are determined for horizontal well flow diag-
nostics.

Fig. J7: Flow in horizontal pipe with oil and water

segretation. The photo compares well with the
FloView image.

(01/97) J-4
 Schlumberger

J.1.3 Examples

Figure J8 presents the basic

production logging sensor
data from six different
passes. The measured bub-
ble counts (DFBM1) from
FloView are also shown in
the third track.

The Gradiomanometer indi-

cates a minor density reduc-
tion at XX58 ft and a major
drop at XX30 ft. Note that
both spinner and temperature
readings also confirm fluid
entry into the wellbore at
these two points.

As the well was producing

below the bubble point, the
minor temperature drop at
XX58 ft could be due to
Joule-Thomson cooling ef-
fect associated with gas en-
try.

Classical interpretation tech-

niques under such circum-
stances assume hydrocarbon
entry into the wellbore at
these two points, mainly due
to density reduction.

However, FloView bubble

counts till XX30 ft are
reading zero, indicating that
the fluid entering the well-
bore at XX58 ft is actually
water. The water entering
the wellbore at this point has
a lower density compared to
the stationary water column
below. This conclusion was
also supported by the shut-in
passes.

Fig. J8: Example with multiple passes of both the standard sensors and the FloView tool.

(01/97) J-5
Introduction to Production Logging

To ascertain the performance of FloView as an input into the interpretation model, all PL sensors, in-
cluding FloView holdup data were imposed on PLGLOBAL. The summary of interpreted flow profile
is also shown in Figure J9.

Fig. J9: PLGLOB analysis showing the three phase flow in the well. The Flowview image indicates clearly the first
hydrocarbon entry (red colour).

(01/97) J-6

The fluid images are displayed in the right-
most track, generated from the holdup meas-
urements from three probes since one probe
was damaged during the survey. All passes
and all probes clearly indicate the first hydro-
carbon entry into the wellbore at XX30 ft.
Note that the reconstructed water holdup from
PLGLOBAL, as shown in track-3, is in perfect
agreement with the value measured by
FloView. This increases the confidence in the
interpretation and on the overall hydrocarbon
holdup (Yg + Yo). Without the new digital
holdup measurement, the minor density reduc-
tion at XX58 ft could have been misinterpreted
as hydrocarbon entry into the wellbore, and the
overall flow profile would have been changed.
The current design of the probes differentiate
only water and hydrocarbons. However, the
hydrocarbon phase was further split into oil
and gas, based on the oil and gas holdup val-
ues computed from the PLGLOBAL flow
model.
Example 2
The objective of the survey was to identify the
main source of water and gas in a well which
has a deviation of 52.5 degrees. Several
passes with the PLT were conducted, but only
four passes with FloView were recorded. The
relative bearing measurement showed that the
Schlumberger
string was not rotating during the survey. The
well deviation, downhole density and individ-
ual probe holdup data from four passes are
presented Figure J10.
The sensors indicate a stationary column of
water below XX45 ft, with an average density
of 1.151 g/cc. A decrease in the measured
holdup, accompanied with a reduction of den-
sity above this depth, indicates the first hydro-
carbon entry into the wellbore.
The measured holdup from FloView shown in
tracks 2 to 5, indicate a sudden drop at the top
of the upper perforation while spinner is indi-
cating an increasing trend at that section. The
reduction of density at this point could be at-
tributed to further reduction of water holdup
due to hydrocarbon entry. Since the well is
producing below the bubble point, gas is en-
tering into the wellbore, as the temperature
sensor also shows a cooling effect.
The well is not fully stable, as indicated by the
noise on the pressure and Gradiomanometer
data. Note that the first hydrocarbon entry into
the wellbore at XX45 ft is clearly seen by all
probes.
(01/97) J-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. J10: Raw data of FloView recorded density and well deviation.

(01/97) J-8
 Schlumberger

Fig. J11: PLGLOB output and the FloView image showing the flow profiles for the fluids.

