Adina Mornell - Art in Motion - Musical and Athletic Motor Learning and Performance (2010, Peter Lang GMBH)

Motion
Art in
(Ed.) Art in Motion

Motion
Art in
(Ed.) Art in Motion

Art in Motion • Musical & Athletic Motor Learning & Performance
Art in Motion miH
Him
Musical & Athletic Motor Learning & Performance
(Ed.)
PETER LANG
Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften
Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the internet at
http://dnb.d-nb.de.
Editor: Adina Mornell

Cover Art: Detlef Levin
(Cantabile e libero, oil on canvas)
Reviewer: Kelly O’Kane
Book Design: Capdance
(www.capdance.com)
‘For the Eye to Dance is Much Delight’
E-ISBN 978-3-653-05166-7 (E-Book)

DOI 10.3726/978-3-653-05166-7
ISBN 978-3-631-58272-5
© Peter Lang GmbH
Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften
Frankfurt am Main 2009
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Table of Contents 5
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Foreword
Georg Schulz 7
Preface
Robert Höldrich 8
Art and Thought in Motion
Adina Mornell 11
7 Strategies for Pianist Improvisers

Walter Norris 19
I Thought Set in Motion

Matthias Weigelt & Tino Stöckel 37
7 Principles of Practice for the Development of Skilled

Actions: Implications for Training and Instruction in
Music
Richard A. Schmidt 41

Mona Silli 68
7 Playing Beyond the Limits of Health: Loss and Regain

of Hand Control in Professional Musicians Suffering
from Musicians’ Cramp
Victor Candia 71

Elisabeth Grabner 91
7 Attentional and Motivational Influences on Motor

Performance and Learning
Gabriele Wulf & Rebecca Lewthwaite 95

Mona Silli 118
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7 Beating Time: The Role of Kinaesthetic Learning in the

Development of Mental Representations for Music
Jane Ginsborg 121

Klaus Rom 143
7 The Role of Anticipatory Processes in Simulator

Based Training of Complex Psychomotor Skills
K. Wolfgang Kallus 147

Adina Mornell 158
7 The Architecture of Motion

Thomas Schack 161

Christian Frauscher 188
7 Teaching Music Physiology and Motor Learning

Processes at a University: Experience and Evaluation
Horst Hildebrandt 191

Susanne Herwelly & K. Wolfgang Kallus 223
7 Perceptual and Attentional Influences on Bimanual

Coordination
Charles H. Shea, Attila J. Kovacs & John J. Buchanan 227

Adina Mornell 254
Contributors 257
Georg Schulz 7
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Foreword
The University of Music and Performing Arts Graz (KUG) organizes
lecture series and symposiums featuring experts from around the world.
These events both facilitate a direct exchange of ideas between our
international guests and our resident professionals, as well as provide
our junior scientists with a communicative forum in which to present
their research results. Graz has thus become a location for serious
scholarship, and our university has established itself within the scientific
community. Art in Motion is a prime example of breathing life into the
strategic policy put forth in our three-year development plan for the years
2009 to 2012: here written theory became live experience. Participants of
all academic standings, from diverse nations of both the American and
European continents, brought knowledge to discussions that grappled
with important research questions and crossed disciplinary lines.
This book goes far beyond the academic proceedings one usually expects
from a symposium. The aim of this publication is not only to present the
content of the talks, refined and revised after feedback received in Graz,
but it also aims to reflect the interdisciplinary discussions that ensued
during the course of the event. I personally appreciate and acclaim the
effort made here to provide practical examples as to how the presented
information can “cross over” to the other side: from sports to music or
from music to sports.
Of the basic responsibilities and missions of any university, one of the most
important is to provide the public with a lasting record of the scientific
and academic discourse that takes place within its walls. Anchored in
the stated goals of our institution is a strong emphasis upon this kind
of work; we are committed to making a substantial contribution to the
scientific community as well as to future generations of music teachers
and performers through publications such as this one.
I wish to extend my personal gratitude to Professor Mornell and her team

for their tireless dedication to this project. Both their organization of the
symposium and the conceptualization of this book serve to establish
performance research as one of the primary fields of scientific exploration
at the KUG.
Georg Schulz
Rector, University of Music and Performing Arts Graz
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Preface
During the last few years, a new discourse has come into being on the
university scene in Europe. This discourse, distinct from conventional
scientific research, increasingly appreciates artistic works and reflects
an independent path of understanding, and consequently, broadens the
definition of what research stands for. The definition process, however,
is far from complete. Catchwords such as “artistic research,” “practice-
based art research,” “practice as research,” “art as research,” or “research/
creation” are topical in current discussions. The Austrian legislature has
identified this kind of research, known as the “development and unfolding
of the arts,” as a key mission of Austrian universities of the arts, and has
put it on a level equal to traditional scientific research. Even national
advancement institutions such as the Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
have responded to this development and are currently preparing special
advancement programs for artistic research.
However, what is “artistic research?” Even though the meaning of

this or of other terms in use has not been precisely defined, the main
characteristics can still be outlined. These days it becomes evident that
many artistic activities share some structural similarities with scientific
research, and integrate their results into the conceptualization of works
of art and the development of new forms of art. This form of artistic
activities is less work-oriented but focuses on the processes of creation
of art. As proof of this concept, the work of art itself, be it a concert, a
stage production, or a composition, is surely to be found at the end of
this process in many cases. In the context of artistic research, however,
it does not really gain importance as original subjective work, but rather
constitutes an instantiation of a concept applicable intersubjectively in
principle. Although artistic methods are genre-specific and are realized
in concrete art productions mostly in an individual and subjective way,
the creative process and its reception can be reflected and documented
intersubjectively. Owing to this intersubjectivity, artistic research, in
contrast to traditional scientific research (e.g., literary studies, art history,
or musicology) brings about a gain of knowledge which is nourished by
the interaction between artistic practice and its reflection, and by scientific
methods whose results are made available to the artistic discourse and
scientific research. Artistic research often leads to the formulation of
scientific questions, as in music performance research, or to technological
innovations in the framework of the development of art forms like media
Robert Höldrich 9
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art or computer music. Primarily, however, it stands for the production of
artistic knowledge enhanced by the richness of its methods.
Such necessary richness of methods requires a paradigmatic change

in the conception of this kind of research work and also in university
education. In most cases, the exclusive mission of artistic education – at
least in Europe – has been individual “mastery” in the respective discipline
and often uses very pragmatic solutions to the obstacles that occur in its
path. It hardly pays attention to questions regarding the production of
knowledge and the methods involved, from establishing hypotheses to
the conception of appropriate “experiments.” For science, dealing with the
subjectivity of artistic work and its valuation and the lack of recognized
methods for objectivation and documentation of artistic processes is the
greatest challenge. This calls for cooperation between interdisciplinary
teams which places great demands on the artists and scientists involved,
i.e., the mutual understanding of the modes of practice and methods of
the other disciplines, the knowledge of its possibilities and limits, the
development of a common vocabulary as a basis for interdisciplinary
relevant research programs, and in particular, the understanding that
the combination of artistic practice and scientific research constitutes a
source of novel findings for both worlds.
Is there a better place for such research programs in the area of conflict
between art and science than a university of the arts? The University of
Music and Performing Arts Graz considers itself lucky to have a research
project like “Art in Motion” which examines this interface between practice
and research in exchange with the international community.
My appreciation and special debt of gratitude are owed to the project

manager of “Art in Motion” and editor of this book, Adina Mornell!
Robert Höldrich
Vice Rector of Arts and Research
University of Music and Performing Arts Graz
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Adina Mornell 11
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Art and Thought in Motion

Recently I found myself at an international symposium on music pedagogy
being affectionately introduced as the odd duck. The organizer began
with a few words about my stage experience as a classical concert pianist,
and went on to describe my academic career as professor of instrumental
and vocal pedagogy, but these two elements of my biography were
not surprising. It was my third profession, that of scientist, that he was
presenting as something … well … suspicious. “And she is a psychologist
who studies physiology and motor learning,” he continued, picking up
speed, “working with people in the sports sciences …” I felt the pressure
of many eyes turning towards and focusing on me. Perhaps the others
were trying to figure out how all of that fit into one 5 foot 2 package, when
the announcer concluded “and conducting empirical research, collecting
and analyzing data.” It was then that I heard an unidentifiable sound,
perhaps a murmur, in the audience. Astonishment? Disdain? Skepticism?
Nervousness? Maybe I should have worn a white lab coat. Was it my
own imagination, or did the rest of this colorful crowd of musicians and
music teachers feel that something set me apart from them? I felt their
apprehension, their distrust. The majority of musicians just aren’t certain
that art and science mix.
Of course they do. About two years ago, I had quite a wonderful experience
when I approached top researchers in the field of athletics, psychology,
expertise, human factors, aviation and music. World famous professors,
some of whom had not corresponded with me before, answered my
emails within hours or welcomed me into their offices. Their response to
my inquiry about transferring motor learning research to musicians didn’t
begin with surprise, but rather with phrases such as “I’ve always wanted
to study that.” No hesitation, no muttering under their breath, no sizing
me up. Within minutes (or sentences) we had reached common ground,
agreed that musicians execute some of the most complex motor skills
Homo sapiens can perform, and that many disciplines had developed
some brilliant learning, training, and performing strategies that deserved
to be exchanged. Rather quickly I had a consensus from both the arts
and science “camps,” that this form of research needed a jump-start, and
would greatly profit from an exchange of ideas and methods.
To be honest, I know that I wasn’t born with this kind of openness for inter-
disciplinary work. Nor did I display a knack for transferring knowledge from
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one sandbox to another at an early age. On the school playground, there
were in fact very few games that I participated in at all. I was inevitably
the last one chosen for the volleyball team. No surprise: I hid my hands
behind my back when the ball came towards me. All those hours of piano
practice about to be ruined by a broken finger or two, no thank you! In
those days, I was still weighed down by myths and stereotypes: I thought
that physical training requires mindless, monotone exercise, and that
musicians are all essentially a creative species – even though much of
what I was actually doing at the piano back then was repetitive practice,
without a hint of experimentation.
As with most skills, whether piano playing or gymnastics, practice patterns

are set at an early age and very little is modified after that, especially if
one is fairly successful. Indeed, this is one of the major problems in both
musical and sports pedagogy. Since students learning to teach through
university courses have reached their own certain level of expertise in
their craft, they tend to believe that the training methods used by their
teachers on them must have been effective and are therefore worth
perpetuating.
As for me, after decades of the same practice rituals, the point came at
which I became dissatisfied with practice, practice, practice. Hours, days,
years of effort produced reasonably good but not always reliable results.
I started to ask the question: Is there more to a musician’s life than this?
Exposure to new ideas was the first step in a different direction. My piano
teachers had neither encouraged me to study books written for people
in other professions, nor given me hints about how to think conceptually
about practice. Looking back, I can forgive them, because they hadn’t
been taught to think this way either. The act of reading Zen in the Art of
Archery (Herrigel, 1948), one of the first non-music related books to be
passed around the locker room of conservatories, isn’t enough. One may
need specific instructions about how to apply the interesting content of
such a book, in this case about mental training, to one’s own instrumental
practice.
For example, in order to transfer an exercise from sports to music or

vice versa, one first has to recognize the basic principles or concepts
underlying the human behavior pattern being addressed. Studied from
a meta-level or bird’s eye view, one must ask the questions: What is
the goal of this exercise? What elements of motor movement, cognition
Adina Mornell 13
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(mental representation), and/or emotion are being addressed? What is
the method being applied? How can this same method be used for my
instrument, my task, or my challenge?
Without these interim steps of abstraction and structural analysis, no

transfer is possible and no new behavior likely. From my experience
working with highly skilled music students, who find it difficult to squeeze
out an hour or two away from their practice to attend a lecture, I know
how difficult these tasks of abstraction and analysis are. Most student
learning takes place on a procedural level, i.e., through repetition. For
them, the word “analysis” is associated with music theory, not with a
comprehensive look at their own behavior. It’s comfortable to sit back and
listen to someone describe a new or unusual exercise, nod in agreement,
and then go back to the practice room and shift back into the old work
mode with no change whatsoever. It takes creative energy in a several
step process to transfer ideas from one discipline to another. And yet,
when new forms of practice yield unexpected and stable results, one can
become addicted to doing something “new,” although old habits remain
hard to break and will continue to surface now and again.
Unfortunately, it’s part of human nature to be resistant to change.

Homeostasis, or staying the same, saves energy, which reduces danger to
the organism. This may be a good strategy for survival in the wilderness,
yet counterproductive for someone training for the concert stage or the
Olympics! And in addition to our biology, we are not socialized to look for
new angles to the musician’s everyday challenges, to “think outside the
box.” Musicians are taught that, when in doubt, do what those before us
did: keep working, practice more.
The drive to go beyond the natural “law” of least effort (Ericsson, 2002,
p. 49), which is the ability to find and apply new practice strategies,
may be an explanation for why some athletes and musicians are great
and others are just good. Some continue to strive for even higher goals,
experimenting with new methods, while others remain fixed on that which
they have already accomplished or what they know can be done. Kaizen,
Japanese for “the process of continual self-improvement,” may be known
to those studying Japanese management culture, or to some athletes
(Goodgame, 2000), yet is rarely discussed in connection with musicians.
But in our times of global competition and flawless recordings available
online, no one can afford to stand still – especially not artists.
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I am convinced that someday soon experts in all fields will know
about principles of motor learning: they will understand what mental
representations are and how to modify them, comprehend anticipatory
processes, be able to optimize attention, increase self-efficacy, be aware
of health issues, and teach following generations in such a way that they
don’t develop performance anxiety and stage fright in the ways previous
generations have. Even musicians will become interested in innovation
and interact and learn from one another instead of isolating themselves
and practicing repetitive exercises until their muscles ache.
My students do respond positively after trying out my sometimes crazy

games, aimed at having them experience alternative learning strategies,
or after listening to me play the piano for them, demonstrating scientific
practice techniques through music. And yes, there was indeed a
spontaneous roar of applause after my presentation at the symposium
mentioned at the start of this chapter, and enthusiastic and often personal
comments to me during the following coffee break. People may be
stubborn by nature, but their brains are built to appreciate novelty, and
they are intellectually and emotionally charged to discover something
new. In this spirit, I hope you will enjoy this book.
A brief reader’s guide

Now that you are familiar with the agenda and mind-set of this book,
here is a brief description of the themes that you will encounter in the
main chapters of this book:
7 The overture is provided by Walter Norris’ essay, which I would

like to call philosophical pedagogy. Here are some elements of his
very personal approach to motor learning at the piano, developed over
decades of practicing performing both jazz and classical music.
7 Richard Schmidt’s basic research in the field of motor learning has

shaped the work of generations of sports scientists, and now he has
the chance to influence a new population, that of musicians, committed
to understanding the principles he has unearthed.
7 Victor Candia brings his background as a musician and

neuroscientist to the challenge of deciphering a very mystifying
yet terrifying illness that befalls virtuosos: musicians’ cramp.
Adina Mornell 15
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7 Gabriele Wulf and Rebecca Lewthwaite have teamed up here,

combining their individual expertise to tackle two of the most
essential issues in both sports and music: attention and motivation.
7 Jane Ginsborg picks up the discussion of mental representations

that has been running through many of the previous chapters.
Her study looked at singers – a group of musicians one would least
associate with motor learning, since their body is their instrument and
their technique is hidden from the observer.
7 Quite the opposite is the case with pilots, whose success and
failure, as presented in K. Wolfgang Kallus’ chapter, is highly visible
to the public. Here the role of practice and anticipatory processes in the
psychophysiology of performance is explored.
7 Thomas Schack uses the topics of motor leaning and mental

representation to create a model of cognitive architecture for
human motor performance. His findings have important implications
for development of mental practice methods, something that is a major
theme in the prevention of injuries.
7 Musicians’ medicine and music physiology are central to Horst

Hildebrandt’s work. Training intervention in the form of (self-)
instruction is the focus of his research and the courses he offers to
musicians at his university.
7 The final pages of this book return to empirical motor learning

research. Charles Shea looks at the integration of information
provided to the performer about both perception and motor movement.
He uses scientific measurement to analyze motor feats often attributed to
intuitive approaches such as those described by Norris.
I To provide a synthesis of theory and practice, as well as a juxtaposition

of music and sports, writers from diverse walks of life were invited
to react to the main chapters. Their essays are called Thought Set in
Motion, and offer some additional perspectives through which to view or
reflect on the themes presented.
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Sources of inspiration, catalysts, and helping hands

My special gratitude goes to Gabriele Wulf for her assistance, inviting
and motivating several of the world-class specialists involved in this book
to participate in this project. Kelly O’Kane’s contribution should also be
lauded. Beyond proofreading and unifying the language and style of the
book, he was our test screener for coherence and understandability. Mona
Silli, Elisabeth Kappel and Daniela Hölbling provided support along the
two year road we traveled from the initial point of inspiration, through
the symposium, and on to this publication. I also wish to mention two
people who were instrumental in the financing of this endeavor through
the appropriate grant proposals: Sieglinde Roth and Robert Höldrich.
Their professional help and personal interest was invaluable. In addition
to receiving funds from the University of Music and Performing Arts
Graz, endorsed by both the present and former presidents, Georg Schulz
and Otto Kolleritsch, this project was supported by the Mayor of Graz,
Siegfried Nagel, the City of Graz, and the Department of Science of the
State of Stryia, Land Steiermark. This publication was made possible by a
grant from the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research.
Yet neither the symposium nor the book would have materialized without
the support, encouragement, and advice of Detlef Levin, who served as
the aesthetic leader of the project – the eye leading the ears, so to speak
– and who continually provides an example for me in his approach to life
and art.
Each and every of the 19 authors have contributed their own enthusiasm
and openness, which is why this book offers so much food for thought.
It’s meant to pose questions rather than deliver answers. If it does so,
and inspires interdisciplinary, interdepartmental exchange and research
projects, then we will all have reached our goal.
Adina Mornell
Graz, in May 2009
Adina Mornell 17
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References
Ericsson, K. A. (2002). Attaining excellence through deliberate practice: Insights from
the study of expert performance. In M. Ferrari (Ed.), The pursuit of excellence through
education (pp. 21-55). Mahway, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Goodgame, D. (2000). The game of risk: How the best golfer in the world got even
better. Time, 156(7), 38-44.
Herrigel, E. (original German: 1948, English translation: 1953) Zen in the Art of Archery.
New York: Pantheon Books.
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ju s t
Walter Norris 19
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Strategies for Pianist Improvisers

