BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement

Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular
sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite
complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed
here.

The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.

SUBJECT

The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action
of the sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. The
simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words,
phrases, or clauses.

The man . . .

PREDICATE

The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate
contains the verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

The man /  builds a house.

The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In
addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning
or detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All
of these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or
compound/complex sentences. (See TIP Sheet on "Sentence Type and Purpose.") 

DIRECT OBJECT

The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a
noun or pronoun.

The man builds a house. 

The man builds it.

INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is
being done. The indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.

The man builds his family  a house. 

The man builds them a house.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is

usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is
a linking verb within the sentence (often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).

The man is a good  father. (father = noun which renames the subject)

The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)

Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts of a sentence, a noun
can function within a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition,
or subject complement.
http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/grammar/parts_of_speech.html

TIP Sheet
THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective,
adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word
functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can
function as more than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding
parts of speech is essential for determining the correct definition of a word when using the
dictionary.

1. NOUN

 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

man... Butte College...  house...  happiness

A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a
subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young  girl  brought me a very long  letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.

2. PRONOUN

 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

She... we... they...  it

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the
pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to
specific persons or things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used
to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and
demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

The young girl brought  me  a very long letter from the teacher, and then  she  quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Pronouns" for further information.

3. VERB

 A verb expresses action or being.

jump... is... write... become

The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb
must agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take
different forms to express tense.

The young girl  brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she
quickly  disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Verbs" for more information.

4. ADJECTIVE

 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.

pretty...  old... blue... smart
An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
adjectives.)

The young girl brought me a very long  letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Adjectives" for more information.

5. ADVERB

 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

gently...  extremely... carefully... well

An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.

The young girl brought me a  very long letter from the teacher,

and  then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Adverbs" for more information.

6. PREPOSITION

 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

modifying another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until

(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list
includes the most common prepositions:

The young girl brought me a very long letter  from  the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Prepositions" for more information.

7. CONJUNCTION

 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

and...  but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because,
although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared.  Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Conjunctions" for more information.

8. INTERJECTION

 An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

Oh!... Wow!...  Oops!

An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared.  Oh my!

See the TIP Sheet on "Interjections" for more information.

NOUNS

The first real word you ever used probably was a noun-a word like mama, daddy, car,
or cookie. Most children begin building their vocabularies with nouns. A noun names some thing:
a person, place, or thing. Most other parts of our language either describe nouns, tell what a
noun is doing, or take the place of a noun.

Nouns have these characteristics:

 They are abstract or concrete.

 They are proper or common.
 Most are singular or plural, but... 
 Some are collective.

In English, nouns are often preceded by noun markers--the articles/adjectives a, an, the,

or some for example; or possessive words like my or your. A noun always follows a noun
marker, though adjectives or other words may come between them:

my  former  roommate

a  sunny June  day
an  objective and very thorough evaluation
some  existential  angst

Because of their noun markers, you could safely guess

that roommate, day, evaluation and angst are nouns (even if you didn't know what angstwas).
Although not all nouns are preceded by markers, you can use a noun marker test to identify
many, including abstract nouns. Consider this example:

Enthusiasm and willingness to work hard are a remedy for the existential angst of many
students. 

Remedy is marked as a noun by the noun marker a. Angst is preceded by the noun

marker the. Students is preceded by the adjective (adjectives modify nouns) many. Test the
remaining words: can you have an enthusiasm or some enthusiasm? Certainly: "I
have an enthusiasm for snowboarding" or "Show some enthusiasm!" So enthusiasm is a noun.
Can you have an and or some and? Uh, no. So and is not a noun. Can you have a
willingness or some willingness? Sure, you can have "a willingness to learn"; willingness is also
a noun.

Every noun is either abstract or concrete.

Nouns like enthusiasm, willingness and angst are abstract nouns. Abstract nouns name things
we cannot see, touch, or detect readily through our senses. Abstract nouns name ideas
(existentialism, democracy), measurements (weight, percent), emotions (love, angst), or
qualities (responsibility). Concrete nouns, on the other hand, name persons, including animals
(cousins, Roger Rabbit), places (beach, Chico), or things we can see, touch, or otherwise detect
through our senses (smoke, beer).