(01/97) J-9
Introduction to Production Logging

Figure J11 shows the interpretation results, the Example 3

measured and reconstructed sensor data, the
flow profile and FloView fluid images. The
fluid images indicate some degree of phase
segregation within the wellbore, with probes 1
and 4 indicating more water. Probes 2 and 3
indicate only hydrocarbon flow. The recon-
structed sensor data matches the measured val-
ues quite well.
The reconstruction for the mean holdup from
FloView, shown in the fifth track, is not as
good above the top perforation, possibly due
to phase segregation. Note that the mean
holdup is the average of all passes and all
probes. This example shows a difficult case,
where the hole deviation was 52.5 degrees;
still, it was possible to detect hydrocarbon en-
tries and holdup values, especially in the two
phase region.
The third PLT + FloView survey was con-
ducted under bi-phasic conditions in a vertical
well while flowing through a 36/64" choke.
The relative bearing measurement showed that
the string was not rotating during the survey.
Two of the probes were damaged while low-
ering the tool into the wellbore with one also
showing occasional spikes. This example
shows the possibility of utilizing the local fre-
quency from only one of the probes in a verti-
cal well to determine the downhole flow profile
and phase split.

(01/97) J-10
 Schlumberger

Fig. J12: A biphasic analysis made using a single FloView probe as the others were damaged.

(01/97) J-11
Introduction to Production Logging
The downhole flow profile and FloView fluid
images are shown in Figure J12. The FloView
images were generated using probes 1 and 3.
Due to damage on probes 2 and 4, the data
from these two probes were not used in this
evaluation. Probe-3 was also indicating a
slightly different response than the actual well
behavior across a limited section of the well.
Therefore, the average holdup from probe-1
for all five passes was used in the interpreta-
tion model. The existence of a stationary col-
umn of water with an average density of 1.14
g/cc at the bottom of the well, below XX16 ft
is clearly confirmed by all the PL sensors.
A gradual reduction of density readings ac-
companied with a minor temperature drop
above XX16 ft, is due to entrance of a lighter
fluid into the wellbore. Spinner readings con-
firm existence of a dynamic environment at this
region. Since no bubbles were detected by
FloView, the fluid entering the wellbore at this
depth can only be water with a lighter density
(01/97) J-12
of 1.103 g/cc. Note that the field is currently
under water flood and the water entry is likely
to be injection water. The first hydrocarbon
entry into the well was detected at XX90 ft,
accompanied by a major density reduction.
Temperature and spinner data also confirm this
behavior. Other fluid entry zones into the
wellbore were recognized at XX30-XX38 and
XX96-XX25 ft. The water entry at XX10 ft,
which could have been mis-interpreted as oil
bubbling within the standing water column
was also avoided.
Example 4
In this example, the PLT + FloView survey
was conducted while flowing the well through
a 40/64" choke. The well was not stable at a
lower choke size. The flow is bi-phasic and
the well is vertical. The relative bearing meas-
urement showed that the string was not rotat-
ing during the survey. PLT + FloView data
was available from 6 passes; one of them did
not completely cover the interval (pass 1).

