Overload protector using single

relay with reset button

INTRODUCTION-
Overload protector using single relay with
reset button circuit is presented here, can be used as
overload protector with reset option for inverters or as
an electronic fuse in AC mains supply. In this overload
protection circuit, the mains supply to the load s like
refrigerator is routed via the the N/C (normally closed)
contacts of relay RL1. In an inverter, the relay contacts
could be used as ‘inverter oscillator’ on/off control.
Whenever overload occurs, it inhibits inverter oscillator
circuit, which, in turn, stops generation of power. In
applications like inverters and UPS, the load must not
exceed the rated output power since it can cause excess
heating of output transformer windings and active
driving devices and thereby damage them.

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Circuit diagram of overload protector using single relay with reset button

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Working of the overload protector-
Resistor R1 is used as the overload sensing element. When
the load exceeds the maximum rated value, it draws current in excess of its rated
value. This causes the potential drop across resistor R1 to increase. An optocoupler is
used to sense this voltage drop. The optocoupler, in addition, isolates the AC mains
part from the rest of the circuit physically.
Resistor R1 is selected as 1 ohm for 230V, 500 watts (max.) load capacity. When the
load just exceeds 500 watts, the current through R1 is approximately 2.1 amperes,
producing a potential difference of 2.1 volts across R1. The inbuilt transistor inside
the optocoupler senses this voltage and its collector current increases proportionally.
When the current reaches the required designed value, voltage drop across resistor-
preset combination R3-VR1 also increases. (Note. The power dissipated in 1-ohm
resistor for 500W load is just 2.1 watts, which is negligible compared to the maximum
power rating of the load. To use this circuit for 1kW load, select R1 as 0.5-ohm,
10W.)
Overload limiting point can be set by preset VR1. When the potential at wiper of
preset VR1 becomes greater than VZ+VBE (where VZ is the breakdown voltage of
zener diode ZD1 and VBE the for ward voltage drop at the base-emitter junction of
transistor T1), it causes forward biasing of transistor T1. This results in the collector
of transistor T1 to be pulled down to ground and trigger IC555, which is connected in
bistable mode.
The output of IC1 causes overload indicating LED1 to glow and forward biases
transistor T2 to energise relay RL1. Once the output of bistable IC1 goes high, it
continues to remain high, unless reset push button S1, which is connected be tween
Vcc and threshold terminal (pin 6) of timer 555, is pressed. On pressing S1, a high
pulse is applied to the threshold pin that resets the flip-flop output to low state. The
circuit can be reset after removing unwanted loads.

Implementation Note: Since the circuit is very sensitive, fluctuations in AC mains

can also trigger the circuit undesirably. This effect can be eliminated by using 4.7µF
bypass capacitor C1 as shown in the figure.

Diode-

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 In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts
electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor
diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
material connected to two electrical terminals.

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic
version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is
used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from
radio signals in radio receivers.

Semiconductor diodes

diode symbol

A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon

that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative
charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side
that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's
terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal
between these two regions, called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes
place. The crystal conducts conventional current in a direction from the p-type side
(called the anode) to the n-type side (called the cathode), but not in the opposite
direction.

Current–voltage characteristic-

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 A semiconductor diode’s behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage
characteristic, or I–V graph. The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of
charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at
the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first
created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the
P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons)
with which the electrons “recombine”. When a mobile electron recombines with a
hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged
donor (dopant) on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P-side.
The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus
behaves as an insulator.

I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode

Zener diodes

Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener
breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a
precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and
switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the
temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener
diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series

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and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or
Transorb, a registered trademark). The Zener diode is named for Dr. Clarence Melvin
Zener of Carnegie Mellon University, inventor of the device.

Reset button -

The reset button technique is a plot device that interrupts continuity in

works of fiction. Simply put, use of a reset button device returns all characters and
situations to the status quo they held before a major change of some sort was
introduced. Often used in science fiction television series, animated series the device
allows elaborate and dramatic changes to characters and the fictional universe that
might otherwise invalidate the premise of the show with respect to future continuity.
Writers may, for example, use the technique to allow the audience to experience the
death of the lead character, which traditionally would not be possible without
effectively ending the work.