Every noun is either proper or common.

A proper noun identifies a particular person, animal, place, thing, or idea--Roger Rabbit, for
example. The first letter of each word of a proper noun is capitalized. A common noun does not
name a particular person or thing; rather, it refers to a whole class or type. Common nouns do
not require capitalization.
Proper noun common
(capitalized) noun
Sierra Nevada Crystal
is his favorite beer.
Wheat
The Rooks and the are our local soccer and
  teams.
Rangers baseball
is one of the largest
Bidwell Park parks.
municipal
Lundberg Family Farm is a sustainable, organic farm.
Most nouns are either singular or plural...
Most nouns are made plural with the addition of s or es. Thus, instructorbecomes instructors,
and class becomes classes. Some nouns have irregular plural forms: man becomes men,
and woman becomes women. Child becomes children, and person becomes people.

Many people, both  men  and women, believe that having  childrenwill be a remedy for their
existential angst.

Some nouns have the same form in both singular and plural: "A moose is crossing the river. No,
wait--three moose are crossing the river!"

 ...but some nouns are collective.

A collective noun names a collection or group of things. Although a collective noun refers to a
group of many things, it is usually singular in form. We think of a collective noun as singular
because its members act in one accord:

The army is withdrawing from those Asian countries that are in negotiations.  

Here, army is a collective noun referring to a group of many people acting with one will. We
treat it as a singular noun. Countries is a plural noun. If several countries joined together to
form an alliance, we could say this: 

The Asian  alliance is united in its determination to repel foreign invaders.  

In some instances a collective noun describes a group that is not acting with one will, whose
members rather are taking independent, divergent actions. In this case, the collective noun is
treated as a plural to reflect the plurality of the members' actions:

The jury  were unable to come to any consensus.  

If the jury had reached a unanimous decision, we would have said: 

The jury  was  unanimous in its verdict.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns replace nouns. Without them, language would be repetitious, lengthy, and awkward:

President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although President John Kennedy
approached stairs gingerly and lifted with care, President John Kennedy did swim and sail, and
occasionally President John Kennedy even managed to play touch football with friends, family
members, or co-workers.
With pronouns taking the place of some nouns, that sentence reads more naturally:

President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although he approached stairs gingerly
and lifted with care, he did swim and sail, and occasionally he even managed to play touch
football with friends, family members, or co-workers.

The pronoun he takes the place of the proper noun President John Kennedy. This
makes President John Kennedy the antecedent of the pronoun. The antecedent is the noun or
pronoun that a pronoun replaces. There are six types of pronouns:

Personal Reflexive
Indefinite Relative
Possessive Demonstrative
Personal pronouns
Since nouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, personal pronounsalso refer to specific
persons, places, or things. Pronouns have characteristics called number, person, and case.

Number refers to whether a pronoun is singular (him) or plural (them). Thus John Kennedy
becomes he or him, while the president's friends would be they or them.

Person is a little more abstract. The first person is the person speaking-I. The sentence
"I expect to graduate in January," is in the first person. The second person is the one being
spoken to–you: "You may be able to graduate sooner!" The third person is being spoken of-he,
she, it, they, them: "She, on the other hand, may have to wait until June to graduate." A
pronoun must match (agree with) its antecedent in person as well as number. So
graduating students must be referred to as they or them, not as us; a valedictorian must be
referred to as he or she, him or her, not as we or you.

Case refers to what job a pronoun can legally perform in a sentence. Some pronouns can be
subjects and others cannot. For example, we are allowed to say " I expect to graduate soon,"
but we are not allowed to say " Me expect to graduate soon." Pronouns that may be subjects
are in the subjective case; they are subject pronouns. Some pronouns cannot be subjects; they
are, instead, used as direct objects, indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. They are
in objective case; they are object pronouns: "His uncle hired him after graduation." "Uncle Joe
gave her a job, too." "Without them, he would have been shorthanded."

First person Second person Third person

Subjective Objective Subjective Objective Subjective Objective
he, she, it, him, her, it,
I, we me, us you you
they them
 

Subject pronouns also are used after linking verbs, where they refer back to the subject: "The
valedictorian was 

she."