Fig. J13: Analysis of the images shows the initial entry into the wellbore is fresh water.
The final flow profile interpretation, together
with fluid images derived from pass 5, are
shown in Figure J13. A minor reduction in
density at around XX74 ft indicates lighter
fluid entry into the wellbore. However,
FloView does not show any hydrocarbon bub-
bles at this section. Thus, the fluid entering
the wellbore at this point is water of lower sa-
linity compared to the standing water at the
bottom of the well. Possibly due to downhole
segregation and/or water recirculation, the
spinner is subject to noise. This noise is more
Schlumberger
significant below XX00 ft where the total ve-
locity is possibly below the spinner threshold
and not high enough to lift the water column
completely. Therefore, identification of the mi-
nor water entry with the spinner was not pos-
sible and the combined information from the
Gradiomanometer and FloView was useful for
the interpretation. The first hydrocarbon entry
is seen at XX48 ft, where the FloView starts
detecting oil bubbles in the wellbore. This is
confirmed by a reduction of density at this
point. The interpretation model is assuming a
(01/97) J-13
Introduction to Production Logging
stationary column of water across this interval
with oil bubbling through it. Although the ob-
served water holdup is high, the actual flowing
water is much smaller. The major fluid entry
is seen at XX90-XX06 ft, where a clear in-
crease in the spinner is observed. Further re-
duction of density at this interval could be at-
tributed to an increased hydrocarbon holdup.
A sudden reduction of water holdup is clearly
identifiable at XX92-XX06 ft. Below this
depth, all probes in all passes indicate similar
behavior. Above XX00 ft, probe-3 water
holdup values from passes 1, 2 and 3 show
some fluctuation with higher readings. Even
with this discrepancy, the holdup values from
this probe were also used in the interpretation,
because it might be responding to water slugs
within the fluid column. The mean FloView
water holdup values from passes 2,3,4,5 and 6
were used in the interpretation model. Due to
noise in the spinner data, a minor incoherency
(01/97) J-14
exists between the spinner derived velocity and
the values calculated by the model. Note that
all other sensors reconstruct the model outputs
quite well. From this survey, oil entry points
were clearly detected and water entry with
lighter density at the bottom of the well was
identified. The FloView data was invaluable in
defining the fluid entry points below XX00
since the spinner was below its threshold.
Example 5
The production logging survey of this well
was carried on while flowing through a 32/64"
choke. Out of a total of 9 runs with PLT tool,
FloView data were collected only on two
passes. The well has 13 degrees deviation and
produces only oil and water. The tool string
was not rotating during the survey. The well
was not stable during logging; the pressure and
downhole density values change with each
successive pass. Similarly, the FloView
holdup values differ from pass 1 to pass 2.
 Schlumberger

Fig. J14: This example shows that the lower perforation is not flowing.

(01/97) J-15
Introduction to Production Logging
Figure J14 shows the interpretation of the sur-
vey. The mean FloView water holdup from
pass 2 was used in the interpretation since it
seemed to be the more stable pass. All sensors
indicate that the lower perforation interval does
not contribute to flow. Spinner readings indi-
cate a minor increase at about XX23 ft, ac-
companied with a minor temperature change.
As no bubble count is observed at this depth,
this behavior is attributed to water entry into
the wellbore. The first hydrocarbon entry is
recognized at XX08 ft with an increase in bub-
ble counts and reduction of density. Though
the flow was unstable during the survey, the
first hydrocarbon entry into the well is similar
in both FloView passes.
Note that the model water holdup reconstructs
the FloView measured holdup only fairly
above the upper perforation. The fluid images
show increasing oil holdup above this perfora-
tion, which can be due to well instability. The
Gradiomanometer curve, which is the average
of all passes, shows a better reconstruction in
this plot. However, the Gradiomanometer cor-
responding to the last pass, also indicates in-
creasing downhole densities above the perfo-
ration confirming FloView readings. Though
only one FloView pass out of two was used
for the interpretation due to flow instability in
the well, hydrocarbon and water entries were
clearly identified.
(01/97) J-16
J . 1 . 4 Summary
The new measurement technique provides
digital holdup at four different spatial positions
in the wellbore with no prior calibration re-
quirements. The measured data can be used
quantitatively in PL interpretation and an image
of the flow is also generated.
The field examples show that the principle of
local frequency measurement is capable to en-
hance the domain of production logging inter-
pretation and give a better picture in complex
flow regimes. Water and oil entry points were
clearly determined in difficult cases and fluid
segregation in deviated wells was identified.
The quantitative holdup measurement was used
directly in the interpretation without jet-
ting/venturi or friction effects. The technique
of measurement is also applicable for horizon-
tal wells to determine water holdup in segre-
gated flow conditions. This technique has
shown a significant added value in:
• Deviated wells, where determining pro-
duction profiles are difficult due to phase
segregation.
• In wells with high or low water cut
where identifying minor fluid entry
points are critical.
• Increasing confidence and reducing am-
biguities in all PLT survey interpretation.
 Schlumberger

