Semiconductors PG PDF

PG Notes Semiconductors (Part - 1)
Physics Galaxy Notes

Semiconductors Part - 1
An Ultimate Tool to understand advanced High School Physics 60 Min
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by ASHISH ARORA Sir
PG Notes on Semiconductors (Part - 1)

Semiconductors
In all electronic devices in our surrounding the most important thing for proper operation of these devices is to control
the flow of charge particles. The material used in these devices must be capable to provide mobile charges and can govern the
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flow of these charges by some specific processes. In this chapter we’ll discuss the basic classification of materials as
conductors, insulators and semiconductors then we’ll discuss the physical properties of semiconductors and semiconductor
devices and how these devices are able to control the flow of mobile charges. First we’ll discuss the energy band theory for
solid structures.
Energy band Diagram
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We know that the potential energy between two charge particles q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is given as
Kq1q2
U= … (1)
r
Similarly in an atom potential energy of an electron in the electric field a nucleus of an atom (charge = + Ze) can be given
as
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KZe 2
U=– … (2)
r
At the distance very close to nucleus, the potential energy approaches to –  and on the surface of an atom at large
values of separation between electron and nucleus, U becomes zero. From equation-(2) we can see that the potential energy
of electron is inversely proportional to r, the distance of electron from nucleus. Thus the curve of variation of potential energy
with distance will be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure-1.
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Figure 1
If we carefully analyze the graph in figure-1. We can see that the closest electron in an atom is in 1s orbital. Say the
maximum distance of an electron from nucleus is r1s and the electron energy is E1s and according to classical theory electron
can move between a and b in the figure shown. Similarly the energies electrons in higher orbitals 2s, 2p, 3s etc. are also shown
in figure with respective energies E2s, E2p …… .
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If we place two atoms very close to each other in such a way that some of their orbitals overlap. Like as shown in figure-2,
3s orbitals of the two atoms overlap each other. For this situation if we plot the energy of electrons in these atoms, the graph
of both the atoms simultaneously can be drawn as shown in figure-2(a)
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Figure 2
In this case the two atoms are brought so close that their 3s orbital gets overlapped and obviously all higher orbitals are
also overlapped as bigger then 3s orbitals. In figure-2(a). We can see that the electrons is 3s orbital of these two atoms can
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now move between g1 to h2 and hence are not attached to a particle atom. Figure-2(b) shows the single energy band diagram
for the two atoms. Between the two atoms at point X in figure-2(a) the two potential energy curve intersects above which all
orbitals get overlapped or we can say that above this point X, electrons in all the orbitals are not restricted to a particular atom.
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These electrons can move in the same orbital of other atom through overlapped region. In figure-2(b) we can see that above
point X all orbitals of both the atoms are represented by a common line like g1h2 for common 3s orbital. If interatomic
separation is decreased, the orbitals which were earlier below point X will come above it and their electrons will also become
free to move in the bigger common orbital.
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Now if we consider a piece of solid, composed of very large number of atoms regularly arranged in a lattice, the resultant
potential energy curve of electron in this solid can be shown by the curve in figure-3.
Here we can see that if we move through the lattice of atoms N1, N2, N3, ……, the potential energy varies periodically with
the interatomic separation. We can also see from the above figure that the electrons in the orbitals which are below the
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overlapping region (Here 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals) like those positioned at points 1 and 2 are restricted to move only in the
orbitals of localized atoms and are called bound electrons of the lattice. The electrons which are in the orbitals overlapped (3s
and above in this case) like position at point 3 and 4 are not localized at any particular atom, these are free to move through
the overlapping orbitals in the whole lattice, are called free electrons of the lattice. These electrons are in the common
overlapped orbitals of all the atoms of lattice. These electrons have a large freedom to move in the whole lattice structure
which can conduct electricity through the lattice when a potential difference is applied across it, under some particular
conditions we’ll discuss later.
The Conduction Band
The region above the overlapping point of orbitals of atoms i.e. in graph region above point X. Where all existing
electrons can conduct electricity is called region of conduction bands.
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Figure 3
The energy band in a solid containing valance electrons we call valance band, it contains the outer most electrons of the
atoms. The lowest unfilled band of energy level which is just above valance band, we call conduction band in which electrons
can easily flow in the empty states of conduction band.
Energy Bands in Solid Lattice
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We know that in atoms, electrons can occupy only certain energy levels. In a lattice, however, the energy levels are
modified. In lattice it is found that electrons can move within certain energy bands. For example in hydrogen atom the
electrons in the orbitals 1s, 2s, 2p …… have fixed energies or all the electrons which exist in an orbital say 2s, will have same
energies but when several atoms are arranged in a solid lattice, due to their mutual interactions the energy levels for electrons
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are modified to energy band with a specific range of energies. Now in 2s energy band those electron can exist which have their
energies between E2s and E'2s and similarly for other higher energy bands. Figure-4(a) shows the energy levels in an atom and
figure-4(b) shows the similar corresponding energy bands in a solid lattice.
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Figure 4
Conductors Insulators and Semiconductors
An important property of solids is their electrical conductivity, that is the ability for electrons to move freely through the
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solid under the action of an external electric field produced by applying a potential difference across the solid. Some solids,
traditionally called insulators which are poor conductors of electricity like wood, diamond etc. Other solids are good conductors
of electricity. In this group of solids, metals are mainly included like copper, aluminium, silver etc. In between the above two
groups of solids, their is a third category of solids, called semiconductors. Although semiconductors are much poor in
electrical conductivity as compared to metals but it has been discovered that the conductivity of a semiconductors increases
with temperature, while that of metals decreases with temperature. This property of semiconductors made then very useful in
controlling the flow of electrons efficiently and a wide research branch of physics is open for physicist & electronics
engineers as semiconductor physics. Typical semiconductors used are silicon and germanium. Whether a solid is a conductor,
an insulator or a semiconductors, it depends on the energy band structure of solid.
Lets discuss the classification of conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the basis of energy band diagrams of
solid.
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Energy Band Diagrams of Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
We know that the electrons in outermost shells of an atom which participate in bond formation are called valence
electrons and this shell is called valance shell. In solids the energy band formed by a series of energy levels containing
valance electrons is called valence band.
Fermi Energy Level
The highest energy level in valance band, which an electron occupies is called Fermi energy level. For example let us
consider the case of a Na atom (Z = 11). In sodium the valence band is the band of 3s orbitals which are partially filled as
shown in figure-5 as its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. Generally fermi energy level is defined at 0 K temperature.
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Figure 5
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At room temperatures and temperatures above 0 K, due to thermal agitations electrons are in energy levels above fermi
energy level in a lattice. At 0 K all energy levels upto fermilevel are filled and those above are empty.
Band Structures of Metals
We know that if a solid has free electrons in its conduction band (the overlapped region of common orbitals). These
electrons can conduct electricity and can be considered as a metal. Thus metals are those in which valence electrons exist in
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conduction band. There are two possibilities of band structure according to energy band theory under which solids are good
conductors of electricity.
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We again consider the case of sodium whose energy band diagram is shown in figure-6. Here the uppermost energy band
is partially filled. But when an electric field is applied on this substance, the electrons in this band gets some extra energy by
this electric field and excited to the empty levels in the same band and gains momentum and kinetic energy in the direction
opposite to electric field. The collective motion of all moving electrons in these levels (conduction band) constitutes an
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electric current. Thus good conductors of electricity are those solids whose uppermost occupied band (in the conduction
band) is partially field.
As we know for higher energy levels, the energy levels are very close and in solids energy band gets overlapped. In fact,
this overlapping of the uppermost bands is the common situation for most metals or good conductors.
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Now for another examplewediscuss thecaseof magnesium (Z = 12). The Mg atom has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2
2p 3s2. Here all energy levels are completely filled. The level just above 3s i.e. 3p is very close to 3s. Here corresponding 3s
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and 3p bands of solid magnesium gets overlapped as shown in figure-6.
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Figure 6
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If in magnesium 3p band do not overlap with 3s, it would be an insulator because all electrons in 3s would be almost
frozen to their completely filled levels and would not be fully mobile to conduct electricity. But because of overlapping the
upper most electrons of 3s band have the lowest energy states of 3p available to then. In magnesium the total energy levels
available from 3s and 3p bands are 8 per atom (2 in 3s and 6 in 3p) and only 2 electrons per atom are there in the two bands
having 6 empty levels in which electrons can conduct electricity. Therefore magnesium is a good conductor. Thus we can say
that those substances whose atoms have completely filled energy levels but in solid state have their uppermost filled band
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overlap with an empty band (conduction band) are also good conductors of electricity.
Band Structure in Insulators
In a solid substance, a different situation might occur when the upper most or valance band is completely filled and does
not overlap with the next band, which is totally empty. Since all states of the valance band are occupied the electron motion
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is frozen or the electrons can not change their states within the band. The only possibility is to transfer the electron to the
empty next band (conduction band). The situation for such a solid is shown in figure.
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Figure 7
Fermi Energy Gap
It is the energy required to excite the uppermost electron in valance band (fermi energy level) to the conduction band. It
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is also called forbidden energy gap.
In solids when EF > 5 eV, electrons in valance band may be excited to conduction band and conduct electricity but this
possible only at very high temperature or when a high electric field is applied and these values of temperature or electric field
when current is conducted, this we call electric breakdown of insulator. Like in diamond, fermi energy gap is around 6 eV. This
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may be considered as a relatively large energy gap, that’s why diamond is a good insulator.
Thus insulators are those substances in which, the forbidden energy gap is large (more then 5 eV)
Band Structure in Semiconductors
The energy band structure of semiconductors is similar to that of insulators but in these solids the forbidden energy gap
is very small i.e. the conduction band is very close to the fermi level of valance band. This smaller gap makes it much easier
to excite the upper most electrons of the valance band into the conduction band. Generally the solids in which the energy gap
is less then 1.5 eV some of the upper most electrons gains this energy by thermal agitation at room temperature and shift to
conduction band. Due to this there becomes two possibilities of conduction. First, the uppermost electrons of valance band
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which jumps to the next band, the conduction band behaves in a similar way as they would be in a metal and second, the
empty states in the valance band which are created due to shifting of some electrons to conduction band, the excited free
electron can conduct electricity and in valance band holes can conduct electricity. The band structure of semiconductors is
shown in figure-8.
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Energy bands and electron distribution in a semiconductor
Figure -8
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We can also conclude that in semiconductors conductivity rapidly increases with temperature because more electrons
are thermally excited from valance band to conduction band.
Types of Semiconductors
In previous section we’ve discussed that the conductivity of a semiconductor depends on temperature, the conductivity
increases with increases in temperature. This temperature dependent electrical conduction in semiconductors is called
intrinsic conductivity. The conductivity of a semiconductor can also be enhanced by the addition of some impurities in
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semiconductors, this technique is called doping. On the basis of conductivity semiconductors can be classified in two major
categories.
(1) Intrinsic Semiconductors
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(2) Extrinsic Semiconductors
Lets discuss these in details.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
These are pure semiconductor substances. Generally fourth group elements Germanium and silicon are used as pure
semiconductors. In solid state, each atom behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell due to formation of covalent
bonds. At very low temperature, the whole material behaves as an insulator.
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For a Si atom lattice the forbidden energy gap is 1.14 eV. This energy becomes available to the electron even at room
temperature and due to thermal agitation of the solid lattice structure electrons from a few covalent bonds come out and jump
to conduction band to conduct electricity. The bond from which electron is transferred to conduction band, a vacancy is
created. As discussed in previous section, this vacancy in valance band behaves as a positive electron and is called a hole.
When a potential difference is applied across the lattice, an electric field is established in the lattice structure due to which
electrons in conduction band and holes in valance band starts moving in opposite directions. Thus in a semiconductor
electron is a negative charge carrier and hole is a positive charge carrier. As the direction of flow of both carriers is opposite,
they constitute current in same direction. In this case when current flows in a pure semiconductor, these electrons and holes
are called intrinsic charge carriers.
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Figure 9
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the free electron density ne in conduction band is equal to the concentration of holes nh
in valance thus we have GA
ne = nh = ni … (1)
Here ni we call concentration of intrinsic charge carriers in conduction band and also in valance band. As we’ve
discussed value of ni increases with increases in temperature.
Theoretically the intrinsic concentration ni varies with temperature T according to relation

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n i 2 = A0T 3 e–EF/kT … (2)
or n i = n0 e–EF/2kT
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Here EF is the energy gap or the energy required to break a covalent bond and generates a electron hole pair at 0 k
temperature, k is the Boltzmann constant and A0 is a constant independent of temperature T.
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Figure-9 shows the lattice of solid silicon in which all Si atoms are attached to their neighbouring Si-atoms by covalent
bonds. Actually in lattice atoms are arranged in a three dimensional array but here for simplicity we’ve drawn a two dimensional
arrangement of Si atoms and for clarity, the conduction band is shown separately. Due to thermal agitation some electrons
from valance band by breaking of covalent bonds shift to the conduction band and equal number of holes are created in the
valance band. Generally when one bond breaks and an electron is shifted to conduction band, the hold of Si nucleus on other
nearby electrons becomes tight and no near by bond will break. It is observed that one free electron hole pair is contributed
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by about 108 Si atoms.
Generation and Recombination of Electron Hole Pairs
In an intrinsic or pure semiconductors, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons. Due to thermal
agitation, continuously new electron hole pairs are generated per unit volume per second and other electron hole pairs
disappears due to recombination. Recombination means an electron from conduction band falls into a hole of empty covalent
band and reforms the bond again by release of energy and loss of one electron hole pair. The time h or e for which a hole or
electron exist before recombination is called mean life time of the hole or electron.
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Due to continuous generation and recombination of electron hole pairs, the average concentration of electrons and
holes in conduction and valance band remains constant but increase with temperature as if temperature increase rate of
generation of electron hole pairs by breaking covalent bond also increases. The average thermal energy absorbed in generating
electron hole pairs and the average energy released during recombination of electron and holes keeps the semiconductor
lattice in thermal equilibrium.
Mechanism of Conduction by Hole
We know that due to thermal agitation electron hole pairs are generated in conduction band and valance band by
breaking of bonds. In valance band when a bond is incomplete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron
in a neghbouring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond to fill a hole leaves a hole
in its initial position. Hence the hole effectively moves in the direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole in its new
position, may now be filled by an electron from another covalent bond, and the hole correspondingly move one step in the
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direction opposite to the motion of electron. This mechanism for conduction of electricity is due to flow of electrons but not
involving free electrons in conduction band.
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Figure 10
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Figure-10 illustrates how in valance band holes flow and participate in conduction of electricity as if it were a positive
charge carrier.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
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We’ve discussed that a pure semiconductors at room temperature have free electron hole pairs but the number of these
charge carriers is so small that conductivity of these intersic semiconductor is very small. If some specific impurity is added
in the pure semiconductor in a very small ratio of about 1 in 103 to 1 in 105 atoms, the conductivity can be significantly
increased, this procedure of adding impurity to a pure semiconductor crystal to improve its conductivity is called doping and
the impure semiconductor thus formed is called doped semiconductor.
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There are two types of doped semiconductors formed based on the two types of impurity atoms added to a pure
semiconductor. These are
(i) Pentavalent impurity atoms