Indefinite pronouns
While personal pronouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, indefinite pronouns refer
to general persons, places, or things. Indefinite pronouns all are third-person pronouns and can
be subjects or objects in sentences.

Many indefinite pronouns seem to refer to groups– everybody seems like a crowd, right?-and so
are often mistakenly treated as plurals ("Everybodyoverfilled their backpack"). However, any
indefinite pronoun that ends in -one, -body, -thing is singular: "Everybody overfilled his (or her)
backpack." The following indefinite pronouns are usually singular; if one of these words is the
antecedent in a sentence, the pronoun that refers to it must also be singular. Thus, we must
write, "Does anyone know," rather than "Do anyone know"; "Each of them knows," rather than
"Each of them know"; and "Someone left her cell phone," rather than, "Someone left their cell
phone."

Indefinite pronouns, singular

anyone anybody anything either each
no one nobody nothing another one
someone somebody something any
everyone everybody everything
 

On the other hand, some indefinite pronouns are plural:

Indefinite pronouns, plural

both few many several

Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs and plural pronouns: " Both were rewarded
for their courage." "Many attend in spite of their other obligations."

A few indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural, depending on the context:

 
 Indefinite pronouns, singular or plural
most any all none some neither
 

Thus, we may write, "All is well," (singular) in reference to the general condition of things, or
"All are attending," (plural) in reference to individuals. (For more, look up count and non-count
nouns in an English grammar reference or online.)

(Some of the indefinite pronouns above can also be used as adjectives. In " Many left their trash
on the riverbank," many is a pronoun replacing swimmers. In contrast, in "Many students went
tubing on the river," manyis an adjective modifying students. For more information, see the TIP
sheet "Adjectives.")

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns. Thus, Jamie's Corvettebecomes her Corvette.
Possessive pronouns never take apostrophes.

Possessive pronouns
my our your his, her its their whose
mine ours yours his, hers theirs
In the table above, the words in the upper row must accompany nouns: her Corvette, our
Nissan. The pronouns in the lower row stand alone, as replacements for the adjective + noun
pair– "Hers is fast; mine is slow."

Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns add emphasis. They always follow a noun or personal pronoun and do not
appear alone in a sentence: "Jamie herself changed the tire." "She herself changed the tire."
The meaning is that she, and no one else, changed the tire, and the emphasis is on the
independence of her action. Reflexive pronouns also show that someone did something to
himself or herself: "She surprised herself with how well she did on the test."

Reflexive pronouns
yourself himself, herself, itself
myself ourselves
yourselves themselves
A reflexive pronoun cannot replace the subject of a sentence, such as in "Burcu and myself are
taking that class together." Instead, use a personal pronoun: "Burcu and I are taking that class
together" or "Burcu and I myself are taking that class together."
There is no theirself or theirselves. "They waxed the car themselves at home." There is
no hisself: "Jesse taught himself French."

Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun begins a clause that refers to a noun in a sentence. (A clause is a word
group with its own subject and verb.) Who begins a clause that refers to people: "Krista is the
math tutor who helped me the most." That may refer either to persons or things: "Laura is the
math tutor that knows the most about calculus; calculus is the class that I am taking in the
fall." Which begins a clause that refers to things: "Statistics, which is the interpretation of
collected numerical data, has many practical applications."

Relative pronouns
that who whoever whose
which whom whomever what
Who is a subject pronoun; it can be the subject of a sentence: " Who was at the
door?" Whom is an object pronoun. It cannot be the subject of a sentence, but it can be a
direct or indirect object or the object of a preposition: "Don't ask for whom the bell
tolls." Who and whom often appear in questions where the natural word order is inverted and
where the words you see first are the pronouns who or whom, followed by part of the
verb, then the subject, then the rest of the verb. So it isn't always easy to figure out if you
should use who or whom. Is it "Who did you visit last summer?" or "Whom did you visit last
summer?" To decide, follow these steps:

1. Change the question to a statement: "You did visit who/whom last summer." This

restores natural word order: subject, verb, direct object.
2. In place of who/whom, substitute the personal pronouns he and him: "You did
visit he last summer"; "You did visit him last summer."
3. If he, a subject pronoun, is right, then the right choice for the original question
is who–another subject pronoun. If him, an object pronoun, is correct, then the right
choice for the original question is whom–another object pronoun.
4. Based on step three, above, correctly frame the question: " Whom did you visit last
summer?"

