INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS

Why Study Ergonomics?

1. Technological advancement has led us to the use of many things that do not go along with human
capabilities. Quite often we experience human errors while using many man-made designed items that
are basically intended to help man for better performance. It tires, provides uneasiness and discomfort,
and in a long run threatens us for health (physical and mental) hazards, and might cause inattentive
accidents also. As for example, people do not use safety facemasks and helmets; they say these do not
fit with the body and are uncomfortable.

2. People fail to notice some important message, as the information system does not draw their
attention properly and in time. Accidents took place because the operator can not easily switch off the
machine in time, may be a case of specific component location problem. Psychological problems
appear due to difficulty in understanding the proper use mode of the product, distraction due to lack of
privacy in work place environment and mismatch of the work context to the behaviour of users.

3. It is quite often seen that in certain workplaces people need to adopt either an awkward static
posture for a long time or need to do lot of stretching and bending. People are not motivated enough to
use or work in certain workplaces allotted to them where it does not give personalized satisfaction
and/or the work component placement locations do not match with his body dimensions both in static
and dynamic conditions. Very well decorated home kitchens also do not invite housewives. To work
with the kitchen interior arrangements, she has to do a lot of stretching as well as bending exercises
very often.

4. Incorrectly designed-systems induce improper posture leading to operational uneasiness and

musculoskeletal and some physiological disorders. It is obvious that work components must be placed
within comfortable reach and should be kept within his/her functional workspace envelope limits.

5. Even after a whole night's sleep on an overly soft and inviting bed, instead of feeling afresh we feel
body ache. It is said that to cope with modern materialistic development our assorted sized body needs
help from various body supportive and structural aids, but many a times these do not satisfy the
purpose to meet our body need, they create unforeseen problems. Though chairs are good in
appearance and have all the features to function as a chair, we do not feel comfort while sitting and
working, rather it tires. Posture should allow spine to follow its natural curvature that quite often gets
disturbed by lousy backrests.

Why does it happen?

Many more, almost everywhere these types of situations can be cited. People intentionally have not
invited the above problems. Probably, the human being's natural limitations, aspirations and needs do
not match with the system that he has developed and is using.

Application of best scientific principles and appropriate technologies may generate a design better to
deliver function, still its user, (the prime system component), ultimately has to feel comfort while using
it to qualify the same to be a good design.

What can be done?

As an answer it can be said, use human compatibility features concerning:
1. Physical structure/dimensions,
2. Behavior- personal/group, and
3. Physiological endurance/safe limits.

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Man develops many things to meet his requirements and make his life easy, modify mistakes, and
make necessary changes that suit him - a human nature. Attempts for continuous design development
are a result of a combination of need and aspiration.

Design of a product or a system must yield maximum comfort, efficiency, and safety to its users.
Design is basically a creative endeavour with a history of art origin. The variety and complexity of
design issues today, both in industrial design as well as in communication design, emphasize on more
advanced ecological balance between human beings (the ultimate user) and their socio-cultural and
natural environment.

Boundaries between disciplines are becoming more fluid. To look into these issues and to find out
relevant solutions a specialized area has come in front with organized multidisciplinary inputs named
as 'Ergonomics' also known as Human Factors'. It is the science, arts and technology of man at work
for better performance. Ergonomics has scientific and technology pride comprising both physical and
social sciences.

Ergonomics and Design

From the foregoing Ergonomics scopes the bridge between design parameters and human
compatibility factors. Usage of ergonomics in design provides a sound quantitative basis of human
aspects of problems and possibilities of usability testing, human product usage and the future of
product design and development.

Ergonomics focuses on human beings and their interaction with products, equipment facilities and
environments used in the work. Ergonomics or Human engineering seeks to change the things people
use and the environment in which they use the things to match in a better way the capabilities,
limitations and needs of people.

Ergonomics, therefore, is the systematic study of the relationship between people and the products and
systems (i.e. machines) they use and the environments in which they work and live. It seeks to produce
objects people use and environments in which they use them that better match the capabilities,
limitations, and needs of people. It goes beyond the issues of usability to consider design for ease of
maintenance and for safety. Thus ergonomics discovers and applies information about human
behaviour, abilities and limitations and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, systems,
tasks, jobs, procedures and environment for productive, safe, comfortable and effective human use.

Ergonomics expertise is found in industrial designers, who focus on ease of use of products, and in
industrial engineers, who focus on design of production systems for productivity and freedom from
accidents.

Every design project concerns the construct of an object which will interact with people in one way or
another and an understanding of this relationship is vital to the project’s success. There are four ways
that a human interacts with a product:
a) As an occupant of workspace (the cab of a tractor or a chair before a computer),
b) As a power source (usually muscle power),
c) As a sensor (looking for a warning light), or
d) Acting as a controller (determining how much "pedal" to give to beat the red light with your
car).

Products that score high in human factors are generally regarded as quality products, since they are
perceived to work well by the user. Of course, the design must also be safe, both to the person and to
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property.

In summary, Ergonomics deals with

• Science & Arts of Human being: Fundamentals & aesthetics studying human behavior,
abilities, limitations and other context specific characteristics.
• Technology for human use: Practical applications aspects with discovery of appropriate
applications of the same information (after proper analysis of context) to the design of tools,
machines, systems, tasks, jobs and environment; and Methodology to evaluate the benefits
thereby.

Four domains of Ergonomics

1. Hardware Ergonomics:
The Human-machine interface - It deals with:
• Control design and location parameters and functional aspects for communication and easy
operation,
• Visual displays, codes, scales and markings, anatomical and anthropometric (static & dynamic)
match establishment,
• Working posture, body supportive devices match along with context fit and workstation,
• Range of body movement characteristics and thus limitations of human being.

2. Environmental Ergonomics:
Human-environment interface - It deals with human capabilities and limitations with respect to the
demands imposed by various environmental modalities and relevant applications. This concerns the
physiological and performance effect in occupational settings pertaining to:
• Ventilation and pollutants
• Heat stress and Humidity
• Illumination, glare etc.
• Psychophysical quantification of sound level
• Vibration full or partial, self and/or work items

This Human-environment interface aspect is, therefore, concerned with the workplace and locations of
work components/items, the effects of working in various environmental conditions and shift work.

Human-machine-environment interface: It establishes compatibility between human and

machine/usable commodities in an environment.

3. Cognitive Ergonomics - This deals with:

• Human perception and information processing to reduce error, and system mismatch to
increase usability, functional reliability and safety (stereotype behaviour);
• Cognitive task analysis, qualitative and quantitative perspective to human system reliability
analysis;
• Users' behavioral demands in designing consumer products, Stimuli and effect reaction, and
Influence of cognitive demands on performance;
• User-centered interface-computer simulation;
• Effect of psychological stressors on human performance; etc.
Imbalance between task demand and work posture adaptation & body supportive devices often leads
to occupational stress

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4. Macro ergonomics – This deals with the Human Organization Interface technology, and covers
application of ergonomics principles in organized sectors for better productivity and safe operation,
and office and corporate ergonomics & its cost effectiveness. It deals with specific aspects of:
• Workstation design.
• Work process design.
• Work organization.
• Shift work
• Manual lifting methods.
• Job design and work methods Management of occupation related stress, safety and health
hazards,
• Multiple workplaces and workspace,
• Machine and tool design for multiple function,
• Design of public places,
• Envelope of postural orientations,
• Biomechanical efficiency assumptions,
• Risk and system safety, and
• Office and interior design, and formal to informal approach of design; etc.

Human compatibility factors

a) Body size and ability - The geometry of a product/workspace and user's body dimensions (Assorted
human body shape, size, anatomy, biomechanics and movement, and growth pattern) while operating
must fit each other to ensure safety as well as better functioning.

Design features of product and human body dimensions and functional need match is the key to
develop a good design. Ergonomics contribute to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products,
environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the needs, abilities and limitations of
people

b) Physiological threshold/tolerance limit, i.e.

• Cardio-respiratory system and its impacts on work performance, energy requirement,
musculoskeletal system, posture effects and manual material handling,
• Sensory aspects, stimuli-effect relation and fatigue, comfort and physiological stress factors,
etc.
• Poor posture and movement can lead to local mechanical stress on the muscles and joints,
resulting in complaints of the neck, back, shoulder, wrist and other parts of the musculoskeletal
system,
• Uncomfortable adaptation of ill postures and awkward movement also increases expenditure of
energy on the part of the muscles, heart and lungs,
• Should be considered for optimizing tasks and the workplace are presented for commonplace
postures and movements e.g., sitting, standing, lifting, pulling and pushing.

c) Behavior aspect
• Cognitive capabilities of people
• Sensation and perception and impact on information perception and processing, human error
analysis and prediction and mental fatigue, psychomotor skill,
• Attention, learning and memory,
• Language and communication,
• Problem solving and decision making, etc.
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A designer is expected to consider human behavior, abilities, limitations (physical, physiological,
behavioral) and other context specific characteristics. Usage of ergonomics in design provides a
sound quantitative basis of human aspects of problems.

Philosophy of Ergonomics Design

It operates on the premise "Better design for people." Whatever is designed should cater to the needs
and aspirations of the anticipated users.

Objectives of Ergonomics
Ergonomics (Human Factors Engineering) has two broader objectives:
1. To enhance the efficiency and effectiveness with which the activities (work) is carried out
so as to increase the convenience of use, reduced errors and increase in productivity.
2. To enhance certain desirable human values including safety, reduced stress and fatigue and
improved quality of life i.e. comfort for effective use.

Ergonomics, therefore, establishes:

• User-friendliness, and
• Compatibility between Human and articles for his/her use and his/her surroundings.

Thus in general the scope and objective of ergonomics is "designing for human use and optimizing
working and living conditions".

Fields of ergonomics application

As Human is the prime system component and all the developmental activities are centered on him/her,
ergonomics is applicable to every sphere of his/her life. Mostly perceived applications are practiced in
design, management, occupational health where it is preferred to optimize the use of his/her internal
resources and at the same time for sports it aims to increase endurance and the means to get the
maximum out of his/her resources.
Through its continuous development as a discipline; ergonomics is defined or described as the
appropriate application of available scientific information about human beings to design, thereby
enriching the same by establishing an optimum interaction between Human and the usable things
developed by him/her.