J . 2 FLAGSHIP PROJECT The hold-up and velocity of each phase must

be measured by the toolstring for accurate
J . 2 . 1 Introduction flowrate diagnosis. Very small changes in
The FloView technique goes a long way to well deviation can cause large changes in these
overcome the difficulties in multiphase flow. quantities independently of any fluid entry.
However there is still a problem of measuring
the velocities (flow rates) of the phases in hori- J.2.2 The Approach to the Problem
zontal or very highly deviated wells.
In normal production logging operations:-
The diagnosis of unwanted fluid in high-angle
and horizontal wells is made challenging by: • The spinner records the average flow
across a portion of the casing cross-
Challenges: Flagship Service section.
Approach • The composition, or hold-up, of the fluid
is determined by a density measurement,
Flow regimes based on the differential pressure across
Stratified flows, Identify the flow 21" of the logging tool and the predicted
downflow, water regime with an im- down-hole densities of the two fluids.
sumps, oil and gas aging tool and
traps, three phase measure independ- • A slip velocity is produced from the rela-
flow ently the velocity tive densities of the two fluids, the well
and hold-up of each deviation, and a slip model.
phase.
Sensor response In horizontal wells:-
No single sensor Multiple independ- • The fluid tends to segregate and the
has a robust inter- ent measurements spinner's response may no longer repre-
pretation in all of (data redundancy) sent the average velocity.
the above condi- with different sen-
tions sors for enhanced • The composition of the fluid cannot now
confidence in inter- be determined by differential pressure
pretation. across 21" of tool (although a nuclear
Uncemented com- density device does have some applica-
pletions tion).
Slotted liners, flow Accurate flow
in the annulus, measurement in the
failed ECPs liner is the mini-
mum necessary
condition for reli-
able flow diagnosis.
Water flow in the
annulus can also be
detected.
Toolstring access
and deployment
Time and cost One run toolstring
which can be de-
ployed in several
stages if required.

(01/97) J-17
Introduction to Production Logging

Gas

Failed External Casin g Packer

Fault
Formation Instability
Stagnant Gas

Fractu res
Cutting s
Oil Layer Stagnant Water

Water

Fig. J15: Some of the potential problems in horizontal wells.

J . 2 . 3 The Flagship Service used to measure the velocity of the seg-

The solution is a combination of measurements
as follows:
• The Phase Velocity Log, PVL, where a
marker fluid is ejected and its time of
flight recorded. Oil miscible and water
miscible markers are selectively ejected
to record the individual segregated phase
velocities.
• The water flow log, RST-WFL, where
the transit time of activated oxygen is
regated water.
• The FloView tool, (two in the string),
where impedance probes can detect the
difference between water and not water.
This allows analysis of the flow regime,
"Do we have stratified flow?", and
evaluation of the water holdup, Hw.