Similarly, whoever is a subject pronoun, and whomever is an object pronoun. Use the same test
for, "Whoever/whomever would want to run on such a humid day?" Change the question to a
statement, substituting he and him: "He (not him) would want to run on such a humid day."
The right word, therefore, would be whoever, the subject pronoun. On the other hand, you
would say, "Hand out plenty of water to whomever you see." You would see and hand the
water out to him, not to he; this sentence requires the object pronoun.

Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns indicate specific persons, places, or things: "That is a great idea!" That
is a pronoun referring to the abstract noun idea.

Demonstrative pronouns
this these
that those
(Like some indefinite pronouns, demonstrative pronouns can also be used as adjectives. In
"That band started out playing local Chico clubs," that modifies the noun band.)

For more on pronouns, see the TIP Sheets "The Eight Parts of Speech," "Pronoun Reference,"
and "Relative Pronouns: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses."

VERBS

If a noun was the first word you ever spoke (Mama or cookie), a verb probably followed just as
soon as you learned that "Give  cookie" got you better results than "Cookie." In a sentence, the
verb expresses what the subject does (She hopes for the job) or what the subject is (She
isconfident). All verbs are one of three types:

 Action verbs
 Linking verbs
 Helping verbs
Action verbs
In a sentence, an action verb tells what the subject does. Action verbs express physical or
mental actions: think, eat, collide, realize, dance. Admittedly, some of these seem more active
than others. Nevertheless, realize is still as much a verb as collide:

I finally  realized  my mistake.

The outfielder collided with the second-baseman.
She dances every Friday night.

(In the present tense, statements with subjects of he, she, or it, we add an s to the verb: I
go downstairs, we go downstairs, and ballplayers godownstairs, but he goes downstairs
and Loren goes downstairs. For more, see the TIP Sheet "Subject-Verb Agreement.")
Linking verbs
Linking verbs are the couch potatoes of verbs, that is, not very active at all. In a sentence, a
linking verb tells what the subject is rather than what it does; linking verbs express a state of
being. For example, all the forms of the verb to be are linking verbs:

3rd person (she, he,

1st person (I; we) 2nd person (you)
it; they)
present am; are are is; are
past was; were were was; were
[have] been; [have] been; [has] been; [had]
participle
[had] been [had] been been
These verbs connect a subject, say, Loren, with more information about that subject: Loren is
an athlete, or Loren was glad.

Another set of linking verbs are those pertaining to our five senses--seeing, tasting, touching,
hearing, and smelling--and how we perceive the world: the
verbs appear, seem, look, feel, smell, taste, and sound, for example. When used as linking
verbs, they connect the subject with a word offering more information about that subject:

Loren seems anxious  about the test.

The well  water tastes wonderful.
My carpet  still feels damp.
You sound hoarse.
The curtains  smell a little  smoky.

As linking verbs, these "sense" verbs have about the same meaning as
is. Loren seems  anxious is roughly equivalent to Loren is anxious; the curtains  smell smoky is
about the same as the curtains  are  smoky. However, these same "sense" verbs can sometimes
be action verbs instead. The real test whether one of these verbs is or is not a linking verb is
whether it draws an equivalence with the subject, almost like a math equation: Loren =
anxious; curtains = smoky. Consider the sentence I can't taste my lunch because I have a
cold. Taste  here does not draw an equivalence between I and lunch; rather, here it is an action
verb, something the subject does. In the sentence Can you smell smoke?smell does not
describe what the subject is, but what the subject does; it is an action verb.

Other common linking verbs include become, remain, and grow, when they link the subject to
more information (either a noun or an adjective) about that subject:
You will soon become tired of the monotony.
Pha  has become a very responsible teenager.
I remain hopeful.
Daniel  grew more and more confident.

Again, these verbs might be action verbs in other sentences, such as in I grew carrots.

Helping verbs...
Verbs often appear with helping verbs that fine-tune their meaning, usually expressing when
something occurred. The complete verb is the main verb plus all its helping verbs.