Effective use of this device depends on the audience being unaware of the
continuity status, or successful suspension of disbelief that continuity is or will be
interrupted, and the eventual communication of the status of continuity to the
audience. It is usually employed as a plot twist that effectively undoes all the
happenings of the episode. Common uses of this technique draw liberally from
science fiction and metaphysical ideas, perhaps contributing to its widespread use in
those genres.

Examples of the reset button technique include dream sequences, alternate-

history flashbacks, parallel universes, "alternate realities", "alternate timelines",
daydreams, time travel and hallucinations. Occasionally, a character will find himself
in a situation that seems familiar but during the episode some things seem odd, and
then something major happens such as a lead character having a significantly different
position or dying. By the end of the episode or story arc the character learns he has
been placed in a copy of his normal surroundings, usually to try to obtain information

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from him, and the mastermind behind the plan made a few mistakes in fashioning the
copy environment

Opto-coupler-

An opto-isolator showing source of light (LED) on the left, dielectric barrier in the center, and
sensor (phototransistor) on the right

In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler,

or optical isolator, is "an electronic device designed to transfer electrical signals by
utilizing light waves to provide coupling with electrical isolation between its input
and output". The main purpose of an opto-isolator is "to prevent high voltages or
rapidly changing voltages on one side of the circuit from damaging components or
distorting transmissions on the other side.” Commercially available opto-isolators
withstand input-to-output voltages up to 10 kV and voltage transients with speeds up
to 10 kV/μs.

An opto-isolator contains a source (emitter) of light, almost always a near

infrared light-emitting diode (LED), that converts electrical input signal into light, a
closed optical channel (also called dielectrical channel), and a photosensor, which
detects incoming light and either generates electric energy directly, or modulates
electric current flowing from an external power supply. The sensor can be a
photoresistor, a photodiode, a phototransistor, a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) or a
triac. Because LEDs can sense light in addition to emitting it, construction of
symmetrical, bidirectional opto-isolators is possible. An optocoupled solid state relay
contains a photodiode opto-isolator which drives a power switch, usually a
complementary pair of MOSFET transistors. A slotted optical switch contains a
source of light and a sensor, but its optical channel is open, allowing modulation of
light by external objects obstructing the path of light or reflecting light into the sensor.

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Relay-
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also
used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal
(with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-
transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and
early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an
electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no
moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron

core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable
iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured).
The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of
moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized
there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of
contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may
have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the
picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of
the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the
printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field
that attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s)
either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed
contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the
movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts
were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position.

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 Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-
voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it
reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the
coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which
would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit
components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in
series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized
with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end
of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum
pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1]

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device,

activated by the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An
optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be
used to isolate control and controlled circuits.

Pole and throw

Circuit symbols of relays.

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied
to relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be
thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated;
the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A
contact or "make" contact. NO contacts can also be distinguished as "early-make" or

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 NOEM, which means that the contacts will close before the button or switch is fully
engaged.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B
contact or "break" contact. NC contacts can also be distinguished as "late-break" or
NCLB, which means that the contacts will stay closed until the button or switch is
fully disengaged.
 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one
normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It
is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this
type of contact utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D
contact.

Applications

Relays are used to and for:

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of

modems or audio amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile,
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening
and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of

many different factors:

 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-

throw)
 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For
example, the old style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the
connection didn't get dropped while dialling the number.

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 555 timer IC-

The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of

timer and multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R. Camenzind in
1970 and brought to market in 1971 by Signetics. The original name was the SE555
(metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was described as "The IC Time
Machine". It has been claimed that the 555 gets its name from the three 5 kΩ
resistors used in typical early implementations, but Hans Camenzind has stated that
the number was arbitrary. The part is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low
price and good stability.

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20

transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-
in-line package (DIP-8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining
two 555s on one chip), and the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified
555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of
level sensitive).