(01/97) J-18

Combinable Production
Logging Tool
Pressure & temperature
Reservoir
Saturation Tool
Oil hold-up
Gamma Ray Gas indicator
Detector
NFD-C
CPLT GR RST
Water Flow Log
Water velocity
Water hold-up index
Water flowrate index
Fig. J16: PVL tool string configuration.
Gas detection is still qualitative and based on
pulsed neutron count rate techniques which
date back to the early TDT's.
A new model for two-phase segregated flow
has been developed. This solves for the water
velocity, oil velocity and holdup and the well
deviation. If one of these variables is missing
from logging measurements it can be back cal-
culated thus giving redundancy in the data ac-
quisition requirements. The model is currently
valid from approx. 80 to 92 degrees deviation.
The conventional spinners are also included as,
in favourable flow regimes, they can measure
total flow rate.
(A promising technique, still in development,
will provide 'Three Phase Holdup' from the
RST-A).
The Flagship Application (where and where
not to use it).
The toolstring sensors and related interpreta-
tion models have been developed specifically
for stratified flow regimes that are expected to
exist in very high angle and horizontal wells.
Typically such flows would only be expected
Schlumberger
Digital Entry Fluid
Imaging Tool Fluid marker
Flow regime injector tool
Water hold-up (TEE-F) Total
flowrate
Dual DEFT
Spinner
Phase Velocity Log
Marker injection for oil
and/or water velocity
at deviations over 75 degrees. Results from all
field trials to date have confirmed this.
As deviation decreases the oil-water stratified
flow changes to become a dispersed bubbly
flow. This flow regime presents a different and
more formidable set of logging challenges.
Whereas individual tools or services from the
flagship toolstring such as the DEFT or WFL
are designed for deviated wells, the full flag-
ship combination is purely for horizontal well
logging.
J . 2 . 4 Phase Velocity Log
The other techniques have been explained
elsewhere in the text; the Phase Velocity Log is
a new measurement. The method is similar to
the tracer log however it uses chemical markers
instead of radioactive fluids.
A chemical marker with high thermal neutron
absorption cross-section (sigma) that will mix
only with a specific fluid phase is injected into
the borehole. Using a tool reacting to the neu-
tron capture cross-section, the passage of a
marker past a measure point is detected. The
fluid velocity is calculated from the time be-
tween injection and detection of marker.
(01/97) J-19
Introduction to Production Logging

Record Measurement

Ejection

Measurement
Ejection

Oil

Tool Water

Fluid movement

Fig. J17: Phase Velocity Log technique.

The markers used for the different phases are:

• Water-Soluble Marker
Gadolinium Chloride (GdCl3) in Water
High Gadolinium concentration
High Density
Low Viscosity.

• Oil-Soluble Marker
New Organometallic Compound
High Gadolinium concentration
Low Density Fig. J18: Phase Velocity Log Measurement.
Low Viscosity.
The ejection time is known, showing as a
negative spike on this record (Figure J18). The
measured data is filtered to smooth out statisti-
cal variations. The positive peak is detected
when the marker passes the sensor. The
measurement gives the specific fluid velocity.

(01/97) J-20
 Schlumberger

J . 2 . 5 Flow Loop Tests J . 2 . 6 Field Tests

Tests of the technique have been made using a Measurements have been made in a number of
flow loop capable of flowing different fluids horizontal wells where the rates have been
and at varying angles. verifiable by other methods.

The example in Figure J19 shows the results One example is shown here with a number of
for a single phase, water, flowing in the sys- measurements. The water velocity is computed
tem. The measured flow rate is in excellent using both the PVL and WFL techniques and
agreement with the actual rate. agree closely.

The oil velocity can only be computed by the

PVL method. The water hold up has been
400
measured using the FloView (LIFT in the dia-
gram) tool.
PVL Water Velocity (fpm)

300 The flowrates have been calculated using both

the measurements.
200

100

0
0 100 200 300 400 500

Fig. J19: Flow loop tests for water flow only.

In a similar experiment with two phases, oil

and water, the agreement is once again excel-
lent as shown in Figure J20.
500

Results of Linear Fit

Intercept -3.4
Slope 0.997
400
Correlation
0.998
Velocity Set in Flow Loop (fpm)

Coefficient

300

Oil
Water
200

100
14,000 BPD
(5-inch Liner)

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
PVL Velocity (fpm)

Fig. J20: Flow loop tests for two phases,

oil and water.