It requires a multidisciplinary, scientific approach towards studying the word/method and accessories
in the context of physical, physiological and psycho-sociological capabilities of people.

It also means evaluating the facilities, environment, jobs, training methods and equipment to match
with the capabilities of the users, and thereby reduces the potential for fatigue, errors, discomfort, and
unsafe acts.

Contributors in the field

Ergonomics is multidisciplinary; many related subject emphasis enriches the Ergonomics, which
ultimately leads to various design applications. The various disciplines that have influence on human
factors are:

a) Research and Development (R&D) sections with Industrial Design activities of many leading
industries are conscious about ergonomics need in their products.

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b) Industrial Engineering concerns the plant layout with its facilities and the arrangement of
individual components in workspaces, which aims to develop the work and performance links in shop
floor design.

c) Industrial hygiene & Safety and Occupational Health concern the work environment and work
methods to eliminate the causes of health problems and occupational safety hazards that originate from
faulty design use.

d) Sociologists, as well as anthropologists deal with the cultural and sociological relevance of design.

e) Behavioral sciences and industrial psychology are concerned with improving the design features
with a view of enhancing motivation, satisfaction and the product usage attitudes by the users of
different background, intellectuality and individuality. It therefore, deals with the study of adaptive
behaviour and skills of people.

f) Expertise from fields as diverse as engineering and architecture (Design of work system suitable to
worker), health sciences/anatomy (Study of body dimensions and relations for work design),
Physiology (Study of man and his working environment), human resource management, biology,
environmental sciences, design, fields of arts & crafts, - the list may go on, enrich this field.

Ergonomics Applications - Applications are mostly in:

1. Occupational stress, health hazards and safety.
2. Management
3. Design

Application areas specific to Occupational Health and safety are:

• Occupational risk management
• Work schedule & sustained performance
• Psychosocial approach occupational health
• Manual material handling
• Work related musculoskeletal disorders
• Warning and risk perception
• Safe design, etc.

Application areas in management are:

• Work process management efficiency
• Productivity and human resource utilization
• Work study and time study
• Management of work/rest cycle
• Personnel deployment and Shift work
• Human cost of work and cost benefit effects for the modifications done
• Manual material handling
• Work ambient environment monitoring
• Human work and efficiency

Human compatible design development and ergonomics

The form, function and the needs of human being together make an integral concept of designing a
'Human compatible' product and/or a complete system. It is responsible for "design for human use"

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 • A product/designed space should establish compatibility between human factors principles and
product/system features, comfort of use and functional reliability.
• Product reliability and safety.

Ergonomics, Productivity and Working Environment

Productivity is a powerful tool to improve the standards of living of people and to enhance the Quality
of Work Life (QWL). Ergonomics is concerned with man and his working conditions. Ergonomics
aims at providing comfort and improved working conditions so as to channel the energy, skills of the
workers into constructive productive work. This accounts for increased productivity, safety and
reduces the fatigue. This helps to increase the plant utilization.

Study of Applied Ergonomics Areas

1. Anthropometry and biomechanics.
2. Control of physical work environment.
3. Design of man-machine system.
4. Design of controls and displays.
5. Accidents fatigue and safety.
6. Work place design. .

The benefits of ergonomics are illustrated below:

Usability
Health, Safety, Satisfaction, Comfort, Effectiveness, Efficiency,
Convenience and Interest Performance (Quality and Quantity)
Utility

-Absentism, Labour turnover

-Motivation, Commitment,
Acceptance of change

-Purchase, Use, Sell

Well-being of
Well-being of employer or
employee or user producer

Man-Machine System
The fundamental concept in ergonomics (or human engineering) is the system. A system is composed
of humans, machines and other things that work together (or interact) to accomplish some goal which
these same components could not produce independently. The man-machine system is a combination
of one or more human beings and one or more physical components interacting to bring about, from
given inputs, some desired output.

Man-machine system consists of any type of physical object, device, equipment, facility and activities
performed by man. One way to characterize man-machine system is the degree of manual versus
machine control. The three broad categories of systems are:

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 • Manual system: A manual system consists of hand tools and other aids which are coupled by a
human operator who controls the operation. Operators use their own physical energy as the
power source.
• Mechanical systems: These systems are semi-automatic; consist of well integrated physical
part such as powered machine tools. They are generally designed to carry out their functions
with little variation. Power is typically provided by a machine and operators function is mainly
of control by the use of controlling devices.
• Automated system: When the system is fully automated, it performs all operational functions
without human intervention. Automated system require human to install, programme,
reprogram me and maintain the system.

Man-machine system is a closed loop system. A simple man-machine system is shown below. The
man will receive certain information from the machine either from dials, displays, etc., designed for
that purpose or by observation of machine itself. He will process this information and make decisions
on what action to take and manipulate controls or attend machine in some other way so as to affect its
behaviour in the required manner.

Environmental factors will also have an influence on the working of the system. The efficiency with
which the man functions depends on environmental factors, on his own characteristics such as age,
motivation, training and experience as well as the efficiency with which the machine provides the
information feedback and accepts control measures.

Except for the automated systems, the man-machine system must include human as an operator and a
system with machine and operator forms the close loop system. A typical man-machine control loop is
shown below. In display communication channel, information is sent to the operator from a display
element through display communication channel. A display is any source of information which aids
the operator in the control process. Typical displays include dial gauges, digital displays, warning
lights, etc.

Display communication Display element

Brain
-Decision channel
element
Control Control
element communication
channel

Decision
communication
element
Figure: Ma
Human-machine control loop

Display Communication channel.

A display is any source of information which aids the operator in the control process. Typical displays
include dial gauges, digital displays, warning lights, etc.

Decision Communication Channel

The information from) display is passed on to the control mechanism of the brain via the nervous
system where it is processed to arrive at a decision in relation to the required performance. This
decision is communicated to mechanical leverage system of the human bone and muscular system
which makes up the decision communication channel.

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Control Communication Channel
A control is any device which regulates the action of a machine. Typical control includes hand wheels,
levers, pedals, control knobs, push buttons, etc. The contact between the operator and the machine
takes place at two channels only, i.e., display communication channel and control communication
channel. A poor design of display and control may cause an error in the system. Hence the displays and
controls must be designed ergonomically.

The Functions Performed by Man and Machines

It is very essential to know as to which functions are performed by man and which functions machines
perform better.

Man is unique or better;

1. at discriminating relevant from irrelevant signals.
2. at innovation and creative in problem-solving.
3. In reasoning.
4. Ability to select his own inputs.
5. In improving, adopting flexible procedures, exercising judgment based on minimal information.
6. Sensitive to wide variety of stimuli.
7. in selective recall of old information.

Machines are unique and better:

1. Routine processing and storage of large amounts of facts and details.
2. for repetitive and monotonous operation.
3. for monitoring men and machines.
4. In operating under conditions that are stressful.
5. Rapid response to signals.
6. for rapid and complex situations.
7. for concurrent operations.
8. in sensing stimuli beyond the range of human sensitivity.

Three Aspects of a Human-Machine System

1. Design of information displays.
2. Design of controls. .
3. Environmental factors.

Display Design
Displays are necessary extensions to man's senses and provide both prime and supplemental
information needed by operators in making decisions and in effecting control responses. Information
presented by displays can be considered dynamic or static. Dynamic information continuously changes
or is subjected to change through time e.g., traffic signals, charts or graphs.

The more detailed classification:

1. Quantitative information: Display presentation that reflect the approximate value of same
variable such as temperature, speed, etc.
2. Quantitative information: Display presentations that reflect the approximate value, trend, rate
of change, direction of change.
3. Status information: Display presentation that indicates the condition or status of the sys tem
such as ON-OFF condition, etc.
4. Warning and signal indicators: Display the emergency, unsafe condition.
5. Representational information: Pictorial or graphic representation.
6. Identification information.
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 7. Time phased information.

Types of Displays
Characteristics of common visual displays
1. Visual Displays: Depending upon the use visual displays classified as:
(a) Quantitative display: (To read a precise numeric value e.g., display for pressure measurement,
display for speed measurement, angle measurement). Conventional quantitative displays are
mechanical devices of the following types:
• Fixed scale with moving points e.g., pressure gauge, Automobile speedometer.
• Moving scale with fixed pointer e.g., weighing machine to measure human weight.
• Digital display e.g., digital counters of tape recorder.

The modern technology has made it possible to present electronically generated features e.g., digital
displays. Types of displays are shown below.

3 4 5

Open window
Moving legend fixed pointer
Moving pointer
fixed legend fixed pointer

Vertical
straight legend
2 3 4 5 6 7 Digital counter Horizontal
straight legend

(b) Qualitative display: The display is used to read an approximate value or to indicate rate of change,
change in direction, etc. e.g., the increase or decrease in pressure.
(c) Check display: The display gives information about the parameters whether they are normal.

2. Auditory displays: As compared to visual displays, auditory displays can make monitoring
performance superior. So these devices are suitable as warning devices. Following are some of the
situations in which auditory displays are more suitable:
• When the message is simple and short.
• When the message calls for immediate attention.
• When the receiver moves from one place another.
• When continuously changing in information of some type is presented.

Considerations in Display Design

i) What is the information to be transmitted? What is its purpose of function?
ii) What type of display is to be used?
iii) Nature of the visual environment in which information is to be transmitted.
iv) Detailed design characteristics of the type of the display chosen.

Displays and Labels

Displays/Labels communicate a range of essential information to workers. The way in which this
information is visually presented is important in minimizing the risk of error. Perception is not just the
automatic translation of what we see. We often infer or assume meaning based on our expectations, the
context of the present situation or what has happened in the recent past. Making the visual presentation
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of information as clear and unambiguous as possible is essential to ensure that the correct meaning is
understood.

Under ideal conditions most displays/labels will appear adequate. Unfortunately there are times when
conditions are not ideal; lighting is low, displays/labels are partially obscured or glare disrupts the
image. The demographics of most organizations suggest that aging will further heighten the need for a
cautious approach to how information is presented with a decline in visual acuity with age.

Attention to human factors of labels and displays will help to reduce the likelihood of error. Other
aspects of labels are also important such as the process for ensuring that correct labels are applied,
education on the content of labels, the appearance and design of supplier packaging and the use of bar
code labeling systems. This tool addresses human factors related to how information appears on the
label. It is important to recognize that addressing label characteristics alone will not assure safety and
other control measures should be used whenever possible.