(ii) Trivalent impurity atoms
Pentavalent impurity atoms have 5 valance electrons such as phosphorus (P) or arsenic (As). When these impurity
atoms are added to silicon structure, these have one excess electron then Si-atoms and this increases the electron concentration
after making all the covalent bonds (four bonds), as due to low impurity concentration each phosphorus atom is surrounded
by Si-atoms. These pentavalent impurity atoms are also called donor impurity atoms and the semiconductor produced is
called n-type semiconductor.
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Similarly trivalent impurity atoms have 3 valance electrons, such as aluminium (Al) or Indium (In). When these atoms are
added to pure silicon as being trivalent atoms and surrounded by tetravalent atoms, they accept one electron, that’s why
these are called acceptor impurity atoms and the semiconductor thus produced is called p-type semiconductor.
Now we will discuss these extrinsic semiconductors in detail.
n-Type Semiconductors
Figure shows the crystal structure obtained when silicon is doped with a pentavalent impurity like arsenic (As). When
arsenic impurity atoms are added to the silicon crystal in a very small ratio such as about 1 in 104 atoms. These atoms replace
some silicon atoms in the lattice. Four of five valance electrons of arsenic atoms occupy covalent bonds with the neighbouring
Si-atoms and fifth electron is normally unbound from the atom. The energy required to detech this fifth electron and shift to
conduction band is only about 0.05 eV and it is considerably less then that required to break a covalent bond (about 1.14 eV).
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Thus this extra electron can easily get transferred to the conduction band.
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Figure 11
Thus we can see that here each pentavalent impurity atom contributes one free electron to the conduction band.
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Figure-11 shows the energy-band diagram for n-types doped silicon structure. Here we can see that the fifth electrons of all
the donor impurity atoms occupy an energy level which is slightly below the conduction band with the small energy gap of
about Ed ~ 0.05 eV and it is easily excited to the conduction band.
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Figure 12
In n-type semiconductors, the number of electrons in conduction band can be increased by a large extent by adding more
donor impurity atoms. Not only does the number of electrons increase, but the number of holes decreases below that would
be available in the intrinsic semiconductors. In this case due to large number of electrons present, the rate of recombination
with the holes also increases hence number of holes also decreases.
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In this case the majority charge carriers are electrons and holes are called minority charge carriers. As the dominant
carriers are the negative electrons, this resultant semiconductor we call n-type semiconductor.
p-Type Semiconductor
As already discussed another type of semiconductor can be made by adding drivalent impurity atoms to silicon lattice
like aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga) or indium (In) which replace some silicon atoms from the lattice. As these atoms have 3
valance electrons. These atoms accept one electron from the valance bond in order to complete the four covalent bonds and
thus creates a hole in valance band. The band structure of silicon doped with indium (In) is shown in figure-13.
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Figure 13
Due to doping with trivalent atoms as these can accept an electron readily with the valance band of silicon, an emply
acceptor level is creeated just above the valance bond having a very small energy gap of about Ea = 0.05 eV and thus the
electrons of valance band of silicon are easily transferred to these levels and creating a hole corresponding to each acceptor
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impurity atom. This result in a semiconductor in which holes are in excess as compared to electrons in conduction band which
are due to electron hole pairs created by thermal agitation in the lattice thus in semiconconductor doped with trivalent
impurity atoms holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers. As in this case dominant charge
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carriers are positive holes, this semiconductor we call p-type semiconductors.

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Figure 14
Carrier Concentration in Extrinsic Semiconductors and Mass-action Law
As we’ve discussed that n-type impurity increases number of electrons in the conduction band and due to increase in
recombination rate number of holes in valance band decreases below the concentration of intrinsic semiconductors. It is
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observed that in a semiconductor contineous recombination of electrons and holes takes place as well due to thermal
agitation contineous formation of electron hole pairs also takes place and the semiconductor remains in thermal equilibrium.
It has also been proved that in thermal equilibrium the product of electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor is a
constant independent of the amount of donor and acceptor impurity doping. This is given as
ne nh = ni2 … (1)
Here ni is the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers. This equation-(1) is called mas-action law. As already discussed
that the intrinsic concentration ni is a function of temperature.
Carrier Concentration in Semiconductors
As we’ve already discussed that only a small amount of energy is needed (about 0.05 eV) to ionize the impurity atoms.
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At temperature above 200 K, sufficient thermal energy is available to ionize all impurity atoms, thus in doped semiconductors
all impurity atoms remains in ionized state (donor impurities as positive ions and acceptor impurities as negative ions).
Now using mass-action law we can find the carrier concentration in a semiconductor. Let us assume, in a given
semiconductor ND is the concentration of donor impurity atoms & NA is that for acceptor impurity atoms and in conduction
and valance band and say the electron and hole concentration are ne and nh respectively. As the whole lattice is electrically
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neutral by conservation of charge we can say that the total concentration of nagative charges is equal to the concentration
of positive charges. Thus we can write
ND + ne = NA + nh … (1)
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Lets discuss about n-type semiconductor in which NA = 0. Since the number of electrons is much greater then the number
of holes in an n-type semiconductor we can say that electron concentration ne is approximately equal to the donor atom
concentration or donor atom density
ne ~
 ND … (2)
Now using mass-action law we can find the concentration of holes in an n-type semiconductors as
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ni2
nh = … (3)
ND
Similarly for a p-type semiconductor we can say that the hole concentration is approximately equal to the density of
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acceptor atoms, thus
nh ~
 NA … (4)
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and thus electron concentration in a p-type semiconductor can be given as
ni2
ne = … (5)
NA
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Electrical Conduction in Metals
We know that in a conductor when current flows, the current density J is related to drift speed of electrons in conductors
as
J = nevd … (1)
Where n is the free electron density in the conductor and e is the charge of electron. Drift speed of electrons is acquired
when an electric field E is established in the conductor. We know that the drift speed of electrons is directly proportional to
the electric field in the conductor, which is given as
vd  E
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or vd = µE … (2)
Here the proportionality constant µ is called the mobility of the electrons in the conductor. This term mobility (µ)
depends on temperature for a given material and its numerical value gives an idea that how much mobile the charge carrier is.
If temperature of a substance increases, the rate of collision between charge carriers increases and their flow becomes
difficult hence mobility decreases.
Now from equation-(1) & (2) we have
J = neµE … (3)
or J =E … (4)
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Here  = neµ is another constant, called conductivity of the conductor.
Electric Conduction in a Semiconductor
In a semiconductor both electrons and holes contribute to the conduction process. We’ve discussed that in lattice
structure, the mechanism by which holes and electrons move are different. Electrons move in conduction band where as
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holes drift in valance band due to shifting of electrons from one covalent band to another. Here we can see that in a
semiconductor electrons are more mobile as compared to holes hence their mobilities also differ. These charge carriers move
in opposite directions but as their charges are also opposite, the current due to each carrier is in same direction.
If ne and nh are electron and hole concentration and µe and µh are the mobilities of electrons and holes in the lattice then
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on establishing an electric field E in the lattice, the current density can be given as
J = ne e µe E + nh e µh E
or J = (e + h) E
or J =E … (1)
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Here  is the conductivity of the semiconductor which can be given as
 = e + h
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 = e (ne µe + nh µh) … (2)
For intrinsic semiconductors ne= nh = ni, thus

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 = eni (µe + µh) … (3)
Thus if Ie and Ih are the current in lattice due to electrons and holes, total current can be given as
I = Ie + Ih … (4)
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by ASHISH ARORA Sir

p-n Junction
A p-n junction is the fundamental semiconductor device. All the major semiconductor devices has different types of one
or more p-n junctions which are used in electric
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devices. As the name implies a p-n junction is a
combination of a p-type and n-type semiconductor.
It is a two terminal device formed either in germanium
or silicon crystal. If we just join a p-type and an n-
type semiconductor by some conducting adhesive a
p-n junction can not be formed because of
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irregularities on the surfaces. A p-n junction is formed
when a single crystal of semiconductor is doped with
acceptor atoms on one side and donors on other
side as shown in figure-1. The plane dividing the two
zones is known as junction. In figure. In the region of GA
n-type zone fixed donor ions are represented by 
and electrons are represented by black small circles Figure 1
and in p-type zone, fixed acceptor ions are
represented by  and holes are represented by small hollow circles. Now we’ll discuss the mechanism of junction formation
in detail.
Now consider the situation when one half of semiconductor is doped by p-type acceptor impurity atoms and other half
is doped with n-type donor impurity atoms. We know that in p-type material concentration of holes is very high and in n-type
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material concentration of electrons is very high, thus there is a tendency of electrons to diffuse from n-type to p-type zone.
Where electron concentration is low and similarly holes diffuse toward n-type zone. Thus due to diffusion, some holes cross
the junction and reach n-type zone and combine with electron present there and same electrons reach p-type zone whey they
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combine with holes present there. Thus due to diffusion and combination of electrons and holes on both sides of junction,
a neutral region is formed which is free from charge carriers and in this region almost no free charge carriers are present for
electric conduction. This region we call depletion layer or space charge region or sometimes transition region. As discussed
above and as shown in figure-2(a), we can see that in depletion layer there are no charge carriers, there exist only positive
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donor ions on right side and negative acceptor ions on left side. Due to these ions an electric field Ei is established in this
region from n-type zone to p-type zone.
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Figure 2(a)
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This electric field prevent diffusion of electrons and holes and establish a potential difference across the junction or
depletion layer.
Initially when the junction is formed, there was no electric field present across the junction, when diffusion of electrons
and holes start across the junction, the started getting neutralized on the opposite sides and the fixed ions on the two sides
produces electric field in this region and diffusion continues till this electric field further stops the diffusion of electrons and
holes.
The potential difference developed across the junction act as a potential barrier for electrons and holes. This is shown
in figure-2(b). This voltage VB we call junction voltage and it is generally in the range from 0.1 V to 0.8 V. Due to this potential
barrier in open circuit no charge flow takes places across the junction. In next section we’ll see that the height of potential
barrier can be increased or decreased by applying an external supply.
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A common p-n junction device is also known is p-n junction diode. The circuit symbol of a p-n junction diode is shown
in figure-2(b)
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Figure 2(b)
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Biasing of p-n junction
The most important characteristic of a p-n junction is that charge carriers are permitted to flow only in one direction or it
allows current to flow in one direction only and not in opposite direction. Now we’ll study & discuss how this unidirectional
behaviour exist in a p-n junction by applying an external voltage across the p-n junction diode.
Forward Biasing of p-n junction

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When the external supply is connected positive terminal to the p-side of the junction and negative terminal of supply is
connected to n-side of junction then we say that the junction is forward biased. In this case we can see that the electric field
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established by external supply E is in opposition to the internal electric field Ei in the depletion region due to the donor and
acceptor ions. This decreases the height of potential barrier and pushes electrons and holes on the two sides to cross the
depletion layer. When the supply voltages is increased beyond the potential barrier height its electric field E exceeds the
internal electric field Ei and the current flow starts in the circuit.
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Figure 3
Thus in forward biasing when a battery is applied across a p-n junction, the potential barrier decreases and a current
flows through the junction.
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Reverse Biasing of p-n junction
When the positive terminal of external supply is connected to n-side of the p-n junction and its negative terminal is
connected to p-side of the p-n junction , we say that p-n junction is reverse biased.
In this case we can see that the electric field established by the battery is in same direction as that of internal electric field
due to fixed ions in the depletion layer. Due to the height of potential barrier increases and on both sides electrons and holes
are pulled in direction away from the depletion layer as shown in figure-4
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Figure 4
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Thus here external supply also prevents majority charge carriers to cross the depletion layers. But this supply supports
the minority carriers in crossing the junction. In figure-4 minority charge carriers are not shown but we know that on p-side,
in very small quantity electrons are also present because of electron hole pairs generated by thermal agitation in lattice.
Similarly on n-side of junction there are some holes present in small quantity which are pushed toward the depletion layer by
the external supply. Due to these minority charge carriers, a very small current flows in circuit because these carriers are in
very small quantity. One interesting thing is observed about this current that its magnitude is almost independent of the
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supply voltage. The reason behind this is the very small quantity of minority carriers. When a small reverse biasing voltage
is applied, the flow of almost all carriers start but simultaneously the width of depletion layer also increases which increases
the resistance of junction due to which the current in circuit does not increases. As this reverse current is independent of
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biasing voltage, it is called reverse saturation current.
Volt Ampere Characteristic of p-n junction