Art in Motion is unquestionably the fundamental nature in all performances
of music; a flowing momentum from the beginning to ending tones. For
musicians and improvisers in particular, the physical motion of fellow
performers reacting to the music’s rhythmical pulse (an aspect of
conducting) is visually necessary for a togetherness of timing; especially,
if the musicians are separated by a distance of several meters, such as
in televised stage settings or in recording studios. This is because sound
vibrations travel slowly compared with the immediate detection of our
eyes. When practicing piano, I may consciously apply a minimum of
motion with hands and arms to help produce a convincing quality of tone
or rhythmic surge. Even nature triggers our body to respond in motion as
we listen to music.
One tool I have for mastering difficult phrases or patterns is to play the
right hand notation while rotating the left hand and left foot horizontally
in contrary motion, all simultaneously. In addition, I will use variations of
this handicap1, such as executing a figure eight or the Roman numeral
ten in contrary motion. I also invert clefs and practice right hand notation
with the left hand and vice versa; since this is hands separate, my free
hand and foot executes, simultaneously, the above coordination with
difficulty. Such examples belong to a time worn adage that the more
ways you practice one thing the better you can play that particular thing;
also, it helps develop your timing and style of playing. If you criticize that
I am being technical, then I must remind you that technique and art, in
ancient Greece, were one in the same word. For aesthetic expression,
one must possess technique.
1. The following breathing exercise not only relaxes mind and body but
releases energy, from within, so that fingers and arms literally fly over the
keyboard; of course, some degree of piano technique is necessary.
Play E natural, a major-tenth above middle C, with the right hand’s third
finger; keep the wrist high and sink into the key-bed by slowly dropping
your lower-arm; also press the sustaining pedal so that overtones resonate.
Keep this key depressed while executing the following exercise, but only
for your right limb, and remember to concentrate on the tone’s vibration
as you inhale and exhale.
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a. Inhale, hold your breath, then exhale slowly and imagine warmth
in the hand’s third-finger. Continue this breathing procedure for
the entire hand, wrist, lower arm, elbow, upper arm, shoulder,
the complete neck and brain; along with this last exhalation you
should feel warmth from head to toe. Naturally, the sound de-
cay of the instrument has become completely silent; however, the
sensation in your brain should feel as if it were a light bulb start-
ing to glow.
b. Play E natural again and repeat a. above. This breathing proce-

dure scans your brain as well as each section of your right arm
and hand; it dissolves inhibition.
c. Repeat this breathing procedure with the left hand and arm.
In 1969 I suffered a complete lower right-arm muscle spasm; this muscle

was as hard as petrified wood. The preceding exercise, along with soaking
both arms in a portable whirlpool filled with hot water and followed by ice
cold water, enabled me to return within three months to my employment
where I played four and a half hours each night, six nights per week. At
the turn of the last century many classical pianists with muscle spasms
remained incapacitated for ten or more years; subsequently, they chose
to teach2. Let me add that I regard teaching as more important than
performing because the information you teach continues indefinitely, from
one student to their future student, and teaching music is also teaching
culture; a performance is only for that moment unless it is recorded.
During the seventies and eighties, I had tendonitis on eight different
occasions but the muscle spasm never revisited; this breathing exercise
and whirlpool saved me; as a bonus, I acquired an individual touch and
tone control.
2. Physical and mental coordination exercises for pianists.
a. With your right hand, play an improvised or notated phrase while

rotating, horizontally, your left foot and left hand in contrary mo-
tion, all simultaneously. Foot and hand dominance is a reality:
your objective is to become ambidextrous so, work on your weak-
nesses; this in turn will benefit the dominate side.
b. With the right foot and right hand, make a figure eight (8) in con-
trary motion while playing phrases with the left hand.
Walter Norris 21
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c. Repeat both of these exercises and make your passive arm execute
an overhead swimming stroke while the inactive foot taps its toe
and heel in meter.
3. Improvise vocally while clapping, with both hands, the rhythmic patterns
you sing; plus step on 2 & 4, simultaneously; also clap rhythmically what
you sing while stepping on 1 & 3. The music you improvise originates
in the subconscious and this exercise helps the music flow from the
mind through nerves and muscles to the fingers. It also facilitates your
projection of music through the instrument.
4. It is important to practice with your eyes closed so that the finger

tips feel contact with the positioning of black and white keys. This also
expands your sense of hearing and mental imagery as well as forming
a relationship involving tone, body and mind. This should be introduced
(initiated) to students as early as possible; improvement is noticed
immediately.
5. Improvise, or play stave notation, while executing the following

handicaps.
a. Play with an open mouth and extend your tongue just beyond
the teeth and let it rest on the lower lip; this neutralizes physical
tension. If your musical concentration becomes forced, the tongue
will immediately return to its normal position: the place this occurs,
within the music, indicates your insecurity with that particular
phrase, or harmony, and more practice is needed. Check if the
insecurity is in the left hand.
b. As you play, read aloud printed material (poetry or a magazine)

that does not pertain to music.
c. Laugh loudly while playing; notice the bodily relaxation and also
how freely your arms move.
6. Switching the function of your right and left hands; improvise with the
left hand while playing quarter-note chords in the right. This example
of reversing the reflex system is perhaps more difficult for improvisers
because of their habitually formed patterns than for classical pianists in
managing the syncopation. I doubt if you will find a pianist who can play
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the jazz title ‘Four,’ without practicing inverted clefs (melody in left hand
with accompanying chords in the right) for many hours; some, even for
days. I compare this exercise with sitting on the handlebars of a bicycle,
facing its seat, while pedaling it forward. Since your habit of pedaling is
reversed, you must remember to push the pedal forward to stop. Should
you attempt this feat remember to wear a helmet, shoulder, elbow, knee
pads and never on a European bicycle with hand brakes. Nonetheless, I
have found such handicaps most beneficial for rhythmic coordination.
a. Clef inversion of ‘Gigue in G Major’ by W. A. Mozart is notated

in my book, Essentials for Pianist Improvisers. With clefs inverted,
your right hand plays the notation of the bass clef and this (bass)
information is registered in the right arm. When played hands
together in the original clefs, the right hand understands more
thoroughly what the left is playing and the opposite is true for the
left hand; let me emphasize, this is medically proven. I encourage
you to practice clefs inverted and ignore your feeling of humilia-
tion for the reason that this handicap strengthens coordination.
Afterwards, when playing this piece normally you will experience
a feeling of liberation.
7. Handicaps for pondering dissonance.
a. Compose by using intervals of flatted 9ths, major sevenths, and

tri-tones only. These intervals may be notated vertically in any
register or arranged horizontally by rhythmic displacement. This
enhances your ability and awareness for harmonizing traditional
music (diatonic/chromatic) since the ears are strengthened by
the process of working with these three intervallic dissonant pos-
sibilities.
b. Improvise by using only intervals of major or minor 2nds, 4ths and

5ths. If necessary, write your phrases or phrase- fragments on
stave notation.
c. Play and sing A above middle C with closed eyes, gradually sharp-
ening the pitch of your voice and reach up to A#; check A and
A# with the piano. Between this ½ step lies the quarter-tone. Re-
peat and sustain your pitch of the quarter-tone after releasing the
piano sound. Next, play and sing A# and raise the pitch of your
Walter Norris 23
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voice up to B natural. Play A, A# and B natural; try singing the two
quarter tones between A, A# and A#, B. Then, release the sound
of the piano and continue singing these two quarter tones which
become noticeable ½ steps. After practicing this way for a few
minutes, I feel more secure with my accuracy in singing minor-
seconds; this handicap also hones your intonation.
Whenpracticingfingerexercises,bloodflowincreasesthroughoutthebrain.
Each time I practice them, they intuitively change (automatically) within
many of the variations. After reaching maturity, your stored information is
immense and the possibilities for different idea-combinations are endless.
Furthermore, the fingers of an improviser have a mind of their own
because the subconscious, as it sends signals to the hand, is influenced
by overtones of the preceding phrase. This is comparable to improvised
poetry where the words chosen are influenced by an aesthetic quality of
the phrases previously spoken. The improviser has so many habitually
formed fingering-sequences from incessant repetition. But when singing
the tones of your solo-line as you improvise, self criticism (left hemisphere)
is impossible, and with this attempt of singing simultaneously the
intervals your fingers play, there is no conscious choice of any intervals;
they surface intuitively. This handicap automatically forces your right
hemisphere to dominate the left and aesthetically, your improvisations
sound more interesting.
I have improvised for seven decades and as a consequence, I change the

notation, slightly, each time I practice my arrangements or compositions.
In fact, I’ve changed notes, chords, even progressions, on the day of
performance. I try drastically to memorize these changes, but in the
moment of executing such new alterations, my fingers go to other tones,
making it imperative that I improvise my way to less turbulent waters;
indeed, improvisation is a high risk indulgence. The improviser is also
influenced by the room’s acoustics, the tuning of an instrument and also
its constructed intonation designed and created by the piano makers. If I
am lucky, the result of the improvised moment can be exciting; however,
each moment is different and a few tones of any idea often change within
seconds; naturally in such crises of fantasy, absolute memory helps. This
is why I do not recommend classical pianists to study improvisation;
confusion may result and interfere with the memorization of repertoire,
which is an enormous task. But, I certainly encourage improvisers to
study classical music because of the melodic and harmonic wealth of the
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past. In addition, an improviser must study with a classical teacher who
activates a superior tone from the piano and demands the same from the
improviser; otherwise, without laboring on tone-control they will probably
never acquire a singing individualistic sound from the instrument.
However, the most important strategy for performance is to practice

performing. Of course, there will be brief interruptions for technical
reinforcement of musically weak passages. We all are creatures of habit
and if we only work on practicing, our live performance will sound inflexible;
as if we have overpracticed or worse, like we are still practicing on stage.
Quite the contrary, when touring with many concerts we are in the habit of
performing regularly and the music sounds aesthetic; even with a magical
touch for the listeners. Your brain’s left hemisphere dominates while you
practice but when improvising or performing, the right hemisphere takes
over; it is this state of right hemispheric domination that needs to be
revealed. While improvising, especially if alone, a fresh idea may surface;
notate and practice it briefly, then immediately begin improvising again;
this is a mental and physically perspiring workout just as one finds
with any sport. On the day of performance play through your program
expressionless, no emotions, without any physical exertion: this saves
your energy, particularly the muscles, and at the same time cultivates
your concentration to think, in tempo, of each and every interval within
the title from the beginning to the end. When you can’t sleep, imagine
and hear each tone of a piece silently with the inner ear; or mentally
improvise and realize every interval for all of the choruses; the point is,
never allow anything to interrupt your thoughts.
At some point each day, you should perform your program as if on stage,
with all emotions completely expressed from the first to last tones of
your encore; afterwards, reflect on the entire presentation. Let me repeat,
when performing the right hemisphere dominates, as opposed to the left
hemisphere’s control during all routine practice. Aesthetic expressions
and ideas are cultivated in performance and both of these are important
factors in the development of your style; but equally important for acquiring
style is to practice as many variations of your ideas as time permits. An
analogy: boxers must condition themselves by skipping rope, punching
bags, and running but equally important is training with different sparring
partners in the ring (performance) to sharpen their instinctive timing and
for knowing intuitively when to punch or defend; the opportunity, for their
style to progress, is that battle inside the ring.
Walter Norris 25
•
A few words on the subject of stamina: if you are prepared enough, you
can maintain your physical strength to the closing tone or chord of your
concert. If not, muscles become tightened to the extent that your reflexes
are affected and wrong notes surely follow. If you are mentally prepared,
you retain your concentration throughout the performance. If not, the
intensity of your awareness level decreases and insensibly, you take risks.
In boxing, if one lacks stamina the arms gradually become lower (weak
defense) and punches to the opponent are thrown inaccurately. Fighters
nearing their last round, unwisely take risks because concentration,
compared to earlier rounds, has become hazy. I will never forget a concert
by an excellent young pianist who unfortunately, returned for an encore
with op. 25 no. 12 in C minor by Frederic Chopin. I am sure this etude was
a favorite of his and he charged into it with the power of a rhinoceros but
within ten measures notes were missed and so many pitifully followed;
he played like a wild bore through the entire piece. My thought was that
he had not practiced this etude for at least a week, or longer, and being
over confident, he took a foolish risk; encores must be prepared very
carefully because, in performance, this can be your greatest moment of
vulnerability. Another rationale concerning stamina: slow and unemotional
practice enables you, years later, to eventually work for twelve (12) hours
without feeling exhausted.
A brief statement on unpreparedness: anxiety manifests immediately

when one is unprepared; the performance is ruined because the left
hemisphere, out of necessity, dominates as the pianist struggles for
survival. Therefore, the performer’s presentation is as unaesthetic as an
insincere politician’s. Disastrous concerts are never forgotten; reputation
is at stake and afterwards, the performer’s mind is permanently scared
with the memory; if this happens, once is more than enough. Keep in
mind that the subconscious sends alert-signals throughout the body
and instantly, inhibition becomes obvious to everyone. Conversely,
preparedness means that your right hemisphere, in all of its aesthetic
glory, is able to dominate.
I must mention another point worthy of deliberation. An elite performing

class should be exempt from all examinations because they must prepare
to perform. This is an incentive to practice for acceptance in the elite
class and those already in the elite class must practice to remain there.
Nevertheless, theory and history are always included in the printed
pages being studied with their teacher. Consequently, the performer is
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conditioned to perform instead of being exhausted from examinations
and sounding unprepared throughout his or her performance.
Improvisers should use stave notation for ideas relevant to each title being
prepared, because when ideas surface while improvising, they will stop
and change the notation again and again. This continuous development
in notating your ideas leads to a point of departure from the previous
notation and for a few, their creative style is expanded. I repeat, style is
acquired by re-working your ideas.
With closed eyes read one measure of music, mentally visualize lines
and spaces of this measure as you name and hear the notated intervals.
This photographic process, along with analysis, is for psychological
memorization of music which is separate from memory recall in the motor
cortex. Another example: look at a few objects in your room; then, with
closed eyes, describe what you have seen. After years of training, you
may develop absolute memory or at least a noticeable improvement in
your ability to remember.
Guided Sight Reading by Leonard Deutsch is, unfortunately, out of print. He

trained beginners and advanced piano students to perform, with guided
sight reading, a newly memorized piece of music, suitable for their level,
after only two weeks preparation. From this book, I also learned about
right and left eye domination. I have asked many improvisers which eye
would they naturally close to read (by squinting) a sign 500 meters away;
or which eye would they close to thread a needle? I found many with
left eye domination who played by ear and some were even intuitively
self-taught; this development begins before they are two years old. If a
young student, while sight reading, stops because of accidently playing a
few wrong notes that nonetheless sound musical, it is probably because
of left eye domination. His difficulty in comprehending, at that moment
in the music, forced the left eye to work more, which made it wander
slightly to the left, and immediately the right hemisphere took control,
allowing his ears to select tones belonging to the particular overtones
at that point in the music. Since childhood I have been this example
in the extreme. The solution: train your right eye to dominate by sight
reading with the left eye closed. Recently, I heard that brain research is
finally being conducted on improvisers who learned to play only by ear;
an experiment long overlooked.
Walter Norris 27
•
Each morning, read a piece of new music when you wake up from sleep
and later in the day, sight read it; an old discipline that works wonders.
For memorizing, place music at your bedside and before retiring, hear
what you read; repeat this procedure on arising from bed; then go to the
piano and work. When fresh, the mind works and remembers best.
By 1992, I had lost my absolute pitch because of the different frequencies

used in various cities for the tuning of A. Pianos are tuned A-440 or
442 in Los Angeles; A-442 or 444 in New York and Japan; A-444 or 445
in Berlin and A-445 or 446 in Vienna. Even some jazz clubs have old
instruments that are 439 or even worse, electronically tuned. Within a
period of fourteen years, my sense of pitch became confused by these
different frequencies. During my first five months in Berlin, I played daily
in the studio with A-445, and every evening in a club with A-439. After a
few months I began noticing, from the fingering used, that I was playing in
B flat but the sound of the tonality was actually A or B natural, depending
if the tuning was flat or extremely sharp; it’s an eerie, insecure feeling.
For years it was always A-445 in studios, and I adjusted when performing
elsewhere in Europe, Japan, New York and California. While teaching
at Universität der Künste-Berlin, formerly Hochschule der Kuenste, I
urged students when visiting their friends to test one another’s pitch if
a piano was available. In class, I demonstrated this handicap by facing
the wall and asking students to request a pitch for me to sing; they could
check afterwards at the piano. Following engagements (1991) in New
York, I returned to my class and played this game, with the students,
of testing pitch. I sang a minor-second flat; the student corrected me, I
argued, then the pitch was played and much to my surprise I was wrong;
I couldn’t believe it. In jazz, one thinks flat due to the blues scale; in old
age, ones pitch may change from loss of weight in the head structure but
I had not lost weight. Pitch, like muscle strength, must be maintained and
today, through handicap exercises my ears have improved; it is a matter
of reinforcing tonal memory and feeling internally that the pitch of A is of
a different quality than F, etc.
On the subject of gymnastics, I want to lay emphasis on stretching muscles

and tendons in the lower arms. Place the palm of each hand on a padded
piano seat; straighten arms (fingers are pointing towards your legs) and
step back seven centimeters with your right foot to increase tension in the
underside of your lower arms. Do the same for stretching the topside of
your lower arms by placing the backside of both hands on the piano seat,
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palms are visible, and fingers are pointing towards your legs; remember to
take a small step backward with your right foot but be careful stretching
to the maximum for too long; back off slightly. Also, press your finger
tips heavily into a cushioned piano seat to strengthen fingers. For blood
circulation, lie on the floor with feet raised. Occasionally twist your upper
torso while sitting at the piano; also lean to the left and right for stretching
muscles that begin in the lower torso and continue into the upper body.
I always consult my physical therapist when choosing gymnastics; some
are dangerous for pianists. Also, take long walks in fresh air and think
intuitively about the music you are preparing.
We want to train and use learning methods that will develop ourselves
so that we become unique, rather different animals, whether performing
on stage or in the sports arena. Sugar Ray Robinson shadow boxed
each morning while listening to Charlie Parker’s recording of ‘Cherokee.’
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar of basketball fame thought music while playing
the game. A tip on golfing: during the swing of iron shots, mentally sing,
in 3/4 meter, the ‘Blue Danube’ waltz by Strauss; 1, 2, 3 whack. For the
longer swing of wood shots, mentally sing the ‘German National Anthem’
by Haydn or ‘Giant Steps’ by Coltrane, in 4/4 meter; 1, 2, 3, 4 whack. All
movements flow more gracefully when your mind hears music. Energy is
within and you must train so that energy is released automatically during
your performance. If you practice all movements passively, in extreme
slow motion, you will after many months, train your mind to activate the
muscles – thus, mind over matter; the releasing of uninhibited energy
with lightning speed and increased strength. I recommend that athletes
practice their movements while singing or laughing aloud.
The brain is designed to resolve problems and our body desires to be