Displays/Labels – Human Factors Principles

The visual presentation of information requires a consideration of the physical characteristics - how
information is presented - in order to ensure that it is communicated with the least possibility for error.
The following principles apply to all forms of visual communication including labels and device
displays. The principles are organized based on three considerations:
♦ Design of message: physical features of the label or display (e.g. typeface, size)
♦ Message transmission: environmental factors (e.g. viewing angle, lighting)
♦ Message receipt: personal factors (e.g. visual ability, situation knowledge)

Design of Message
Legibility of the message on a display/label affects the user’s ability to discriminate among or
recognize letters, numbers and other characters. It is influenced by shape, size, contrast, color and the
quality of printing.
• Use simple and familiar fonts. Sans-serif fonts (e.g. Arial) are more legible than serif fonts
(e.g. Times New Roman),
• Avoid fonts that have characters that are too similar (e.g. letter - O and zero - 0),
• Use of ALL UPPER case letters reduces legibility and should be avoided unless the text is
brief.
• Limit the use of bold or italic type.
• See the following Table for character height and viewing distance.

Text Size and Viewing Distance

Viewing Distance Character
Height
0.7 m 2 - 5 mm
0.9 m 3 - 7 mm
1.8 m 7 - 13 mm
6.1 m 22 – 43 mm

• Color combinations (the most important consideration is to maintain high contrast between
lettering and background):

Best
Black letters on a white background
Black on yellow
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 Good
Dark blue on white
Green on white
Yellow on Black
White on Black

Avoid using black over dark red, green and blue

• Avoid the use of color in low-light conditions. Do not rely on color as the only distinguishing
characteristic – provide redundancy to ensure meaning is clear.

Readability refers to the ease of reading words or numbers when the individual characters are legible.
• Avoid the use of italics or bold for long strings of text.
• Vertical space between lines should be greater than 25% of the overall font height.
• Use ink that will not smear under conditions of use.
• Labels should be printed on non-glossy paper. If labels are protected by plastic it should have a
matte finish to reduce glare.
• Ensure that the placement of labels on curved surfaces does not distort text to adversely affect
legibility.
• Place labels in a position that will minimize damage to the message.
• Highlighter, borders or underlining can be used for emphasis but should not distort the message
text or be the only distinguishing characteristic.
• Icons can be an effective supplement to printed text when they are unambiguous and
universally understood. Icons should not be used alone; always provide the associated text
description to reduce confusion.
• Bar code labels must also include readable text.

Message Transmission
• Labels and displays should be viewed at 90 degrees to the line-of-sight.
• Labels and displays should be oriented horizontally or easily moved to that position.
• Task lighting should be available for reading labels when ambient lighting is maintained at low
levels.

Message Receipt
Comprehensibility is a measure of how reliably someone interprets a message. It depends on prior
knowledge, language skills, expectation, habit, routine, location and the context in which the message
is viewed.
• Keep messages on labels brief and concise.
• Avoid ambiguous words and abbreviations.
• Provide redundancy in the message (e.g. name and I.D. number; supplement color-coding and
symbols with text).
• Conduct tests to evaluate new labels; have someone read labels to verify clarity of meaning.
• For items that look similar, add unique markings and store in separate places.
• Standardize label information content and layout when used for similar materials and
situations.
• Analyze the context of label reading to identify potential errors.

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Considerations When Choosing Colour of Displays
Color in graphic visual displays can be a very effective technique for coding of information when used
properly. Color is processed by the visual system very rapidly and can be easily interpreted. However,
if used incorrectly it can negatively impact operator performance. Described below are five areas that
must be considered and understood to develop guidelines for effective color usage.

a) User Characteristics - Specific user characteristics such as age, color deficiencies, and acuity will
affect the perception of color. Visual perception of color is non-uniform. We are more sensitive to
some colors than others. There are also a variety of visual artifacts and illusions that occur during color
perception. For example, small field tritanopia refers to the fact that color discrimination deteriorates
when size or duration of a color stimulus is reduced. If the stimulus is less than 15 arc minutes in size,
color discrimination starts to resemble the human color deficiency called tritanopia in which yellows
and reddish blues start to appear achromatic and can be easily confused. This is because the visual
system is relying on short wave sensitive photoreceptors “blue” that are scarcely distributed in the
retina. Another example is that perceived colors of stimuli can change drastically depending on the
influence of an adjacent color. This is called chromatic induction. Visual perception is an important
design consideration.

b) Hardware - The ability to present specific colors depends on the hardware of the visual display.
Visual displays have a gamut of colors depending on the characteristics of their phosphors. Two
different displays presenting stimuli using the same RGB inputs will not necessarily result in the same
perceived color. Color theory and color measurement makes it possible to create colors that are called
metameric pairs, in which the perception of the colors are very similar or identical even though the
source is not the same. Displays also have different luminance output and other characteristics that can
influence the perception of color.

c) Environment - The perception of color is affected by the environment. For example high ambient
illumination causing glare can cause colors to desaturate.

d) Tasks -The appropriate use of color depends on the types of tasks that users are performing. Colors
are typically used for:
1) Attracting attention,
2) Identification of information,
3) Segmentation (organization of information within the graphic display), and
4) Interpretation of meaning.
Even with guidelines it's important to use a user-centered approach to the design of color displays.

e) Colour Theory and Measurement – Color models are used to provide a formal method for
specifying colors. The Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) develops standards for
measuring light. In order to select colors to be used across different displays it is necessary to specify
colors within a model color space. For light emitting displays, the CIELUV space is typically used.
With this space it becomes possible to determine if two colors are likely to be perceived as
perceptually different, which is important when multiple colors are used. Colors that are too close to
each other in perceptual space will be easily confused.

Design of Controls
The selection of control should be considered with regard to the functional requirements of the system.
Controls are the means by which information is transmitted to the machine from the man.

Types of Control
a) Hand controls: The anthropometric data for the human hand can be used as an aid to design
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 dimensions of hand controls.
b) Hand levers: Levers give a quick control action and can accommodate large forces. They are
not suitable for fine adjustments. Levers can provide efficient ON/OFF or step by step control.
c) Hand wheels: Hand wheel provide a controlling torque via both hands and they are used for
heavy loads. They can provide good accuracy of adjustments.
d) Cranks: Cranks are intended to provide torque via one hand. Smaller cranks are use for fast
control.
e) Knobs: Rotating knobs are recommended for light loading control with either fingers or with
whole hand. Knobs are typically use in applications such as instrument control panels.
f) Push buttons and toggle switches: These are essentially used as light load ON/OFF controls and
are normally designed for operation by one finger.
g) Joysticks: This is a type of hand control now extensively use in computer applications
including CNC machines.
h) Foot pedals: These are used for fast action control with medium or heavy loading capacity.
They lack in accuracy and range which may be obtained with hand controls. These are used In
sitting position.

Specific Control Recommendations

The various functional requirements and design features are given below:
a) Push buttons should have positive snap (click) action for operator feedback and concave or
rough surface top to aid in fingering.
b) Toggle switches provide a quick mode of response, require little space and can be operated
simultaneously with others in a group. They give both visual and tactual indication of their
state.
c) Knobs for continuous control can be shape and colour coded effectively and with appropriate
gearing. Provide a considerably flexible choice of adjustments.
d) Levers are commonly used as gear shifts, throttles, or joysticks in positioning or tracking tasks.
e) Cranks are used for high rates of adjustments over long distances position feedback is poor.
f) Steering wheels (hand wheels) are useful where large rotary forces must be applied but they
require more space.
g) Pedals have characteristics, similar to hand wheels good for large force applications. They do
not permit precision but are useful in distributing the work.

Fig:

Compatible Incompatible
Compatible Incompatible
Examples of compatible and incompatible displays with controls

Environmental Factors
The role that ergonomics plays in the environmental man-machine interface is essentially three fold:
• Identifying the effects that the environment has on man's physiological and psychological
process.
• Ensuring that work patterns, equipment and machine interfaces are designed to minimize the
14
 individual variation in performance.
• Ensuring that all the necessary protective systems are designed to take an account of
physiological and psychological variations in man.

The environmental factors that affect the performance are:

a) Illumination: When human activities are carried out indoors or at night, it is necessary to
provide some sort of artificial illumination the type of lighting or illumination depends upon the
type of work being performed, the size of the objects, accuracy, speed and duration of the work,
etc. The lighting system should provide:
o Sufficient brightness,
o Uniform illumination,
o A contrast between brightness of the job and of background,
o No direct or reflected glare.

Factors Affecting Visual Performance

• Normal performance depends upon the eye/brain system, system at its optimum
efficiency and be able to provide normal vision.
• Colour blindness.
• Visual adaptation to light levels is important physiological mechanism.
• External factors affecting include luminance, contrast, quality and amount of
illumination, time of observation, movement size of objects and glare.

Principles Involved in Improving Visual Performance

• Since time is required for an eye to adjust, design should avoid the need to
identify visual information at widely different distances or in slightly different
illumination levels.
• Minimize the extent or eye movement required to resolve visual information by
arrangement of displays rather than by reducing size of the details.

b) Noise: Noise has been defined as unwanted sound and it has been shown to have both short and
long-term effects on human performance. These effects may be internal and physiological in
nature, resulting in the auditory system being unable to perceive sound. The amount of having
loss is related to the level of the noise to which the operator is exposed and also it depends
upon the exposure time for high frequency intensities. Sudden loud sound which are entirely
unexpected can cause an increase in blood pressure, sweating, heart rate respiration and
muscular contraction, and repeated exposure may affect person's digestion.

Recommendations
• Where the problem is the talker, speech training may be necessary to correct those aspects
that are at fault.
• Where noise is present and has been identified as a problem it should be reduced at source.
• Impact equipment and excessively noisy machines and equipment, and operations should
be isolated by constructing enclosures so that the amount of noise transmitted
beyond the enclosure is reduced.
• The use of baffles, sound absorbers and acoustical treatment of walls, ceilings and floors
can also reduce sound reflection.
• In serious noise situations, workers should be provided with personal protective devices
such as earplugs, earmuffs and helmets.