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In previous section we’ve discussed that the nature of a p-n junction diode is unilateral, i.e. current flows through the
diode only in one direction from p to n and it does not allows current to flow from n to p side because of reverse biasing.
Now we’ll study the variation of current through a p-n junction diode with variation of applied voltage across the diode
both during forward and reverse biasing. Two characteristics are studied for a p-n junction diode. These are
(i) Forward Bias characteristics
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(ii) Reverse Bias characteristics
Figure 5
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(i) Forward Bias characteristic
In the circuit shown in figure when the potential difference is gradually increased in forward bias, the variation of current
through diode is shown in figure-6. Here we can see, initially very smaller almost no current flows through it.* When potential
difference is increased beyond the potential barrier (here 0.7 volt for Si), the potential barrier is eliminated and current starts
flowing.
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Figure 6
The portion OA of the graph shows that when supply voltage is less then barrier voltage, almost no current flows in the
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circuit and beyond point A current starts increasing with applied voltage. The voltage of point A is called knee voltage, at
which the curve bends like a knee. Some times this voltage VA is also called turn on voltage or offset cottage. It is observed
that the current flowing through a p-n junction diode and the voltage applied across it are related as
 eV 
I = I0  e KT 1 … (1)

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Here K is the Boltzmann’s constant and T is the absolute temperature and I0 is the reverse saturation current, which is
also extremely temperature dependent.
eV
In forward biased for high values of applied voltages e KT >> 1, thus current in equation-(1) can be given as
eV
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I~  I0 e KT … (2)
Thus for high voltages current passing through a p-n junction rises exponentially with applied voltage. But for very high
voltages there is a safe value, beyond which if voltage is increased, it produces an extremely large current which may destroy
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the junction due to over heating.
Another point about forward biasing student should keep in mind that when the p-n junction is forward biased the
deletion layer becomes thin. It is because the polarity of external source opposes the internal field of the junction due to this
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the potential difference across the junction decreases and making the duplication layer thin due to which the resistance of
junction is low during forward biasing as we know that resistance of junction is proportional to the width of depletion layer
Reverse Bias Characteristics
We’ve discussed that when junction is reverse biased, a very small current flows through the junction due to minority
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carriers hence to measure this current in circuit we should change our milliammeter by a microammeter to measure this small
current.
The Reverse biasing voltage opposes the majority charge carries to flow across p-n junction but allows and supports
minority carriers to cross the junction, thus a small current flows which remains constant as the applied voltage is increased
as shown in graph of figure-7. When the applied reverse bias voltage increases to VZ, suddenly the breakdown in the
semiconductor material takes place under which lot of electron hole pair are suddenly produced and a large current starts
flowing. This voltage VZ at which breakdown takes place is called breakdown voltage or zener voltage. After this section we’ll
discuss the breakdown mechanism in detail.
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Figure 7
In reverse biasing current through junction for V < VZ remains constant at I0 which we call reverse saturation current thus
IR = I0 … (3)
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Thus when p-n junction is reversed biased, the depletion layer becomes thick. It is because, the external DC source in
this case and the internal potential barrier increases the height of potential barrier and the potential drop across the junction
increases. Because of increased thickness of depletion layer, the p-n junction offers high resistance during reverse bias.
Dynamic Resistance of p-n Junction GA

We’ve discussed the variation of current flowing through p-n junction with variation of the applied voltage. We can see
the graph in figure-8 that during both forward and reverse biased region the curve is not a straight line hence in case of a
p-n junction ohm’s law is not obeyed. Thus here the resistance of p-n junction varies with the applied voltage. This resistance
we call dynamic resistance of p-n junction diode.
The dynamic resistance of a p-n junction is defined as the ratio of small changes in applied voltage to the small change
in corresponding current through the junction. For example in the forward bias characteristic shown in figure at point P when
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biasing voltage is V, the dynamic resistance can be given as

dV
rP = … (4)
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di
Where dV is the elemental small charge in voltage across diode and di is the corresponding small change in current in the
diode.
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Figure 8
From equation-(4) and the graph in figure-8 we can say that the dynamic resistance of a p-n junction at a given voltage
can be given as reciprocal of the slope of the v-i characteristic of the p-n junction.
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Diode as an Ideal Circuit Element
An ideal diode is a two terminal device which offers zero resistance or act as a short circuit when forward biased and on
the other hand when an ideal diode is reversed biased, it offers infinite resistance and act as an open circuit. Thus it ideally
allows current to flow through the junction when it is in forward biasing i.e. only in one direction. Thus an ideal diode is
perfectly a unilateral element.
The characteristics of an ideal diode is shown in figure-9
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Figure 9
The characteristic of an ideal diode shows that the behaviour of the diode is important in switching circuits as it provides
on off characteristic. As shown in figure-9 we can see that when V = 0, i can have any value and when i = 0, V can have any
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value, a conduction corresponding to a switch. Thus when in a circuit an ideal diode is connected in a branch when it is
forward biased (potential of p-side is more then that of n-side) current enters from p-side of diode, it behaves like a straight
wire (short circuit) as shown in figure-10(a) and when it is reversed biased (potential of n-side is more then that of p-side), no
current is allowed to pass through the diode and it behaves like an open circuit as shown in figure-10(b).
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(a) (b)
Figure 10
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Breakdown Mechanism of a p-n Junction Diode in Reverse Biasing
We’ve discussed that when a p-n junction is reverse biased, the current through the junction remains constant and it is
independent of variation in reverse bias supply voltage. This current we call reverse saturation current. When the reverse
voltage is increase, at some voltage, the covalent bonds near the junction start breaking and suddenly large number of
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electron hole pairs are generated and the reverse current increases abruptly to a large value. The voltage at which this
happens is called breakdown voltage or zero voltage.
If we look at the reverse biased region of v-i characteristic of diode as shown in figure-7, we can see that after breakdown,
the voltage across the junction diode almost remain constant over a large range of current. Thus after breakdown, the
potential difference across the diode is maintained at the constant value zener voltage.
There are two different breakdown mechanism under different conditions for a reversed biased p-n junction. These are
(i) Zener Breakdown
(ii) Avalance Breakdown
Lets discuss both the mechanism in detail.
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(i) Zener Breakdown
This mechanism of breakdown is used to explain the phenomenon of breaking covalent bonds near to junction when the
p-n junction is very thin. This happens when both p and n sides of semiconductors are heavily doped and width of depletion
layer is small. When an external voltage is applied across the diode, a very strong electric field is setup across the junction.
When external voltage is increased. The electric field in the junction also increases and after a particular value, this high
electric field exert so large force on the electrons in valance band on the semiconductor that these electrons are pulled to
conduction band after breaking of covalent bonds. As soon as the reverse voltage approaches the zener voltage, the electric
field in junction is sufficient to break the covalent bonds and suddenly large number of bonds in the region of junction are
broken and lot of electron hole pairs are generated. Thus due to sudden increase in large number of charge carriers a very high
reverse current is produced in the circuit which we call zener current. We’ve already discussed that zener current is independent
of the applied voltage. It depends on the external resistances present in the circuit.
(ii) Avalance Breakdown
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This mechanism of breaking covalent bond explains the breakdown in p-n junction when both sides of junction
semiconductor is lightly doped and the depletion layer is large. If depletion layer is large electric field in the junction is not so
high produce zener breakdown. Due to large width of depletion layer, here minority charge carriers gain high kinetic energy
during acceleration due to electric field in the depletion layer. When these carriers collide with the semiconductor atoms in the
depletion region, due to collisions the covalent bond are broken and electron hole pairs are generated by the energy supplied
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by these carriers. These new carriers thus created are again accelerated and produce new electron hole pairs and so continuously
additional pair of carriers are generated and due to this cumulative process lot of carriers are suddenly produced in the
junction and a large reverse current flows. This process is called avalance break down. This break down occurs at relatively
higher reverse voltages as compared to zener breakdown.
Zener Diode
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This is also a p-n junction device. Zener diode is a p-n junction formed between two heavily doped p-type and n-type
semiconductors, which is operated in reverse biased breakdown region. For the formation of zener diode, silicon is preferred
as compared to germanium because of high current capabilities of silicon. A zener diode is operated in breakdown region in
a circuit with high currents also the voltage across the diode remains constant.
Figure-11 shows the circuit symbol of zener diode. When it is used in forward bias mode, it behaves like a normal p-n
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junction diode. The basic difference between a normal diode and a zener diode is, it is best suitable to operate when
breakdown takes place in the junction. In a normal diode when a reverse voltage more than zener voltage is applied,
breakdown takes place and for higher voltages, the junction get damaged due to excessive heat produced and high temperature
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Figure 11
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Zener diode is specifically constructed to operate in breakdown region and the voltage across diode remains almost
constant even at very high currents. Due to this property of zener diode, it is also used to stabilize voltage at a preterminal
values.
Zener Diode as a Voltage Stabilizer

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As we’ve discussed that a zener diode operates in reverse biased breakdown region. The circuit shown in figure-12 is
using a zener diode to maintain a constant potential difference across the load resistance when supply voltage is more then
zener voltage. Here when supply voltage is less then VZ, the diode act as “OFF” and the resistance R behaves as in series with
the load resistance RL, when supply voltage is increased the potential difference across zener diode also increase. When
potential difference across load or zener diode reaches VZ (zener voltage) breakdown takes place in diode and if supply
voltage is further increased, extra current produced in circuit will bypass through the diode and hence maintain the constant
potential difference across the load resistance RL.
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Figure 12
p-n Junction Diode as Rectifier
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A rectifier is an electronic device which is used to convert alternating current or voltage into unidirection current or
voltage. Because of the unilateral nature of a p-n junction diode, it become a useful tool to be used as a rectifier. Using a
p-n junction diode, two types of rectifiers can be constructed. These are
(i) Half wave Rectifier
(ii) Full wave Rectifier
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(i) Half Wave Rectifier
A half wave rectifier is one which converts ac voltage into pulsating unidirectional voltage for only one half cycle of the
ac supply. The basic circuit of half wave rectifier using a p-n junction diode is shown in figure-13.
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S
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(a) (b)
Figure 13
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In the circuit input ac supply is connected to a diode D1 through a power transformer and out put is taken across the load
resistance RL connected in series with diode D1 as shown in the circuit.
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
In the circuit shown in figure-13 when the input supply is switched on, in first half cycle of supply point a in circuit will
be at high potential then point b, the diode D1 will become forward biased and conducts current through it (acts as switched
on). Now a current flows in the circuit and a potential difference exist across the load resistance RL. This constitutes an output
voltage. For the negative half cycle of input supply point b in circuit will be at higher potential then point a and the diode D1
will be reverse biased and it does not conduct (acts as switched off). Now corresponding to this negative half cycle of input
voltage there is no current through the load resistance and hence no potential drop takes place across RL. Thus the output
voltage across load resistance is a pulsating unidirectional current as shown in figure-13(b).
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It is clear that in output only half cycle of input ac supply wave is being used, it is called half wave rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier
The circuit of a full wave rectifier is shown in figure 14. This is also called centre tap full wave rectifier because we can see
in figure that secondary coil of the transformer is split in two coils by a centre tapping in this coil. Due to this the voltage of
secondary coil is divided equally in two parts, across points a and b and across points b and c equal potential difference e0/2
exist in same phase. In this type of rectifier, two p-n junction diodes D1 and D2 are used as shown in the circuit.
Working of Full Wave Rectifier
In the circuit shown in figure-14 when the input supply is switched on, due to ac supply the ends of two parts of
secondary coil a, b and b, c becomes positive and negative alternatively or in both parts of coils, the potential difference
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reverses periodically with positive and negative half cycles of supply voltage.
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GA
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(a) (b)
Figure 14
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In positive half cycle of input supply, terminal a is at high potential relative to b and b is at higher potential then c. Due
to this, diode D1 becomes forward biased and current flows through it and diode D2 in this state is reverse biased and it does
not conduct. Similarly for next negative half cycle of supply voltage the potential difference across secondary coil is
reversed. Now point c is at high potential then b and b is at higher potential then a. Thus how diode D2 is forward biased and
conducts and diode D1 is now reverse biased. In this state also current flows through the load resistance in same direction
as shown in figure-14(b).
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Figure 15
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We can see from figure-15(a) and (b) that in both positive and negative half cycles of input voltage, current flows
through the load resistance in same direction hence the potential drop across this or the output voltage will have same
polarity for both cycles of the input voltage. As for each alternate half cycle diodes D1 and D2 conducts one by one. The
conduction of diodes D1 and D2 is shown in the figure-16 as well as the total output voltage which is unidirection pulsating
voltage. The only drawback is the output voltage peak value is half of that of the half wave rectifier.
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GA
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Figure 16
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Average Currents in Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers
Average current in a pulsating current can be defined as

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Total charge flow in one cycle

Iavg =
Time duration of a cycle
Area of i  t graph
=
Time
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Average Current in Half Wave Rectifier
Figure 17
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Figure shows the i-t graph for a half wave rectifier. Here if Im is the peak current for a cycle can be given as

i = Im sin t 0<t … (5)

 2
i=0 <t … (6)
 
Thus the charge flows only in half cycle, which is given as


q =  i dt
0


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= I
0
m sin t dt
Im 
=

 cos t 0 
Im
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= [1 + 1]

2I m
= … (7)

Thus average current for one cycle for output of a half wave rectifier is
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q 2I / 
Iavg = = m
t 2 / 
Im
= … (8)

Average Current in Full Wave Rectifier
Figure-18 shows the current Vs times graph of output for a full wave rectifier here as the peak value of current is Im thus
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for first half cycle current as a function of time is given as


i = Im sin t 0<t … (9)
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
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Figure 18
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For all other half cycles the variation of current remains same as that of first half cycle. Thus average current for one cycle
can be given as
2  charge flow in one half cycle
Iavg =
(2/)

Charge flow in first half cycle is



q = I
0
m sin t dt
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Im 
=

 cos t 0 
Im
= [1 + 1]

2I m
= … (10)

Now average current for one cycle for output of a full wave rectifier is
2q
Iavg =
t
2(2 I m /)
=
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2/
2I m
= … (11)

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current For Rectifiers
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In the section of detailed analysis of alternating current, you might have covered that rms value of a pulsating or
alternating current is that value of dc current which produces the same amount of heat in a given resistor in a given time which
the alternating current produces. Now we calculate rms values of current for each cycle of pulsating current for both half
wave and full wave rectifiers individually. GA
RMS Current For Half Wave Rectifier
We know that rms value of current for a time varying current can be given as
T
1 2
Irms =
T  i dt
0
… (12)
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Now for a half wave rectifier we know the current is given as


i = Im sin t 0<t … (13)

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 2
i =0 <t … (14)
 