activated. Cultivate the mind with books written by great writers, not
only to expand your level of intelligence, but also to develop your sense
of aesthetic taste. For body nourishment, eat fresh unadulterated food
with a high protein diet because we are what we eat. When our thinking
is stimulated by energizing food we become inventive and motivated.
Also, the most important trait you can have is physical perseverance and
mental curiosity; so often, those with talent or genius feel misunderstood,
become disgusted or deeply depressed and drop out of their vocation.
My approach to the piano is comparable to an intuitive researcher. I

practice very, very slowly in order to train mind over matter. I press the key
Walter Norris 29
•
into its bed and wait approximately ten (10) seconds for my arm to relax
before pressing another key. Also, this extremely slow practice encourages
one to scan their body for tension and teaches (trains) muscles to obey
thought-impulses; this produces a greater power than physical muscle
exercise. Mentally, you command your muscles to perform a feat such
as playing piano, or in the world of athletics, an activity pertaining to
running, kicking a ball, jumping or hitting. I assure you the muscles will
obey with less tension and with a greater release of energy for ideally, we
all wish to play as though ice skating on ivory.
Another way of releasing energy is to improvise while loudly describing

the courses of your favorite dinner or some similar event. This forces your
brain to coordinate the playing simultaneously with what you verbally
express; it is speaking (Broca’s area) while skilled movements (frontal lobe)
and basic movements (motor cortex) are involved with implementing the
music. This mental and physical exertion produces adrenaline and allows
you to play the phrase with greater freedom as opposed to inhibition.
Interpret a five or seven tone phrase, or chords, with as many different

emotions as you can imagine; happy, sad, authoritative, angry or passive.
However, in between each repetition, silently play the phrase or chords
with your fingers executing the same sequence of keys while your inner
ear silently hears the intervals previously played. This is not only for
relaxation of the hand but a tool for memorizing quickly; also it stimulates
and strengthens the circuitry between your motor cortex and planum
temporale in the auditory cortex.
I stress the importance of explaining to students just how unique life is.
They should realize that our universe exists because of the conversion of
hydrogen to helium at a percentage of seven one-thousandths of its mass
to energy. If that proportion had been lowered one-hundredth of one per
cent, transformation would not have taken place and the universe would
consist only of hydrogen. If that value had been raised one-hundredth
of one per cent, bonding would have been so profuse that all hydrogen
would have been exhausted long ago. This recent scientific information,
proving that our existence is no less than a miracle, is all the more reason
why we should seek the utmost development of our potentiality.
Learning is a matter of reinforcing, by repetition, the circuitry of the brain;

if you practice with a variety of your assorted practice tools and change
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after seven repetitions of each, you will avoid monotony and keep your
brain stimulated for learning instead of becoming bored from excessive
repetitions. One distinct difference between the music student and the
master is that the latter’s circuitry is more thoroughly wired. As said earlier,
I practice very slowly so that the phrase can be absorbed and developed
in the subconscious, much like a photographer shooting film with slow
exposure.
I believe that listening to a musical performance produces stimulation for

any adult who appreciates aesthetic music. My first teacher, in his last
few years, listened only to classical radio programs each day; his young
mind was active into his early nineties. A professional musician’s brain
is different from others in that regions are slightly enlarged from lifelong
experiences with music. Of course, I had more energy when I was thirty,
but at seventy-six my playing has become somewhat more energetic
than in the previous years; it is because of reinforced brain circuitry and
especially, the training of coordinating music throughout my body.
Achievement is a matter of work; number two may eventually overshadow

number one if he or she works enough. When the talented are dedicated
workers, they eventually become masters; it is all a matter of persistency
and curiosity.
One difference between an improviser and a classical musician is that

preparation of classical repertoire is focused on physical and mental
relaxation so that their interpretation transports the listeners (performer
and audience) into another world of aesthetics. Improvisers, on the
contrary, remain in a physical and mental state of tension throughout
their performance. But, if they are prepared and conditioned enough,
they too are taken along with the listeners into that other world of
beauty. These are two diverse ways of creating musical phenomena
that witnesses remember for a lifetime. Also, the right hemisphere of a
performer, audience included, is always dominant during such never to
be forgotten moments. In the categories of classical and improvisation,
both are of historical value. Researchers have recently examined the brain
of an improviser while performing; yet, an analysis and comparison of an
improviser’s brain with that of a classical pianist’s while in concert could
definitely be of interest.
Walter Norris 31
•
The corpus callosum transfers all information between right and left
hemispheres. It is enlarged in the brain of a professional musician and
the planum temporale as well in those with absolute pitch. Increased
volumes of intelligence are shown in the auditory, visuospatial and motor
areas of the cortex as well as in the cerebellum. The brain of a musician is
instantly recognized by anatomists but not mathematicians, visual artists
or writers. Although it may be contrary to scientific reports that musicians
are capable of crime, the study of music usually makes citizens more law
abiding (Plato); the enlightened are law abiding (Schoenberg).
As a teacher, I have always treated students who can play the instrument
as colleagues; I share knowledge with them and I am stimulated by their
joy of learning. When I teach inexperienced students a new discipline
for solving and practicing technical (keyboard) difficulties, I am the
patient teacher who expects their obedience and labor. Students with an
authoritative teacher suffer anxiety, in the limbic system’s amygdale, and
instead of learning (limbic system’s hippocampus) they feel threatened and
concentrate on the immediate danger; much of the teacher’s instruction
is not remembered. Neuroscientists, today, can prove that students retain
more information when they are not in a vulnerable position.
In conclusion, let me emphasize that all technical methods (old and

new) should always be practiced and expressed beautifully. All students,
regardless of their level, should be taught sensitivity and beauty because
music is culture; it develops spirituality. Aesthetic music belongs within
the realm of philosophy and religion for the reason that it nourishes the
body, mind, and soul like nothing else to be found.
Notes
1. Handicap: to devise a separate physical difficulty to be implemented while
simultaneously playing stave notation or improvising.
2. There are two types of piano teachers; the non-performing teacher and the
teacher who performs concerts. Both must have an innate talent for teaching
and possess knowledge (information) of what and how to teach. The virtuoso
Leopold Godowsky taught Heinrich Neuhaus, who became Director of Mos-
cow Conservatory and founder of Moscow’s Central Music School; Sviatoslav
Richter, Radu Lupu and Emil Giles were three of his many students. Heinrich
Neuhaus was probably the greatest piano teacher in all of music history.
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References
Bryson, B. (2004). A Short History of Nearly Everything. London: Black Swan.
Edwards, B. (1979). Drawing on the Left Side of the Brain. New York: Penguin.
Neuhaus, H. (1993). The Art of Piano Playing. London: Kahn & Averill.
Norris, W. (2008). Essentials for Pianist Improvisers. Berlin: Sunhazed.
‘Gigue in G Major’ is an excerpt from pp. 115-117.
‘For Intonation and Perfect Pitch’ is from p. 23.
Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia. Canada: Knopf.
Storr, A. (1992). Music and the Mind. London: Harper Collins.
Taylor, J. B. (2006). My Stroke of Insight. Bloomington: Taylor.
Walter Norris 33
•
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Walter Norris 35
•
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34
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Him
•
For Intonation and Perfect Pitch
Play whole notes; sing and name tones in the alto. Sing soprano; play
bass and alto. Sing bass; play soprano and alto.
b _w b _w bw
n œ
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Play soprano and tenor while singing the alto simultaneously.

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======================= l ={”

Matthias Weigelt · Tino Stöckel 37
•
Thought Set in Motion

•
Lateral Preferences and Brain Asymmetries: Common

Challenges for Sports and Finger Athletes
Walter Norris, one of the world’s greatest pianist improvisers, draws in his
Strategies for teaching piano players on many aspects of psychological
training and physical practice, which not only shape high musical
performance, but also athletic expertise. These are – to name only a few
– mental training, pre-performance routines, self-regulation techniques,
and focus of attention, as well as variability of practice, transfer of learning,
lateral preferences and brain asymmetries in the control of voluntary
movements. All of these aspects are important topics in the fields of
sport psychology and motor learning. In this comment, we cannot address
every single one of them. Therefore, we focus on two aspects, which both
present a similar challenge to sports and finger athletes. These are lateral
preferences and brain asymmetries.
The flexible use of both hands is essential for musicians who play the
piano, or any other instrument of an orchestra. The same is true for all
athletes who are involved in modern team sports. Take the following
scenario as an illustration: a basketball player is about to finish the play
with a jump shot. He/she intends to dribble closer to the basket while an
opponent is trying to prevent him/her from scoring. In this situation, it
is necessary to shield the ball from the defensive player and dribble the
ball skillfully with the dominant or non-dominant hand. In a similar way,
a defensive player should then be able to easily rebound a loose ball
returning from the rim with either hand. The ability to use both hands with
similar efficiency presents a great challenge to many athletes, because
they exhibit strong lateral preferences (like most of us do). That is, they
are left or right handed, left or right footed, and they have a preference
for turning clockwise or counter-clockwise. Interestingly, such lateral
preferences are (to a certain degree) task dependent. When opening
a bottle of water, for example, both hands solve different tasks at the
same time, with the left hand carrying out the supporting action (i.e.
holding the bottle) and the right hand executing the manipulation (i.e.
unscrewing the lid). While such task-dependent lateral preferences help
us to solve many of our daily tasks, they are rather obstructive when it
comes to performance in music and sports. But why and where do lateral
preferences arise?
Him
•
The answer to this question can be drawn from neuroscience research,
which shows that lateral preferences are a result of functional asymmetries
between the two brain hemispheres. These functional asymmetries lead
to differences in hemispheric activation for the control of different task
demands (Serrien, Ivry & Swinnen, 2006). Here, the following picture
about the role of hemispheric specialization emerges: while the left
brain is primarily responsible for the temporal and sequential control
of movements (i.e. the tapping rhythm) and the regulation of dynamic
aspects (i.e. the control of finger force), spatial information (i.e. hitting
the correct piano key) is mainly processed in areas of the right brain.
It is because of these differences in dominance between the two brain
hemispheres that people exhibit task-dependent lateral preferences (cf.
dynamic dominance hypothesis, Sainburg, 2002).
Why does it matter and what consequences does it have on the practice
of skills for sports and finger athletes? It matters, because lateral
preferences (and therefore, all qualitative performance differences during
the concurrent performance of the two hands) need to be reduced if
sports and finger athletes want to be successful. In fact, in modern game
sports, such as basketball, advancement to higher leagues may depend
upon the ability to perform skills on both sides of the body (Stöckel &
Weigelt, 2007). The same may apply to pianist improvisers, who only
become masters in their art when both hands contribute equally well to
the desired piece of music. Bilateral efficiency, however, requires a long
and sustained training of the two hands, most often with a special focus
on the left hand. Walter Norris points to this challenge in his Strategies
for teaching piano players when he writes “...foot and hand dominance
is a reality: your objective is to become ambidextrous so, work on your
weaknesses; this in turn will benefit the dominant side...” At another place,
he suggests to switch the “function of your right and left hands,” and
more specifically to “improvise with the left hand while playing quarter-
note chords in the right.” Similarly, right-handed basketball players should
start to practice dribbling and shooting with their left hand early on. Non-
dominant training will then also benefit skill learning on the dominant
side and thus, improve bilateral efficiency. Again, bilateral efficiency is
one of the most important determinants of successful performance and
professional play.
In summary, performing well with the non-dominant side presents a

challenge, which is common to sports and finger athletes. It requires
Matthias Weigelt · Tino Stöckel 39
•
long and sustained practice, as well as a special focus on the left hand,
in order to master the performing art of music and many modern game
sports. For sports and finger athletes, one of the most important aspects
of training is therefore to reduce their lateral preferences. Then, they may
become great performers in music and sport.
References:
Sainburg, R. L. (2002). Evidence for a dynamic-dominance hypothesis of handedness.
Experimental Brain Research, 142, 241-258.
Serrien, D. J., Ivry, R. B. & Swinnen, S. P. (2006). Dynamics of hemispheric specialization
and integration in the context of motor control. Neuroscience, 7, 160-167.
Stöckel, T. & Weigelt, M. (2007). Bilateral competence and the level of competitive
play – A study in basketball. In: J. Kallio, P. V. Komi, J. Komulainen, & J. Avela
(Eds.), Book of Abstracts for the 12th Annual Congress of the European College
of Sport Science (pp 492-493). Otavan Kirjapaino Oy, Finland: Keuruu Publishers.
Him
•
Not ju
st motio
n
•
Principles of Practice for the Development of Skilled

Actions: Implications for Training and Instruction in
Musica
The goal of this symposium – the integration of (a) laboratory research
in motor behavior and (b) the applications to, and implications for, high-
level music instruction and performance – is an excellent one, in my
view. The principles of learning worked out in the laboratory should,
with some care, be applicable to just about any real-world activity (high-
level sports, music, dance, therapy, etc.), and it is encouraging that those
studying high-level music performance should be interested in what has
been found in the laboratory. Also, I am not aware of any other attempts
to bridge these two fields, and hopefully this effort will spur others to
continue in this direction. But there are some major problems that must
be addressed before one can confidently apply laboratory-based motor-
learning principles to instruction in high-level music.
Considerations in melding the motor-learning and musical

areas
First, there is the problem of measurement. Adina Mornell, our Symposium
Organizer, has pointed out that, in high-level music, the audience
absolutely expects these professionals to play or sing the correct notes
flawlessly, with the correct pitch, and with the correct order and timing
among them – no errors. In the laboratory, on the other hand, we chiefly
rely on measures of error in producing the correct action, errors in timing
the actions, and sometimes speed of the actions, and so on. But, if high-
level musicians do not make such errors, it makes one wonder what
we can learn about high-level music performance from studies of the
production of errors in the laboratory.
In addition, in order to apply scientific methods and thinking to any field, one
must be able to measure the phenomena of interest (here, performance).
For the field of music, if what Dr. Mornell has said is accepted, what is it
that we will measure in order to determine which among several variables
has influenced learning in an experiment? Also, when I mention this idea
that musicians do not make errors, I often receive strange looks from
people involved in high-level music. Perhaps musicians do make errors,
but the nature of these errors is different, or they are not as evident as
Him
•
they are in simpler laboratory performances. If so, what are these errors,
and how do we measure them? On the contrary, if the measurement
problem amounts to something other than the measurement of error,
and includes evaluations of musical expression or artistic aspects, what
is this exactly, and how then do we measure it? Without a way to measure
musical performance, the blending of these two areas of study seems
nearly impossible.
Next, the study of skills in the laboratory is usually based on performances

that have not had very much practice. Often, as we will see in the studies
I present here, performers have received only a few dozen practice
attempts; it is rare to see laboratory investigations that involve more than
a few hours’ practice, although some examples do exist. On the other
hand, as we all know, high-level musicians (as well as high-level athletes)
have spent countless hours practicing and performing their skills.
Naturally, then, the question must be raised as to whether the principles

and theories developed in relatively unpracticed performers will apply
to highly practiced musicians. Or, is there another set of principles and
methods to use with very experienced people? This question, along with
the next one, has limited the enthusiasm somewhat for the application of
laboratory findings to elite athletes.
Finally, the tasks that are studied in the laboratory are relatively simple, often
involving only a single limb and/or using a performance that is relatively
brief, although there a few exceptions to this notion. This is done, chiefly,
so that performances are easier to record and measure. As we all know,
many musical performances involve actions using many limbs in close
coordination, and/or actions that unfold over many minutes. This raises
the question of whether the laws, principles, and theories discovered in
these simpler tasks will also apply to more complex tasks, or whether we
will have a separate understanding of the musical performances.
The last two of these points might not turn out to be so serious if
the first two can be addressed sufficiently. That is, if we can come to
some understanding (and agreement) about what to measure in music
performances, and how to measure it, then the last two points can be
studied empirically to determine the answers. Given a measurement
scheme, we can do the studies that will tell us whether the principles are
different for low- versus high-practiced performers, or if they are different
•
for simple versus more-complex actions. I suspect that, once measurement
issues are resolved (if they ever will be), then studies to evaluate these
latter questions ought to be among the first issues addressed.
Next, we turn to a presentation of a number of findings, or principles, of

motor learning as discovered in the laboratory. A first consideration is
how learning is conceptualized by scientists in this area, as well as how
learning is measured.
Learning: Some key conceptual and methodological issues

Learning is usually thought of as the relatively permanent acquired
capability for performing some action. As such, experimenters often think
of learning as a kind of “accumulated quantity.” Many years ago, the state
underlying performance was termed “habit,” where we would say that
practice “strengthens habit,” and “stronger habit” allows more effective
performance to occur. Of course, this says nothing about what habit is,
but it does underscore the idea that we are attempting to study those
principles that govern the accumulation of habit with practice. When
we first come to attempt some task, we have accumulated almost none
of the habit. Then, with additional practice, habit is thought to build in
strength, and it is this stronger (in some sense) habit that allows improved
performance to occur. A key point is that our focus is not on the change in
performance, but rather on the change in the state of habit that underlies
performance. This distinction is a critical one, and it is the basis for much
of the methodology in the laboratory study of learning.
Let me try to illustrate this idea with a simple thought-experiment. Let’s

say that we have some task, and that the measurement of performance
(or score) increases as performers improve (e.g., the distance a ball is
thrown). (We could just as easily have used a task for which the score
decreases with improvement – e.g., the time required to do something, the
number of errors made, etc.) Further, assume that we have two different
methods of providing instruction – some “new” method and some tried-
and-true “old” method. We run an experiment, with one group of subjects
being trained with the “new” method, and a second being trained with
the “old” method, charting the average performance of each group so
that we can compare them.
Him
•
8
Number of Target Hits Per Block
New
Method
6
Old
4 Method
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Blocks of 10 Practice Trials
Figure 1. Hypothetical performance curves over practice in the acquisition

phase for groups practicing with a “new method” and an “old method”;
this task has scores that increase with increasing skill.
Next, let’s distinguish between two different phases of this experiment.