15
 c) Vibration: Usually vibrations of the air are detected as sound but air vibrations below 20 Hz
are not heard but can be felt. Vibrations can affect the performance on target tracking. Ideally
vibrations should be minimized at source. Normally protection from residual vibration is
achieved by reducing the forces transmitted, by converting vibration energy into thermal
energy by using mechanical or hydraulic dampers and by altering body position and body
support.

d) Thermal conditions (Temperature, Humidity and Air Flow): Poor heat and humid conditions
produce thermal stresses in the workers which affect their efficiency, concentration and
dexterity of their members of the body. Working temperature of 60-65°F is considered as
normal but it varies according to the nature of work. Humidity and heat are related to each
other; both affect comfort and tolerance of the body to heat. If humidity is high, evaporation of
the sweet is reduced which results in dissipated which results in dryness of mouth, throat and
nose. Humidity as a general rule should not be allowed exceed 70 per cent. The effect of heat
can be minimized by:
o Shielding, isolating heat sources to reduce direct transmission by radiation of heat
between body and the heat source.
o Installation and provision for adequate local ventilation to get rid of smokes, fumes, etc.
Permit rest pauses in cool, extreme hot conditions.

e) Ventilation: Ventilation is the process of displacement of state air of the building by fresh air
to reduce the presence of bad odour, C02 concentration, humidity and temperature. A good
ventilation system provides fresh air. Most common methods of ventilation are:
o Windows and ventilators provide natural ventilation.
o Exhaust fans extract stale air and creates low pressure area to be filled by fresh air.

Anthropometry
Anthropometry is the application of scientific physical measurement methods to human subjects for
the development of engineering design standards and specific requirements and for evaluation of
engineering drawings, mock-ups, and manufactured products for the purpose of assuring suitability of
these products for the intended user population.

Anthropometry deals with the measurements of the dimensions and certain other physical
characteristics of the body such as volumes, centre of gravity, inertial properties and masses of body
segments. There are two primary types of body measurements: Static and dynamic (functional). Static
dimensions are measurements taken when the body is in a fixed (static) position. These consist of:
• Skeletal dimensions (between dimensions of joints).
• Contour dimensions (skin surface dimensions). . .

Body measurements vary as a function of age, sex and for different countries. There are differences in
anthropometrics of male and female. Dynamic (functional) dimensions are taken under conditions in
which the body is engaged in some physical activity.

Use of Anthropometric Data

It is very much essential in the design when items are designed for specific groups such as adult males,
children, etc., the data used should be specific for such groups in the country or culture in question.

Principles in the Application of' Anthropometric Data

• Design for extreme individuals: Designing for maximum population value is the recommended
16
 strategy if a given maximum (high) value of some design feature should accommodate of
doors. Designing for minimum population value is an appropriate strategy if a given minimum
(low) value of some design feature has to accommodate all. Example. Distance of control from
the operator and force required to operate the control.
• Designing for adjustable range: In the design features of equipment or facilities the provision
for adjustment should be there for the individuals who use them e.g., automobile seats, chairs,
desk height, etc. In design it is appropriate to provide for adjustment to cover the range from
5th percentile female to the 95th percentile male of the relevant population characteristics.
• Designing for average: There is no average individual as a person may be average on one or
two dimensions. Designers often design for the average as a compromise as they do not have to
deal with anthropometric data.

Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD)

Many of the work-related injuries and illnesses experienced by workers are musculoskeletal disorders
(MSDs), such as back injuries and sprains or strains that may develop from various factors, including
lifting, repetitive motion disorders such as carpal tunnel syndrome, or injuries resulting from
overexertion. MSDs may also be caused partly or wholly by factors outside of work.

More remains to be learned about the relationship between workplace activities and the development
of MSDs. The implementation of injury prevention efforts successfully reduces work-related injuries
and workers' compensation costs. Many times, these efforts have reduced injuries and led to increased
worker efficiency and lowered operating costs. For example, designing check stands to reduce
ergonomic risk factors such as twisting or extended reaching can improve cashier effectiveness and
productivity. The guidelines described below are cost effective and if implemented in a particular
workplace will go a long way in reducing work-related injuries and workers' compensation costs.

In these guidelines, the term musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) have been used to refer to a variety of
injuries and illnesses, including:
• Muscle strains and back injuries that occur from repeated use or overexertion;
• Tendinitis; Carpal tunnel syndrome;
• Rotator cuff injuries (a shoulder problem);
• Epicondylitis (an elbow problem); and
• Trigger finger that occurs from repeated use of a single finger.

Not all MSDs are work-related; employers should consider an MSD to be work-related if an event or
exposure in the work environment either caused or contributed to the MSD, or significantly aggravated
a pre-existing MSD. For example, when an employee develops carpal tunnel syndrome, the employer
needs to look at the hand and forearm activity required for the job and the amount of time spent doing
the activity. If an employee develops carpal tunnel syndrome, and his or her job requires frequent hand
activity, or forceful or sustained awkward hand motions, then the problem may be work-related. If the
job requires very little hand or arm activity then the disorder may not be work-related.

Activities outside of the workplace that involve physical demands may also cause or contribute to
MSDs. In addition, development of MSDs may be related to genetic causes, gender, age, and other
factors. Finally, there is evidence that reports of MSDs may be linked to occupationally-related
psychosocial factors including job dissatisfaction, monotonous work and limited job control. However,
these guidelines address only physical factors in the workplace that are related to the development of
MSDs.

Research shows that factories which have implemented injury prevention efforts focusing on
musculoskeletal and ergonomic concerns have reported reduced work-related injuries and associated
17
workers' compensation costs. Fewer injuries can also improve morale, reduce employee turnover,
encourage employees to stay longer and discourage senior employees from retiring early. Workplace
changes based on ergonomic principles may also lead to increased productivity by eliminating
unneeded motions, reducing fatigue and increasing worker efficiency. Healthier workers, better
morale, and higher productivity can also contribute to better customer service.

These guidelines present recommendations for changing equipment, workstation design, or work
methods with the goal of reducing work-related MSDs. Many ergonomic changes result in increased
efficiency by reducing the time needed to perform a task. Many factories that have already instituted
programs have reported reduced MSDs, reduced workers' compensation costs, and improved
efficiency.

Recommended Working Postures

Recommended Working Postures describe body positions that are neutral and comfortable to use.
Using postures other than those recommended will generally waste energy and motion as well as
potentially raise the risk of injury. It's also important to change position frequently and stretch between
tasks. This improves circulation and lessens fatigue.

Shoulders and Arms

• Keep the shoulders relaxed - not "shrugged-up" or "slumped-down".
• Keep your elbows close to your body.
• Keep work at about elbow height.

Head and Neck

Avoid situations that require twisting the neck or bending it forward, backward, or to the side.

Hands and Wrists

• Keep the hands straight and in line with the forearms - avoid twisting hands.
• Avoid working with wrists pressed against sharp or hard edges.

Back
• Stand straight - avoid situations that require bending (forward or backward), leaning to the side,
or twisting.
• A sit/stand stool will allow for changes in posture.
• For work performed while sitting, a back rest will help maintain proper posture.

Feet and Legs

• Provide toe space to allow workers to stand closer to counters. This can reduce reaching.
• Use footrests and anti-fatigue mats in areas where workers stand for prolonged periods. Placing
a foot on a footrest or other support will promote comfort.
• Standing on anti-fatigue mats, as compared to bare floors, provides a noticeable improvement
in comfort. Good quality anti-fatigue mats reduce back and leg fatigue.

Lifting Techniques: Safe Lifting

This section describes ergonomic principles on safe work practices employees can follow to reduce
their risk of injury during lifting. Most jobs involve some lifting. It is important that employers provide
employees with help to lift heavy or bulky items. Whether a particular lift will require assistance
depends on several factors, including the weight and size of the object, how frequently the object is
lifted, how close the object is to the ground, how high it must be lifted, how far it must be carried and
whether it has handles. Assistance can include a dolly or cart, or help from a co-worker. Employees
18
should be trained in the use of appropriate lifting techniques for different sizes of objects as well as to
when it is appropriate to seek assistance.

When holding, lifting or carrying items

• Before lifting boxes and cases, check the weight so you can prepare to lift properly.
• Turn the body as a unit to avoid twisting at the waist.
• Keep the item close to your body.
• Keep your back straight.
• Use your leg muscles to do the lifting.
• Lift smoothly without jerking.
• Get close to where you want to set the item down.

• Keep wheels on racks well maintained. Wheels that are in poor repair can be difficult to push.
Racks with bad wheels should be removed from service until they can be repaired.
• Keep all grinders, cutters and other equipment sharp and in good repair. Dull or improperly
working equipment requires more force to operate.
• Provide thermal gloves for use when handling frozen/hot items.
• Avoid continuous cutting or grinding. Whenever possible, break up these tasks with other, less
strenuous tasks throughout the shift.
• Keep large boxes and heavy items close to the body. This helps to reduce stress on the back.
• Remove, round-off, or pad sharp or hard edges with which the worker may come into contact.
• If overhead storage is necessary, use it for light items such as foam trays. Use a step stool to
reach items on high shelves.
• Use a step stool to reach items on the top of pallets or on high shelves.

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 • Use a kneeler or stool when working at low shelves for long periods of time. This reduces
stress on the knees and legs when squatting and kneeling.
• Rotate stocking tasks to avoid prolonged kneeling, squatting, and overhead reaching.
• Use a cart to move items from the pallet to the shelving or case where they are stocked.
• Avoid working with the hands/wrists held in a bent or twisted position.

Hands and Forearms

Power Grips: A power grip uses the muscles of the hand and forearm effectively, and is less stressful
than a pinch grasp. Consequently, a one- or two-handed power grip should be used whenever possible.

A power grip can be described as wrapping all the fingers and the thumb around the object that is
being gripped. It is sometimes described as making a fist around the object being gripped. The power
grip can be used for many items, including bags, cans and small boxes.

Power Lifts
When the item to be grasped is too heavy or bulky to lift with a one-hand power grip, use the two-hand
power grip.

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Power Grasps
A pinch grasp should never be used when a power grip can be used instead. However, a pinch grasp is
acceptable for small, light items (e.g., a pack of gum, etc.).

Best and Preferred Work Zone

Performing work within the best and preferred work zones shown below facilitates productivity and
comfort. Work is safest when lifting and reaching is performed in these zones. Working outside these
work zones results in non-neutral postures that may increase the risk of injury. It is particularly
important to perform heavy lifting tasks within the best work zone.