(01/97) J-21
Introduction to Production Logging

600

PVL
W ate r 400 WFL
Vel oci ty
( fp m) 200

500
Oi l
Vel oci ty
300
( f pm)

100

Un-Calibrat ed Ov er-ranged
80
W ate r
Hol d- Up
( %) 40 RST
LIFT

40 00
Fl ow
Rate s
20 00
( BPD )
Wat er
O il
0
6 00 70 0 800 90 0 10 00 1 100
Rel ati v e Depth

Sandstone Formation with a 8.5-inch borehole,

completed with 5.5-inch, 17 lb/ft cemented casing

Fig. J21: Flow loop test results.

(01/97) J-22
 Schlumberger

This example, Fig-

ure J22, shows the
results of a com-
plete Flagship inter-
pretation.

Track 1 shows the

well path.

Track 2 shows the

well sketch.

Tracks 3 and 4
show the velocity
data.

Track 5 shows the

hold-up data.

Track 6 shows the

flowaret analysis.

Track 7 shows the

porosity analysis.

Fig. J22: Flagship log example.

(01/97) J-23
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) J-24

K. EXAMPLES
K . 1 EXAMPLES
K . 1 . 1 Example 1
Information
The well is a water injector with an injection
rate of 7550 bpd. The casing size is 5.5”.
The composite shows spinner up and down
passes and shut in, injection temperature and
two shut in temperatures. The major question
is where are the injected fluids going.
Example K1: Temperature and shut-in flowmeter.
Schlumberger
Questions
1) Using this data predict the direction and ex-
tent of any crossflow. How could a quantita-
tive value be given to the crossflow? Bu =
0.053, Bd = 0.058.
2) What, if anything, is happening from 2436
to 2438 ft in the shut in condition.
3) What produces the rapid warming seen in
the lower portion of the well between 2415 and
2470?
(01/97) K-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Example K1: Flowing Spinners.

(01/97) K-2
 Schlumberger

K . 1 . 2 Example 2
The well is producing oil, 360 bpd, with a high GOR and a slight water cut, <5%. The casing was set
at 467.8 m with an open hole completion below this.
The logs below show:
• shut in and flowing temperature
• shut in flowmeter
• shut in and flowing gradiomanometer
What is the flow profile?

Example K2: Gradiomanometer Overlay.

(01/97) K-3
Introduction to Production Logging

Example K2: Spinners.

(01/97) K-4
 Schlumberger

Example K2: Temperature Data.

(01/97) K-5
Introduction to Production Logging

K . 2 ANSWERS the shut-in state than in flowing conditions.

The area at 472 is coolest.
K . 2 . 1 Example 1
The spinner indicates the extent of the cross- Combining these observations gives the fol-
flow to be from 2470.5 to 2414.6 feet. As the lowing conclusions:
down flowmeter has a higher value than the up
pass the fluid must be moving upwards. From 470-474 the well is producing almost
By logging shut in and/or flowing passes at 100% gas.
three different flowrates (minimum) the spin- In the shut in state gas only is flowing from
ner can be calibrated. 472 to 476.5.
The oil must be produced between 475 and
The average velocity can be estimated as 472 as the flowing gradio showed no light
phase below 475m.
= (difference between the up and down spin-
ners) / (Bu+Bd) K . 2 . 3 Flowmeter Example 1
= (0.42)/(0.053+0.058)*.83 = 3.14 ft/min. 1) compute the spinner deflection for the
maximum flow (top of the log) compared to
2) According to the shut in temperature passes the zero flow zone at the bottom.
theis zone is taking some of the fluid from This gives 14 rps.
2469.5 - 2470.5 feet.
2) Find the additional spinner deflection in
3) The fluid flowing back from 2469.5-2470.5 each of the other intervals, A, B, C.
is at or near the geothermal temperature for that THESE ARE:
depth and the fluid warms the borehole as it A = 3.6RPS
flows up to 2415 feet.
B = 2.1RPS
K . 2 . 2 Example 2 C = 8.3RPS
Flowmeter 3) Determine the percentage contribution of
The shut in spinner shows the largest differ- each zone.
ences between 470 and 477m. This may indi- A = 3.6/14 = 25.7%
cate an area of crossflow but it is small and
inconclusive. B = 2.1/14 = 15.0%
C = 8.3/14 = 59.3%
Gradiomanometer
Flowing
There is 100% water up to 475, then a small K.2.4 Flowmeter Example 2
light phase entry. At 470 there is a large light The zero flow line should cross the x axis at a
phase entry. threshold value of 6 ft/min.
Initial shut-in The intersection of 15 rps with the response
In the very first stages after flowing there are curve gives a flow velocity of 140 ft/min.
three distinct densities on the log Therefore the peak fluid velocity
1.11 at the bottom water
0.61 in the middle probably oil = 140 - 67 ft/min = 73 ft/min
0.11 at the top probably gas
Correcting for the shape of the flow to obtain
Subsequent shut in the average velocity
The next two shut in passes indicate the oil leg
has gone and the gas water contact is now at Average velocity = 73 * 0.83 ft/min
476.5m = 60.6 ft/min
Temperature The flowrate in bpd = (60.6/34.4)*1000
The temperature overlays indicate that the = 1762 bpd.
wellbore from 470 to 477 is distinctly cooler in