During the so-called “practice phase,” subjects practice under one of (in
this example) two practice conditions. Then, during what is called the
“test phase,” subjects are tested in an attempt to determine how much
was learned by the two groups during the practice phase.
Performance curves, or plots of the average performance against trials

(attempts), for the two groups, are shown in Figure 1. In the laboratory, we
would ask the question “Which group learned more?” At first glance, the
answer seems obvious: the “new” group showed (a) faster improvement
(steeper slopes), (b) more improvement, and (c) they out-performed the
“old” group at the end of practice. But what if these differential gains
(shown here) by the “new” versus “old” groups were just temporary, such
as from increased effort because the “new” method is more interesting
or more motivating, less fatigue because the “new” method requires less
energy expenditure, or a number of other possibilities (some of which
we’ll cover later in this chapter)? That is, given what we see in Figure
1, do we really know that the “new” method produced more (relatively
permanent) habit than the “old” method? Scientists in this area would
say, “No, we might suspect it, but we are not sure.”
•
How could we find out? One way would be to use what are called retention-
or transfer-tests (see Schmidt & Bjork, 1992, or Schmidt & Lee, 2005). With
this technique, all subjects are brought back for an additional performance
test that is delayed in time (from 5 minutes to several days or weeks). This
delay allows (most of) the temporary effects of the treatment condition
(e.g., differential fatigue) to dissipate, allowing the “relatively permanent”
effects to remain. Then, the groups are tested under equated conditions,
such as removing the “new” and “old” method for both groups, with the
same task (a so-called “retention test”), or by changing the task and
testing the two groups under the same conditions (a so-called “transfer
test”). Testing performance under identical conditions for the two groups
insures that any differential temporary effects will not appear again in
the second test. Theoretically, at least, what we have on these tests is
a measure of the relatively permanent effects from the learning phase,
allowing us to answer the question of which group learned more during
the practice phase (when they practiced under different conditions).
8
Number of Target Hits Per Block
New
Method
6
Old
4 Method
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3
Blocks of 10 Practice Trials Transfer Outcomes
Day 1 Day 2
Figure 2. Hypothetical performance curves seen in Figure 1, with possible

results in a transfer-test (or retention-test) shown on the right.
In our thought-experiment, we can imagine some of the results that

might occur, shown in Figure 2. Here, we show the original curves seen
in Figure 1, but we add three possible results that might be obtained on
a transfer (or retention) test, done on Day 2. (Of course, only one of these
Him
•
can occur in the same experiment.) Consider the first test result. Here
the “new” and “old” groups differ by the same amount as they did in the
practice phase; we would say that all of the differences between the two
groups in practice were due to relatively permanent effects, and none of
it was due to temporary effects. Here, “new” learned more than “old.” In
the second result, the groups are the same in the transfer test, so that all
of the gains of the “new” group in practice have dissipated by the time
that they were tested. Here, “new” and “old” learned the same amount.
In the third case, the groups differ, but less than they did in the practice
phase. Here, “new” learned more than “old,” but some of the gains of the
“new” group dissipated from practice to test. There are, of course, many
ways that this test could have come out, and here we have just three of
them. We’ll see some others later in the chapter.
The important message for those who would like to understand how to
study learning is that we focus entirely on performance differences in the
retention/transfer test, and pay almost no attention to any performance
differences during the acquisition phase. (To be fair, we would probably
look at these, primarily to be informed about how these variables
functioned during practice and to get a more complete understanding of
the results, but we would not make any inferences about learning from
them.)
This method of studying learning has implications for the way we

conceptualize learning in the instructional process. We, as instructors, do
various things with learners during practice (e.g., give encouragement,
point out errors, give tips for performing differently, and so on). These
things we do probably affect performance, at least somewhat, but the
message is that we should not treat any performance gains (seen in the
practice phase) resulting from those factors as necessarily being due
to relative permanent gains (i.e., as learning). The critical information is
how well the learner performs on some criterion test that has special
interest. For example, in piano instruction this might be the level of
performance on next month’s concert appearance, for the gymnast it
could performance in the next meet, and so on. Notice that, for all of these
criterion performances, the various techniques the instructor uses are not
available in the criterion performance. In this way, the retention-transfer
test in research shares many similarities to the criterion performance in
real-world teaching situations.
•
We consider next some of the recent findings in the motor learning
literature. I focus on some of the main principles, as well as some recent,
counter-intuitive work that broadens our understanding of learning.
Principles of motor learning–organizing practice

The first major principle is not properly a principle at all, but a truism.
There is no doubt that, in order to become a high-level performer in
music, sport, or one’s craft, an enormous amount of practice time must
be devoted to the task. This is no surprise to high-level musicians and
athletes, of course. Given this, the question becomes: how does the
instructor structure the practice, and/or what does he or she do during
practice, so as to maximize learning?
The specificity-of-training principle
Another idea which seems to have a great deal of intuitive appeal – even
(or especially) for those not familiar with the research in learning–is that,
in order to maximize performance on a particular task under certain
conditions, it is most effective to match as much as possible the practice
conditions to the (criterion) test conditions. In other words, the products
of practice (i.e., learning) are specific to the task and practice conditions.
Simply, if you want to train your soccer team to play when fatigued at night
in the rain, have them practice soccer fatigued at night in the rain. As a
start, this is a fairly strong principle that has appeal for a wide variety of
applications. If an instructor knew only this, he or she would have a pretty
good basis for structuring practice. Even so, there are some exceptions to
this idea – mentioned next – and these serve to shed additional light on
what is going on when people learn.
The organization of practice

One initial question that instructors must ask concerns how to organize
the practice time that is available so as to maximize learning. Is it best to
practice every day, or every other day? For how long is it most effective
to practice during a given session, and what skills or exercises is it best
to practice during this time? One answer to this question, by now quite
widely accepted, was suggested in an experiment by Shea and Morgan
(1978), described next.
Him
•
Blocked v. random practice
Shea and Morgan (1978) considered a situation where an instructor has a

given amount of practice time, and has three different skills (say, A, B, and
C) to teach in that time. One way to organize the session, which makes
good common sense, is to block the practice – that is, to split the time
equally among the tasks, and then practice all trials of A in a row, then
all trials of B, and then all trials of C. Using this method, the learner can
devote all his/her efforts to one task at a time, refine that performance,
and not have do deal with interference from the other two tasks. Another
way is to randomize the practice – that is, give one trial of A, then one of
B, then one of C, … , using a schedule in which no task is ever repeated
on two consecutive trials. In this method, the performer would seem to
be “kept off-balance” by always having a different task to perform. Shea
and Morgan’s tasks had people moving their arms as rapidly as possible
with a three-segment pattern; the spatial pattern was different for Tasks
A, B, and C. Let’s see how these methods affected learning.
2.8
2.6
2.4 Random (R)
Mean Total Time (s)
2.2 Blocked (B) B–R

2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4 R–R
B–B
1.2 R–B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10-Day
Acquisition Retention
Trial Blocks Test
Figure 3. Performance curves (mean total time) for Random (R) and
Blocked (B) conditions in acquisition (left), and in transfer tests to R and
B conditions after a 10-day retention interval (right); in retention, the first
letter indicates the practice condition, the second letter indicates the
retention condition (from Shea & Morgan, 1978).
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Figure 3 has the main results from the Shea-Morgan experiment. Simply
looking at the performances in the acquisition phase, we are tempted
to conclude that random (R) practice (filled diamonds) was disastrous
for learning compared to blocked (B) practice (open diamonds). The B
group improved more and at a faster rate, and performed better at the
end of practice, than the R group. But recall our earlier discussion about
how to evaluate learning, where we emphasized retention-transfer tests.
Shea and Morgan brought their subjects back after 10 minutes and 10
days, and tested them under either R or B conditions. This formed 4
combinations – R versus B in acquisition in combination with R versus B
in retention.
Consider first only the two groups that had B practice in the retention
test (R-B and B-B, the triangles; the first letter indicates the condition
in acquisition and the second indicates the condition in retention). Only
the 10-day retention test is shown here, but the results were about the
same for the 10-minute test. We can see that the R-B group showed
slightly faster times than the B-B did in retention. Using our decision
rule, we must conclude that R-B learned slightly more than B-B. Now
consider the other two groups which had R practice in the retention test
(R-R and B-R, the squares). Here, R-R performed much more quickly
than B-R, so we conclude that R-R learned more than B-R. Notice that,
even though R practice was inferior to B practice for performance during
acquisition, it was superior to B practice for learning as measured on a
test of retention. This was a very surprising finding – one that has since
attracted considerable attention by scientists studying learning.
Why does this effect happen? Lee and Magill (1983) considered two
possibilities. One was that R practice prevented the learners from
anticipating what was coming on the next trial. Another possibility was
that R practice prevented the learners from performing the same task
twice in a row. They used a B group as Shea and Morgan (1978) did, but
used another condition (called “Serial”) which had an A,B,C,A,B,C, …
A,B,C practice order, so that subjects became able to anticipate what was
coming next. They also used a truly random order (“Random”), as Shea
and Morgan did. Note that, with both the Serial and Random conditions,
the learners had to produce a different action on each trial.
Lee and Magill’s findings are in Figure 4. In acquisition, Blocked practice

always produced faster responses than either Random or Serial practice.
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But, in the retention test, where learners performed under random
conditions, Serial and Random were about the same, and both were faster
than Blocked. Again, we conclude that both Serial and Random practice
produced more learning than Blocked; but more importantly, Lee and
Magill were able to rule out the hypothesis that it was the capability
to anticipate the next task that was important. Apparently, the effect is
caused by forcing the learner to do a different task on each attempt.
1.8
1.6 Serial
Random
1.4 Blocked
RT + MT (s)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Acquisition Trial Blocks Retention
Figure 4. Performance curves (mean total time, RT + MT, in s) for

Serial, Random, and Blocked conditions in acquisition (right), and for
performance on a retention test under random conditions (from Lee &
Magill, 1983).
These practice effects are very robust and they generalize to many different
tasks and situations. For example, it occurs for both cognitive and motor
tasks, for learning handwriting in children, for tasks requiring a single
limb or bimanual coordination, for relatively highly practiced learners in
real-world sports (e.g., baseball batting) as well as novices, and a wide
variety of other situations. It is clearly not a phenomenon limited to simple
laboratory tasks and, as such, it probably has importance for high-level
music instruction. See Schmidt and Lee (2005) for a fuller discussion.
What is going on here? The dominant explanation after much study and
thought is that B practice makes it unnecessary to plan each action in
advance, whereas R practice forces planning on each trial. With B practice,
the learner can just produce essentially the same action time after time
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(with a few changes, probably), but R practice prevents it, requiring the
learner to abandon the action just made and to “retrieve” from memory
the (presumably different) plan for the next action. In this view, it is the
requirement to “retrieve” the action from memory that facilitates learning.
This view is supported by the lack of such effects (Lee, 2008) in tasks
of long duration that are self-guided (e.g., rotary pursuit task, steering
a car, etc.). The thinking is that such tasks are mainly driven by the
momentary conditions and sensory information, and they do not involve
much planning. To me, even though music performances may be of long
duration, they clearly involve planning of sub-sequences of notes. If so, I
see no reason that would prevent these principles from being relevant to
high-level music instruction.
Perhaps an analogy will make this idea more clear. Imagine that you are
10 years old and that an instructor is teaching you how to do long division
“in your head.” In B practice, you are asked “What is 21/7?” You struggle
and come up with the answer, “3.” On the next trial you receive “21/7”;
more easily this time, you come up with “3” as the answer. On the next trial
you again receive “21/7.” This time, though, you begin to remember the
answer you gave on the previous trial, “3,” so you give it without the need
to compute it mentally. On the next 30 trials of “21/7,” you simply give, by
rote, the answer that you gave before. Practice makes your performance
perfect, but you are not learning how to do long division. R practice, on
the other hand, requires you to neglect the answer from the previous trial,
and to generate (retrieve) the present answer (to, say “18/2”) using your
own efforts. You eventually receive the same amount of practice at “21/7,”
but these trials are embedded with many other problems. The payoff is
on the retention test when you have to do “21/7” again. If you practiced
under B conditions, you didn’t experience much practice at retrieving the
answer, but if you practiced under R conditions, you did. Which condition
do you think produces the better performance on the problem of “21/7”
on a subsequent day? What if a new long division were presented that
you hadn’t practiced before?
Retrieval practice
Sometimes, scientists speak of “retrieval practice,” or practicing the act

of retrieving the solution, as a way to strengthen memory. The idea here
is that practice conditions that force the learner to retrieve are beneficial
when the learner must retrieve this answer in the future.
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Cueing
One method that we see used in teaching is termed “cueing,” where

advance information is provided that helps the learner to produce the
correct action. Some of the research on cueing fits in well with the ideas
about the organization of practice. For example, Lee, Wishart, Cunningham,
and Carnahan (1997) asked learners to perform a sequential button-
pressing task; it had a temporal pattern that could be presented via a
series of “beeps” on a computer; Lee, et al. termed this an (auditory)
“model” of the action. When presented prior to an action, the temporal
pattern of the “beeps” specified the temporal structure of the action to be
produced. They used blocked and random practice groups; but in a third
group (also with random practice) they gave the preliminary temporal
information (the model). Their results are shown in Figure 5.
220
200
Absolute Constant Error (s)
180 Random
160 Blocked
Random + Model
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Immediate Delayed
Acquisition Trial Blocks Retention
Figure 5. Mean constant error for Random, Blocked, and Random +

Model groups during the acquisition phase (left), and during immediate
and delayed retention tests under random conditions (right) (from Lee,
Wishart, Cunningham, & Carnahan, 1987).
In the figure, we see the typical random-blocked effects, where the random-
practice group performs with less error in both immediate and delayed
retention tests. But the results from the group with the cueing (Random
+ Model) were surprising. The model information produced very effective
performance in the acquisition phase. This is understandable, because
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the model cued the learner before each trial as to the pattern to produce.
But, in delayed retention, the performance of this group had the largest
error of all – even more error than that of the blocked condition. Notice
that the cueing information seemed to nullify the advantage provided by
random practice.
These findings are consistent with the idea that learning is facilitated by
retrieval practice. Random practice seems to require the learner to retrieve
the information before each trial, but providing the model eliminated
this requirement as the information was now given by the experimenter.
Apparently, this was sufficient to eliminate certain retrieval operations,
and it ruined the effectiveness of random practice completely. By giving
advance information to learners, we might think that we are making the
situation “easier” for the learners. We are, during practice; but in doing so
we have allowed the learners to avoid practicing retrieval operations that
are critical for performance in retention.
In preparation for this presentation and chapter, I visited a rehearsal

session of a symphony orchestra in a town near my home. At one point
in the music, there was a period of silence (say, 5 seconds long), after
which play resumed; of course, all members of the orchestra had to start
playing again at the same time. In rehearsal, when this section of the
piece was reached, the conductor would count aloud, “One-and-two-and-
three-and- …” and all players would start again on “5.” Later, I asked (a
rhetorical question) whether this verbal information was available during
the actual concert performance; the answer was, “Of course not.” The
conductor said that he was just trying to make it easier for the musicians
to synchronize. I am sure that he was. But, when viewed in terms of the
results of Lee et al. (1997) in Figure 5, he may have unwittingly blocked
the musicians’ own internal counting processes, perhaps even interfering
with learning to synchronize.
Repetition
On the surface, this overall idea would seem to contradict the notion
of the need for high levels of repetition, mentioned earlier. It does not,
however. The main point is that, while many practice trials are critical for
producing a high-level performer, this practice needs to be done without
repetitiveness. We see repetitious practice like this often in real-world
settings. The “classic” example is the golf driving range, where players hit
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literally hundreds of identical shots in a row. Players are often heard to
say that their shots were wonderful in practice (at the driving range), but
that they could not perform the “same” shots later in an actual golf game.
What about the basketball player who practices 100 free-throws in a row,
or the pianist who practices short parts of a piece over and over?
Here are some other real-world examples. The famous professional-

(American) football coach, Joe Gibbs, said in a TV interview, “… the main
reason we have football practice is so that we can run the same play over
and over and over again” (1991, emphases added). For Gibbs, blocked
practice appears to have been the preferred method. Another pro-football
coach, Sam Wyche, said in a newspaper interview, “…I don’t know what
happens on Friday night and Saturday because we see a whole different
team on Sunday from what we see during the week” [the week’s last
practice is on Friday, the game is on Sunday] (1993). Do you think that
Wyche might use blocked practice, which facilitates performance during
practice but does not contribute well to learning? Could this be the basis
for the discrepancy between performance on Friday and Sunday?
Some other interesting phenomena are related to the notion of “spaced

repetitions.” In many cognitive tasks, such as learning foreign language
vocabulary, scientists have shown that spacing the time interval (and/
or the number of intervening trials) between repetitions of a given
word degrades performance in practice on that word, but facilitates its
performance at a retention test. This seems very much like B versus R
practice, to me. In addition, in what has been called “expanding retrieval
practice,” the experimenter or teacher presents items using a schedule
that systematically increases the spacing (either other items and/or time)
between a given item and its repetition. As compared to presenting the
same items with regular spacing, expanding retrieval practice degrades
performance during practice, but facilitates retention (and, in our terms
here, facilitates learning). See reviews of this work by Cepeda, Pashler,
Vul, Wixted, and Rohrer (2006) or Lee and Schmidt (2008).
Metacognitive findings
Another interesting aspect of these blocked versus random findings

concerns what learners believe about their capabilities (termed
“metacognition”). Simon and Bjork (2001) found that subjects in
blocked conditions greatly overestimated their capability to perform on
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a subsequent retention test. Blocked practice makes learners think they
are learning well (they are performing well in practice), when in fact they
are not learning well; in effect, the learners are (erroneously) using their
performances in practice as predictors of future test performance.
Test effects
An interesting phenomenon with important applications to real-world

training is the finding that, as compared to practice of a given item,
being tested on that item is more effective for retention (see Roediger
& Karpicke, 2006, for a review). There is something about “being tested”
that tends to facilitate later test performance. This may simply be related
to the fact that being tested in what would otherwise be practice tends
to mimic the circumstances under which the learner is tested later, and
thus it might be seen as a specificity-of-practice effect. Providing tests
of various kinds during the course of normal practice in music could be
done easily, and with large potential benefits for learning.
Some principles of motor learning – augmented feedback