Best Work Zone

• As far forward as your wrist when you hold your arm slightly bent
• As wide as the shoulders
• Upper level at about heart height
• Lower level at about waist height

Preferred Work Zone

• As far forward as your hand when you hold your arm out straight
• A foot on either side of the shoulders
• Upper level at shoulder height
• Lower level at tip of fingers with hands held at the side

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Manual Material Handling (MMH)
Many jobs and activities require manual material handling such as loading and unloading, removing
material from conveyer belt, storing items in warehouse, etc. MMH activities affect primarily the
musculo-skeletal system. Over exertion appears to be the main reason for MMH problem. There are
basically three distinct approaches which can be taken for assessing MMH capabilities and for setting
recommended workload limits:
1. Biomechanical approach: This approach views the body as a system of links and connecting
joints corresponding to segments of the body. For example, upper arm (link), elbow (joint).
Principles of physics are used to determine the mechanical stresses on the body and the muscle
forces needed to counteract these stresses. The objective of this approach is to limit task
demands to be within the strength capacity and compressive force tolerance of the body. This
mainly considers infrequent MMH activities.
2. Physiological approach: This approach is best applied to MMH activities that are done
frequently and over some duration of time. Physiological approach is concerned with energy
consumption and the stresses acting on the cardiovascular system.
3. Psychophysical approach: This approach is based on the fact that people integrate and
combine both biomechanical and physiological stresses in their subjective evaluation of
perceived stress. Psychophysics is used in assessing a lifting task so as to adjust the weight of a
load to the maximum amount people can sustain without strain or discomfort and without
becoming unusually tired and/or weakened. The maximum selected weight is called "Maximum
acceptable weight of load (MAWL)" .

To reduce the risk of overexertion, the following factors related to job design, work selection and work
training should be considered:
I. Decrease the weight of the objects handled.
2. Use two or more people to move heavy or large objects.
3. Change the activity, i.e., pull or push rather than carry.

22
 4. Minimize carrying distance.
5. Stack materials below shoulder height.
6. Keep heavy objects at knuckle height.
7. Job rotation to less strenuous jobs.
8. Design containers with handles that can be held close to the body.
9. Select the person best suited by screening tests.
10. Assign the job within his/her capacity.
11. Train the workers properly in techniques of lifting.
12. Train them to adopt safe practices.

Physiological Aspects of Muscular Work

Physiological aspects of ergonomics can be best studied by work physiology. During muscular work
physiological function change from the resting level. Heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output,
respiration, pulmonary ventilation, oxygen intake, C02 production, chemical composition of blood and
urine, body temperature, rate of perspiration, etc., increase and they come back to resting level when
the work stops. The period during which the work continue is called" work cycle" and period during
which there is no work (work stops) is called recovery period.

By measuring one or more physiological variable during activity it is possible to determine in what
degree to working level differs from the resting level. This gives an estimate of physiological stress
experienced in performing the given task. When the activity stops it is possible to determine the
duration of the recovery period at the end of which the individual has returned to his pre-activity
physiological equilibrium. In order to evaluate the total physiological expenditure, one must consider
physiological reactions both during work and during recovery period. A complete work cycle includes
physiological cost of work plus the physiological cost of recovery.

Methods of Measurement of Work Output

Basically there are two methods:
1. Direct calorimetry in which the heat produced by the subject is measured directly in a human
calorimeter.
2. Indirect calorimetry in which the subjects respiratory exchange (02 consumption and C02
production) is determined and used as a basis for calculating energy output.

Data required:
1. Oxygen consumption during the work
2. Calorie equivalent of oxygen.
For work, Bicycle ergometer, or tread mill can be used.

The Work of an Ergonomists

Ergonomists use information about people (height, weight, their ability to handle information and
make decisions, their ability to see and hear and their ability to work in extremes of temperature) to
make the workplace safer, more comfortable, and more productive. An ergonomist studies the way that
these things vary in a group of people. With this information, the ergonomist, working with designers
and engineers, ensures that a product or service will be able to be used comfortably, efficiently and
safely. This design must be for the whole range of people who use the product - including perhaps,
children, the elderly and the disabled. An ergonomist can also assess existing products and services;
showing where they fail to 'fit' the user (in every sense of the word) and suggesting how this fit may be
improved.

Ergonomics Education and Training

23
Education and Training are critical for employers and employees to safely use the solutions identified
in these guidelines. Education and/or Training should be provided in a manner and language that all
employees can understand. There are many ways employers can integrate ergonomics training into
regular workplace activities, such as new employee orientation or at staff, department, or shift
meetings. It is recommended that employees receive training that provides:
• Knowledge of the work tasks that may lead to pain or injury;
• Understanding of the proper tools and work practices for tasks that employees will be
performing;
• The ability to recognize MSDs and their early indications;
• The advantages of addressing early indications of MSDs before serious injury has developed;
and
• Awareness of the company's procedures for reporting work-related injuries and illnesses as
required by law related to injury and illness recording and reporting regulation.

It is also recommended that management and supervisory staff who coordinate and direct ergonomics
efforts receive training to give them the knowledge to effectively carry out their responsibilities. These
designated staff members will benefit from information and training that will allow them to:
• Appropriately use checklists and other tools to analyze tasks in the work place;
• Address problems by selecting proper equipment and work practices;
• Identify the potential benefits of specific workplace changes;
• Help other workers implement solutions; and
• Assess the effectiveness of ergonomics efforts.

Employees will also benefit from refresher training to address new developments in the workplace and
to reinforce knowledge acquired in the initial training.

Evaluate Progress
Employers should evaluate the effectiveness of their ergonomic efforts and follow-up on unresolved
problems. Evaluation and follow-up help sustain continuous improvement in reducing injuries and
illnesses, track the effectiveness of specific ergonomic solutions, identify new problems, and show
areas where further attention is needed. Employers can keep a list of activities and improvements to
track what has been accomplished and provide data on the effectiveness of the initiatives. How often
an employer evaluates the program will vary by the size and complexity of the facility. Management
should revise the program in response to identified deficiencies and communicate the results of the
program evaluation and any program revisions to employees.

Provide Management Support

Management support for reducing MSDs and communicating support to employees is very important.
Management support improves the employees’ ability to maintain a sustained effort, allocate needed
resources, and follow up on program implementation. It is recommended that employers:
• Develop clear goals,
• Express the company's commitment to achieving them,
• Assign responsibilities (training, job analysis, etc.) to designated staff members to achieve
those goals,
• Ensure that assigned responsibilities are fulfilled, and
• Provide appropriate resources.

Meaningful efforts by management also improve employee participation, which is another essential
element for achieving success.

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Involve Employees
Employees are a vital source of information about hazards in their workplace. Employees help identify
hazards and solve problems. Their involvement can enhance job satisfaction, motivation, and
acceptance of workplace changes. There are many different ways employers can involve employees in
their ergonomics efforts, including the following:
• Submit suggestions and concerns;
• Identify and report tasks that are difficult to perform;
• Discuss work methods;
• Provide input in the design of workstations, equipment, procedures and training;
• Help evaluate equipment;
• Respond to surveys and questionnaires;
• Report injuries as soon as they occur;
• Participate fully in MSD case investigations; and
• Participate in task groups with responsibility for ergonomics.

Identify Problems
It is important to periodically review your job site and the activities of employees to identify possible
ergonomic issues. This could include a review of statutory requirements on safety and occupation
regulation on injury and illness information, workers' compensation records and employee reports of
problems. You can also identify ergonomic issues by talking with employees and walking through the
factory to observe employees performing their jobs. When reviewing the various jobs in the factory,
pay particular attention to the risk factors listed below:
• Force - the amount of physical effort required to perform a task (such as heavy lifting, pushing
or pulling), handle merchandise, or maintain control of equipment or tools;
• Repetition - performing the same motion or series of motions continually or frequently for an
extended period of time;
• Awkward and static postures - assuming positions that place stress on the body, such as
prolonged or repetitive reaching above shoulder height, kneeling, squatting, leaning over a
counter, using a tool with wrists bent, or twisting the torso while lifting; and
• Contact stress - pressing the body or part of the body (such as the hand) against hard or sharp
edges, or using the hand as a hammer.

When there are several risk factors in a job, there can be a greater risk of injury. However, the presence
of risk factors in a job does not necessarily mean that employees will develop an MSD. Whether
certain work activities put an employee at risk of injury depends on the duration (how long), frequency
(how often), and magnitude (how intense) of the employee's exposure to the risk factors in the activity.
For example, performing cashier work for an extended period of time without a break has been
associated with increased hand and wrist problems and could contribute to back and lower limb
problems.

There are varying opinions regarding the maximum amount of weight an employee should lift.
Although there is no specific recommendation regarding this maximum amount but employers should
take into account such considerations as the employees' physical abilities and the number of times a lift
must occur.

Methods Used to Create User-Friendly Designs

1. Fit the product to the user's physical attributes and knowledge: The first step in designing the
person for the workspace is to gather quantitative data on the dimensions of the human body. Such
anthropometric data is available in many places; the design should accommodate 95 percent of the
human population. Better yet, design in features so that the space can be adjusted to fit the user.

25
 Data on human-force generation is included in the study of biomechanics. Such information often is
given along with anthropometric data.

However, user-friendly design goes beyond the need to design for anthropometric data since the
design must incorporate the general knowledge that many people in the population possess. For
example, that a red light means stop, that the higher numbers of a dial should be in the clockwise
direction, and that knobs tighten when turned in a clockwise direction. Be sure that you do not
presume too much knowledge and skill on the part of the user.

2. Simplify tasks: Control operations should have a minimum number of operations and should be
straightforward. The learning curve for users must be minimal. Incorporating technology into the
product may be used to simplify operation. The product should look simple to operate, with a
minimum number of controls and indicators.

3. Make the controls and their functions obvious: Controls are the parts of the
product such as knobs, levers, buttons, and slides that change the
operational mode or level of the product. Place the controls for a function
adjacent to the device that is controlled. It may look nice to have all the
buttons in a row, but it is not very user-friendly.