(01/97) K-6

Note: There are times when the zero flow
curve cannot be logged due to debris in the
well, not enough sump or a different viscosity
fluid below the perforations. In this case the
line has to be created using the data from the
full flow and the threshold of the device. It is
drawn parallel to the full flow and goes
through the threshold.
K . 2 . 5 Flowmeter Example 3
1) The response curve is drawn both for the
positive and negative quadrants, parallel to line
through the data points. It should go through a
threshold. The threshold is computed by taking
the mid point between the positive and negative
lines and moving this to the origin.
2) The calibration line crosses the y-axis at
5rps, this corresponds to 120 ft/min on the re-
sponse curve.
The flowrate is thus
= (120/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 3331 bpd.
3) 6 ft/min corresponds to 140 ft/min using the
response curve. At a tool speed of 60 ft/min
this gives the average fluid velocity
= (140-60)*0.83 = 66.4 ft/min
The flow rate is then
= (66.4/29.9)*1000= 2221bpd
4) the calibration line for this pass crosses the
y-axis at 2 rps. This corresponds to 60 ft/min
using the response line. Hence the flowrate is
= (60/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 1666 bpd.
K . 2 . 6 Flowmeter Example 4
The spinners are overlaying below 10408 indi-
cating zero flow here.
The down spinners decrease around 10350’
before increasing again.
The conclusion is that the top of the second set
of perforations or the bottom of the third set is
taking fluid produced from the lower interval.
The increase at the top of the latter zone is due
to production here.
Schlumberger
The shut-in pass below shows the picture
clearly. Production from the lower perforation
is flowing into the second set of perforations.
K . 2 . 7 Gradiomanometer Example 1
1) Above A the gradio reads 0.53 g/cc. The
maximum reading, at the bottom of the log is
1.0 g/cc. Assuming this is the density of the
heavy phase and that 0.53 is the density of the
light phase;
at point B
Yhp = (0.53-0.53)/(1.0-0.53) = 0
at point A
Yhp = (0.7-0.53)/(1.0-0.53) = 0.36
K . 2 . 8 Gradiomanometer Example 2
Deviation
ρcor = ρgradio/cosθ
θ = 30˚
cosθ = 0.87
ρcor = 0.63/0.87 = 0.72
density = 0.72 g/cc
Flowrate
From the chart,
ρcor/ρ = 1.027
ρ = 0.72/1.027 = 0.70 g/cc
K.2.9 Temperature Example 1
The flowing temperature shows the gas entry
at the top of the perforations. The shut in
passes suggest that this is coming from above.
The slope changes on the curves indicate 3931
and another change around 3924m.
(01/97) K-7
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) K-8
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Wireline & Testing