Another variable that is of critical importance for learning is augmented
feedback – that is, verbal (or verbalizable) information given by an
instructor or experimenter that is artificially added to the information
the learner naturally receives from his/her performance (this natural
information is called “intrinsic feedback”); the added information is
sometimes referred to as “extrinsic feedback.” In the psychological and
motor-learning literature, it has also been known as “knowledge of results”
(abbreviated KR) about the outcome in terms of the measured score for
the task (“Your error was 2 cm.”), or “knowledge of performance” (KP)
which is information about the movement pattern (“You bent your elbow
too much.”). It could be as simple as saying, “Right,” or as involved as a
videotape replay of a person’s performance compared with a video of a
maestro’s performance. This variable is so important that, if no information
is available about performance, then the performer exhibits no learning
at all from practice (Trowbridge & Cason, 1932). Here are the results of
just one of many studies showing that feedback is generally important
for learning.
Kernodle and Carlton (1992) asked learners to throw a lightweight, foam

ball as far as they could with their non-dominant hand; subjects could
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not see where the ball landed. They gave augmented feedback as (a)
KR (the distance thrown), (b) a videotape replay of the throw (a kind
of KP), (c) the video plus instructions about what aspect of the video to
attend to (Cue), and (d) the video plus cues as to what to correct on the
next trial (Transition). Their main results are shown in Figure 6, where
the points plotted are gains in throwing distance on retention tests on
each test session, where no feedback was received by any of the groups;
these scores are not performances in the acquisition phase, which are
not shown.
KR
KP
Cue
Mean Distance Gain (m)
Transition
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
Testing Session
Figure 6. Average gains in distance a foam ball was thrown for various
conditions of feedback during the acquisition; data are from retention
tests without any feedback prior to each testing session (from Kernodle
& Carlton, 1992).
All of the groups improved over practice. The group which had the
presentation of the video that included instructions about what was
important to view (Cue), and especially the group that received instruction
about what to do on the next attempt (Transition), showed the most
learning. Note that simply providing a video to watch (without instruction,
KP group) provided little or no gain over simply telling the performer
the distance thrown (KR group). Kernodle and Carlton also provided
measures of throwing form, which showed a pattern similar to that for
throwing distance seen in Figure 6. See Schmidt and Lee (2005, Chapter
12) for a fuller discussion.
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During the late-1900s, many experimenters were concerned with the role
of augmented feedback for learning. Much of this work was centered on the
so-called Law of Effect (e.g., Adams, 1978, 1987; Thorndike, 1927), which
stated that a response followed by “reward” (feedback about success is
thought to be, among other things, rewarding) tend to be repeated, while
those followed by “punishment” (e.g., errors or faults) tend not to be
repeated. Later, augmented feedback came to be regarded as information
that could be used for subsequent changes in performance (see Adams,
1971). The general conclusion by the late 1980s was essentially that any
variation of feedback that made it more immediate, more frequent, more
accurate (or precise), more informally “rich,” or more “useful” would be
beneficial for learning. This tends to be an overstatement, as there are
several exceptions to this generalization, seen next.
Some principles of augmented feedback
The above generalization suggests that giving feedback after every

practice attempt should be optimal for learning. After all, if a trial is given
with no feedback, one would expect no learning to occur; at least, learning
should be minimized for that trial.
Feedback frequency
Winstein and Schmidt (1990) ran an experiment where, during two practice
days, augmented feedback was given on every trial (100% feedback) or on
half of the trials (50% feedback). The task involved learning a movement
pattern defined in space and time that was produced with a hand-held
lever; the task was scored in terms of RMS error – a measure of deviation
of the movement’s pattern from the goal pattern. After two sessions of
practice with these feedback conditions, learners returned for retention
tests (done without any augmented feedback) after 5 minutes or 24
hours.
From Figure 7 we see that giving 100% or 50% feedback did not make
very much difference during the two days of practice. But notice that
the 50% group outperformed the 100% group on the 5-minute retention
test; and, this advantage was even greater on the 24-hour retention
test. Clearly, the 50% group had learned more than the 100% group.
Findings like these have been produced many times by now. Naturally,
evidence against the widely held idea that more feedback was always
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more effective for learning has led a number of us to speculate about
how feedback works to generate such effects. I mention several of these
ideas here; for more on this, see Schmidt and Lee (2005, Chapter 12).
15
100 %
50 %
RMS Error Score (Deg)
13
11
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Imm Del
(12-Trial Blocks) (12-Trial Blocks)
Figure 7. Average RMS error for performances under 100% and 50%
feedback presentations for two sessions of practice in acquisition (left
and center), and for immediate and delayed no-feedback retention tests
(from Winstein & Schmidt, 1990).
One possibility is that highly frequent feedback acts as a kind of “crutch,”

very strongly and effectively guiding the learner to the correct action;
but this guidance does not generate the capacity to perform when
the feedback is taken away. Under this view, sometimes referred to as
the “guidance hypothesis,” the no-feedback trials tend to break this
dependency on feedback. A second possibility is that, because extrinsic
feedback is so attractive to learners, it dominates attention after the action
– reducing the learner’s attention to the sensory consequences (intrinsic
feedback) of the action (i.e., how the action looked, felt, and sounded).
This attention to extrinsic feedback presumably reduces the learner’s
capability to detect his/her own errors in the future and to correct them –
e.g., on a retention test. Third, KR induces (invites) the learner to change
something on the next attempt – even if the action was acceptably close
to the goal in the first place. These changes have been referred to as
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“maladaptive short-term corrections” by Robert Bjork (1991; Schmidt &
Bjork, 1992). Forcing a change on each trial might prevent the development
of response stability and consistency. Fourth, and finally, augmented
feedback acts to facilitate pre-movement processing for the next trial
– in effect “solving the problem” for the learner, or at least assisting in
solving it. If so, augmented feedback might act in a way similar to blocked
practice, where the solution to the problem is simply carried over from
the previous trial (recall the analogy of long division discussed earlier).
Thus, augmented feedback, according to this view, might interfere with
retrieval practice; retrieval operations would be required to an increased
extent when no feedback is provided on the previous trial.
It is too early to be sure about which, if any, of these hypotheses might

be correct. Or, it could be that all of them are correct, but at different
times or under different conditions. Whatever the explanation, though,
the message for application to learning in high-level music instruction
is that feedback, while powerful, can be overused. In the next sections, I
provide some additional examples of this overuse, all of which relate to
the various hypotheses in the previous paragraph.
Continuous concurrent feedback
One variation of augmented feedback is information provided back to the

learner in “real time” about the success of the action. This is often done
in video games and various simulators, where computers can measure
aspects of a performance and feed it back without any apparent delay.
Schmidt and Wulf (1997) had learners practice an arm movement pattern
with a duration of about one second. For one group, they provided
continuous concurrent feedback to the learner via a computer terminal –
i.e., during the action. This feedback showed the learner’s action relative
to the goal continuously as the action unfolded, and allowed moment-
to-moment corrections. Another group did not have this feedback during
the performance, but received the same information after the action had
been completed. The performances of the two groups during acquisition
favored the continuous feedback condition slightly. But in a retention test
one day later (given without any feedback), the group that had practiced
with continuous feedback showed about 20% more error than the group
with post-response feedback. Continuous, concurrent feedback had
degraded learning. In terms of the guidance hypothesis, mentioned earlier,
we argued that continuous feedback induced the learning of moment-
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to-moment corrections based on this feedback. This seems to prevent
the learner from learning to plan the action ahead of time, which was
required in the retention test when the feedback support was removed.
Immediate feedback
Scientists have long believed, that to be most effective, feedback should

be given as soon as possible after the action. Much of this thinking
came from animal-learning research (operant conditioning) showing
that delaying the reward (e.g., food) for, say, pressing a bar in response
to a bell degraded the learning of the bar-pressing response. Scientists
expected findings like this for human learning, based on the idea that a
delay of feedback causes forgetting of what was done in the action, thus
providing an inferior basis for making corrections. It turned out that there
never has been much support for this generalization in human learning,
however (see Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984).
340
300
260
Scores
220
Instantaneous KR
180
Delayed KR
140
Day 1 Day 2 10 Min 2 Days 4 Months

Blocks of 15 Trials
Figure 8. Mean performance scores in acquisition (Days 1 and 2) for

instantaneous and delayed feedback conditions, and for no-feedback
retention tests after 10 min, 2 days, and 4 months (from Swinnen, Schmidt,
Nicholson, & Shapiro, 1990).
Recently, experiments have shown that providing immediate feedback

(relative to delaying it somewhat) actually degrades learning. In one
example by Swinnen, Schmidt, Nicholson, and Shapiro (1990), learners
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practiced a rapid movement task in which the feedback was delivered
literally instantaneously after the end of the action, or it was delayed by
3.2 seconds. Learners practiced for two sessions (two days) with different
feedback delays, and then they had no-feedback retention tests after 10
minutes, two days, or 4 months.
The results are shown in Figure 8. By the second day of practice, the
delayed-feedback condition was outperforming the instantaneous-
feedback group, and this advantage persisted through the various retention
tests. Providing feedback immediately had degraded learning as compared
to delaying it only 3.2 seconds. One interpretation is that instantaneous
feedback degraded learning because it attracted the learner’s attention
away from analyses of response-produced (intrinsic) feedback, such as
how the movement looked, felt, and sounded. These effects are similar to
the findings about continuous concurrent feedback shown in the previous
section. Based on these findings, for practicing in real-world music tasks,
delaying feedback somewhat is probably not detrimental to learning, and
may even benefit learning by allowing the learner to reflect on what he/
she has just done and how well it went. Another interesting implication is
that, because human motor learning is enhanced by feedback delays, but
animal operant conditioning is degraded by increased feedback delays,
human motor learning and operant conditioning are different processes.
That is, human motor learning does not occur via “rewarding” correct
actions as Thorndike (1927) suggested, but is more properly thought of
as involving information-processing and error-correction activities, as
Adams (1971, 1978, 1987) has emphasized.
Subjective estimation
Another technique that has been used to facilitate learning is to ask the
learner to estimate his/her score after an attempt; after this “subjective
estimation,” the actual augmented feedback is given to the learner. The
idea is that asking the learner to estimate his/her performance score, in
effect, forces the learner to attend to and analyze his/her own response-
produced (intrinsic) feedback generated by the action. Guadagnoli and
Kohl (2001) provided support for this idea with a rapid force-production
task, where learners were given KR either on 100% or 20% of the practice
trials, and subjects were asked to estimate their own errors after each
trial or were not asked to estimate.
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From Figure 9, we can see that the effects of these variables in acquisition
tended to diminish across the practice period. But, on a no-feedback (and
no-estimation) retention test, the groups asked to estimate their own
performances (open symbols) had smaller errors than the groups not
asked to estimate (closed symbols). Thus, requiring subjective estimation
increased learning. We also see again the effect of reducing feedback
frequency, as the 100% groups (circles) had larger errors than the 20%
group (squares); see Schmidt (1991) for more on this effect.
550
RMS Error (arbitrary units)
500 100 % KR-Estimation

100 % KR-No Estimation
450 20 % KR-Estimation
20 % KR-No Estimation
400
350
300
250
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Retention
Blocks of 15 Trials
Figure 9. Mean RMS error for combinations of conditions with 100%

or 20% KR frequency and required error estimation or no estimation in
acquisition (left), with performances on a no-feedback retention test
shown at the right (from Guadagnoli & Kohl, 2001).
If these findings can generalize to high-level music learning, they suggest

an important technique that could be used in instruction to enhance
learning. Also, the idea that estimating one’s score creates a way for the
performer to learn to estimate his/her own performances in the future;
learners do improve at their estimations with practice (Schmidt & White,
1972). This provides a basis for the learner to “provide their own feedback,”
and hence learn, in future practice attempts, even if the instructor may
not be present.
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Some underlying principles

In the previous several sections, I have presented a number of rather
disparate and seemingly unrelated research findings. I think there are
several underlying principles at work here that help to unify these various
results.
Retrieval practice
One common theme is that a critically important process in learning is
retrieval practice. This seems to be the basis of the random-practice effect.
We see it again in the work on feedback, where feedback presentations
that seemed to facilitate performance during practice (perhaps by making
retrieval easier) were detrimental to learning as measured on long-term
retention tests. And, we see it in the work on continuous concurrent
feedback and instantaneous feedback, both of which degrade learning –
perhaps by interfering with retrieval operations.
Creating “desirable difficulties” for learners
Another common theme here is that many of the practice variations that
were the best for long-term retention can be seen as producing “difficulties”
for the learner during practice. Random practice made practice difficult
because the learner had to switch tasks on every trial, resulting in more
effortful retrieval and planning the next trial. Spacing repetitions also
makes performance more difficult, as the learner has experienced some
forgetting of an item by the time it comes again. Withholding feedback on
certain trials also makes performance more difficult for the learners, as
they could not be certain as to how well they were doing, and they were
not guided to the correct action as strongly as they would have been with
100% feedback.
My colleague at UCLA, Robert Bjork, proposed the inclusion of what he

calls “desireable difficulties” in the design of practice situations (Bjork,
1992). That is, making the practice session “difficult” for the learner in
various ways seems to have the effect of facilitating long-term retention.
Of course, there are countless ways to make things hard for learners,
and not all of them will be expected to facilitate retention. But some of
them certainly do facilitate retention, apparently by “forcing” the learner
to practice processes that are critical for performance at the criterion test
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(e.g., a retention test). Contrary to common sense, making things easier
for learners during practice at least sometimes does not produce optimal
results. Given this idea, one goal for researchers will be to discover
which kinds of practice variations produce these “desirable difficulties”
and which do not. And, we need to discover which ones of them are
applicable to music instruction at a high level.
Some Outmoded Metaphors for Learning and Memory

We all probably have our own, personal ways of conceptualizing the
learning process, and often these take on the form of metaphors.
Sometimes, these involve thinking of learning as a kind of process that
results in long-term changes to familiar objects. Unfortunately, if the
metaphors are not aligned with the scientific findings on learning, then
the metaphor will not be useful; or, even worse, it could lead the instructor
to embrace sub-optimal learning strategies.
One common metaphor is something like a phonograph record. The idea
is that every time we perform some action, the basis of the action is laid
down onto the record, so that after thousands of trials, the grooves on the
record are very robust and will not allow the performance to go astray.
We hear people say that high levels of repetition result in the performer
“grooving” the action. The problem is that repetitious (blocked) practice
(e.g., at the golf driving range) could be conceptualized as “grooving” the
swing in this way, but we know from the research that random practice
is to be preferred. The record metaphor does not seem to work. Another
metaphor is a metal tablet on which information from a metal stamp is
transferred by striking the stamp with a hammer. Of course, the more
times you hit the stamp, the deeper will be the image on the tablet. The
metaphor of “stamping it in” with repetitious practice comes to mind,
but it also does not capture the research findings very well. Another
involves a large, peaked pile of dirt or sand. When water is poured onto
the peak (each application of water represents a practice attempt), the
running water starts to form little rivers. At first, the water is not very
strongly constrained to take any particular route. With each successive
application of water, the rivers become deeper, channeling the water ever
more strongly so that it can only travel down the pile in one way. Here,
performance is “eroded into” the dirt pile by many practice repetitions.
Again, this could be misleading. All of these metaphors suggest that
repetitious practice should be effective for learning. We need some new
metaphors that capture the effects of retrieval operations.
•
Concluding remarks and future directions

I began here by cheering the attempts to bring together (a) scientific
principles and methods from the motor-learning area and (b) instruction
and performance in high-level music. We should not underestimate the
challenges, however. We need to rationalize the differences between the
motor-learning focus on slightly practiced, simple tasks, and music’s
emphasis on very highly practiced, complex tasks. It could be that the
kind of findings I have outlined here will be of considerable help in music
– but we should be ready for challenges. At least, we have some scientific
methods that will enable us to find out whether or not these principles
are useful.
I also mentioned the challenge of measurement. If it is correct that high-

level musicians do not make errors, or the making of errors does not
distinguish well between performers of different levels, then a focus on
measures of error and similar phenomena in motor learning might not
be very useful. Some other measurement scheme must be developed,
perhaps one which focuses on various artistic and/or emotional aspects
of performance that are scarcely touched in motor learning.
Next, I described some key features of the ways that scientists do

experiments to study motor learning in the laboratory. This leads to two
outcomes. First, it provides some fundamental concepts and basic methods
that could be applied directly to research in music and music instruction.
Given the solution of the problem of measurement, these general methods
could be used immediately in high-level music research. Second, given
these methods in motor learning, I have described a number of research
findings that seem to run counter to common sense and/or the layman’s
understanding of the learning process. These have forced the motor
learning field to revise the principles, theories, and teaching methods
that come from them. Perhaps these revised principles will be general
enough that they will apply directly to music instruction. Perhaps they
will not apply directly, and so they will have to be modified to account for
the differences between performances in motor learning and high-level
music. We have the methods, and the desire, to accomplish these goals,
and it will be interesting to watch future progress in this direction. There
is a lot to do.
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•
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•
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a
Thanks to Timothy D. Lee for his assistance in the preparation of this
chapter.
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•
Possible Applications of Motor Learning Processes

to High-Level Music Learning
The attempt to transfer laboratory-based motor learning principles to
high level music performances has so far raised more questions than it
provides actual answers.
While in sports errors are, to a certain extent, “allowed” (in certain

disciplines the athlete gets several attempts), there is no doubt that a
violinist is supposed to perform Prokofiev’s Violin-Concerto in D major
flawlessly, without the possibility to perform it twice in a row. Studying
musicians performing in laboratory surroundings makes us think about
the difference between those errors made in a lab and those made on
a stage. Therefore, we need to address the issue of how to measure
musical errors on an “objective” level.
In contrast to skills tested in the laboratory, which are primarily simple

tasks with which the participants have generally not had very much
experience (see: Schmidt, p. 42), professional musicians are required
to perform complex movements with a high level of technical expertise.
Nevertheless, particular technical skills, e.g., scales or clear intonation,
could be isolated and therefore be used in a laboratory setting.
Schmidt’s two different phases (p. 44): a) practice phase, and, b) test
phase, could find its equivalent conditions in a musician’s private practice
session or a lesson (phase a) and a stage performance or exam (phase b).
The fact that practice conditions should match test conditions as much
as possible – “[…] if you want to train your soccer team to play when
fatigued at night in the rain, have them practice soccer fatigued at night
in the rain” (p. 47), applies in the same way to musicians. Therefore, a
variety of practice conditions and the creation of “desirable difficulties” (p.
63-64), such as different locations, lighting, temperature, time, additional
distractions, prepare musicians for the “worst case” on stage.
In the following chart, the main principles of practice, as specified in