Thus from equation-(12) rms value can be given as
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

1 2
Irns =
2/  i dt
0

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
 2
=
I m sin 2 t dt
2
0


 I m2 (1  cos 2t )
=
2 
0
2
dt

 I m2  1 sin 2t  
= t
2  2 4  0
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 I m2   
=
2   2 
Im
= … (15)
2
RMS Current For a Full Wave Rectifier
We know that current in output of a full wave rectifier is repeated same as it is in the first half cycle. Thus rms value of
current for one cycle is same as that of its half cycle as the total amount of heat produced by this current in a resistance will
remain same in each half cycle of pulsating current.
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For first half cycle the current output of a full wave rectifier is given as

i = Im sin t 0<t

Now the rms value of this current is given as
/
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1 2
Irms =
(/)  i dt
0
/
1 2
= I m sin 2 t dt
(/)
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0
/
I m2  1  cos 2t  dt
=
  
0
2



I m2  1 sin 2t  
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=  t
 2 4  0
I m2  1  
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=
  2  
Im
= … (16)
2
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Efficiency of a Rectifier
Efficiency of a rectifier is defined as the ratio of dc power output to the ac power input to the rectifier circuit. For the input
supply the diode and load resistance act as in series combination thus the input power supplied to a rectifier is given as
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2
Pin = I rms (rd + RL) … (17)
Here rd is the dynamic forward biasing resistance offered by the junction diode and RL is the load resistance.
Similarly the dc output power from rectifier is given as

2
Pout = I avg RL … (18)
Here Iavg is the average current flowing through the resistance RL. Thus efficiency of the rectifier can be given as
2
Pout I avg RL
= = 2 … (19)
Pin I rms (rd  R L )
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Efficiency of a Half Wave Rectifier
For a half wave rectifier, we know

Im Im
Iavg = and Irms = [Im  peak value of current]
 2
Thus from equation-(19) we have efficiency of a half wave rectifier is
( I m / ) 2 R L
=
( I m / 2) 2 (rd  RL )
4  RL 
=  
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 2  rd  R L 
0.406
= … (20)
r
1 d
RL
Thus efficiency will be maximum when the diode behaves ideally or rd = 0
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Thus maximum efficiency is
max = 0.406 or 40.6%
Efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier
For a full wave rectifier, we know

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2I m Im
Iavg = and Irms = [Im  beak value of current]
 2
Thus from equation-(19), the efficiency of a full wave rectifier is given as
( 2 I m / ) 2 R L
=
( I m / 2 ) 2 (rd  RL )
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8  RL 
=  
 2  rd  R L 
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0.812
=
r
1 d
RL
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Similar to a half wave rectifier, for a full wave rectifier also the efficiency is maximum when rd ~
 0, which is given as
max = 0.812 or 81.2%
Here we can also see that the efficiency of a full wave rectifier is double that of a half wave rectifier.
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Bridge Rectifier
We’ve discussed that in a full wave rectifier we use a centre tap secondary coil of transformer due to which the output
voltage in each cycle becomes half of the input voltage. It is also practically very difficult to locate an exact centre tapping on
the secondary winding which divides the input voltage in exactly two equal halves. This problem is overcome in bridge
rectifier. The circuit of a full wave bridge rectifier is shown in figure. We can see here unlike to a centre tap rectifier, four diodes
D1, D2, D3 and D4 are used instead of two diodes.
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Figure 19
Working of Bridge Rectifier GA

In the circuit we can see that for positive half cycle terminal a is at higher potential then b, thus at terminal c due to high
potential diode D1 is forward biased and D4 reverse biased and thus diode D1 start acting as switched on, which makes point
d at high potential. Similarly as point f is at low potential diode D2 is reverse biased and D3 becomes forward biased, making
it conducting and point e will now be at low potential and current flows in load resistance from point d to point e as shown
in figure-20(a) . Due to this the output voltage can be taken across the load resistance for the positive half cycle of input
voltage.
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Figure 20
Now for next half cycle i.e. for negative half cycle, the terminal b will now be at higher potential then terminal a. Due to
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this we can see in figure-20(b) as point f is at high potential, diode D2 becomes forward biased & D3 become reverse biased.
Diode D2 starts conducting and in the same way we can say that on other side diode D1 will act switched off and D4 will
conduct because now point c as at law potential. Here also for negative half cycle we can see that current through load
resistance is still flowing from point d to e, that is in same direction which was flowing in positive half cycle. Thus for both
positive and negative half cycles of input voltage current in load resistance is flowing in same direction thus the polarity of
output voltage across load resistance forever remain same and this acts as a full wave rectifier.
Different Types of Junction Diodes

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(i) Photodiode
We know that in semiconductors, electrons from valance bond are transferred to conduction bond by thermal agitation
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energy or energy gained by accelerating voltage. A junction diode which is manufactured by a light sensitive semiconductor
is called a photodiode.
In a photo diode, when it forward biased, some current flows through it which is represented by the initial portion OA of
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graph shown in figure-21. In this state no light is incident on the junction of diode. This current i1 is called dark current. When
some light incident on the p-n junction by absorbing photon energy more electron hole pairs are generated if the photon
energy h is more then the forbidden energy gap. Thus as the intensity of light increases, the current in circuit increases as
shown by the portion AB of the graph. If the intensity of incident light is continuously increased, the current in circuit
increases with light intensity but after some time, we can see from graph that the current in circuit becomes constant. This is
because excess number of electrons in conduction bond and excess holes in valance bond also increases the rate of
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recombination and thus a stage comes the rate at which photons produces electron hole pair and the rate at which electron
in conduction bond recombines with holes in valance bond becomes equal and hence no further rise in current takes place
with increase an light intensity. This current i2 (portion BC of graph), we call saturation current of photo diode.
Figure 21
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(ii) Light Emitting Diode (LED)
We know that on forward biasing above knee voltage, in a p-n junction diodes current flows because electrons from n-
side of junction and holes from p-side of junction started crossing the depletion layer and started combining. When an
electron in the junction combines with a hole, it releases an energy photon having energy equal to the forbidden energy gap
of the semiconductor. In silicon and germanium diodes the amount of energy released is in infrared region. But in a junction
diode made up of such materials in which the forbidden energy gap is of the order of energy in visible range then in forward
biasing these diodes will emit light from their junction. These diodes are called light emitting diodes. For example in a diode
made up of semiconductor gallium arsenide phosphide. The forbidden energy gap is around 1.9 eV. When an electron
combines with hole in this diode the wavelength emitted is
hc ~ 12423
=  1. 9 Å
E
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= 6538.4 Å
Which is the wavelength of approximately lemon green colour. Similarly several light emitting diodes are now a days
available which emit lights of different colours.
(iii) Solar Cell
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A solar cell is used to transform light energy into electrical energy.
Example 1
A silicon diode is connected to a resistor R and a battery of voltage VB as shown in figure. The knee point of its I-V
characteristics is 0.7 V. Assume that the diode requires a minimum current of 1 mA to attain a value higher than the knee point.
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Also assume that the voltage V across the junction s independent of the current above the knee point.
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(a) If VB = 5V, what should be the maximum value of R so that of voltage V is above the knee point voltage ?
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(b) If VB = 5V, what should be the value of R in order to establish a current of 5mA in the circuit ?
(c) If VB = 6V, what is the power dissipated in the resistor R and the diode when a current 5 mA flows in the circuit ?
(d) If R = 1 k, what is the minimum voltage VB required to keep the diode above the knee point ?
Solution
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(a) Let VR be the voltage across the resistor and V the voltage across the diode junction. Then
VB = VR + V
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It is given that VB = 5V and V = 0.7 V. Then
VR = VB – V = 5 – 0.7 = 4.3 V
From ohm’s law VR = IR. Since VR is fixed, when I is minimum (Imin), R should be maximum (Rmax), such that
Imin × Rmax = 4.3 V
Since, Imin = 1 mA = 1 × 10–3 A, we have

4. 3
Rmax = = 4.3 × 103  = 4.3 k.
1  10 3
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(b) Now V = 0.7 V as in part (a), since it is independent of the current above the knee point. Also VB = 5V. Therefore, the
voltage across R is
VR = VB – V = 5 × 0.7 = 4.3 V
But VR = IR. For I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A, the value of R should be

VR 4.3
R= = = 860 .
I 5  10 3
(c) In this case, VB = 6V. But V = 0.7 V (as before). Therefore
VR = 6 – 0.7 = 5.3 V
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We know that power dissipated equal current times voltage. The current in the circuit is I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A. Therefore
the power dissipated in the resistor is
I × VR = (5 × 10–3) × 5.3 = 26.5 × 10–3 W = 26.5 mW
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and the power dissipated in the diode is
I × V = (5 × 10–3) × 0.7 = 3.5 × 10–3 W = 3.5 mW
(d) R = 1 k = 1000 . To keep the diode above the knee point, a minimum current of Imin = 1 mA = 1 × 10–3 A must flow
in the circuit. Therefore, the minimum voltage VB required is
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VB = Imin × R + V = (1 × 10–3) × 1000 + 0.7 = 1 + 0.7 = 1.7 V.
Example 2
In a pn junction diode current I through the diode is given

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  eV  – 1
I = I0 exp  
  kT  
where I0 is the reverse saturation current, V is the voltage across the diode, T is the absolute temperature, and k is a constant
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= 8.6 × 10–5 eVK–1 (electron-volt per kelvin). If I0 = 5 × 10–12 A and T = 300 K, find (a) the forward current at V = 0.6 V when the
diode is forward-biased, (b) the increase in current if the voltage across the diode is increased to 0.7 V, (c) the dynamic
resistance, and (d) the change in current if the bias voltage changes from 1 to 2V when the diode is reverse-biased.
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Solution
Let I be given by
I = I0 (ea – 1)
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Where a = eV/kT. Given
k = 8.6 × 10–5 eVK–1 = (8.6 × 10–5) × (1.6 × 10–19) JK–1.
= 1.376 × 10–23 JK–1
I0 = 5 × 10–12 A and T = 300 K.
(a) For forward bias, voltage V is positive. Thus V = + 0.6 V. Now
eV (1.6  10 19 )  0.6

a= = = 23.256
kT (1.376  10 23 )  300
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 I = 5 × 10–12 (e23.256 – 1) = 5 × 10–12 (1.259 × 1010 – 1)
= 6.3 × 10–2 A = 63 mA
(b) If V = 0.7 V, the value of a turns out to be 27.132 and
I = 5 × 10–12 (e27.132 – 1) = 5 × 10–12 (6.07 × 1011 – 1)
= 3.035 A
Therefore the increase in current is 3.035 – 0.063 = 2.972 A.
(c) Change in voltage is V = 0.7 – 0.6 = 0.1 V and change in current is I = 2.972 A. Therefore, the dynamic resistance
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is
V 0.1
Rd = = = 0.0336 .
I 2.972
(d) For reverse bias, the voltage V is negative, (i) V = – 1 V. In this case
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eV (1.6  10 19 )  (1)
a= = = 38.76.
kT (1.376  10 23 )  300
 I = I0 (e–38.76 – 1) = I0 (1.47 × 10–17 – 1) = – I0 = – 5 × 10–12 A

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(ii) V = – 2V. In this case a = – 77.52 and I = –I0 = – 5 × 10–12 A. Thus, when reversed when the voltage si changed from
1 to 2V.
Example 3
An a.c. voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in series with a silicon diode and a load resistance of 500 . The forward
resistance of the diode is 10  and the barrier voltage is 0.7 V. Find the peak current through diode and the peak voltage across
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the load. What will happen to these values if the diode is assumed to be ideal.
Solution
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See figure.
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The current in the diode will flow only for positive cycle.
The barrier voltage of diode is 0.7 V. The applied peak voltage VF = 20 V. The total resistance of the circuit is equal to the
forward resistance of diode plus the load resistance in the circuit. If (iF) peak will be the current flowing in the circuit, then
V F = VB + (iF)peak (RF + RL)
(VF  VB ) 20  0.7
 (i F)peak = = = 0.0378 A.
( RF  R L ) 10  500
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The peak voltage across load is given by
Vpeak = (iF)peak × RL = (0.0378) × 500
= 18.9 V
If the diode were ideal, then barrier voltage would be zero and forward resistance of diode is also zero, i.e., VB = 0 and
RF = 0. Hence
VF 20
IF = R = = 0.04 A
L 500
and Vpeak = 0.04 × 500 = 20 V.
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Example 4
Figure shows a junction diode connected to an external resistance of 100  and a source of e.m.f. of 0.3 V. Assuming that the
barrier potential developed in the junction diode is 0.7 V, obtain the current in the circuit.
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Solution
Here, e.m.f. of the source, E = 3.0 V
Barrier potential developed in the diode,

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Vd = 0.7 V.
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Therefore, potential drop across the external resistance,
V = E – Vd = 3.0 – 0.7 = 2.3 V.