4. Use mapping: Make the control reflect, or map, the operation of the mechanism. For example, the
seat position control in an automobile could have the shape of a car seat, and moving it up should
move the seat up. The goal should be to make the operation clear enough that it is not necessary to
refer to nameplates, stickers, or the operator's manual.

5. Utilize constraints to prevent incorrect action: Do not depend on the user always doing the correct
thing. Controls should be designed so that an incorrect movement or sequence is not possible. An
example is the automatic transmission that will not go into reverse when the car is moving forward.

6. Provide feedback: The product must provide the user with a clear, immediate response to any
actions taken. This feedback can be provided by a light, a sound, or displayed information. The
clicking sound and flashing dashboard light, in response to actuating an automobile turn signal, is a
good example.
7. Provide good displays: The sensing characteristic of the human involves such physiology factors as
the visual, tactile, and auditory senses. Most human machine interfaces require that the human sense
the state of the system and then control it based on the information received. The characteristics of
these displays are summarized below. These are examples of the kinds of information to be found in
the various human factors handbooks. In selecting the controller for a product, it is important to
match the intentions of the human with the actions required by the system. There should be a clear
relationship between the human intent and the action that takes place on the system. The design
should be such that when a person interacts with it there is only one obviously correct thing to do.

Displays should be clear, visible, large enough to read easily, and consistent in direction. Analog
displays are preferred for quick reading and to show changing conditions. Digital displays provide
more precise information. Locate the displays where viewing would be expected.

8. Make controls easy to handle: Shape knobs and handles of controls differently so they are
distinguishable by look and by touch. Organize and group them to minimize complexity. Controls
should not require a large force to actuate unless they are used only in emergencies. There are
several strategies for the placement of controls:
(i) left to right in the sequence they are used,
26
 (ii) key controls located near the operator's right hand,
(iii) most commonly used controls near the operator's hand.

9. Anticipate human errors: Human errors are unavoidable. Furthermore, you cannot anticipate that
the user will read the instruction manual, remember it, or follow it. The designer must anticipate
possible errors and design to minimize them. Provide warnings if the user is in the process of
making an error, and try to design so it is possible to reverse or undo an error easily.

10. Avoid awkward and extreme motions for the user of the product: Design
the product so that twisting or lengthy arm movements, bending, and movements of the spine are
not required, particularly if these motions will be repetitive. This can lead to cumulative trauma
disorders, where stresses cause nerve and other damage. Such situations will lead to operator
fatigue and errors. Make sure that lighting and temperature control are adequate, or errors will
increase.

I I. Standardize: It pays to standardize on the arrangement and operation of

controls because it increases the user knowledge. For example, the placement of the brake, clutch,
and accelerator pedals in an automobile is arbitrary, but once standardized they become part of the
user knowledge base and should not be changed.

Glossary
This glossary contains a listing of the Common Terminologies used in Ergonomics.

5th Percentile Japanese Female - Females falling at the 5th percentile based on the size of the
Japanese female population. This is the smallest human size considered for design purposes.

95th Percentile Caucasian Male - Males falling at the 95th percentile based on the size of the
Caucasian male population. This is the largest size considered for design purposes.
Actuation force - The force required to operate a mechanical device such as a tool, access door, or
fastener.
Acute CO2 Toxicity - Condition of exposure to high-level concentrations of carbon dioxide;
associated physiological response.
Adaptive Response - Change in structure, form, or behavior of an organism to suit a new
environment.
Aerobic Power - Aerobic power is the total amount of power an individual generates. It is related to
useable power output by an efficiency factor which varies with the task and the individual.
Alveolar Pressure - Gas pressure existing within alveoli.
Alveoli - The air-containing cells of the lungs.
Administrative Control - Procedures and methods, set up by the employer, that significantly reduce
exposure to risk factors by altering the way in which work is performed; examples include employee
rotation, job task enlargement, and adjustment of work pace.
Anatomical Position - A baseline posture for measuring joint motion range. The posture is standing
upright, head facing forward, arms hanging down with the palms facing forward.
Anthropometry - Anthropometry is the application of scientific physical measurement methods to
human subjects for the development of engineering design standards and specific requirements and for
evaluation of engineering drawings, mock-ups, and manufactured products for the purpose of assuring
suitability of these products for the intended user population.
Astigmatism - A defect of an optical system in consequence of which rays from a point fail to meet in
a focal point resulting in a blurred and imperfect image.
Atmosphere –
1. The mixture of gasses surrounding the Earth or filling the habitable volume of a spacecraft.
27
2. The pressure exerted by a column of mercury 760 mm high at 1 G, equal to 101.329 kilopascals.

Awkward Posture -Posture is the position of the body while performing work activities. Awkward
posture is associated with an increased risk for injury. It is generally considered that the more a joint
deviates from the neutral (natural) position, the greater the risk of injury. Specific postures have been
associated with injury. For example:
Wrist
 Flexion/extension (bending up and down)
 Ulnar/radial deviation (side bending)

Shoulder
 Abduction/flexion (upper arm positioned out to the side or above shoulder level)
 Hands at or above shoulder height

Neck (cervical spine)

 flexion/extension or bending the neck forward and to the back
 Side bending as when holding a telephone receiver on the shoulder Low back
 bending at the waist, twisting
Biomechanics - Biomechanics is the interdisciplinary science (comprising mainly anthropometry,
mechanics, physiology, and engineering) of the mechanical structure and behavior of biological
materials. It concerns primarily the dimensions, composition, and mass properties of body segments;
the joints linking the body segments together; the mobility in the joints; the mechanical reactions of the
body to force fields, vibrations, and impacts; the voluntary actions of the body in bringing about
controlled movements, in applying forces, torques, energy and power to external objects like controls,
tools, and other equipment.
Body Envelope - The volume envelope which just encloses the body and body motions during an
activity.
Bolus - Used in this document to designate mass of fecal discharge
Brightness - The amount of light emitted or reflected from a surface.
Brightness Ratio - The ratio of the luminance of two areas or surfaces
Central Acuity - Center part of the visual field.
Color Saturation - Saturation is the extent to which an object has more or less color. Saturation is,
therefore, relative colorfulness.
Continuous Noise - A noise with negligibly small fluctuations of level within the period of
observation
Contrast - The difference between the luminance of an object or figure C = [(Lc + Lr) - (Ld + Lr)] /
(Lc + Ld + 2Lr) and its immediate background.
C = Contrast; Lc = Object luminance; Ld = Background luminance; Lr = Reflected luminance
Control - A manually operated hardware item used to operate or change the performance of a machine
or system.
Crew Station - Any location where a task or activity is performed; There are two basic types of crew
stations: workstation and activity center.
Critical Flicker Fusion Frequency - The frequency at which a flashing light will appear as a steady
state light - approximately 65 Hz.
Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs) - Term used for injuries that occur over a period because of
repeated trauma or exposure to a specific body part, such as the back, hand, wrist and forearm.
Muscles and joints are stressed, tendons are inflamed, nerves pinched or the flow of blood is restricted.
Common occupational induced disorders in this class include carpal tunnel syndrome, epicondylitis
(tennis elbow), tendinitis, tenosynovitis, synovitis, stenosing tenosynovitis of the finger, DeQuervian's
Syndrome, and low back pain.

28
Dark Adaptation - Dark adaptation is the state of being adapted (sensitive) to low levels of ambient
luminance (brightness). At any one time the visual system operates well within only a limited range of
luminance levels. This range is centered about a particular adaptation level that is determined by the
prevailing luminance. As the prevailing luminance changes the adaptation level will also change. The
adaptation level shifts more quickly to higher than lower luminance levels.
Default Values - A value or option automatically provided by the computer system for use in
processing when no alternative has been specified by the operator.
Design Eye Volume - That volume of space in front of a workstation within which a user's head and
eyes should be located to guarantee visual access to all display information. The design of displays and
display layout may be guided by a specified design eye volume.
Direct Glare - Glare produced by a light source located within a person's field-of-view.
Display - Hardware item used to present system information needed by the operator to make decisions
for controlling the system.
Duration - Duration is the length of exposure to a risk factor. It can be measured as the minutes or
hours per day the worker is exposed to a risk. Duration can also be viewed as the years of exposure to a
risk factor. In general, the greater the duration of exposure to a risk factor, the greater the degree of
risk. However, specific duration guidelines have not been established for risk factors such as force,
posture and repetition.
Effective Temperature - Empirical sensory index accounting for temperature, humidity and air
movement
Enhancement Coding - Any of a variety of techniques used to enhance, or increase the salience of
selected items of information (e.g., color coding. It is well suited for interactive computer applications.
Engineering Control - Physical changes to jobs that control exposure to risk; Engineering controls act
on the source of the hazard and control employee exposure to the hazard without relying on the
employee to take self-protective action or intervention. Examples include: changing the handle angle
of a tool, using a lighter weight part, and providing a chair that has adjustability.
Environmental Control - Control of ambient conditions to produce habitable environments.
Ergonomics - The science of work. Ergonomics removes barriers to quality, productivity, and safe
human performance by fitting products, machines, tools, procedures, tasks and environments to people.
Ergonomic program - A systematic process for anticipating, identifying, analyzing and controlling
ergonomic risk factors.
Ergonomic Risk Factor (Force) - Pounding the glass with the hand is required to align and seat the
glass.
Ergonomic Risk Factor (Mechanical) - Grasping the flat, thin handle of the feathering stick is
required to use the tool to seat the window.
Ergonomic Risk Factor (Posture) - Extreme forearm twist (supination) and extreme wrist extension
is required to grasp the glass.
Ergonomic Solution (Engineering Controls) - Use suction cups with D-ring handles to handle back-
glass to improve forearm and wrist posture. Provide a plastic handle for the feathering stick with
rounded corners to reduce mechanical stresses. The diameter should be limited to 20mm so that it can
still be manipulated in the fingers. Use palm pads to protect the hands while pounding window into
position. Use cement to hold the window in place.
EVA (Extravehicular Activity) - Activities performed by a space-suited crewmember in an
unpressurized or space environment.
EVA Restraint - A means of stabilizing the EVA crewmember which requires physical ingress and
egress by the crewmember.
EVA Workstation - Any area at which an EVA task is performed.
Exchange Rate - The increase in sound level (dBA) for which permissible exposure time is halved.
Exposure Limit - Maximum safe acceleration exposure limit as a function of vibration frequency and
exposure time.