Richard Schmidt’s article, will be applied to musicians and observed from
a musician’s point of view.
Mona Silli 69
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SPORTS APPLICATION MUSIC APPLICATION

Blocked Versus Random Practice
Blocked practice: split time equally Blocked practice is a very common method
between tasks and then practice all for musicians to work on technical issues
trials of A in a row, then B, then C etc. (like scales) to improve ability. However, the
question is, how to strike the balance between
Random practice: one trial of A, one of seemingly and useless repetitions and the
B, on of C etc. No task is repeated twice amount of repetitions needed to “muscle-
in a row. memorize” (see Candia, p. ). Random practice
forces one to stay focused on the task, and
keeps the brain switched on.
Cuing
Advanced information given to the Knowing that cues can help during a practice
learner, which makes it easier in the phase, it is important to keep in mind that
practice phase but avoids the practice one cannot rely on them forever. Orchestral
of retrieval operations (see Schmidt, p.?), musicians, hearing rests counted out loud by
essential for the testing phase. the conductor during a rehearsal, know that
they will have to count silently for themselves
during the performance (see Schmidt, p. ?).
Augmented Feedback
Information (“extrinsic feedback”) given Augmented feedback applies to the regular
by the instructor in addition to the teacher-student situation and should be
information the learner derives from constantly examined. Even though extrinsic
his/ her own performance (“intrinsic feedback is essential for the development of
feedback”) a musician, learning to listen to his/her own
playing and body is an indispensable part of
becoming an autonomous performer.
Continuous Concurrent Feedback

Feedback during the action. Continuous concurrent feedback might
cause distraction from the actual doing of
the task, but could be useful during longer
tasks. In the second case, corrections can be
applied immediately and therefore time can
be saved (e.g. correcting the dynamic level
of an instrument section within an orchestral
rehearsal).
Subjective Estimation
Learner analyzes his/ her own Subjective estimation enhances self-reflection.
performance before getting augmented At one point most musicians will not have a
feedback teacher any more, or will be put in the position
of an instructor, becoming teachers themselves,
and will need this skill.
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Not j
ust motion
but
Victor Candia 71
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Playing Beyond the Limits of Health: Loss and Regain of

Hand Control in Professional Musicians Suffering from
Musicians’ Cramp
Summary
Important insights into brain-behavior interactions have been gathered
through research in the field of neuroscience. There is now compelling
evidence to assume that important changes are needed in the way
musicians select their learning strategies and practice behaviors. While
professional musicians have a wide and profound experience-based
knowledge on hand and finger behaviors, they generally base their
learning strategies on tradition. These strategies expose musicians to
unnecessary risk of developing hazardous work-related health problems.
Focal hand dystonia in musicians, also termed “musicians’ cramp,” is a
greatly feared condition that can lead to the termination of a musician’s
career. The neurological disorder is characterized by a loss of control
over individual finger movements, particularly during specific actions
related to playing a given musical instrument. Apparently, changes in
the functional organization of the brain are involved in the origins of
focal dystonia. Based on this consideration, we have developed a
successful task-specific treatment for the condition. Nevertheless, the
burden is particularly difficult to treat and could probably be prevented
when specific, research-grounded prevention and practice concepts
are developed. For the future, it is expected that interdisciplinary work
of professional musicians in tight cooperation with neuroscientists will
give crucial impulses to prevent musicians’ maladies through optimized
learning and practice strategies.
Research on movement control

Modern research on movement control has, to some extent, revealed
the role of different brain areas in the learning and control of movement
sequences (Ashe, Lungu, Basford, & Lu, 2006). Important aspects of hand
use, such as the neural correlates of hand grasping have been investigated
both in humans and animals, including methodologies like Transcranial
Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(fMRI) and intracortical recordings (Ehrsson, Fagergren, Ehrsson, &
Forssberg, 2007; Georgopoulos, 2000; Olivier, Davare, Andres, & Fadiga,
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2007). Despite unfilled gaps and many open questions, to a large extent
a consequence of the high complexity of brain organization, some useful
estimates of the neural mechanisms involved in movement control have
emerged from different laboratories of brain research. Importantly, the
involvement of the motor cortex in cognitive aspects of movement control,
for example in movement learning, has been clearly demonstrated in
humans and animals (Georgopoulos, 2000). While at this moment it is
too early to attempt definite conclusions on particular functions of the
assessed brain areas, the available information is beginning to help
movement researchers in their attempts to better understand the neural
bases of motor control (Reis et al., 2008). The current level of understanding
of the neural signals involved in movement control of the hand and arm
is being advanced by the technological development of external devices
that can be controlled solely by using neural signals captured from the
brain (Birbaumer, 2006; Donoghue, Nurmikko, Black, & Hochberg, 2007;
Hochberg et al., 2006; Taylor, Tillery, & Schwartz, 2002).
The changeable organization of the brain

Brain organization is highly dependent on behavioral experiences
(Pascual-Leone & Hamilton, 2001). One recognized agent involved in
the functional organization of the brain is its capacity to alter its own
organization throughout its lifespan as the result of experience, the so-
called brain plasticity (Nudo, 2006). Research on animals and humans
has given important insights into the dynamics of brain plasticity when
training takes place. In normal primates, changes in brain organization
were specific to the parts of the upper limbs that were used during skillful
training. These changes were progressive during training and reversible
after training stops, showing that brain plasticity is a dynamic process
(Nudo, Milliken, Jenkins, & Merzenich, 1996). In particular, it has been
shown that the simple repetition of movements does not or is unlikely
to induce long lasting changes in cortical networks in the healthy brain.
In other words, cortical plasticity has been assumed to be learning-
dependent or skill-dependent (Nudo, 2006; Plautz, Milliken, & Nudo, 2000).
Similar seminal work within the sensory modality revealed that timing
information of tactile experiences also had important consequences for
the organization of brain areas devoted to the processing of this kind
of stimuli. Simultaneous tactile stimulation of different finger pads of
owl monkeys resulted in an integrated neural representation in the
associated cortical areas of the brain. Conversely, sequentially stimulated
Victor Candia 73
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fingers resulted in segregated neural representations (Wang, Merzenich,
Sameshima, & Jenkins, 1995). Other studies have shown some principles
of brain organization revealing, to some extent, an ordered representation
of the periphery at central levels. In skin surfaces, for example, cortical
adjacent areas respond to the stimulation of the adjacent peripheral
zones they innervate. Therefore, there is an organized or “somatotopic”
representation for the skin surface (Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessel, 2000).
Accordingly, a “tonotopic” map for acoustic frequencies has been shown
(Pantev et al., 1995). In addition, “retinotopic” representations for visual
information have been demonstrated (Buonomano & Merzenich, 1998).
These topographical representations are transformed as part of a dynamic
process and are inherently changeable when skillful practice takes place.
The changes may occur in both cortical and subcortical brain areas
(Faggin, Nguyen, & Nicolelis, 1997; Jones, 2000).
Brain plasticity and musicians

In an elegant series of experiments, Pascual-Leone and colleagues showed
that behavioral gains of piano learners were largely reflected in changes
in the functional organization of their motor cortices. Strikingly, those
participants practicing mentally showed significant changes in the same
brain areas as participants of the group experiencing physical practice
for a time period of 2 hours, for 5 consecutive days. While in the mental
practice group behavioral changes were less prominent after the 5 days
training period, a brief session of physical practice permitted participants
of this group to achieve levels of finger dexterity similar to those achieved
by participants in the physical practice group (Pascual-Leone et al., 1995).
In another important example of neuroscience research, Elbert and co-
workers clearly demonstrated that violinists show an enhanced neural
sensory representation for the fingers of the left hand, as measured by
means of Magnetoencephalography (MEG) of the brain hemisphere
opposite to this fingering hand (Elbert, Pantev, Wienbruch, Rockstroh,
& Taub, 1995). (MEG is a form of noninvasive neuroimaging by means
of which it is possible to capture biomagnetic activity originating from
bioelectrical fluctuations in, for example, nerve cells devoted to tactile
perception in response to this kind of stimulation.)
Similar processes have been discovered in the auditory brain areas by

using the same methodology. Here, it has been shown that trumpet and
violin players react differently to acoustic information associated with
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the instrument they play (Pantev, Roberts, Schulz, Engelien, & Ross,
2001), showing again a tight association among task demands and brain
organization. This knowledge is also beginning to guide new interventions
for the treatment of several disorders of the nervous system (Elbert &
Rockstroh, 2004; Nudo, 2003; T. Wagner, Valero-Cabre, & Pascual-Leone,
2007).
Professional musicians and music-making related problems

In the past, some authors have highlighted the advantages of the musician’s
brain to model neuroplasticity mainly because of the complexity of the
musical stimuli, and in particular, the large amount of exposure to such
stimuli that can be observed among musicians (Munte, Altenmüller, &
Jancke, 2002). Recently, music and musicians have been considered “the
food of neuroscience” as practically any aspect of music encompasses a
cognitive function (Zatorre & McGill, 2005). Accordingly, a large amount
of scientific work is rapidly accumulating to enlighten the neural bases
of music.
In comparison, little is known as to how length of practice, the amount of

finger exercises, or the specific form exercises, may effectively generate,
maintain and enhance musical performance in a wide population of
musicians. Until now, only general indications have been given on how
to achieve attended practice, what are its limits, and what should the
practice of specific behaviors look like to permit excellent performance
levels (Hildebrandt, Spahn, Nübling, Seidenglanz, & Sommacal, 2002). This
is surprising bearing in mind the extraordinary levels of fingers’ dexterity
and the high performance demands imposed to musicians. This is even
more astonishing, considering the alarming number of professional
musicians suffering from music-making related problems.
Medical problems of performing artists are very common (Hildebrandt,

2006; Hildebrandt et al., 2002). To a large extent, they probably result from
inefficient practice behaviors. The majority of hand and wrist injuries among
musicians result from overuse and these problems are threatening to a
musician’s career (Jankovic & Ashoori, 2008). Musculoskeletal problems
are of particular importance and any musician is at risk of developing
such problems (Toledo et al., 2004). Focal hand dystonia in musicians is
one of such problems involving the muscles.
Victor Candia 75
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Musician’s cramp
Dystonia is a neurological syndrome characterized by an involuntary,
sustained, patterned and often repetitive muscle contraction of opposite
muscles, causing twisting movements or abnormal postures (Jankovic,
2007). It is broadly accepted that dystonia represents an organic disorder
(Berardelli et al., 1998; Chen & Hallett, 1998). Like other organic disorders
it can be modulated by different psychological factors. Nevertheless, there
are clear indications that certain dystonias, for example hand cramps, are
not associated with serious psychopathology (Grafman, Cohen, & Hallett,
1991). For example, while some authors reported higher anxiety levels
in musicians affected by dystonia, this was not different for musicians
suffering from chronic pain (Jabusch, Müller, & Altenmüller, 2004). This
suggests that such problems emerge after the appearance of the primary
symptoms, which can be definitively considered an important deterioration
in the quality of life of the affected individuals.
Focal dystonias
Focal dystonias denote sensorimotor symptoms affecting a circumscribed
body part, e.g., the finger(s) of the hand. They usually begin in adult years
and are common in those patients lacking signs of structural anomalies
in the central nervous system (Ceballos-Baumann, 1996; Nemeth,
2002). When focal dystonia occurs during the performance of volitional
movements it is also called “action induced dystonia” (Fahn, 1988). In the
case of musicians these conditions have also been termed “musicians’
cramp,” “pianists’ cramp,” and “violinists’ cramp,” and are among the most
feared tasks-induced problems, because they often lead to greatly reduced
work demands and/or ultimately to the abandonment of the exercise of
the affected profession (Altenmüller, 1996). In musicians, focal dystonia
is not limited to the hand but can also severely threaten the functioning
of the lips (Frucht, Fahn, & Ford, 1999; Frucht et al., 2001; Hirata, Schulz,
Altenmüller, Elbert, & Pantev, 2004). By estimate, dystonia is the major
movement disorder among musicians (Jankovic & Ashoori, 2008). Focal
hand dystonia in musicians is a relatively painless motor disorder that
leads to loss of control over individual finger movements during specific
actions related to playing a given musical instrument (Conti, Pullman, &
Frucht, 2008) (Fig. 1), and its onset cannot be predicted (Lederman, 1991).
Moreover, the illness can occur in all kinds of instrumentalists (Bejjani,
Kaye, & Benham, 1996; Jankovic & Shale, 1989; Lederman, 1988).
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Figure 1. Professional musicians suffering from focal hand dystonia of

the right and left hand during attempts to play their musical instrument.
Depicted are the symptoms in a bass player (A), a clarinetist (B), two
pianists (C and D), a guitarist (E) and a violinist (F).
Please note that all the images were extracted from video recordings.
Victor Candia 77
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Recent male to female ratio estimates based on a review of 899 published
cases revealed a 4.1:1 ratio, and pianists and guitarists are among the
most affected musicians (Conti et al., 2008).
Occupational focal dystonias seem to be triggered by or at least

importantly related to the excessive performance of repetitive activities
such as those encountered during music performance (Conti et al.,
2008; Hallett, 2006; Quartarone, Rizzo, & Morgante, 2008). Focal hand
dystonia can also affect other occupations, such as typists, golfers, and
data entry employees. As in the case of musicians, all these professions
make use of a high amount of repetition during the learning and practice
phases of movement behaviors. In addition, some subtle abnormalities in
brain plasticity have been proposed to be involved in the emergence of
occupational dystonia (Quartarone, Siebner, & Rothwell, 2006).
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of musicians’ dystonias is sometimes problematic (Rosset-

Llobet, Candia, Fabregas i Molas, Rosines i Cubells, & Pascual-Leone,
2008), and therefore the actual prevalence of the disorder is difficult to
estimate unambiguously. The clinical assessment is still the most accepted
diagnostic instrument for focal hand dystonia. Instead of the difficulties of
the diagnostics, a differential diagnosis to other lesion-induced dystonias
(e.g., lesions of the basal ganglia, thalamus and brain stem) is possible
(Altenmüller, 1996; Lee & Marsden, 1994; Lee, Rinne, Ceballos-Baumann,
Thompson, & Marsden, 1994; Trankle & Krauss, 1997). Some authors
conclude that different symptoms like lower motor control, rigidity or
cramps, involuntary movements, pain, tiredness, tremors and weakness
make it easy to recognize a dystonic person (Lederman, 1991). As a rule,
routine neurological assessments in patients suffering from focal hand
dystonia are within the norm. Thus, all other observed abnormalities like
co-contractions of antagonist muscles only help to harden a clinical
diagnosis (Altenmüller, 1996).
Treatments
Focal hand dystonia has been treated in different forms, including
physical therapy, prolonged rest, anticholinergic drugs and botulinum
toxin. According to a large meta-analysis of the published literature
on pharmacological treatments for dystonia, with the exception of
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botulinum toxin (a toxin produced by a bacterium that blocks the release
of acetylcholine in cholinergic synapses (Balash & Giladi, 2004)) in the
treatment of patients with cervical dystonia, and high-dose trihexyphenidyl
(an anticholinergic drug that blocks the action of acetylcholine on the
central muscarinic receptors (Balash & Giladi, 2004)) in the treatment
of young patients with generalized and segmental dystonia, no
pharmacological intervention has been effective according to evidence–
based criteria proposed by the American Academy of Neurology (Balash
& Giladi, 2004; Jankovic, 2006). Recently, behavioral treatments grounded
on neuroscience knowledge have been shown to ameliorate symptoms,
particularly in patients suffering from focal dystonia of the hand (Candia,
Rosset-Llobet, Elbert, & Pascual-Leone, 2005; Candia et al., 2002; Candia,
Wienbruch, Elbert, Rockstroh, & Ray, 2003; Elbert & Rockstroh, 2004;
Hallett, 2006; Jankovic, 2006; Nudo, 2003; Zeuner & Molloy, 2008).
Brain plasticity and the origins of some focal dystonias
While brain plasticity can be considered as being an intrinsic property

of the nervous system that allows adaptation to different environmental
demands, it can also be the cause of pathology (Pascual-Leone, Amedi,
Fregni, & Merabet, 2005). Cortical plasticity appears to be involved in
the etiology of focal hand dystonia. Animal models using monkeys have
shown that repeated and prolonged use of the contralateral hand in
motor tasks results in changes in the somatotopy of the primary sensory
cortex. These changes have been associated with focal hand dystonia
(Byl, Merzenich, & Jenkins, 1996). As discussed above, practice-mediated
changes can be also demonstrated in the human cortex. These changes
are fundamental to the skillful playing of music. In affected patients, a
defective perception and abnormal sensory processing was demonstrated
(see for example (Bara-Jimenez, Catalan, Hallett, & Gerloff, 1998; Bara-
Jimenez, Shelton, & Hallett, 2000; Bara-Jimenez, Shelton, Sanger, & Hallett,
2000; Sanger, Pascual-Leone, Tarsy, & Schlaug, 2002; Sanger, Tarsy, &
Pascual-Leone, 2001). Focal hand dystonia in musicians has underlying
brain abnormalities that include abnormal somatosensory representation
of dystonic fingers (Elbert et al., 1998). These abnormalities may be
crucial to understand the etiology and symptomatology of the disorder,
bearing in mind the important anatomical and functional connections of
sensory and motor brain areas (Reis et al., 2008). Thus, focal dystonia is
not simply a motor problem, and the observed sensory abnormalities, in
some cases, extend far beyond the affected task (Tinazzi et al., 2002). Most
Victor Candia 79
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importantly, progression of focal dystonia symptoms to other instruments
involving similar movements (Rosset-Llobet, Candia, Fabregas, Ray, &
Pascual-Leone, 2007) indicates that learning from distorted sensorimotor
information may constitute an important element in the generation and
maintenance of musicians’ dystonia (Grunewald, 2007).
Sensory Motor Retuning (SMR), a new context-specific

behavioral intervention for musicians’ hand dystonias
Because behavioral mechanisms apparently underlie both the cortical

disorder and the involuntary loss of movement coordination, we developed
a context-specific behavioral intervention based on cortical plasticity
principles. The intervention was aimed at reducing symptoms in some
affected musicians by preventing the occurrence of dystonic patterns.
To acknowledge the tight interaction of sensory and motor systems
and a potentially defective regulation between sensory input and motor
output parameters, we called the intervention Sensory Motor Retuning
(SMR) and treated eleven professional musicians suffering from focal
hand dystonia. All subjects presented a chronic condition, which diverse
treatments failed to improve. In SMR treatment, a hand splint tailored
to the hand anatomy of each patient immobilizes 1 or more finger(s).
Concomitantly, the other digits remain free. The splint holds the patient’s
finger(s) in their characteristic rest position on the instrument, simulating
those positions experienced during normal playing. We requested the
musicians to make sequential movements of 2 or 3 digits in extension,
including the affected digit, for periods of 10 minutes in continuous
repetition. Short periods of repertoire practice without the splint were
also added to the treatment protocol. Importantly, these periods were
included to support transfer of the exercise-induced improvement into
the target behavior. Repertoire practice of the dystonic hand was intensive
without achieving fatigue. The treatment was practiced for 8 consecutive
days and was supervised by a therapist. The total duration of the training
ranged from 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 hours a day depending on the patient’s
fitness. After supervised treatment, patients were asked to practice with
the help of the splint for 1 hour a day for at least 1 year. We assessed
the treatment outcomes with a device that continuously measured finger
displacements and a subjective rating scale. The average of the ratings
for selected movement sequences clearly showing dystonic contractions
represented the subjective evaluation score for a single day. Pianists and
guitarists improved very much from pretreatment to post treatment. In
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contrast, the wind players did not. Subjective and objective evaluations
were highly correlated. Thus, the movements of the dystonic fingers were
smoother after SMR, revealing enhanced motor control. Since follow-up
proceeded from 3 to 25 months, we concluded that the treatment effect
appears to be long-term (Candia et al., 2002).
Brain reorganization after SMR