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Hence, current in the circuit,

V 2.3
I= = = 2.3 × 10–2 A = 23 mA.
R 100
Example 5
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A diode used in the circuit shown in figure 2.32 has a constant voltage drop of 0.5 V at all currents and a maximum power rating
of 100 mW. What should be the value of the resistance R connected in series with diode for obtaining maximum current ?
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Solution
Here, e.m.f. of the source, E = 1.5 V
Voltage drop across the diode,
Vd = 0.5 V
Maximum power rating of the diode,
P = 100 mW = 0.1 W
Therefore, maximum current through the diode,
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P 0.1
I= V = = 0.2 A.
d 0.5
Potential drop across the resistance R,
V = E – Vd = 1.5 – 0.5 = 1.0 V.
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V 1. 0
 R= = = 5.
I 0.2
Example 6
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Assume that the silicon diode in the circuit shown in figure requires a minimum current of 1 mA to be above the knee point 0.7
V of its I-V characteristics. Also assume that the voltage across the diode is independent of current above the knee point.
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(a) If VB = 5 V, what should be the maximum value of R so that the voltage is above the knee point ?
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(b) If VB = 5 V, what should be the value of R to establish the current of 5 mA in the circuit ?
(c) What is the power dissipated in the resistance R and in the diode, when a current of 5 mA flows in the circuit at VB = 6V ?
(d) If R = 1 k, what is the minimum voltage VB required to keep the diode above the knee point ?
Solution
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When current of 1 mA (minimum value) flows through the circuit, the potential drop across the diode becomes 0.7 V for
a forward bias of 5V.
Thus, VB = 5 V; Imin = 1 mA = 10–3 A
(a) Applying Kirchhoff’s second law, we have
Imin × R + 0.7 = 5
or 10–3 × R = 5 – 0.7 = 4.3
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or R = 4.3 × 103 .
(b) Now, I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A
Again, according to Kirchhoff’s second law, we have
I × R + 0.7 = 5
or 5 × 10–3 × R = 5 – 0.7 = 4.3

4.3
or R= = 860 
5  10 3
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(c) Now, VB = 6V; I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law, we have
I × R + 0.7 = 6
5.3
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6  0.7
or R= = = 1,060 
I 5  10 3
Power dissipated across, R = I2R = (5 × 10–3)2 × 1,060
= 26.5 × 10–3 W GA
Power dissipated across diode = V I = 0.7 × 5 × 10–3
= 3.5 × 10–3 W
(d) Now, R = 1 k = 1,000 ; I = 1 mA = 10–3 A ;
P.D. across diode = 0.7 V

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 VB = I R + 0.7 = 10–3 × 1,000 + 0.7 = 1.7 V.

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Example 7
In the circuit shown in figure, a zener diode of voltage VZ (= 6 V) is used to maintain a constant voltage across a load
resistance RL (= 1,000 ) by using a series resistance R (= 100 ). If the e.m.f. of source (E) is 9V, calculate the value of current
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through series resistance, zener diode and load resistance. What is the power being dissipated in zener diode ?
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Solution
Here, E = 9V ; VZ = 6V ; RL = 1,000 W and R = 100 ,
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Potential drop across the series resistor,
V = E – VZ = 9 – 6 = 3V
Therefore, current through the series resistance R,

V 3
I= = = 0.03 A.
R 100
Current through the load resistance RL,
VZ 6
IL = = = 0.006 A
RL 1000
Therefore, current through the zener diode,
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IZ = I – IL = 0.03 – 0.006 = 0.024 A
Hence, power dissipated in the zener diode,
PZ = VZ IZ = 6 × 0.024 = 0.144 W
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Example 8
A junction diode of negligible forward resistance is used as a half-wave rectifier. A sinusoidal voltage supply having peak
value 50 V is fed to the junction diode and output is obtained across the load resistance RL. Calculate (a) the r.m.s. voltage
across RL and (b) reading of a d.c. voltmeter connected across RL.
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Solution
Here, E 0 = 50 V
50
 Er.m.s. = V
2
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(a) A half-wave rectifier gives output corresponding to alternate half cycles of the a.c. input. Since junction diode is of
50
negligible forward resistance, the r.m.s. value of voltage across RL during half cycle of conduction is V. Therefore, r.m.s.
2
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value of voltage for a complete cycle (including the non-conducting half cycle) is
(50 / 2 ) 2  (0) 2 1250  0

Vr.m.s. = = = 625
2 2
= 25 V.
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(b) The d.c. voltmeter connected across RL would read the average value of voltage across RL during a complete cycle.
Therefore, reading of the d.c. voltmeter connected across RL ,
2 E0 /   0 E 50
Vd.c. = = 0 = = 15.92 V.
2  
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* * * * *
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72
by ASHISH ARORA Sir

Transistor
A transistor is a two junction semiconductor device. It consists of three semiconductor sections, one sandwitched
between the other two similar sections. Thus in a transistor out of three sections, two are similar and one which is between
the two is different. There can be two types of transistors based on p-type and n-type semiconductors. These are
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(i) n-p-n transistor
(ii) p-n-p transistor
In n-p-n transistor between two p-types semiconductores, an n-type semiconductor is sandwitched as shown in figure-1(a)
n-type semiconductor is sandwitched between two p-type semiconductors as shown in figure-1(b).
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Figure 1
The three sections of a transistor are called emitter, base and collector and represented by symbols E, B and C respectively
on the terminals as shown in figure-1. Each section has a fundamental characteristic based on which transistor works in a
circuit. Lets discuss these fundamental properties of the sections of transistor.
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(i) Emitter
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It is one of the two similar types of sections of a transistor on either end of the two junction. It is named emitter because
it supplies or emits majority carries to the other parts of transistor. It is doped heavily relative to other sections so that it can
emit lot of majority carriers.
(ii) Base
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The middle section of a transistor is known as base. Base is a very thin region as compared to emitter or collector and it
is very lightly doped. As it does not contain large number of carriers, when emitter emits large number of majority carriers, it
can not accept more then a few carriers and allows most of these carriers from emitter to pass through it.
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(iii) Collector
Section on other side of base which collects most of the majority carriers emitted by emitter is called collector. Collector
is moderately doped and it collects the charge carriers through base. Generally in circuits collector base junction is reversed
biased.
Circuit Symbols of Transistors
Figure-2(a) & (b) shows the common circuit symbols used for a p-n-p and an n-p-n transistor. We can see the in circuit
symbol the middle wire is the base and to distinguish emitter and collector, in symbols emitter is denoted by an arrow. In a
p-n-p transitor arrow (which denotes direction of current) is from emitter to base and in an n-p-n transitor arrow is from base
to emitter.
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Figure 2
Working of a Transitor
When a transitor is used in a circuit its emitter base junction is kept forward biased and its base collector junction is kept
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reversed biased. Lets discuss working of a p-n-p transistor first then we’ll discuss about n-p-n transitor.
Working of a p-n-p Transistor in a Circuit
In a p-n-p transistor holes are the majority charge carriers. As shown in figure-3 we can see that by use of battery VEE.
The base emitter junction is forward biased due to which the majority charge carriers holes in p-type emitter move toward
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base and this constitutes the emitter current IE. As in emitter doping is high, lot of holes starts moving toward base and in the
base these holes tend to combine with the electrons as in n-type base electrons are in excess but as doping of base is very
light, quantity of electrons present there is very small as compared to the holes emitted by emitter in this region. Thus out of
all very few holes combine with electrons in base and constitute a very small base current IB.
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IC
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Figure 3
Majority of holes cross the thin region of base and enters in the collector region which is reversed biased. Here these
holes are attracted by the negative terminal (low potential) of the battery VCC and thus constitute collector current IC. By
conservation of charge we can say that emitter current splits into base current and collector current. By kirchoff’s junction
law we can write
IE = IB + IC … (1)
It is generally observed that collector current is slightly less then the emitter current. This is because about 2 to 5% of the
majority carrier emitted by emitter are absorbed by the base in form of base current.
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In case of p-n-p transistor as discussed above mainly current flows due to holes. Even there is a small current due to
electrons which move from base to emitter but as this current is very small for practical applications it is the hole current which
plays the important role in the operations of p-n-p transistor.
Working of an n-p-n Transistor
In an n-p-n transistor, electrons are the majority charge carriers and on forward biasing emitter base junction by battery
VEE as shown in figure-4, emitter emits lot of electrons toward base out of which few combines with the small number of holes
there to constitute base current IB and remain all electrons are collected by reverse biased collector which constitutes the
collector current IC and these are swept away by the positive collector voltage VCC. By figure-# we can see that in normal
operations current in n-p-n transistor are in opposite direction to that of a p-n-p transistor.
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Figure 4
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DC Current gains of a Transistor
DC current gains are characteristic constants for a transistor. For every transitor two current gains are defined. These are
(1) Base Current Amplification Factor
This is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base current when constant dc current is flowing through the
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transistor. It is denoted by  or some times dc, given as

IC
= … (2)
IC
IB
Where IC is the collector current and IB is the base current.
(2) Emitter Current Amplification Factor

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This is defined as the ratio of collector current to emitter current when constant dc current is flowing through the
transistor. It is denoted by  or dc, given as
IC
= … (3)
IE
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Relationship Between  and 
We know for a transistor emitter current (IE) is the sum of the base current (IB) and the collector current (IC) given as
IE = IC + IB
Now from equation-(2) & (3) we can write as

IC IC
= IC +
 
1 1
or =1+
 
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
or = … (4)
1 

or = … (5)
1 
In normal operation of a transistor (base emitter junction forward biased and collector emitter junction reverse biased).
The definitions of  and  remains valid. It is also observed that the for large range of emitter current the value of  depends
on above section.
Transistor as an Amplifier
An amplifier is a device which increases the strength of a time varying signal. To increase the strength of a signal
amplifier extracts energy from an external source and add it into the signal to amplify the signal strength as shown in figure-5.
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Figure 5
From figure if we carefully analyze the input and output signals, we can see that amplifier does not change the frequency
of signal or time dependency of signal, only the amplitude or strength (intensity) of signal is increased.
A transistor can also be used as an amplifier in a circuit in a transistor when base emitter junction is forward biased,
resistance of base emitter junction decreases and a current flows and majority of current is passed on to base collector
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junction which is reverse biased and its resistance is high due to reverse biasing. When the current from low resistance is
transferred to the high resistance region of base collector region, here high potential drop takes place. This is the basic
function of a transistor due to which it can not as an amplifier. The word “transistor” used for this device is taken from
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“transfer” of “resistor” because in a transistor current from low resistance region is transferred to a high resistance region.
Now we’ll discuss how this function of transistor can be used in the application of transistor as an amplifier.
Basic Function of Transistor as an Amplifier

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When transistor is used as an amplifier, a weak signal voltage corresponding change in emitter current and almost the
same in the collector current as base current is negligible. In collector circuit a high load resistance RL is connected through
which this current flows and produces a high voltage drop. As the current variation is corresponding to the input signal, the
high voltage drop across the load resistance with also be a reproduction of input signal with relatively higher amplitude and
same time variation. Thus the input signal appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit.
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Transistor Connections as Amplifier
We have discussed that in an amplifier to the input terminals a weak signal voltage is applied and at the output terminals
the same time varying signal appear in amplified form. Thus for an amplifier two terminals are required for input and two
terminals are required for output, whereas we know that a transistor has only three terminals, emitter base and collector.
Hence to operate transistor as an amplifier, one terminal of transistor is made common to both input and output of the circuit.
A transistor can be connected in three ways. These are :
(i) Common Base Connection
(ii) Common Emitter Connection
(iii) Common Collector Connection
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Now before proceeding to the working action of a transistor, we’ll first discuss the basic, current voltage characteristics
of transistor in above connections.
Characteristics of Common Base Circuit of a Transistor
In common base circuit, as we’ve discussed that base will remain common to input as well as output terminals of circuit.
If a small varying voltage is applied to the input side i.e. in base-emitter circuit a corresponding variation appears on output
side i.e. in base collector circuit. Thus in a transistor used in common base circuit, input variation is applied in base and emitter
and output is taken across base and collector, hence base is common to both input and output.
Now first we’ll study how the current flowing in transistor terminals varies with the terminal voltages. For this, the circuit
is shown in figure-6 for a p-n-p transistor.
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Figure 6
Here the variable battery VEE supplies forward bias to the emitter base junction. Similarly the battery VCC supplies
reverse bias to collector base junction. Using the two voltmeters we can measure the corresponding emitter base voltage VBB
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and the collector base voltage VCB. In the emitter and collector branch, milliammeters are connected to measure emitter current
IE and collector current IC respectively.
In this circuit the electrical behaviour of the transistor can be described by the different current voltage relationship in
the circuit. These relationships are explained by the variation curves of current in the circuit with voltages and are called
characteristics of a transistor. For input and output connections here we discuss two characteristics input characteristics and
output characteristics, one by one.
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Input Characteristics
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Input characteristic curve in this circuit is the curve plotted between the emitter current IE and emitter base voltage VEB
at a constant value of collector base voltage VCB.
To plot this curve the collector base voltage VCB is kept fixed and emitter base voltage VEB is varied by using the variable
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battery VEE and the emitter current IE is measured corresponding to each value of VEB. The curve is plotted for IE against VEB
and the experiments is repeated for different fixed values of VCB. The input characteristic is shown in figure-7
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Figure 7
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In the above graph following points are useful to note down and keep in mind always.
(1) Below knee voltage, the emitter current is very small or transistor does not function below this cut off voltage.
(2) Beyond cutoff voltage, the emitter current increases rapidly even with small increase in emitter base voltage. This implies
that emitter resistance is very small.
(3) The emitter current does not depend much on collector base voltage.
(4) The input resistance is defined as
change in base emitter vo ltage
ri = correspond ing change in emitter current
V EB
or ri =
I E VC  constant
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Output Characteristics
The curve plotted between collector current IC and collector base voltage VCB at a constant emitter current IE represent
the output characteristic. For plotting output characteristic, the emitter current IE is kept fixed and the collector current I0 is
measured for different values of varying collector base voltage VCB, which varied by the variable battery VCC. Now for
different values of VCB, collector current IC is plotted and the graph is shown in figure-8.
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IC
Figure 8
Here the output characteristic of the common base connection has three regions under which the transistor is said to
operate. These are
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(i) Active Region
This is the mode of operation of transistor when base collector junction is reverse biased and base emitter junction is
forward biased. In this region the collector current is independent of collector voltage and it depends only on emitter current.
Generally in active region as we’ve already discussed the collector current is slightly less then or approximately equal to the
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emitter current and the same is shown in the graph in active region.
(ii) Cut off Region
This is a situation when both the junctions emitter base and collector base are reverse biased. In this region due to
reverse biasing almost zero emitter current flows and a negligible collector current flows due to minority carriers which we call
the collector leakage current.
(iii) Saturation Region
In this stage both the junctions emitter base and collector base are forward biased. In this situation even at VCB = 0,
collector current flows due to forward biasing of emitter base junction. In this region when collector base junction is forward
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biased i.e. p-type collector is made positive with respect to n-type base, the majority carrier holes which are coming from
emitter side are repelled by collector and hence if a small change is made in collector base voltage, it will result a sudden and
large change in collector current.
For output characteristic of common base connections of a transistor following point are important be kept in mind for
further analysis of transistor operations.
(1) Only in saturation region for VCB < IV, collector current varies with the collector base voltage (VCB) but in normal
operations, transistor is never operated in this region.
(2) In active region when VCB > IV, the collector current IC becomes independent of collector base voltage VCB and depends
on IE only. Almost full emitter current (slightly less) is passed on to the collector circuit. In most of the operations, transistor
is used in this region.
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(3) In output side of a transistor in common base connections, the output resistance is defined as ratio of small change in
collector base voltage to corresponding change in collector current, and it is given as
VCB
output resistance r0 =
I C
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We know that in active region (normal operations) of a transistor to produce a very small change in collector current, a
very high change in collector base voltage is required. Thus the output resistance is very high.
Characteristics of Common Emitter Circuit of a Transistor