The 555 has three operating modes:

 Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot".

Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation
(PWM) etc
 Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation,
security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.

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 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS
pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched
switches, etc.

Usage

Pinout diagram

The connection of the pins is as follows:

Pin Name Purpose

1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)
2 TRIG OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC.
3 OUT This output is driven to +VCC or GND.
4 RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND.
5 CTRL "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
6 THR The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.
7 DIS Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.
8 V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.

Bistable Mode-

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 In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset
inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via pull-up resistors while the
threshold input (pin 6) is simply grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger
momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high
state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output pin to
ground (low state). No capacitors are required in a bistable configuration. Pins 5 and 7
(control and discharge) are left floating.

applications
The original IBM personal computer used a quad timer 558 in monostable (or
"one-shot") mode to interface up to two joysticks to the host computer

Capacitor-
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component
consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a
potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in
the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the
conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of
power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and
for many other purposes.

The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early
means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a
breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance
and resistance.

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 electrolytic capacitor

Theory of operation-

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and increases the capacitance .

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region[8]

called the dielectric medium though it may be a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external
electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing
surfaces,and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one
farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one
volt across the device.

The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C,
defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

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Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance
to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the

conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge
separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the
charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing
the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:[11]

Applications

Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common
that it is a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit,
so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in
electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed

Resistor-
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage
across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance
with Ohm's law:

V = IR

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Units

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage
are the milliohm (1x10−3), kilohm (1x103), and megohm (1x106).

Theory of operation

Ohm's law

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's

law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a
resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance.

This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is 400
ohms, a current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.

Power dissipation

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor

network) is calculated using the following:

All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from Joule's first law. Ohm’s
Law derives the other two from that.

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Construction

Lead arrangements

Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting

Variable resistors or Adjustable resistors-

A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be
changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound
power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element,
allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used.

Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is

required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an
operator. Such a device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.

Four-band resistors

Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme on

resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the
resistor. The first two bands encode the first two significant digits of the resistance
value, the third is a power-of-ten multiplier or number-of-zeroes, and the fourth is the
tolerance accuracy, or acceptable error, of the value. The first three bands are equally
spaced along the resistor; the spacing to the fourth band is wider. Sometimes a fifth
band identifies the thermal coefficient, but this must be distinguished from the true 5-
color system, with 3 significant digits.

For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56×104 Ω = 560 kΩ ± 2%. An easier

description can be as followed: the first band, green, has a value of 5 and the second
band, blue, has a value of 6, and is counted as 56. The third band, yellow, has a value

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of 104, which adds four 0's to the end, creating 560,000 Ω at ±2% tolerance accuracy.
560,000 Ω changes to 560 kΩ ±2% (as a kilo- is 103).

Each color corresponds to a certain digit, progressing from darker to lighter colors, as
shown in the chart below.

Rectifier-
. A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC),
which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which is in only one
direction, a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be
made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other
components.

A device which performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an

inverter.

Half-wave rectification

In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is
passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform
reaches the output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave
rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply, or with three
diodes in a three-phase supply.

The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following
two ideal equations:

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Full-wave rectification-

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of

constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts
both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient.
However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required
instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification. (See semiconductors, diode).
Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier:

a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-
back (i.e. anodes-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier.
Twice as many windings are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same
output voltage compared to the bridge rectifier above.

Full-wave rectifier using a transformer and 2 diodes.

A very common vacuum tube rectifier configuration contained one cathode and twin
anodes inside a single envelope; in this way, the two diodes required only one vacuum
tube. The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular examples of this configuration.

Applications

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 The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC
supply. Virtually all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers find uses inside the
power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment.

Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more complicated.

One method of DC-to-DC conversion first converts power to AC (using a device
called an inverter), then use a transformer to change the voltage, and finally rectifies
power back to DC.