Because practice-induced reorganization in sensorimotor networks
clearly contributes to those abnormalities seen in focal hand dystonia,
and considering the task-related nature of cortical organization (Classen,
Liepert, Wise, Hallett, & Cohen, 1998), we hypothesized that context-
dependent behavioral interventions like SMR may be able to modify
dysfunctional organization within the affected neuronal networks. Such
modifications in brain organization may be associated with symptoms
alleviation. Recently, we have been able to present supporting evidence by
using Magnetoencephalography. The study was designed to investigate
whether the SMR treatment would induce observable alterations in the
organization of the somatosensory cortex previously shown to be deviant
in musicians with focal hand dystonia. In particular, we expected that after
treatment, finger representations would be more organized according
to widely accepted neuronal laws of cortical organization as explained
above.
Prior to treatment, somatosensory relationships of the individual fingers

differed between hands of the affected musicians. Following treatment,
sensory cortical responses of the treated and untreated hand were similar
in both brain sides. Most importantly, a remarkable discovery was that
these physiologic changes were associated with the behavioral changes
we observed during performance of finger movement segments. In
particular, smooth movements of dystonic fingers were associated with
less pronounced biomagnetic activity in areas devoted to process sensory
information at cortical levels (Candia et al., 2005; Candia et al., 2003).
Discussion
The reported results are consistent with a variety of studies, which showed
that brain organization could be modified through practice involving skillful
tasks. Even using noninvasive brain imaging and other related noninvasive
Victor Candia 81
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techniques, it is not possible to uncover the organization of the cerebral
cortex in detail, but the changed organization in the somatosensory cortex
taking place after SMR can be interpreted at least as a rough estimate of
changes occurring also in other brain areas (sensory and motor).
The use of a movement training capable of producing measurable changes

in the cortical organization of sensory areas shows that changes in one
zone can be accompanied by changes in other areas. This information is
important when interpreting the available evidence regarding occupational
cramps. Our results are in line with evidence previously presented by
means of other motor trainings used in healthy volunteers (Pleger et
al., 2003). Recently, such results have been confirmed in professional
violin players who showed a high correlation between cortical sensory
and motor representations of the hands. In particular, a right-larger-
than-left hemisphere asymmetry was shown which was not correlated
with performance of movements used during the experimental tasks. In
these tasks, there were no performance differences between musicians
and non-musicians, indicating that the observed differences in hand
representation most probably arise from history of hand use and do not
generalize to other motor tasks (Schwenkreis et al., 2007). More over,
multimodal brain plasticity studies involving musicians also point in this
direction and demonstrate the intricate relationship among sensory and
motor brain areas (Lappe, Herholz, Trainor, & Pantev, 2008).
It has been shown that inhibition (DeLong & Wichmann, 2007; Mink, 2003;
Sohn & Hallett, 2004), plasticity (Elbert et al., 1998; Quartarone et al., 2005;
Quartarone et al., 2008; Quartarone et al., 2006) and sensory function in
sensorimotor brain circuits are defective in focal dystonia (Abbruzzese &
Berardelli, 2003; Grunewald, Yoneda, Shipman, & Sagar, 1997). While it
is unclear which is the role of the identified pathophysiological changes
in focal dystonia, presumably, and most importantly, the environmental
precipitant of a possible genetic predisposition (considered to be of low
penetrance (Nemeth, 2002)) is a long period of repetitive movement
behaviors (Hallett, 2006). Some other facts underscore the importance
of behavior for the development of the disorder. For example, similar
symptoms are observed in musicians who play different musical
instruments, suggesting that some specific work demands, common to
most musical instruments, make some fingers more prone to become
dystonic (Conti et al., 2008; Rosset-Llobet et al., 2007).
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By now, the organizational complexity of sensory and motor systems adds
more unanswered questions than clear responses to different aspects
such as the development, appearance and maintenance of focal dystonia
(Grunewald, 2007). Motor information is widely distributed in populations
of neurons in several motor cortical areas, and the relative contribution of
these areas may change depending on training level, training experience
and demands of the motor task (Laubach, Wessberg, & Nicolelis, 2000;
Wessberg et al., 2000). That is to say, even uncovering plasticity in the
brain cortex does not mean that the only or even the primary site of
plasticity (e.g. site of disturbance) is in the cortex (Buonomano &
Merzenich, 1998). The same is true for subcortical areas. In line with
this assumption and the well established concept of “distributed neural
coding” (Nicolelis, 2003; Nicolelis et al., 2003), it has been demonstrated
that transient interruption of peripheral sensory information triggers a
system-wide reorganization at cortical and subcortical levels (Faggin et
al., 1997). Consequently, in a system composed of different elements all
interacting with each other, changes in one of these elements may have
direct or indirect repercussions in many if not all other components of the
whole system.
Because we did not study other aspects of brain dynamics taking

place in the motor cortex, the basal ganglia, or other brain structures
probably involved in focal hand dystonia, further research should “fill the
gap,” whereby animal models might help to formulate and to evaluate
corresponding hypotheses. The implementation of such hypotheses may
be well considered, because so far, similar organizational changes were
demonstrated in different species, giving support to the assumption that
such results can be generalized (Jain, Florence, & Kaas, 1998).
Reduction of practice times
The facts discussed above have several implications for professional

musicians. In light of the present evidence, any attempts aiming at
reducing practice times may be pivotal in order to prevent a burden like
musicians’ cramp. Important insights for the implementation of adequate
strategies may arise from research on for example motor imagery, as it
has been demonstrated that limb movements are not always required for
neural modulation to occur (Donoghue et al., 2007; Hochberg et al., 2006;
Pascual-Leone, 2001; Pascual-Leone et al., 1995). Furthermore, research
on off-line learning of motor sequences, in other words, additional motor
Victor Candia 83
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learning when training stops, particularly during sleep, may also give
important hints (Nishida & Walker, 2007; Walker, Brakefield, Hobson, &
Stickgold, 2003; Walker, Brakefield, Morgan, Hobson, & Stickgold, 2002;
Walker, Brakefield, Seidman et al., 2003; Walker, Stickgold, Alsop, Gaab,
& Schlaug, 2005).
The implementation of this knowledge into work routines is particularly

important considering that until now, performing musicians largely
depend on great amounts of muscular work over extended periods in time,
in order to accomplish their highly demanding objective (Hahnengress,
2002, 2003; Wagner, 1987). For example, practice times of up to 8 hours
a day were normal at the beginning of the 19th century and today these
amounts of practice are common to a high number of music students.
Historically, the recommendation to avoid exercising longer than 3 hours
a day has been made, yet only under the indication of “attended practice”
(Altenmüller, 1999). Probably, the usual situation of musicians (especially
students), very often confronted with high demanding performance
situations, is one requiring learning and performing motor tasks within
a time frame often defined far in advance, before a determined dexterity
level has been fully achieved. Uncertainty that requirements will be met by
the defined deadline is apparently the rule amongst musicians (Ostwald,
Baron, Byl, & Wilson, 1994). When motor control insecurities markedly
appear, the commonly used control strategy is to increase and intensify
practice times (Hildebrandt et al., 2002), exposing the musician to physical
danger and to chronic overtraining. This has been observed in musicians
at the beginning of their professional musical education (Hildebrandt et
al., 2002), and in those suffering from focal hand dystonia, at least in their
early attempts to remediate their burden.
Future directions
It can be speculated that interdisciplinary work involving musicians and

neuroscientists would be mutually revealing in solving problems like
focal hand dystonia, and in particular, for the elaboration of research-
grounded practice strategies needed to prevent musicians’ disorders
that are difficult to treat. Probably, concrete unsolved questions from
the musician’s perspective can be addressed by using experimental
methods, as musicians cannot escape to general physiological rules. Our
research has shown that musicians suffering from focal hand dystonia,
but also from other less severe pathologies, achieve important regains in
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performance levels under controlled conditions including limited practice
time, warm up, cool down, and rest protocols (Candia et al., 2005; Candia
et al., 2002; Candia et al., 2003; Rosset-Llobet & Odam, 2007).
Outlook
Neuroscience research shows that the functional organization of the brain
changes after skillful practice, but playing beyond physiological limits
can induce dysfunctional changes in the associated sensorimotor neural
networks. Musicians’ maladies give ground to believe that many of the
learning strategies musicians use are inadequate to efficiently achieve
and sustain the very high performance standards required today. While
professional musicians can look back on a long history of successful
performers, these achievements have been related to very high-risk
demands in physical and neural terms, as is the case for focal hand
dystonia, sometimes severely hampering the continuation of a successful
career.
We have demonstrated significant regains of hand control in professional

musicians suffering from focal hand dystonia, after administration of a
task-specific and skillful motor training that is grounded in neuroscience
knowledge. While our results must be considered preliminary due to the
low number of cases, the fact that each patient had a chronic condition,
which was intractable by means of other treatments, makes our data
particularly appealing. What is currently unknown is whether our results
are reflective of the establishment of a new motor program, a change
in the brain dynamics, which inhibits the expression of dystonia or the
reactivation of existent but not accessible functional motor programs.
While possible, the time demands to induce brain reorganization and
symptoms’ relief in focal hand dystonia are particularly high, and the
outcomes still uncertain. For the future, research-grounded learning
strategies might be best suited to develop and maintain the exquisite
levels of hand dexterity of professional musicians.
This work was supported in part by the cogito foundation and the Swiss
National Science Foundation.
Victor Candia 85
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•

•
Loosening Cramps, Inside and Outside

R. was in his early forties, called himself a “flute freak,” and worked as a
flute teacher in music schools. For the past 15 years he had been living
with a major problem: he had been a very ambitious flutist once, but his
hopes for a flourishing career had found a rather sudden end: after his final
university diploma, the ring finger of his left hand had started cramping
and had continued to do so ever since. The coping measures had included
repeated consultations with various medical specialists over all the years:
a year without playing at all, attempts to relearn playing with a different
technique, and physical therapy. He had stopped playing classical music
in concerts and had turned to improvisation instead which allowed him
to play without using the ring finger very much. He found that he was
doing okay; however, the persistence of this cramp was a constant cause
for feeling handicapped and at his limits. The inability to live the career
he had dreamed of (in the field where he chose to remain nonetheless)
was a cause for low self-esteem and constant self-doubts. Moreover, he
dared not admit his problem to his colleagues or to his students or their
parents. He was constantly afraid of being uncovered.
When we first met, R. was very concerned about his future as a teacher.
So far, he had managed the situation by hiding his defect. However, he
now taught very advanced students whom he wanted to demonstrate
elaborate pieces that demanded full control of all fingers. He felt he could
not teach them what they needed to be taught. This made him feel as if
he was not the teacher he could and wanted to be. Convinced now that
there was no medical help available for his problem, he wanted to try
coaching. He was looking for some kind of mental training that would
help him overcome his handicap on at least an emotional level.
R. and I worked together for one year, having sessions every 3 to 4 weeks.
The tools I used come from therapeutic approaches. My goal was to assist
R. in offering him ways to (re)discover his powers of fantasy, creativity
and emotion - and his easiness. I wanted to encourage him to loosen up
inside as it is my belief that any physical cramp has an inner equivalent
of some kind. As R. reported in the final session after one year, our work
resulted in a considerable rise of the following: joy of playing, self-esteem,
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feeling of self-efficacy, self-assurance in professional communication
(with students, their parents, superiors and colleagues), appreciation of
his achievements, multiple approaches to music, and last but not least,
the use of the finger concerned. On a 0 to 100 scale, 100 being full use,
R. put the functioning of his finger at 95.
How was this achieved? The focus in our work was on supporting R.’s
ability of self-help. There were several guidelines in the process of the
coaching:
Change of focus/orientation on goals

He had to define a clear goal for the coaching, and one at the beginning
of every session. He thus took the responsibility for what was happening
and his mind was set on discovering something worthwhile in-between
sessions, instead of being constantly fixed on avoiding situations where
his defect could be detected.
Change of perception
R. had to realize that even if he had a problem, he was not identified with
it. The question as to what were the benefits of the cramp was dazzling
to him at first, but resulted in the insight that he had actually developed
abilities he would have never had without the cramp. He had turned to
improvising, in fact even teaching improvisation; he had explored new
techniques, working together with artists of other fields, and he had gained
a broadened and intensified awareness. He could transfer to classical
music what he had discovered through improvising and exploring. He felt
that he had increased the variety of tools to offer to his students. Thus,
seeming flaws had resulted in the acquisition of strengths that added to
his uniqueness as a teacher.
Orientation on resources
R. had to (re)discover some of his resources and to find out how to
activate them deliberately. For this purpose, he explored his personal
patterns of excellence. This process involved a high increase of self- and
body-awareness. R. learned to clearly identify his ways of performing
successfully, success meaning “in a way that he was absolutely certain
he would do well before, and was content and happy with after.” He had to
become aware of the body sensations, sensual perceptions and emotions
that went along with a felt success. He realized all that when looking
•
at something he did exceptionally well in his everyday life - cooking.
He then learned to transfer his findings to situations he encountered
in his professional environment. For example, he started to deliberately
take a certain stance when starting to play flute, thus signaling his body
and mind: “I like to do this, and I know I can do it well!” This replaced a
hitherto automated program that had been ignited every time he looked
at a score, including a specific tight sensation in his breast and a voice in
his head that said “Well, let’s see whether it will work.”
Enhancing creativity
This included work on two levels: working on R.’s powers of deliberate
imaging, and working with the instrument. Here is one example:
In a guided imagery, he found his personal “Place of Power.” He found

himself on a Caribbean island. In his imagination, he experienced this place
with all his senses and was aware of his body reactions. He then made
a drawing of it in colors, and wrote down all the items that for him were
part of experiencing this empowering situation: certain colors, a special
shade of light, a specific temperature, particular kinesthetic qualities, etc.
Thus, he had found a very clear symbol for his personal access to a
feeling of power, and at the same time this image also functioned as a
key to “getting there.” After the session, he put the drawing on the wall
of his studio. Later in the session, he experimented on the flute: what did
his picture sound like? How could he transform the prominent colors to
sounds? He played a passage of one of the advanced pieces of literature
he worked on with his students in one of these colors (which included
literally coloring the copy of the music first), and explored the change in
character and sound, when he took other colors, etc. He had fun doing
so. He thus rediscovered qualities in making music that originally had
been essential to him but that had been buried for a long time by a
very serious, technique-focused approach that had been dominant in his
academic studies - and in his teaching as well.
The process R. went through during the coaching opened his eyes to
the wealth he had available at his hands that he had been unable to
see before, when he had perceived himself as being deprived, suffering
and forced to deceive. He also had found a new, expanded focus for
his teaching: help his students become very fine flutists who find joy in
playing.
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Not ju
st motio
n but the
Gabriele Wulf · Rebecca Lewthwaite 95
•
Attentional and Motivational Influences on Motor