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In common emitter connections, emitter is taken as a common terminal for input and output of the transistor. In a
transistor when used in common emitter connections the small input varying voltage is applied between emitter and base as
input terminals and corresponding output voltage is taken from collector and emitter as output terminals, hence in this case
emitter is common for both input and output terminals.
Now we’ll study how the current flowing in transistor connected in common emitter mode varies with the terminal
voltages.
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For this study purpose experimental setup circuit is shown in figure-9 for a p-n-p transistor. In the circuit the variable
battery VAB provides a forward biasing for emitter base junction. The voltmeter V1 measures the base emitter voltage VEB. The
microammeter A1 is used to measure the small base current IB. A variable battery VCC is connected between emitter and
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collector terminals to make collector reverse biased. Generally this battery is of higher emf then VBB, to make collector reverse
biased with respect to base. To measure collector emitter voltage a voltmeter V2 is connected and a milliammeter A2 is used to
measure collector current.
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Figure 9
In this common emitter connections of transistor again we’ll study the current-voltage variation behaviour of transistor
for both input and output sections, this we call input and output characteristics for common emitter connections.
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Input Characteristics
In common emitter connections of a transistor input characteristics curve is plotted between base current IB and base
emitter voltage VBE at a constant collector emitter voltage VCE. For plotting the input characteristic, the collector emitter
voltage VCE is kept fixed and the base emitter voltage VBE is varied by using the variable battery VBB. Now the current IB is
measured for each value of VBE and the curve of base current IB against base emitter voltage is drawn as shown in figure-10.
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Figure 10
There are some important points about this input characteristics students are advised to keep all these points in their
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mind.
(1) The characteristic is similar to a forward biased diode.

(2) The input resistance of common emitter circuit is defined as the ratio of small variation in emitter base voltage to the
corresponding charge in base current at a constant collector emitter voltage. It is given as
VBE
ri =
I B VCE  constant
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(3) The variation in base current with VBE is small after knee voltage as compared to the case of common base connections
because the input resistance in common emitter connection is high compared to the input resistance of common base
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connections.
Output Characteristics
In common emitter connections the output characteristics is plotted between collector current IC and collector emitter
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voltage VCE at constant base current IB. Using the battery VCC, the collector emitter voltage is varied and the collector current
IC is measured for each value of VCE. The experiment is repeated for different values of base current IB. The corresponding
curve obtained is shown in figure-11.
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Figure 11
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The output characteristic of common emitter connection is divided in three regions defined as
(i) Active Region
In this region the collector junction is reverse biased which emitter junction is forward biased. From graph we can see
that for low values of base current variation in IC with VCE is small while for large values of base current this variation
increases. As we can see that for large base current slope of graph is more as compared to low values of base current.
(ii) Saturation Region
When VCE ~  0 or for very small the charge in base current will not affect the collector current. In this state the transistor
is said to be saturated and it is operating in saturation region.
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(iii) Cut off region
In this state both the junction are reverse biased and for IB = 0, very small collector current flows due to the leakage of
majority carriers from emitter to collector through the base. This current is the leakage current and is denoted by ICEO.
There are some important points about the output characteristic for a common emitter connections. These are
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(i) For VCE above knee voltage in active region the collector current is given as
IC = IB
IC
where we’ve discussed that  = is constant for a transistor and here IC is the output current and IB is the input
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current hence  is also termed as common base current gain.
(ii) Output resistance for a common connection is defined as ratio of small variation in collector emitter voltage to the
corresponding variation in collector current, given as
VCE
Output resistance r0 =
I C I B  constant
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(iii) We’ve discussed that output characteristic of common base connection for a transistor are horizontal but from graph in
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figure-# we can see that the output characteristic for common emitter connection have considerable slope, this shows that
the output resistance for common emitter connection is less then that of common base connection.
(iv) In output characteristic above knee voltage as VCE increases IC is almost constant but for high values of base current IC
increases with VCE, this is because some the majority carriers emitted by emitter into the base, region are directly captured by
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collector which is reverse biased before electron hole combination takes place in base. This is called early effect in common
emitter connections.
Common Collector Connections of a Transistor * From (ABNT)

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Transistor as an Amplifier
We have discussed that a transistor can also be used as an amplifier. We’ve also discussed that an amplifier is a device
the energy required to amplify weak signals at input terminals is supplied by an external source. In case of transistor this
energy is supplied by the dC batteries used for biasing for its collector and emitter junctions. On the basis of different
connections of a transistor in a circuit, it can be used as an amplifier in three ways.
(i) Common Base Amplifier
(ii) Common Emitter Amplifier
(iii) Common Collector Amplifier
Here we will discuss common base and common emitter amplifier in detail. In common collector mode, a transistor rarely
used as an amplifier and that discussion is also beyond the scope of this book.
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Common Base Amplifier
In previous section we’ve analysed that in common base connections of a transistor, base terminal remains common to
both input and output connections. We’ve also discussed how transistor behaves on applying biasing voltage across its
junctions for a p-n-p transistor. An n-p-n transistor also behaves in the similar way except the direction of current are
opposite. In this section we’ll discuss working of transistor as an amplifier for both p-n-p and n-p-n transistor.
Common Base Amplifier Using a p-n-p Transistor
Figure-12 shows the circuit of a p-n-p transistor used as an amplifier in common base mode. The input signal ei which is
to be amplified is connected in the emitter base side or in input section of transistor. The battery VEE is chosen such that
always the emitter base junction remains forward biased (VEE > ei). Due to this, the input resistance of transistor is very small.
The battery VCC in output section of transistor keeps the collector base junction reverse biased and due to this output
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resistance of transistor will be very high. Thus
r0 > ri … (6)
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GA
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IC
Figure 12
Let IE, IB and IC are the emitter current, base current and the collector current respectively then these currents vary with
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variation in emitter base voltage due to signal voltage ei.
Here we can see that when ei increases from t = 0 in its positive half cycle from 0 to A. The voltage across emitter base
junction becomes
VEB = VEE + ei
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Thus the forward biasing of transistor increases, due to which current IE also increases, hence IC increases which results
a potential drop across load resistance PL which we take as the output voltage given as
Vout = IC RL
When ei changes from 0 to A, if IE change by IE and correspondingly if IC changes by IC, Vout will also increase from
point X to Y in the output signal shown in figure. Similarly when ei decreases from A to B in its half cycle it will correspond a
similar decrease in Vout from Y to Z in its positive half cycle.
Now the second half cycle of input signal is negative, due to this the forward bias of emitter base junction decreases as
now the emitter base voltage will become
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VEB = VEE – ei
Thus emitter current starts decreasing and collector current also, due to which at output terminal lower half cycle of
output voltage is produced.
Thus for a transistor used as a common base amplifier corresponding to positive half cycle of input signal, positive half
cycle of output is obtained and for negative half cycle of input, negative half cycle of output is obtained hence we can say
that when a transistor is used as an amplifier in common base mode the output voltage remains in same phase with the input
voltage.
Various Gains in Common Base Amplifier
a.c. Current Gain For Common Base Configuration
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We’ve discussed that in for a transistor dc current gain for common base connection is defined as
IC
dc =
IE
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Similarly we define a.c. current gain as the ratio of small charges in collector current to small changes in emitter current.
This is denoted by ac, given as
I C
ac = … (7)
I E GA
Resistance Gain
It is the ratio of effective output resistance to the input resistance of the transistor it is equal to RL/Ri.
a.c. Voltage Gain
It is defined as the ratio of small change in output voltage to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by Av. If
S
corresponding to a change in emitter current  IE, collector current changes by  IC, the change in input voltage applied to the
transistor is
IC
Vi = IE · Ri … (8)
The change in output voltage across load resistance is

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V0 = IC · RL … (9)
Thus the voltage gain can be given as

V0 I C RL
Av = = ·
Vi I E Ri
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 RL 
or Av = ac   … (10)
 Ri 
Thus for a common base amplifier
Voltage gain = ac × resistance gain
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a.c. Power Gain
It is defined as the ratio of small change in output power to the small change in input power. It is given as
Pout
power gain Pac = … (11)
Pin
(I C ) 2 RL
or Pac = … (12)
(I E ) 2 Ri
RL
or Pac = 2 × … (13)
Ri
Thus we can write
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power gain = 2 × resistance gain … (14)
or from equation-(12) we can rewrite as
 I C   I C RL 
Pac =  × 
 I E   I E Ri 
or power gain = current gain × voltage gain … (15)
LA
Common Base Amplifier Using an n-p-n Transistor
The circuit of a common base amplifier using an n-p-n transistor is shown in figure-13. The only difference in this case
is the direction of currents IE, IB and IC are opposite to the case of the amplifier in which p-n-p transistor is used. Another
GA
difference is, here the currents are mainly due to the electrons in the transistor as majority carriers whereas in case of a p-n-
p transistor currents were due to the holes as majority carriers.
S
IC
YS
PH
Figure 13
Here also by the similar analysis what we’ve used in case of a p-n-p transistor, we can say that the output voltage remains
in same phase with the input voltage.
All the different gains we’ve used for p-n-p transistor are also used with the same expressions for an n-p-n transistor.
Common Emitter Amplifier
In common emitter connections of a transistor we’ve discussed that emitter is common to both input and output section.
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In such an amplifier input signal which is to be amplified is applied in the input section between emitter and base of circuit and
amplified output signal is obtained across the load resistance in output section between collector and emitter. Now we’ll
discuss the common emitter amplifier for both p-n-p and n-p-n transistor.
Common Emitter Amplifier using a p-n-p Transistor
Figure-14 shows the circuit of a common emitter amplifier using a p-n-p transistor. Here we can see that emitter is common
to both input and output terminals. Using battery VBB, emitter base junction is forward biased. The emf of battery VBB is
adjusted according to input voltage ei so that always terminal ‘a’ is at lower potential then ‘b’ to maintain the forward braising
of emitter base junction during the variation of input signal voltage ei.
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LA
GA
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Figure 14
Due to forward biasing the input resistance of the transistor is low. The collector junction is reverse biased by the battery
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VCC. In the above circuit, variation in low input signal produces variation in emitter current and hence in collector current and
voltage. These variations in collector voltage appear as amplified output voltage.
Let discuss the variation of output voltage with input variation. As shown in the figure the negative terminal of the
battery VBB is connected to the base of transistor through input signal. During the first half cycle of the input voltage this
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voltage increases from 0 to A which decreases the negative potential at base as base emitter voltage can be given during 0 to
A as
VEB = VBB – ei
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Thus the forward biasing of base emitter junction decreases and it will decreases the emitter current, correspondingly
current in collector circuit decreases which decreases the potential drop across the load resistance and the voltage Vout will
decrease from X to Y. Further when the input voltage in its positive half cycle decreases from A to B this will make potential of
base lower as ei = 0 at B, this increases the forward biasing of emitter base junction hence emitter current, as well as collector
current increases which increases the output voltage from Y to Z. Now for negative half cycle of input voltage further forward
biasing of emitter base voltage increases due to which emitter and collector current increases which results in positive half
cycle of output voltage.
Thus for a common emitter amplifier corresponding to positive half cycle of input voltage, in amplified output voltage
negative half cycle is obtained and corresponding to negative half cycle of input voltage, positive half cycle in amplified
output voltage is obtained. Therefore input and output voltages in a common emitter amplifier are out of phase with each
other or at a phase difference of 180º or  radians.
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Various Gains in Common Emitter Amplifier
(i) a.c. Current Gain
In common emitter connection of a transistor base current IB is taken as input current and collector current IC is taken as
output current. For this dc current gain (), which we’ve discussed earlier is given as
IC
dc = … (16)
IB
In the same fashion, a.c. current gain for this case is defined as the ratio of variation in collector current to the corresponding
change in base current, given as
I C
ac = I … (17)
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B
(ii) a.c. Voltage Gain
ac voltage gain for a common emitter amplifier is given as the ratio of small change in output voltage (VCE) to small
change in input voltage (VBE). Thus voltage gain is given as
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VCE I C R L
Av = V = I R
BE B i
RL
Av = ac × … (18)
Ri
Thus voltage gain = ac × resistance gain … (19)
GA
We know that ac > ac, thus voltage gain in common emitter amplifier is very large as compared to the common base
amplifier.
(iii) a.c. Power Gain
a.c. power gain is defined as the ratio of output signal power to input signal power, given as
S
(I C ) 2 RL
Pac = … (20)
(I B ) 2 Ri
IC
RL
= 2 × R
i
Thus Power gain = 2 × resistance gain … (21)

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Now equation-(20) can be rewritten as

I C I C R L
Pac = I × I R … (22)
B B i
or Power gain = current gain × voltage gain … (23)

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(iv) Trans-conductance
It is defined as the ratio of small change in collector current (output current) to the small change in emitter base voltage
at a constant collector voltage. It is denoted by gm and is given as
I C
gm = … (24)
V EB VCE  constant
This can be rewritten as