Verb tense is the name for the characteristic verbs have of expressing time. Simple present
tense verbs express present or habitual action, and simple past tense verbs express actions that
were completed in the past; neither simple present nor simple past tense verbs require helping
verbs. However, most other verb tenses require one or more helping verbs. Moreover, some
helping verbs express more than just time-possibility, obligation, or permission, for example.

...have, has, had

Every verb has three basic forms: present or simple form, past form, and participle form. All
participle forms require a helping verb that fine-tunes the time expression:

Comets  have collided with earth many times.

Stan  had known about the plan for some time.

The table below demonstrates these three forms with their required helping verbs:

present or simple past participle

participle + helper
form form form
has, have, had
collide collided collided
collided
is was been has, have, had been
choose chose chosen has, have, had been
know knew known has, have, had been

Participles used as verbs in a sentence must be used with has, have, or had. Participles used

without helpers become adjectives: The early explorers sailed beyond the  known world.

...to be: am, are, is, was, were, been

Verbs with -ing endings require a helper from the to be family of verbs. These progressive verb
tenses express ongoing present action, continuous past action or future planned action:
They are still working  on the contract.
Phanat was studying  all night.
Holly  had been reviewing her notes since the day before.
We  are holding student elections next September.

Verbs with -ing endings must be used with one of the to be helpers; an -ing word without a

helper is ineligible to act as the verb of a sentence. It can, however, be a noun ( Hiking is fun)
or an adjective (The hiking trail is closed).

...do, does, did

The helping verbs do, does, and did may be used optionally to add emphasis: She
certainly does like  her morning mocha.

While adding emphasis is optional, these helpers must be used when forming

questions: Does Andrea ski every weekend? They must also accompany the verb in sentences
that combine not with an action verb: Don't you want to take the train? Do  not wait for me
past 4:30.

When do and does are used, they change form to match the subject while the main verb
remains in simple form: instead of She likes coffee, we would say, She sure  does  like her
coffee. Similarly, for questions, we change the form of the helper and leave the main verb in
simple form: Does  Andrea  ski? The negative is Andrea  does  not ski, even though the
statement would have been Andrea skis. (In the past tense, with did, the verb never changes
form.)

...will and shall

Future tense verbs require a helper, will or shall, and express intention, expectation, or action
that will happen later.

We  shall  drive  to Santa Barbara in August.

Krista  will not  attend.
We  will be  holding  student elections in September.

...would, could, should, can, may, might...

The verb helpers would, could, should, can, may, might, must, supposedto, ought to, used to,
and have to are examples of modal helpers. (Willand shall are technically modals as well.)
Modal helpers are little different from real verbs because they never change form. They are
easy to use because they always are used with the simple form of the verb:
I  may want to change my flight.
You can  cash your check at the grocery store.
Paul  must  notify his employer soon.

Instead of expressing time, modals help verbs express a variety of other things:

Expresses For example...

I never used to eat breakfast;
past habit
I  would never eatbreakfast.
He  would like  us to clean
requests
up; could  you clean  up? Can  you do it?
Yes, you can go. You may change the channel.
permission
He  could leave early.
necessity, You must see  that movie! We ought to go soon;
advisability we will have  to  call later.
I  might  pay with cash; we  may  write a check.
possibility
That  could be true.
For more information on the various possible meanings of some modals, see the TIP Sheet
"Would, Should, Could." For more on verbs, see the TIP Sheets "Consistent Verb Tense" and
"Two-Word Verbs."

(Grammar geek note: Sometimes, when words like would and couldexpress a statement of

possibility or desire, or when they state something contrary to fact, a special verb form,
the subjunctive, is required. For example, If he had known, he would have come  sooner is an
expression contrary to fact. So in this example, the subjunctive form causes the helper to
change to have instead of the expected has--for more information, check a grammar and usage
guide for "subjunctive mood.")

ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word used to describe, or modify, noun or a pronoun. Adjectives usually

answer questions like which one, what kind, or how many:

that hilarious book
the red one
several heavy books

In English adjectives usually precede nouns or pronouns. However, in sentences with linking
verbs, such as the to be verbs or the "sense" verbs, adjectives can follow the verb (for more
information on to be or "sense" verbs, see the TIP Sheet "Verbs"):
Dave Barry's books are hilarious; they seem so random.