Preset Resistor-
A trimmer or preset is a miniature adjustable electrical component. It is meant
to be set correctly when installed in some device, and never seen or adjusted by the
device's user. Trimmers can be variable resistors (potentiometers), variable capacitors,
trimmable inductors. They are common in precision circuitry like A/V components,
and may need to be adjusted when the equipment is serviced. Unlike many other
variable controls, trimmers are mounted directly on circuit boards, turned with a small
screwdriver and rated for many fewer adjustments over their lifetime. Trimmers like
trimmable inductors and trimmable capacitors are usually found in superhet radio and
television receivers, in the Intermediate frequency, oscillator and RF circuits. They
are adjusted into the right position during the alignment procedure of the receiver.

Trimmers come in a variety of sizes and levels of precision; for example, multi-turn
trim potentiometers exist, in which it takes several turns of the adjustment screw to
reach the end value, allowing for very high degrees of accuracy.

Zener diode-
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward
direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger

20
than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The
device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.

A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is

reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias
breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to
avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be
permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias (current in the direction of the
arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage and
internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor
material and the doping concentrations.

A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially
designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener
voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will
exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the
Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown
voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V even if reverse bias voltage
applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for
applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage),
or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.

Uses-

Zener diode with Reverse current − iZ

across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so
that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's
reverse breakdown voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the
diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value.

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In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, UIN, is
regulated down to a stable output voltage UOUT. The intrinsic voltage drop of diode D
is stable over a wide current range and holds U OUT relatively constant even though the
input voltage may fluctuate over a fairly wide range. Because of the low impedance of
the diode when operated like this, Resistor R is used to limit current through the
circuit.

Zener diode

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Light-emitting diode-

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting.

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able
to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated
optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively
expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation

lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as
well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth,
switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video
displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful
in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote
control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and
other domestic appliances.

Types-

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 .

Advantages

 Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent bulbs. Their
efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
 Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as
traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
 Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto
printed circuit boards.
 On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve
full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can
have even faster response times.
 Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or
lowering the forward current.
 Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the
form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is
dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
 Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage
with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.
 Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect
light and direct it in a usable manner.

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 Disadvantages

 Fluorescent lamps are typically more efficient than LEDs (for lamps with the
same CRI).
 High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an
initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional
expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry
and power supplies needed.
 Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient
temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving an LED in high ambient
temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to
device failure. Adequate heat sinking is needed to maintain long life. This is
especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must
operate over a wide range of temperatures, and need low failure rates.
 Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the
threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-
regulated power supplies.
 Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from
a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and
dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-
white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism
red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white
LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are
often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.
 Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but
rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a
spherical light field. LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In
contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.
 Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color
temperature) emit proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light
sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the strong wavelength
dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can cause more light
pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-Sky Association
discourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above 3,000
K.
 Droop: The efficiency of LEDs tends to decrease as one increases current.

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Transformer-
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils.
A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF)
or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of
the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as
follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped
down" by making Ns less than Np.

In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a
ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside

a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect
portions of power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range
of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers
in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices
designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage
power transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically practical.

Basic principles

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic
field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the

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magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the
secondary coil.

An ideal transformer

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the
primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped
around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the
magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils.

Induction law-

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from
Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the

secondary coil and Φ is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of
the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product
of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is
constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the
magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the
same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal
transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

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Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation[30] for
stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Ideal power equation-

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow,

electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit.
Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed
from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this
condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable

approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.[29] For

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example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it
appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is
reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to
be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS-

The L7800 series of three-terminal positive Regulators is available in TO-
220, TO-220FP, TO-220FM, TO-3 and D2PAK packages and several fixed output
voltages, making it useful in a wide range of applications. These Regulators CAN
provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated
with single point regulation. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal
shut-down and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate
heat sinking is provided, they CAN deliver over 1A output current. Although designed
primarily as fixed voltage Regulators these devices CAN be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.

This is one package pinout of L7800.

Application-
Overload protector using single relay with reset button are used in inverters,
uninterruptable power supply (UPS) etc. from overload. Because overload cause
the burnt of electronics equipment of system.

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