I C I B
gm = ×
I B VEB
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1
or gm =  ×
Ri
VEB
as Ri = is the input resistance of transistor circuit.
I B
Common Emitter Amplifier Using an n-p-n Transistor
The circuit of common emitter amplifier using an n-p-n transistor is shown in figure-15. Again the basic difference in an
n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor is the majority carriers. In p-n-p transistors currents are mainly due to holes and in an n-
p-n transistor currents are due to electrons. Thus all currents in the circuit using n-p-n transistor are opposite to the case
when a p-n-p transistor is used.
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LA
GA
S
IC
Figure 15
Here we can also explain the opposite phase relationship between input signal and amplified output voltage. From circuit
we can see that during positive half cycle of input voltage, forward biasing of emitter base junction increases and it increases
the emitter as well as collector current. We can see that in load resistance collector current flows from terminal ‘d’ to ‘c’ hence
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if IC increases potential of point c or collector voltage decreases which results in negative half cycle at output terminals. Thus
output voltage is out of phase with the input signal voltage.
All the gains and trans-conductance we’ve defined for the common emitter amplifier using a p-n-p transistor are valid
with same expressions for an n-p-n transistor also.
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Oscillator
In previous section, we’ve discussed that an amplifier is a sort of energy converter. It takes energy from constant
supplies and use this energy to amplify ac input signal at the same frequency. But if there is no input signal in amplifier, no
energy conversion takes place or no output is obtained. On the other hand an oscillator is a device which does not require
any input. It provides a continuous ac output signal as long as dc supply is in the circuit or we can say that an oscillator
converts energy from a dc source to produce ac output signals. Figure-16 shows the basic block diagram of an oscillator.
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Figure 16
Thus electrically oscillator can be defined as a circuit which generates an ac output signal without any external input
signal or a circuit which transforms dc energy into ac energy at adjustable frequencies. Here we can point out one more
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deference between an amplifier and an oscillator. An amplifier takes energy from dc source and increase the energy of ac input
signal at the output amplified signal at the frequency of input signal whereas in an oscillator, the frequency as well as the
output power can be controlled by the oscillator.
Transistor as an Oscillator
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A transistor can also be used as an oscillator, which can produce undamped oscillations at the out put of circuit. The
circuit of oscillator using a p-n-p transistor is shown in figure-17.
GA
S
IC
Figure 17
The above circuit which is used as an oscillator is divided in three parts. These are
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(1) Tank Circuit

(2) Amplifier Circuit
(3) Feedback Circuit
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Let us first discuss these parts of oscillator circuits in detail, then we’ll discuss the working action of oscillator circuit
(1) Tank Circuit
The tank circuit consists of an L-C oscillation unit. An inductor coil with inductance L an parallel with a capacitor C. We
know that if some charge is given to this circuit, the charge as well as potential difference across the combination of L and C
oscillates simple harmonically with time whose frequency is given as
1
f=
2 LC
The capacitor used in tank circuit is a variable capacitor using which its frequency of oscillations can be changed. The
small oscillating potential difference developed across the tank circuit will behave as an input signal for the amplifier circuit.
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(2) Amplifier Circuit
This section of circuit is similar to the amplifier, we’ve discussed in previous section. It receives a.c. power from the dc
battery converts it into the ac power and amplifier the oscillations of tank circuit, which are applied at the input of amplifier.
A part of output energy is supplied to the tank circuit via mutual induction between coils LC and L.
(3) Feedback Circuit
This circuit supplies a part of the output energy from collector circuit to the tank circuit. When some energy from output
section is supplied to input section, this is called feed back mechanism. Here in output circuit transistor produces a phase
difference of 180º and the feed back circuit also produces a phase difference of 180º due to mutual induction. Thus the total
feedback energy is in phase with the input oscillations. This is called positive feedback.
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Working of Feedback Circuit
When the output current amplifier is passed through the coil LC, as being a time varying current, the magnetic flux
produced in this coil also changes with time. Due to the common soft iron core in the coil LC and L, this flux also passes
through coil L, due to its time varying nature an emf is induced in tank circuit, which deposits some charge on capacitor and
tank circuit starts oscillating. In this way by magnetic flux some energy from output circuit is transferred back to the input side
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of amplifier, which we call feedback energy.
Working Action of Transistor as an Oscillator
The circuit of transistor as an oscillator is again drawn in figure-#. When the circuit is switched on by closing the key k,
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A small collector current starts increasing in the circuit, this increasing current produces an increasing magnetic flux in coil LC
in the collector circuit. As this coil is coupled with the coil of tank circuit by core M, the same increasing flux also pass through
the coil L and induces an emf across the tank circuit, this we call feedback voltage. Due to this feedback voltage emitter base
voltage increases and hence also the base current and it further increases the collector current. This cycle continuous until
the collector current becomes saturated. By this time the capacitor C is also fully charged to the maximum emf of tank circuit.
When the current in collector circuit becomes saturated, no further increase in collector current takes place and not flux
from coil LC also becomes constant and no emf is now induced across tank circuit. In this stage the charged capacitor starts
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discharging through the inductor coil L. This decreases the emitter base voltage and hence base current IB. Due to this
collector current also decreases and correspondingly the flux through coils LC and linked flux through coil L also decreases
and induces a feedback voltage in L in opposite direction.
IC
This further decreases the emitter base voltage, IB and IC. The cycle continues till collector reaches cut off. During this
time the capacitor C is again fully charged with opposite polarity. In this state the base current reaches its lower minimum
value and output also becomes at its lowest value. In this state when transistor is in cut off state, the oppositely charged
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capacitor again starts discharging through L. This start increasing the emitter base voltage again and also increases base
current as well as collector current. This again produces an increasing flux in LC and also the linked flux in L which again
induces a feedback voltage in L. This further helps in increase in emitter base voltage, IB and IC. This process continuous till
collector current increases to its saturation value.
In this fashion the potential difference across tank circuit or the emitter base voltage oscillates and also the collector
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current at same frequency. Thus the tank circuit here behaves as an input signal of amplifier which is amplified and available
as oscillator output. The frequency of output of oscillator will be at the same frequency at which the input is available that is
the frequency of tank circuit, given as
1
f= … (25)
2 LC
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Example 1
The base current of a transistor is 105 µA collector current is 2.05 mA.

(a) Determine the value of , IE and ,
(b) A change of 27 µA in the base current produces a change of 0.65 mA in the collector current. Find ac.
Solution
IC 2.05 10 3 A
(a) = =
IB 105 10 6 A
= 19.5
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IE = IB + IC = 105 × 10–6 + 2.05 × 10–3
= 0.105 × 10–3 + 2.05 × 10–3 = 2.155 × 10–3 A
= 2.155 mA

LA
= or 19.5 (1 – ) = 
1 
Solving we get  = 0.95.
I C 0.65 10 3 0.65
 10 3
(b) ac = = =
I B 27 10 6 GA 27
= 24.07.
Example 2
The current gain  of a transistor is 0.95. What would be the change in collector current corresponding to a change of 0.4 mA
in the base current in a common emitter arrangement ?
Solution
S
Given that  = 0.95.

IC
 0.95 0.95
We know that, = = = = 19
1   1  0.95 0.05
I C
Further  = I or IC =  IB
B
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 IC = 19 × 0.4 mA = 7.6 mA
Example 3
In a silicon transistor, the base current is changed by 20 µA. This results in a change of 0.02 V in base to emitter voltage and
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a change of 2 mA in the collector current.

(a) Find the input resistance and ac.
(b) The transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Solution
I C
(a) ac =
I B
Given that, IB = 20 × 10–6 A and IC = 2 × 10–3 A
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I C 2 10 3
 ac = = = 102 = 100.
I B 20  10 6
VBE 0.02 V
Input resistance, Rt = = = 0.01 × 105
I B 20  10  6 A
= 1000  = 1 k.
(b) Voltage gain
Change in output current  load
Av =
Change in input current  input resistance
I C  R L (2  10 3 A )  (5 103 )
 Av = =
I B  Ri (20 10  6 A)  (1000 )
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= 500.
Example 4
A NPN transistor is connected in common emitter configuration in which collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across
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the load resistance of 800  connected in the collector circuit is 0.8 V. If current amplification factor is (25/26), determine
collector-emitter voltage and base current. If the internal resistance of the transistor is 200 , calculate the voltage gain and
power gain.
Solution GA
The circuit arrangement is shown in figure.
voltage drop across RL
Collector current IC =
RL
0. 8
= = 10–3 amp.
800
S
Now, VCE = 8 – 0.8 = 7.2 volt.

IC
Current gain = I
IC
3
25 10
or = I
26 B
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26
 IB = × 10–3 = 1.04 × 10–3 amp.
25
2
RL 25 800 100
Voltage gain =  =    = = 3.846.
RC  26  200 26
PH
2 2
RL  25  800  25 
Power gain =  =   =   × 4 = 3.698.
RC  26  200  26 
Example 5
A transistor is connected in common emitter configuration. The collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across a resistor
of 800  in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor () is 0.96, find the base current.
Solution
We have for the collector current
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0. 5 5
LC = = mA
800 8
But, IE = IB + IC
 IB = IE – IC
IC I
or, IB = – IC = C (1 – )
 
0.5 1 – 0.96 0.5 0.04 5

=  =  = mA
0.8 0.96 0.8 0.96 8  25
= 26 µA.
Example 6
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(a) Find the input resistance, ac and the transconductance of the transistor.
(b) The transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier ?
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Solution
(a) We have
I C 2 10 3
ac = = = 100
I B 20  106
GA
VBE 0.02 V
Input resistance, Ri = =
I B 20  10 6
= 1 k.
 ac 100
Transconductance gm = =
Ri 1000
S
= 0.1 S
RL
IC
(b) Voltage gain = R × Current gain ac

i
5  103
= × 100 = 500.
1 103
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Example 7
In a NPN transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10–6 s. 2% of the electrons are lost in the base. Calculate the current
transfer ratio and current amplification factor.
PH
Solution
We known that current = charge/time.
The emitter current Ie is given by

10 19
Ne 10  (1.6  10 )
Ie = = = 1.6 mA
t 10 6
The base current Ib is given by
2
Ib =  1.6 = 0.032 mA
100
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In a transistor, Ie = Ib + Ic
 Ic = Ie – Ib = 1.6 – 0.032 = 1.568 mA

Ic 1.568
Current transformer ratio = I = = 0.98
e 1.6
Ic 1.568
Current amplification factor = I = = 49.
e 0.032
Example 8
A transistor is connected in common emitter (CE) configuration. The collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across a
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resistor of 800  in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor  is 0.96, find the base current.
Solution
We know that,
LA
 0.96
= = = 24
1   1  0.96
The collector current ic is given by
VC 0. 5 V
ic = = = 0.625 × 10–3 A
R 800  GA
ic 0.625  10 3
Further, iB =  =
24
= 26 × 10–6 A = 26 µA.
Example 9
A NPN transistor in a common emitter mode is used as a simple voltage amplifier with a collector current of 4 mA. The terminal
S
of a 8V battery is connected to the collector through a load resistance RL and to the base through a resistance RB. The
collector emitter voltage VCE = 4V, base emitter voltage VBE = 0.6 V and base current amplification actor dc = 100. Calculate the
values of RL and RB.
IC
Solution
See figure
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Potential difference across, RL = 8V – VCE = 8V – 4V = 4V
Now, IC RL = 4V
4
RL = = 103  = 1 K
PH
4  10 3
Further, for base-emitter equation,
VCC = IBRB + VBE
or IBRB = Potential difference across RB
= VCC – VBE = 8 – 0.6 = 7.4 V

IC 4  10 3
Again IB =  = = 4 × 10–5 A
100
= 185 K.
Page 21
Example 10
A N type silicon sample of width 4 × 10–3 m thickness and length 6 × 10–2 m carries a current of 4.8 mA when the voltage is
applied across then length of the sample. What is the current density ? If the free electron density is 1022 m–3, then find how
much time does it take for the electrons to travel the full length of the sample ?
Solution
The current density J is given by
I 4.8  10 3 4.8 10 3

J= = =
A 3 
(4  10 )(25  10 )5
10 6
= 4800 A/m2
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The drift velocity vd is given by
J 4800
vd = =
ne 10 22  1.6  10 19
The time taken t is given by
LA
L 6 10 2
t= = = 0.02 sec.
vd 3
Example 11
GA
A NPN transistor is connected in common emitter configuration in which collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across
the load resistance of 800  connected in the collector circuit is 0.8 V. If current amplification factor is (25/26), determine
collector-emitter voltage and base current. If the internal resistance of the transistor is 200 , calculate the voltage gain and
power gain.
Solution
The circuit arrangement is shown in figure.

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voltage drop across RL

Collector current IC = RL
IC
0. 8
= = 10–3 amp.
800
Now, VCE = 8 – 0.8 = 7.2 volt.
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IC
Current gain = I
B
3
25 10
or = I
26 B
PH
26
 IB = × 10–3 = 1.04 × 10–3 amp.
25
2
RL  25  800 100
Voltage gain =  =   = = 3.846.
RC  26  200 26
2 2
RL  25  800  25 
Power gain =  =   =   × 4 = 3.698.
RC  26  200  26 
Page 22
Example 12
A transistor is connected in common emitter configuration. The collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across a resistor
of 800  in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor () is 0.96, find the base current.
Solution
We have for the collector current

0. 5 5
LC = = mA
800 8
But, IE = IB + IC
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 IB = IE – IC
IC I
or, IB = – IC = C (1 – )
 
0.5 1 – 0.96 0.5 0.04 5

=  =  = mA
LA
0.8 0.96 0.8 0.96 8  25
= 26 µA.
Example 13 GA
(a) Find the input resistance, ac and the transconductance of the transistor.
(b) The transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier ?
Solution
S
(a) We have
I C 2 10 3
IC
ac = = = 100
I B 20  106
VBE 0.02 V
Input resistance, Ri = =
I B 20  10 6
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= 1 k.
 ac 100
Transconductance gm = =
Ri 1000
= 0.1 S
PH
RL
(b) Voltage gain = R × Current gain ac
i
5  103
= × 100 = 500.
1 103
Example 14
The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 665 . A change of 15 µA in the base current produces a change of 2.0 mA in the
collector current. This transistor is used as a common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 5k. Find the voltage gain of
the amplifier.
Page 23
Solution
Voltage gain is defined as
change in output vol tage RL

voltage gain = change in input volt age =  ac  R
EB
Where ac = IC/IB, RL is the output resistance and REB is the input resistance.
Now RL = 5 k = 5000 ,
REB = 665  and
2.0  10 3
ac = = 133.3
XY
15  10 6
133.3  5000
Therefore voltage gain is = 1000.
665
Example 15
LA
In a silicon transistor, a charge of 7.89 mA in the emitter current produces a change of 7.8 mA in the collector current. What
change in the base current is necessary to produce the same change in the collector current ?
Solution GA
IE = 7.89 mA = 7.89 × 10–3 A
and IC = 7.8 mA = 7.8 × 10–3 A.