29
Extravehicular Mobility Unit - An independent anthropometric space suit system that provides
crewmembers with environmental protection, life support, mobility, communications, and visibility
while performing various EVAs.
Facility - Equipment or equipment and the area dedicated to a specific crew activity. Similar to the
term "Center," but "Facility" can refer to only equipment without specifying an area of use. Examples:
Shaving Facilities, Recreation Facility.
Fatigue Decreased Proficiency Boundary - Acceleration boundaries as a function of vibration and
exposure time for the preservation of working efficiency.
Foot Restraint - A restraint which stabilizes a crewmember by providing a platform for immobilizing
the feet.
Force - The amount of muscular effort required to perform a task. Generally, the greater the force, the
greater the degree of risk. High force has been associated with Work Related Musculoskeletal
Disorders at the shoulder/neck, the low back and the forearm/wrist/hand.
Glare - A consequence of bright light sources in the visual field that cause discomfort and/or a
decrease in visual functioning. The effect is worse the closer the light source is to the line of gaze. The
amount of light scattering within the eye (which varies between individuals effects susceptibility to
glare
Globe Temperature - Physical composite of dry bulb temperature, radiation, and wind effects
measured by placing a temperature sensing device in the center of a blackened sphere.
Habitable Volume - Habitable volume is defined as free, pressurized volume, excluding the space
required for equipment, fixtures, and stowage.
Handhold, Handrail - A handle or grasp area which is slightly larger than the hand and is used as a
mobility aid, hand restraint, or as a hardware mounting surface.
Harmonic - An overtone having a frequency that is an integral multiple of a given primary tone.
Heat Exhaustion - (Also known as heat prostration) - A syndrome resulting from exposure to high
temperatures; characterized by a moist, cold skin, poor circulation, a normal temperature but elevated
rectal temperature, restlessness and anxiety.
Heat Stroke - The body temperature rises because of faulty heat dissipation due to high environmental
temperature and humidity. Rectal temperatures may go from 106 - 100 deg F.
Human Factors - A term synonymous with 'ergonomics', is the branch of this science that began in
the US and focuses on cognitive performance of humans.
Icon - A symbol that graphically resembles its intended meaning (e.g., a schematic drawing or a
headlight on the control that is used to control an automobile's headlights).
Illumination - The amount of light (luminance flux) falling on a surface. Measured in lumen/m2 lux =
0.093 ft-c. Illumination decreases with the square of the distance from a point source.
Impact Acceleration - Pulsed or short-duration accelerations of less than 1 second duration.
Impact Noise - See Impulse Noise.
Impulse Noise - A noise consisting of one or more bursts of sound energy, each of a duration less than
about one second.
Inaccessible area - Any area with an opening that will accept a loose and floating object of 10mm
(0.4in.) diameter and cannot be retrieved or captured by using a retrieval tool and/or crewmember
reaching their hand and forearm into the area.
Inclusions - Tiny particles of foreign matter or air bubbles entrained in glass.
Incontinence - Unable to retain a bodily discharge (as urine) voluntarily. Inability to control the
natural evacuation of the feces or urine; specifically, involuntary evacuation due to organic causes.
Infrasonic - Sound at frequencies below the audibility range of the human ear, f 20 Hz.
Indirect Contact - The contact of a crewmember to electrically powered surfaces through an
electrically conducting medium (e.g., probe, rod).
In-Line Circuit Leakage Currents - Unintentional currents which can flow in a conductor. These
currents may result from the inability of solid-state electronics to reach an "infinite" impedance "OFF"
state, as is the ability of a mechanical switch. The solid-state electronic device has a finite impedance
30
which undesirably completes the input/output circuit thus providing a means for current to flow.
Connections to in-line circuits are normally isolated from crewmember inadvertent contact by barriers
and may be considered a hazard if accessible to inadvertent crewmember contact. In-line circuits with
leakage currents are referred to as in "STANDBY" when placed in the high impedance state since a
complete disconnect is not possible and the circuit output is still energized.
Install glass: The worker is given the back-glass from his coworker and positions it in place in the
back of the truck. The glass is pressed in place from the outside while the coworker on the inside of the
cab pulls out the molding string to seat the window. The worker assists in seating the window by
pounding on the glass and aligning the molding with a feathering stick.
Intermittent Noise
A noise whose level suddenly drops to the level of the background noise several times during the
period of observation, the time during which the level remains at a constant value, different from that
of the ambient being of the order of magnitude of one second or more.
Ischial Tuberoscities
Two bony protuberances in the hip structure. These bones support a major portion of the seated body
weight in 1-G conditions.
Isolated Patient Contact - A direct or indirect patient contact that is deliberately separated from the
supply circuit and ground by virtue of spacings, insulation, protective impedance, or a combination
thereof (e.g. intra-aortic pressure monitor).
Isometric Joystick - The isometric joystick, often referred to as a force joystick or a pressure joystick,
is a lever that doesn't move. The output of the isometric joystick is a function of the amount of force
applied to it.
Isotonic Joystick - The isotonic joystick, often referred to as a displacement joystick, provides an
output which is proportional to the displacement of the joystick from the center.

Light scatter fraction - The ratio of scattered light to specular reflected light.
Lighting - The level of illumination in the workplace. Poor lighting can lead to visual symptoms of
eye strain, eye focusing breakdown, eye coordination abnormalities, and eye fatigue while performing
select activities such as video display terminal tasks.
Line of sight - The optical axis extending from the observers eyes to the target viewed.
Line of sight deviation - The angle which the line of sight is redirected into the eye due to intervening
optically refractive material (e.g., prism).
Linear Acceleration - The rate of change of velocity of a mass; the direction of movement of which is
kept constant.
Local Vertical - Local vertical is achieved by a consistent arrangement of vertical cues within a given
visual field to provide an definable demarcation at the crew station boundary within the visual field. A
consistent local vertical within modules is highly desirable.
Long Term Mission - Any mission in which crewmembers are away from earth for a period greater
than two weeks.
Luminance - The photometric equivalent of the brightness of an area as viewed from a given
direction. More technically, luminance flux per unit of projected area per unit solid angle. Measured in
candela per square meter (cd/m2), foot-lamberts (ft-L, or millilamberts (mL). 1.0 cd/m2 0.31 mL =
0.29 ft-L. The luminance of a surface does not vary with the distance of the observer from the surface
being viewed.
Luminance Ratio - The difference between the luminance of an object and its surroundings.
Manual Material Handling - Lifting, carrying, and moving materials without mechanical aide.
Masking Noise - A background noise or signal with dynamic range in frequency and level sufficient to
obscure another noise or signal from aural awareness.
Mean Perception - A mild shock perceived by 50% of the population.
Medial Rotation - The toning toward the midline of the body.