One good adjective can be invaluable in producing the image or tone you want. You may also
"stack" adjectives--as long as you don't stack them too high. In general, if you think you need
more than three adjectives, you may really just need a better noun. For instance, instead of
saying the unkempt, dilapidated, dirty little house , consider just saying the hovel. (It's not true
that he who uses the most adjectives wins; it's he who uses the most suitable adjectives.)

Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives (steamy, stormy) call up images, tones, and feelings. Steamy weather is
different from stormy weather. Steamy and stormy conjure different pictures, feelings, and
associations.

Many descriptive adjectives come from verbs. The verb had broken, without the helper had, is
an adjective: a  broken keyboard. Likewise, the -ing verb form, such as is running, used
without its helper is, can be an adjective: running shoes. (For more on -ed and -ing forms, see
the TIP SheetS "Verbs" and "Consistent Verb Tense.")

Nouns can be used as adjectives, too. For instance, the noun student can be made to modify,
or describe, the noun bookstore: the student bookstore. Nouns often combine to produce
compound adjectives that modify a noun as a unit, usually joined by hyphens when they
precede the noun. When they follow the noun, the hyphens are omitted:

He was an 18-year-old boy, but the girl was only  16 years old.

 Other compound adjectives do not use hyphens in any case. In income tax forms, income
tax is a compound adjective that does not require a hyphen. 

Articles
The, an, and a, called articles, are adjectives that answer the question which one? The  modifies
a noun or pronoun by limiting its reference to a particular or known thing, either singular or
plural. A expands the reference to a single non-specific or previously unknown thing.   An is
similar to a, but is used when the word following it begins with a vowel sound:

the books on the table
a  book from  an  online store,  the  one we ordered last week

See the TIP sheet "Articles" for more information.

Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives answer the question which one(s)? They are the only adjectives that
have both a singular and plural form--this and thatare singular; these and those are plural.
Demonstrative adjectives point to particular or previously named things. This and these indicate
things nearby (in time or space), while that and those suggest distance (in time or space):

This novel is the worst I've ever read;  these  biographies are much better.
Tell me more about that author; why does she write about  those events?

Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives answer the question whose? They include my, our, your, his, her, its,
and their:

our  joke book

its well-worn pages

Indefinite adjectives
Indefinite adjectives include some, many, any, few, several, and all:

some  jokes
few listeners

Note that these words can also be used as pronouns: Some were in bad taste; few could
carpool. For more, see the TIP Sheets "Pronouns" and "Pronoun Reference."

Questioning adjectives
Which and what are adjectives when they modify nouns or pronouns:

Which  joke did you like better, and  what reason can you give for your preference?

Like indefinite adjectives, the questioning (or interrogative) adjectives can also function as
pronouns; see the TIP Sheets "Pronouns" and "Pronoun Reference."

Adjective order and punctuation

Some stacks of adjectives can be rearranged freely without changing the meaning. They
are coordinate adjectives, and they are equal and separate in the way they modify a noun. For
example, we can freely rearrange a dull,  dark,
and  depressing day: a  depressing,  dark,  dull day. Separate two or more coordinate
adjectives with commas (note that no comma goes immediately before the noun).

Other adjective groups cannot be freely rearranged. These cumulative adjectives are not

separated by commas. Rich chocolate layer cakecannot be changed
to layer chocolate rich cake. For more on identifying and punctuating coordinate and
cumulative adjectives, see the TIP Sheet "Commas."
If you were born to English, you may not realize that there are rules for placing adjective
groups in order. For example, the determiner (a, an, the) comes first, then size words, then
color, then purpose:

a large, purple sleeping bag

You can't freely rearrange these adjectives and say, for example, sleeping, purple, a
large bag without awkwardness, absurdity, or loss of meaning, The rule is that a stack of
adjectives generally occurs in the following order: opinion ( useful, lovely, ugly), size
(big, small), age (young, old), shape (square, squiggly), color (cobalt, yellow), origin
(Canadian, solar), material (granite, wool), and purpose (shopping, running).

scary, squiggly solar flares

lovely, cobalt, Canadian running shoes

Cobalt, running, Canadian, lovely shoes doesn't work. If English is a second language for you,
consult an ESL guide for more information.