I C 7.8  10 3
We know that, ac = = = 0.9886.
I E 7.89 10 3
S
Example 16
In a silicon transistor, a change of 20 µA in the base current produces a change of 0.02 V in base to emitter voltage and a
IC
change of 2 mA in the collector current. (a) Find the input resistance, ac and transconductance of the transistor. (b) If the
transistor is used as an amplifier with a load resistance 5k, find the voltage gain and power gain of the amplifier.
Solution
YS
IB = 20 µA = 20 × 10–6 A,
VBE = 0.02 V
and IC = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A.

PH
(a) Input resistance is,

VBE 0.02
REB = I = = 1000 
B 20  10 6
I C 2 10 3
ac = I = = 100
B 20  106
The transconductance is
I C 2 103
g m = I = = 0.1 –1.
BE 0.02
Page 24
(b) The voltage gain is V,
RL 100  5000
ac × R = = 500
EB 1000
(because RL = 5 k = 5000 ). The power gain is
RL (100) 2  5000
ac2 × R = = 5 × 104.
EB 1000
Example 17
An npn transistor is connected in common-emitter configuration in which the collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop
across the load resistance of 800  connected to the collector circuit is 0.8 V. If the current amplification factor  is 25/26,
XY
determine the collector-emitter voltage and base current. If the input resistance of the transistor is 200, calculate the voltage
gain and power gain.
Solution
Figure shows the common-emitter npn transistor circuit.
LA
We know that
 25 / 26
= = = 25
1   1  25 / 26
It follows from the figure that VCC = V0 + VCE. The collector emitter voltage is
GA
VCE = VCC – V0 = 8 – 0.8 = 7.2 V
Collector current is
V0 0. 8
IC = R = = 10–3 A = 1 mA
L 800
IC
S
Current gain  = I . Therefore, emitter current is

E
IC 1 mA 25
IC
IE = = = mA
 25 / 26 26
26 1
 Base current IB = mA – 1 mA = mA = 0.04 mA
25 25
If the input resistance is Ri, the input voltage will be
YS
Vi = Ri IB = (200 ) × (0.04 × 10–3 A) = 8 × 10–3 V = 8 mV

V0 0.8
 Voltage gain = V = = 100
i 8  10 3
PH
Also power gain = current gain × voltage gain

V0
=  × V = 25 × 100 = 2500.
i
Example 18
In an npn transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10–6 s. If 2% of the electrons are lost in the base, calculate the current
transfer ratio and the current amplification factor.
Solution
Page 25
Let n be the number of electrons entering the emitter in time t. If e the charge on an electron, then the emitter current is
ne
IE = .
t
Since 2% of electrons are lost in the base, the collector current is
0.98ne
IC =
t
0.02ne
and base current is IB =
t
IC 0.98 ne / t
 Current transfer ratio = I = = 0.98
E ne / t
XY
IC 0.98 ne / t
Current amplification factor = I = = 49.
B 0.02ne / t
Example 19
LA
An npn transistor in a common emitter mode is used as a simple voltage amplifier with a collector current of 4 mA. One terminal
of an 8V battery is connected to the collector through a load resistance RL and to the base through a resistance RB. The
collector-emitter voltage VCE = 4 V, base-emitter voltage VBE = 0.6 V and the base current amplification factor dc = 100.
Calculate the values of RL and RB.
Solution
GA
Figure shows the simple npn transistor voltage amplifier
circuit. Given IC = 4 mA = 4 × 10–3 A, VCC = 8V, VCE = 4V,
VBE = 0.6 V and dc = 100.
IC
by definition, dc = I .
B
Therefore, base current is

S
IC 4mA
IB =  = = 0.04 mA
100
IC
dc
= 0.04 × 10–3 A.
It is clear from the circuit that
VCC = potential drop across RB + VBE = IBRB + VBE

YS
VCC  VBE (8  0.6)

 RB = = = 1.85 × 105 .
IB 0.04  10 3
From the circuit, it also follows that
PH
VCC = potential drop across
RL + VCE = ICRL + VCE

VCC  VCE (8  4)
 RL = = = 1000 .
IC 4  10 3
Example 20
An npn transistor is used in common-emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. A change of 40 µA in the base current, brings about
a change of 2 mA in the collector current and 0.04 V in the emitter current. Find the (a) input resistance Ri and (b) the base
current amplification factor . If a load of 6 k is used, also find the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Page 26
Solution
Given, IB = 40 µA = 40 × 10–6 A,
IC = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A,
V BE = 0.04 V
and RL = 6 k = 6 × 103 .
VBE 0.04
(a) The input resistance is Ri = = = 1000 .
I B 40  10 6
2 10 3
XY
I C
(b) The base current amplification factor is  = = = 50.
I B 40  106
R L 50  6  10 3
In a common-emitter mode, the voltage gain is = = 300.
Ri 1000
LA
Example 21
For a transistor working as common base amplifier, current gain is 0.96. If emitter current is 7.2 mA, calculate the base current.
Solution GA
Here,  = 0.96 ; Ie = 7.2 mA
Ic
Now, = I
e
or Ic =  Ie = 0.96 × 7.2 = 6.91 mA
Also, Ie = Ic + Ib
S
or Ib = Ie – Ic = 7.2 – 6.91 = 0.29 mA

IC
Example 22
For a common emitter amplifier, current gain is 70. If the emitter current is 8.8 mA, calculate the collector and base current. Also
calculate current gain, wen transistor is working as common base amplifier.
YS
Solution
Here,  = 70 ; Ie = 8.8 mA
Ic
PH
Now, = I
b
or Ic =  Ib = 70 Ib
Also, 8.8 = 70 Ib + Ib
or 71 Ib = 8.8
8.8
or Ib = = 0.124 mA
71
Again, Ic = 70 Ib = 70 × 0.124 = 8.68 mA
Page 27

We know =
1 

 70 =
1 
70
or = = 0.986
71
Example 23
The base current of a transistor is 105 µA and collector current is 2.05 mA.
(a) Determine the value of , Ie and .
XY
(b) A change of 27µA in the base current produces a change of 0.65 mA in the collector current. Find ac.
Solution
Here, Ib = 105 µA = 105 × 10–6 A;
LA
Ic = 2.05 mA = 2.05 × 10–3 A;
Ib 2.05 10 3
(a) Now, = I = = 19.5
c 105 10 6
Also, Ie = Ib + Ic = 105 × 0–6 + 2.05 × 10–3
GA
= 2.155 × 10–3 A
Ic 2.05 10 3
Further, = I = = 0.95
e 2.155 10 3
(b) Here, Ib = 27 µA = 27 × 10–6 A;
Ic = 0.65 mA = 650 × 10–6 A

S
I c 650  10 6
Now, ac = I = = 24.1.
b 27  10 6
IC
Example 24
In a silicon transistor, a change of 7.89 mA in the emitter current produces a change of 7.8 mA in the collector current. What
YS
change in the base current is necessary to produce and equivalent change in the collector current ?
Solution
Here, Ib = 7.89 mA = 7.89 × 10–3 A;

PH
Ic = 7.8 mA = 7.8 × 10–3 A;

I c 7.8  10 3
Now, ac = I = = 0.9886
e 7.89 10 3
 ac 0.9886
We have, ac = 1   = = 86.72
ac 1  0.9886
I c
Also, ac = I
b
Page 28
I c
or Ib = 
ac
Here, Ic = 7.8 × 10–3 A; ac = 86.72
7.8  10 3
 Ib = = 89.94 × 10–6 A.
86.72
Example 25
In a silicon transistor, the base current is changed by 20 µA. This results in a change of 0.02 v in base to emitter voltage and
(a) Find the input resistance, ac and transconductance of the transistor.
XY
(b) This transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier ?
Solution
For Ib = 20 µ A = 20 × 10–6 A;
LA
Vbe = 0.02 V and Ic = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A
(a) Input resistance
Vbe 0.02
= I = = 1,000 .
b 20  10 6 GA
I c 2  10 3
 = I = = 100
b 0.02
I c 2 103
g m = V = = 0.1 –1.
be 0.02
(b) RL = 5 k = 5,000 
Vce R L  I c 5000  2 10 3
S
Now, voltage gain = V = V = = 500.

be be 0.02
IC
Example 26
The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 665 . Its base current is changed by 15 µA, which results in the change in
collector current by 2mA. This transistor is used as a common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 5 k. Calculate (i)
current gain ac (ii) transconductance gm and (iii) voltage gain Av of the amplifier.
YS
Solution
Here, Ib = 15 µA = 15 × 10–6 A;

PH
Ic = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A;
R in = 665 ; RL = 5 k = 5 × 103 
I c 2  10 3
(i) Now, ac = I = = 133.3
b 15 10 6
 ac 133.3
(ii) Transconductance, gm = = = 0.2 –1
Rin 665
(iii) Voltage gain, Av = gm RL = 0.2 × 5 × 103 = 1000.
Page 29
Example 27
A transistor is used in common-emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. When a signal of 24 mV is added to the base-emitter
voltage, the base current changes by 32 µA and collector current by 3.6 mA. The load resistance is 4.8 k. Calculate (i) the
current gain , (ii) the input resistance Rbe, (iii) the transconductance gm and (iv) voltage gain Av.
Solution
Here, when Vbe = 24 mV, Ib = 32 µA
and Ic = 3.6 mA

I c 3.6  10 3
(i) Now, = = = 112.5
XY
I b 32 10  6
(ii) The input resistance Rbe is given by
Vbe 24 10 3
Rbe = = = 750 
I b 32  10 6
LA
I c 3.6  10 3
(iii) Transconductance, g m = V =
be 24  10 3
= 0.15 S
(iv) Voltage gain,
RL  I c 4.8 103  3.6  10 3

Av =
Vbe
=
GA
24 10 3
= 720
Example 28
In the circuit shown in figure, the value of  is 100. Find Ib, Vbe and Vbc, when Ic = 1.5 mA. Is the transistor in active, cut off or
a saturation state ?
S
IC
YS
Figure #
PH
Solution
Here,  = 100 V, Vcc = 24 V; Ic = 1.5 mA = 1.5 × 10–3 A;

Ic
Now, =
Ib
Ic 1.5 103
or Ib =  = = 1.5 × 10–5 A
100
Let Vce, Vbe and Vbc be the respective potential drops across collector-emitter; base-emitter and base-collector junctions.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed part of the circuit containing Rc and collector-emitter junction, we have
Page 30
Vce = Vcc – Ic Rc
= 24 – 1.5 × 10–3 × 4.7 × 103
= 24 – 7.05 = 16.95 V
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed part of the circuit containing Rb and emitter-base junction, we have
Vcc = Vbe + Ib Rb
or Vbe = Vcc – Ib Rb = 24 – 1.5 × 10–5 × 220 × 103
= 24 – 3.3 = 20.7 V
XY
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed part of the circuit containing Rb, Rc and base-collector junction, we have
Vbe = Ib Rb – Ic Rc = 0
or Vbe = Ic Rc – Ib Rb
LA
= 1.5 × 10–3 × 4.7 × 103 – 1.5 × 10–5 × 220 × 103
= 7.05 – 3.3 = 3.75 V
The transistor is in a saturation state.

GA
* * * * *
S
IC
YS
PH
Page 31
PG Topic : Semiconductors Page 1 Section : Logic Gate
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Semiconductors PG PDF

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PG Notes Semiconductors (Part - 1)

Physics Galaxy Notes

PG Notes on Semiconductors (Part - 1)

Energy band Diagram

The Conduction Band

Energy Bands in Solid Lattice

Conductors Insulators and Semiconductors

Fermi Energy Level

Band Structures of Metals

and 3p bands of solid magnesium gets overlapped as shown in figure-6.

Band Structure in Insulators

Fermi Energy Gap

is also called forbidden energy gap.

Band Structure in Semiconductors

(2) Extrinsic Semiconductors

Lets discuss these in details.

Theoretically the intrinsic concentration ni varies with temperature T according to relation

n i 2 = A0T 3 e–EF/kT … (2)

by about 108 Si atoms.

Generation and Recombination of Electron Hole Pairs

Mechanism of Conduction by Hole

(i) Pentavalent impurity atoms

Now we will discuss these extrinsic semiconductors in detail.

carriers are positive holes, this semiconductor we call p-type semiconductors.

Carrier Concentration in Extrinsic Semiconductors and Mass-action Law

Carrier Concentration in Semiconductors

acceptor atoms, thus

and thus electron concentration in a p-type semiconductor can be given as

Electrical Conduction in Metals

Now from equation-(1) & (2) we have

Electric Conduction in a Semiconductor

Here  is the conductivity of the semiconductor which can be given as

 = e (ne µe + nh µh) … (2)

For intrinsic semiconductors ne= nh = ni, thus

 = eni (µe + µh) … (3)

Physics Galaxy Notes

PG Notes on Semiconductors (Part - 2)

Forward Biasing of p-n junction

Reverse Biasing of p-n junction

biasing voltage, it is called reverse saturation current.

Volt Ampere Characteristic of p-n junction

(ii) Reverse Bias characteristics

(i) Forward Bias characteristic

the junction due to over heating.

Reverse Bias Characteristics

Dynamic Resistance of p-n Junction GA

biasing voltage is V, the dynamic resistance can be given as

The characteristics of an ideal diode is shown in figure-9

Breakdown Mechanism of a p-n Junction Diode in Reverse Biasing

Lets discuss both the mechanism in detail.

(ii) Avalance Breakdown

Zener Diode as a Voltage Stabilizer

p-n Junction Diode as Rectifier

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

Average Currents in Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers

Average current in a pulsating current can be defined as

Total charge flow in one cycle

Average Current in Half Wave Rectifier

for first half cycle current as a function of time is given as

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current For Rectifiers