31
Motion: Velocity/Acceleration - Velocity/ acceleration is the speed of body part motion and the rate
of change of speed of body part motion, respectively. It is generally regarded that increased
acceleration leads to increased risk of injury.
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD) - Injuries and disorders of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments,
joints, cartilage and spinal disc; examples include carpal tunnel syndrome, rotator cuff tendonitis, and
tension neck syndrome.
Narrow Band Noise - A simple or complex tone having intense and steady state frequency
components, relative to wideband noise components, in a very narrow band (1, of the octave band or
5Hz, whichever is less) and is heard as a musical sound either harmonic or discordant.
Nausea -Discomfort in stomach with aversion to food and tendency to vomit.
Neurocirculatory System - Concerned with both nervous and vascular systems.
Neutral Body Posture - The characteristic posture that the relaxed human body assumes in
microgravity.
No Sensation - The level of perception only perceived by a fractional percentage of the population.
Noise Canceling
A technique to delete, neutralize, or counteract any unwanted electrical signal within a communication
system that interferes with the sound or image being communicated.
Noise Shields
The physical coverings or shells used to protect or screen any unwanted electrical signal within a
communication system that interferes with the sound or image being communicated.
Non-adaptive Response - Pathological response to a new environment which presents conditions
beyond an organisms ability to adapt.
Occupational Biomechanics - Occupational Biomechanics is a science concerned with the
mechanical behavior of musculoskeletal tissues when physical work is performed.
Occupational Illness - Any abnormal condition or disorder, other than one resulting from an
occupational injury caused by exposure to factors associated with employment. It includes acute and
chronic illnesses or disease which may be caused by inhalation, absorption, ingestion or direct contact.
The broad categories of occupational illnesses are skin diseases and disorders, dust diseases of the
lungs, respiratory condition due to toxic agents, poisoning (systemic effects of toxic materials),
disorders due to physical agents other than toxic materials, and disorders from repeated trauma.
Occupational Injury - Any injury such as a cut, fracture, sprain, amputation, etc., which results from
a work-related event or from a single instantaneous exposure in the work environment. Examples of
injuries or disorders that can be work related include:
• Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)
• Rotator cuff syndrome
• De Quervain's disease
• Trigger finger
• Tarsal tunnel syndrome
• Sciatica
• Epicondylitis
• Tendinitis
• Raynaud's phenomenon
• Carpet layers knee
• Herniated spinal disc
• Low back pain
Pattern Coding - A perceptual indicator used to differentiate areas of interest to the observer, or
reduce operator search time.
Peak Pressure Level - Peak sound pressure for any specified time interval is the maximum absolute
value of the instantaneous sound pressure in that interval.
Percentile - A point on a scale indicating the percentage of persons within a population who have a
body dimension of a certain size or smaller. The value of the statistical variable that marks the
32
boundary between the consecutive intervals in a distribution of 100 intervals, each containing one
percent of the total population.
Perception - The awareness of the elements of environment through physical sensation such as
perceiving a mild shock.
Physiologically Inert - Substance that does not Interact chemically with the body.
Physiology - The organic processes and phenomena of an organism or any of its parts or of a particular
bodily process.
Proximity Operations - Any space module related activity that is performed outside the space module
and within a specified boundary.
R value - Ratio of initial nitrogen partial pressure to the final total pressure.
Rack - A structure into which equipment drawers or other types of equipment mounting hardware is
installed. A rack generally has a built-in utility distribution system that provides interfaces far
connecting the installed equipment's utilities.
Random Noise - A sound whose instantaneous amplitudes occur, as a function of time, according to a
normal (Gaussian) distribution curve. Random noise need not have a uniform frequency spectrum.
Reaction Time - The time between the presentation of a stimulus and the beginning of a response to
that stimulus.
Recovery Time - Recovery time is the length of rest between exertions. Short work pauses can reduce
discomfort. Inadequate rest periods between exertions can decrease performance. As the duration of
the uninterrupted work increases, so does the amount of recovery time needed.
Repetition - Repetition is the number of a similar exertions performed during a task. A warehouse
worker may lift three boxes per minute from the floor to a countertop; an assembly worker may make
20 units per hour. Repetitive motion has been associated with injury and worker discomfort.
Generally, the greater the number of repetitions, the greater the degree of risk. However, there is no
specific repetition limit or threshold value (cycles/unit of time, movements/unit of time) associated
with injury.
Risk Factor - Actions in the workplace, workplace conditions, or a combination thereof, that may
cause or aggravate a Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders; examples include forceful exertion,
awkward postures, repetitive exertion, and environmental factors such as temperature.
Reduced Comfort Boundary - Acceleration boundaries as a function of vibration and exposure time
for the preservation of comfort.
Remote Operation - An operation which permits personnel to send and receive information or
commands to a distant environment.
Replacement Unit - General term that includes Orbital replacement units (ORU), Line replacement
units (LRU), and Shop replacement units (SRU).
Respiration - The series of actions resulting in the supply of oxygen to tissues of the body.
Response Time - The time interval during which the actual response to the stimulus is accomplished.
Restraint - A mechanism for restricting unwanted movements of an object or a person in microgravity
environments. Restraints can be mechanical (such as a strap) or non-mechanical (magnetism or
vacuum.
Reverberation Time - Time required for the average sound energy density in an enclosure to decrease
to -60 d B of the initial value after the source has stopped.
Roentgen Equivalents, Man
The absorbed dose of any ionizing radiation which produces the same biological effects in
crewmembers as those resulting from the absorption of 1 roentgen of x-rays.
Rotational Acceleration
The rate of change of the direction of a mass, the velocity of which is kept constant. In this regard, the
rotational acceleration is directly proportional to the square of the velocity and inversely proportional
to the radius of the turn.
RSI - Repetitive Strain Injury
RMI - Repetitive Motion Injury
33
Sacrificial surfaces - A protective surface placed over a delicate surface which will absorb
environmental damage.
Scrolling - An operation or facility of a VDT in which display elements make a continuous bottom-to-
top vertical movement across the screen (or window) under control of the operator, with display lines
appearing at the bottom edge and dropping off at the top.
Segment - A body segment is the largest dimensional mass which when moved will maintain a
constant geometry.
Segmental Vibration (Hand-Arm Vibration) - Vibration applied to the hand/arms through a tool or
piece of equipment. This can cause a reduction in blood flow to the hands/fingers (Raynaud's disease
or vibration white finger). Also, it can interfere with sensory receptor feedback leading to increased
handgrip force to hold the tool. Further, a strong association has been reported between carpal tunnel
syndrome and segmental vibration.
Shock - Physical or emotional trauma; clinical manifestations of inadequate amount of circulating
blood. See Impact Acceleration.
Signal-To-Noise Ratio - The ratio of the amplitude of the signal transmitted through an
instrumentation system to the amplitude of the noise generated within the system.
Specular - Of, relating to, or having the qualities of a mirror.
Specular Glare - Glare which is created by the image of a light source reflecting off a surface within a
person's field-of-view.
Specular Reflection - The reflected image of the light source corresponds very closely in size and
shape to the original light source.
Speech Interference Level - The background or sound noise level in dB at frequencies between 150
and 7500 Hz that will result in the loss of intelligibility conversation.
Squeeze - Condition arising when gas pocket is compressed to a smaller size than its normal residual
volume.
Standby - A high impedance state of an electronic device, usually to minimize the amount of energy
consumed or supplied (e.g., the off state of an electronic switch).
Standard Passageway
A standard passageway is a translation path which accommodates an IVA clothed crewmember in an
upright working position or neutral body posture.
Supination - The rotation of the forearm and hand so that the palm faces forward or upward and the
radius lies parallel to the ulna
Symbol - A character or graphic that stands for or represents - something else such as operations,
quantities, elements, relations, or qualities.
Tether - A hook and lanyard which is used to attach a crewmember or a piece of hardware to a piece
of hardware.
Thermal Comfort - That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment. Specifically, when the core temperature is normal, and the rate of body heat storage is
zero.
Thermogenesis - The production of heat, for example, muscular heat production by shivering.
Thrombus - A clot of blood formed within a blood vessel and remaining attached to its place of
origin. Compare to Embolus.
Tinnitus - A sensation of noise (as a ringing or roaring) that is caused by a bodily condition (as a
disturbance of the auditory nerve or wax in the ear) and can usually be heard only by the one affected.
Tissue - An aggregate of cells usually of a particular kind together with their intercellular substance
that form one of the structural materials of a plant or an animal.
Touch Temperature - Temperature of objects in direct physical contact.
Toxicity - The quality of poison; the kind and amount of poison produced by a microorganism.
Tracheal Pressure
Gas pressure existing within the trachea (wind pipe).
Translation - To move from one place to another by use of reaction power.
34
Transmissivity - The proportion of luminous flux which passes completely through a window to the
eyes or sensor to the amount of luminous flux incident upon the outside of the window.
Twist - Vernacular descriptive of inertial resultant of human body to rotational acceleration around the
z-axis.
UECTD - Upper Extremity Cumulative Trauma Disorders
Ultrasonic - Sound at frequencies above the human ear's audibility limit of about 20,000 hertz -- used
of waves and vibrations.
Vasoconstriction
Narrowing of the blood vessels in order to decrease blood flow to the skin to preserve body heat.
Vasodilation (Variant: Vasodilatation)
Widening of the blood vessels to allow increased blood flow to the skin to promote heat loss.
Vestibular System - Located in the inner ear, the vestibular system is responsible for the sense of
balance (and relative position of the body with respect to the environment). The vestibular system
senses acceleration and direction of gravity.
Viewport - A transparency located such that an observer can see from one compartment into another.
Visual acuity - Refers to the smallest resolvable detail an observer can see.
Visual Angle - The angle formed at the eye by two imaginary lines drawn to either side of the object in
question.
Visual Clutter - Visual clutter results when the quantity of information in a visual display becomes
great enough so that it starts to result in information overload. Accuracy and speed of performance will
decline as visual clutter increases.
Visual Display Terminal - An electronic device used to present visual information - that is usually
computer generated. They are used in conjunction width both the Input and output of information.
Examples include: cathode ray tub (CRT), liquid crystal diode (LCD, light emitting diode (LED),
plasma, and electro-luminescent (EL).
Wavefront Deviation - Any change in the reflected wavefront of a set of rays as compared with the
incident wavefront of the same set.
Wet Bulb Glove Temperature - Calculated refinement of globe temperature by weighting dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures with the standard globe temperature.
Wet/Dry Index - Calculated prediction of human stress temperature accounting for wet and dry bulb
temperatures.
Wing Tab Connector - An electrical utilities or other connector with two opposed radial tabs to
facilitate EVA connect or disconnect.
WRULD - Work Related Upper Limb Disorder
Whole Body Vibration - Exposure of the whole body to vibration (usually through the feet/buttocks
when riding in a vehicle). Whole body vibration may increase the risk for injury, including low back
pain and internal organ disruption.
Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSD, WRMSD) - Injuries and disorders of the
muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage and spinal disc due to physical work activities or
workplace conditions in the job. Examples include: carpal tunnel syndrome related to long term
computer data entry, rotator cuff tendinitis from repeat overhead reaching, and tension neck syndrome
associated with long term cervical spine flexion.
Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorder Hazard - Workplace conditions or physical work activities
that cause or are reasonably likely to cause or contribute to a work related musculoskeletal disorder.
Example of Task Prior to Abatement (Description)
This is a fictitious job but reflective of common work situations on an auto assembly line.
Worker position: The worker walks to the truck and takes a position facing forward at the rear of the
cab. The feet are supported on the longitudinal members of the dolly 1150mm apart and the low back
is supported on the truck box.
X-axis - The axis of a plane Cartesian coordinate system parallel to which ordinates are measured. This
refers to the direction of back to chest, anatomically.
35
Y-axis - The axis of a plane Cartesian coordinate system parallel to which ordinates are measured. This
refers to the direction of right to left side, anatomically.
Z-axis - The axis of a plane Cartesian coordinate system parallel to which ordinates are measured. This
refers to the direction of foot or buttocks to head, anatomically.

Conclusion
Ergonomics make design more successful for user's acceptance. It is not only product-user
relationship, but design ergonomics (e.g., design for functional consistency, users' compatibility and
feedback) is also an advancement in its journey crossing the concept of user, product and function, to
look at user, product and relationship in totality. It should look beyond usability. A human being is not
a physical and cognitive processor; his/her needs are to be addressed in tune with his/her emotions,
values, hopes, fears, and anxiety over new adaptations in life.

Ergonomics and design both need to work hand in hand to achieve this. More research work is
necessary to unfurl yet to be known facts of human information and compatibility factors;
incorporation of which in design will comfort customers as well as keep manufacturers in fore front of
the competition with good design products.

References
• Chakrabarti, D. 1993: Ergonomic considerations for equipment and product design; Proc.
National workshop on ergonomics- retrospective and prospective, July 9-11, 1993, Andhra
University, Pp. 29-31.
• Chakrabarti, D. 1994: Ergonomics considerations in design of consumer products; Proc.
Quality by Design, National Institute of Design, February 1994.
• Chakrabarti, D. and Nag, P.K. 1996: Human concept in workspace design, Ergonomics and
work design emerging issues in organizational sciences, new age international (P) ltd., New
Delhi, India, Pp. 129-156.
• Salvendy, G. (edit) 1997: Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics; John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
• Chakrabarti, D. 1997: Indian Anthropometric dimensions for ergonomic design practice;
National Institute of Design, Paldi, Ahemdabad 380007.
• Green, W.S. and Jordan, P.W. (edit) 1999: Human Factors in Product Design: Current Practice
and Future Trends; Taylor & Francis, London.
• Karwowski, w. and Marras W. S. (Edit) 1999: The Occupational Ergonomics Handbook; CRC
Press LCC.

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