Performance and Learning
Abstract
Movement-based performance, such as musical performance, relies on
effective processing of task-related and other information. Musical and
other forms of motor performance, however, are inherently subject to
social influences because their expression is public and observable, or
could become so. While the social nature of movement-based achievement
activity contributes to enjoyment for participants and audiences, it may
also invoke the self-related cognitions and affect that can have potentially
detrimental effects on performance. Instructions or feedback provided
during practice may promote self-focused attention or may keep attention
focused on the movement task at hand. We review findings from different
lines of research, which suggest that a focus on the self hampers motor
performance and degrades the effectiveness of learning. Specifically,
we discuss studies related to the content of individuals’ thoughts
surrounding performance that are induced by instructions or feedback;
these thoughts pertain to attentional focus, normative feedback, and
performers’ conceptions of ability. Instructions or feedback that direct
performers’ attention to their body movements (internal focus), indicate
relatively poor performance, or portray a task as reflecting an inherent
ability, appear to promote a focus on the self. In contrast, those that direct
performers’ attention to the desired movement effect (external focus),
indicate good performance, or represent the task as a learnable skill,
promote a focus on the task, and facilitate movement automaticity and
more effective performance. Implications of these findings for music
pedagogy are discussed.
Musical performance often takes place in the presence of others, in-

cluding teachers, audiences, or juries in auditions or competitions. Thus,
a musician’s performance is often – formally or informally – evaluated
by others. This can create a state of self-consciousness, or self-focus,
that directs attention away from task-oriented processing and more of-
ten than not results in less-than-perfect performance (e.g., Baumeister,
1984; Baumeister & Steinhilber, 1984; Mornell, 2003). Attention directed
to the self can also result from other sources, such as explicit instructions
to focus on one’s movements, given by a teacher, or feedback suggest-
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ing that one is not doing well. Also, an individual’s belief that his or her
performance reflects fixed ability or innate talent establishes a perfor-
mance context that is implicitly or explicitly evaluative and ego-involving
(Nicholls, 1984) in nature. In recent years, there has been a confluence
of findings, from different lines of research, which suggest that a focus
on the self may be the common denominator that hampers motor perfor-
mance and degrades the effectiveness of learning. In contrast, a focus on
optimal task cues or undisrupted task-related processing would facilitate
movement performance. Such a task context may arise when individuals
adopt an external focus of attention, expect skill to develop incrementally,
and receive positive feedback regarding their performance.
Task-invoking Conditions
Task-effective
 External attentional focus instructions Processing
 Incremental skill instructions
 Positive performance feedback
Motor Learning
and Performance
Self-invoking Conditions
Self-directed
 Internal attentional focus instructions Processing
 Inherent ability instructions
 Negative performance feedback
Figure 1
A conceptual framework illustrating putative pathways in the relationships of

instructional and feedback variables through task- and self-related processing
to motor learning and performance.
Here, we examine and attempt to integrate formerly distinct lines of evi-

dence from research in motor learning that address instructions about a
desirable attentional focus for movement performers and beliefs about
the malleability of ability, as well as feedback that conveys information
about the relative level of skill one possesses. We argue that these diverse
forms of instructions and feedback share common pathways to learning
and performance. From a practical perspective, thoughts and emotions
associated with this social influence must be marshalled and controlled
•
in an integrated fashion with movement control requirements to pro-
duce superior musical and athletic performance. Individuals who coach,
teach, or train movement-dependent performers, utilize instructions be-
fore movement and feedback following performance to affect learning.
Much has been learned about instructions and feedback form, timing,
and content that can inform performers and their instructors (Schmidt
& Lee, 2005; Wulf, 2007b). Figure 1 presents a framework for organiz-
ing instructional and feedback conditions and their putative impacts on
task- and self-related processing that result in motor performance and
learning effects.
Focus of attention
In most situations that involve the learning of motor skills – including
sports, physical therapy, as well as music – it is not uncommon for
teachers to give instructions or feedback that refer to the performer’s
body movements. For example, a pianist might be told to hold her wrists
higher, or a flutist may be given instructions regarding when and how to
breathe. Yet, there is ample experimental evidence indicating that directing
attention to one’s movements, body parts, or the feel of the movement –
that is, adopting a so-called “internal focus” – is relatively ineffective.
In contrast, if an individual directs attention to the effects of his or her
movements on the environment (e.g., an implement, musical instrument,
or the fullness of the sound) – that is, adopts an “external focus” – this
results in generally more effective performance and learning (for a review,
see Wulf, 2007a, b). In this section, we review some findings related to
the effects of a performer’s attentional focus induced by instructions and
feedback, including its influence on performance under pressure, and
we discuss the reasons for those effects.
Instructions
Numerous studies have shown that a simple change in the wording of

instructions can have a significant impact on performance and learning.
For instance, instructing golfers to focus on the swing of the club (external
focus) has been demonstrated to lead to greater accuracy in the shots
than instructions to focus on the swing of their arms (internal focus) (Bell
& Hardy, 2008; Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999; Wulf & Su, 2007). Figure
2 shows the accuracy scores (higher scores indicate greater accuracy) of
novice golfers in internal focus, external focus, and control (no instruction)
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groups in the study by Wulf and Su (2007). During both practice and
retention, participants who adopted an external focus demonstrated
enhanced performance compared to the two other groups. Similarly, in
tennis (Wulf, McNevin, Fuchs, Ritter, & Toole, 2000), basketball (Zachry,
Wulf, Mercer, & Bezodis, 2005), dart throwing (Marchant, Clough, &
Crawshaw, 2007), volleyball and soccer (Wulf, McConnel, Gärtner, &
Schwarz, 2000), wording instructions in a way that attention is directed
to the (anticipated) trajectory of the ball or dart, for example, led to
increased movement accuracy compared with instructions referring to
the body part producing that effect. Several studies used balance tasks to
examine how individuals’ focus of attention affected their ability to reduce
postural sway in tasks that involved holding static balance positions
(e.g., Landers, Wulf, Guadagnoli, & Wallmann, 2005; McNevin & Wulf,
2003; Wulf, Mercer, McNevin, & Guadagnoli, 2004), minimize deviations
of a balance platform from the target horizontal position (Wulf, Höß, &
Prinz, 1998, Experiment 2; Wulf, McNevin, & Shea, 2001), or perform fast
and fluid motions on dynamic balance tasks (e.g., Totsika & Wulf, 2003;
Wulf et al., 1998, Experiment 1). Importantly, in studies that included
control conditions without attentional focus instructions (e.g., Landers,
Wulf, Wallmann, & Guadagnoli, 2005; Wulf et al., 1998, Experiment 1;
Wulf, Landers, Lewthwaite, & Töllner, 2009; Wulf & McNevin, 2003; Wulf,
Weigelt, Poulter, & McNevin, 2003), external focus instructions resulted
in more effective learning than both internal focus and no instructions.
Furthermore, there was no difference between internal focus instructions
and no instructions – suggesting performers without explicit attentional
instructions may perhaps spontaneously adopt an internal focus, and
that internal focus instructions are relatively ineffective, whereas those
instructions inducing an external focus enhance the learning process.
It is difficult to discern whether internal (and “control”) instructions are
themselves detrimental to learning and performance or whether external
instructions exert a salutary effect on those outcomes. External instructions
may organize or clarify internal processes in useful ways or may prevent
the relative degradation due to disruptive internal attentional foci and
their consequent processes.
Overall, the advantages of instructions promoting an external focus

have been shown for a variety of motor skills, levels of expertise, and
populations (including children and persons with motor impairments).
Importantly, an individual’s focus of attention not only influences
performance temporarily, but it affects the learning of motor skills (for
•
reviews, see Wulf, 2007a, b). While it has sometimes been claimed that an
internal focus of attention may be beneficial for novice performers (e.g.,
Beilock, Carr, MacMahon, & Starkes, 2002; Beilock, Bertenthal, McCoy,
& Carr, 2004; Gray, 2004), a close look at the particular instructions
provided to these individuals reveals a confounded mix of internal and
external attentional statements that render the conclusions regarding
internal attentional focus superiority difficult in those studies. We know
of only one study amongst over 50 studies of attentional focus effects
that has found exceptions to the general pattern of benefit from external
focus instructions with corresponding decrements in performance
and learning from internal instructions. In that exception, professional
acrobats exhibited better balance under control conditions than internal
and external instructions as provided by the experimenter (Wulf, 2008).
It may be that those expert performers have learned to adopt particular
(control) instructional sets superior to those chosen for them. No data
regarding their specific attentional foci are available.
Practice Retention
18
16
14
Accuracy Score x
12 External
10 Internal
Control
8
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 1
Blocks of 10 Trials
Figure 2
Accuracy scores of the external focus, internal focus, and control groups during
practice and retention in the study by Wulf and Su (2007, Experiment 1). Higher
scores reflect more accurate performance. Reprinted/adapted with permission
from Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 78, No. 4, 384-389, Copyright
2007 by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191.
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Feedback
A performer’s focus of attention can also be influenced by the feedback

she or he receives from a teacher. Similar to instructions, feedback is
often worded in a way that it induces an internal focus. In fact, this
may be one reason why feedback that is provided frequently can be
detrimental to learning (for reviews, see Schmidt, 1991; Swinnen, 1996;
Wulf & Shea, 2004). According to the predominant explanation for that
effect (“guidance hypothesis,” see Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984),
learners are thought to become dependent on the provided feedback
and neglect the processing of intrinsic feedback. Furthermore, frequent
feedback is assumed to result in excessive variability in performance
and thus prevent the learning of a stable movement pattern. In contrast,
a reduced relative frequency of feedback is assumed to allow learners
the opportunity to process their own intrinsic feedback, making them
relatively independent of the augmented information, and to promote
greater movement stability.
Yet, one may also argue that the feedback provided in most studies
examining feedback frequency effects may have induced an internal focus
of attention. For example, in one study, in which participants learned a
soccer throw-in, Weeks and Kordus (1998) gave feedback statements
such as “The feet, hips, knees, and shoulders should be aimed at the
target, feet shoulder-width apart” or “The arms should go over the head
during the throw and finish by being aimed at the target.” Thus, it is
possible that that the benefits of reducing feedback could have been due
to the relief this manipulation offered from the constant internal focus
induced by frequent feedback. Recent findings have been in line with
this view. Wulf, McConnel, Gärtner, and Schwarz (2002) first predicted,
and found, an interaction between the frequency of feedback and the
attentional focus induced by it: for the learning of a volleyball serve, a
reduced feedback frequency was more effective than feedback after
every trial when the feedback promoted an internal focus; in contrast,
when it induced an external focus, frequent feedback was more effective
than a reduced frequency.
Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Schiller, and Gentilini Ávila (2008) followed up on

those findings by replicating the Weeks and Kordus study (1998) study,
which used various (internal focus) feedback statements to teach
children a soccer throw-in task, and found learning benefits of providing
•
feedback only after every third trial (33%) as compared to after every trial
(100%). Chiviacowsky et al. (2008) simply “translated” those feedback
statements into ones that avoided references to the body movements
(e.g., hands, feet) and promoted more of an external focus (e.g., ball,
shoes) and found the opposite effect: learning of the movement form was
enhanced by 100% feedback relative to 33% feedback. These findings
indicate that the attentional focus induced by feedback is an important
factor in determining the effectiveness of feedback. These newer results
demonstrate that feedback promoting an external focus is not only more
effective that feedback inducing an internal focus, but that frequent
external focus feedback can help the learner maintain that focus, with
the result that learning is enhanced (Chiviacowsky et al., 2008; Shea &
Wulf, 1999; Wulf et al., 2002).
Performance under pressure

Motor skills often have to be performed in stressful situations. Pressure
to do well can be created, for example, by the presence of an audience
(e.g., Mornell, 2002), or the prospects of winning a competition (e.g.,
Baumeister, 1984). A few studies have examined whether practice with
an external focus can be beneficial for performance under pressure – and
when individuals are not able to focus externally (e.g., due to distracting
thoughts). The extant findings indicate that this appears to be the case.
In one study (Totsika & Wulf, 2003), a dynamic balance task (i.e., riding
a Pedalo) was used. After a practice phase with internal focus (i.e., push
feet forward) or external focus instructions (i.e., push boards under feet
forward), two groups of participants performed the task under (a) time
pressure, (b) riding backwards under time pressure, and (c) while counting
backwards in threes. On all transfer tests, those who had practiced
with an external focus outperformed participants who had adopted an
internal focus during practice. Thus, even when individuals performed
under stressful situations or when distracted (counting backwards), the
external focus instructions given during practice exerted their benefits.
Recent findings by Bell and Hardy (2008) were in line with those results. In
their study, skilled golfers were given internal or external focus instructions
and then asked to perform under pressure. Specifically, stress was
induced by informing them that their shots were going to be videotaped
and allegedly evaluated by a professional golfer, their scores would be
published in a league table, and they would receive a financial incentive
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to do well. Bell and Hardy’s (2008) results were clear in showing that the
external focus instructions produced greater accuracy in the shots than
the internal focus instructions.
Explanations for the benefits of an external focus
How can the performance and learning advantages of an external relative

to an internal focus be explained? An external focus of attention has
been found to facilitate movement automaticity (e.g., Wulf, McNevin, &
Shea, 2001). A focus on the movement effect promotes the utilization
of unconscious or automatic processes, while a focus on one’s own
movements results in a relatively conscious type of control, which tends
to constrain the motor system and disrupt automatic control processes
(“constrained action hypothesis,” see McNevin, Shea, & Wulf, 2003; Wulf,
McNevin, & Shea, 2001; Wulf, Shea, & Park, 2001). Support for this view
comes from a variety of studies. For example, it has been shown that
attentional demands are reduced when performers adopt an external as
opposed to an internal focus (Wulf, McNevin, & Shea, 2001). Furthermore,
the adoption of an external focus leads to a higher frequency of movement
adjustments compared to an internal focus (e.g., Wulf, McNevin, & Shea,
2001), which is seen as an indication of a more automatic, reflex-type
mode of control. Furthermore, electromyographic (EMG) activity has
been found to be reduced when participants adopt an external focus
(Marchant, Greig, & Scott, in press; Vance, Wulf, Töllner, McNevin, &
Mercer, 2004; Zachry, Wulf, Mercer, & Bezodis, 2005). This suggests
movement efficiency is enhanced by the external focus (for a review, see
Wulf & Lewthwaite, in press-b).
Normative feedback
Feedback provided to a learner can have both informational and
motivational functions (e.g., Schmidt & Lee, 2005; Schmidt & Wrisberg,
2008). It provides learners with information about their performance
in relation to the task goal and guidance for refinements needed. The
motivational function of feedback is thought to promote interest and
encourage continued effort and persistence. While the informational
role of feedback has received the most research attention, motivational
aspects have been largely neglected or have been assumed to exert only
temporary effects on performance (e.g., Schmidt & Lee, 2005). Yet, some
newer findings indicate that the motivational properties of feedback
•
can indeed have an important influence on motor learning. In one line
of research, normative feedback – that is, feedback indicating one’s
performance relative to others – has been shown to affect individuals’
motivation and learning. Some of these studies are reviewed next.
Experimental findings
Normative feedback involves norms such as a peer group’s actual or bogus
average performance scores. Information about relative performance may
be provided in addition to a participant’s personal performance score
(Bandura & Jourden, 1991; Johnson, Turban, Pieper, & Ng, 1996). Thus,
normative feedback, by definition, involves social comparison. Comparing
one’s performance and attributes (such as looks, attitudes, wealth,
skills) to those of others is a ubiquitous, frequent, often necessary, and
potentially helpful phenomenon (e.g., Bandura & Jourden, 1991; Butler,
1992; Festinger, 1954). Self-evaluations, based on comparisons with
others, can occur spontaneously, and sometimes without intention or
awareness (Stapel & Blanton, 2004). Providing individuals with normative
information, such as the “average” scores of learners on a given motor task,
can therefore be a potent basis for evaluation of personal performance.
If such normative comparisons are favorable for an individual, this may
result in increased self-efficacy (situation-specific self-confidence),
positive self-reactions, and task interest (Kavussanu & Roberts, 1996).
In contrast, negative comparisons with the “norm” might be expected to
degrade self-efficacy, produce more negative self-reactions, and reduce
motivation to practice a skill (Johnson et al., 1996).
Given the ubiquity of social comparison in settings that involve the

performance and learning of motor skills, Lewthwaite and Wulf (in press)
examined whether providing learners with normative feedback would
affect motor learning. Specifically, we asked whether informing individuals
of a (fabricated) average score of other performers, in addition to their own
score, would affect learning. We hypothesized that learning would benefit
if the feedback indicated to learners that their performance on a given
trial was better than that of the average performer, relative to feedback
denoting that their performance was poorer. Participants practiced a
novel balance task and were given their own veridical performance scores
after each trial (i.e., average deviation of the balance platform from the
horizontal in degrees). In addition, they were provided with the “average”
score of others, which was in fact calculated based on the participant’s
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own score on a given trial, and consisted of a score that was either 20%
above (“Better” group) or 20% below (“Worse” group) the participant’s
score.
The results showed that the conviction that one’s performance was
better than average was associated with more effective skill learning
than the belief that one’s performance was below average. The effects of
the normative feedback on performance were seen almost immediately,
with the Better group demonstrating more effective balance performance
than the Worse group throughout the practice phase (see Figure 3).
Importantly, the performance advantages of the Better group were
still seen when feedback was withdrawn in retention; the Better group
continued to outperform the Worse group on the delayed retention test,
suggesting that normative feedback indeed led to different degrees of
skill learning. Thus, the mere conviction of being “good” or “poor” at this
particular task influenced performance – essentially resulting in a self-
fulfilling prophecy.
20
18 Practice Retention
16
14 Better
Worse
12
RMSE (degrees)
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Trials
Figure 3
Balance performance (RMSE) of the Better and Worse groups during practice
and retention in the study Lewthwaite and Wulf (in press). Higher RMSE scores
reflect greater errors or deviations from the horizontal platform position.
•
Lewthwaite and Wulf (in press) also examined the frequency with which
movement adjustments were made in order to remain in balance. This
measure (“mean power frequency,” MPF) has been used as an indicator
of automaticity in balance-related movement tasks (e.g., McNevin,
Shea, & Wulf, 2003; Wulf, McNevin, & Shea, 2001; Wulf, Shea, & Park,
2001; Wulf, Mercer, McNevin, & Guadagnoli, 2004). Higher frequencies
of adjustments are presumed to be reflexive, or automatic, rather than
cognitively controlled. Interestingly, the Better group participants in the
Lewthwaite and Wulf (in press) study demonstrated higher frequencies
than did Worse group participants. Thus, the normative feedback
produced qualitative differences in participants’ control of movements
as well; feedback indicating that individuals performed above average
effected greater automaticity in movement control.
Explanations for the effects of normative feedback
“Positive” or “negative” feedback has an effect on learners’ motivation

(Bandura & Jourden, 1991; Ilies & Judge, 2005) which, in turn, appears
to affect performance and learning. In studies examining self-controlled
feedback, for example, learners indicated that they preferred to receive
feedback, and chose feedback, more frequently after relatively successful
trials (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002; Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Laroque de
Medeiros, & Kaefer, 2008). In fact, feedback after “good” trials has been
demonstrated to enhance learning compared to feedback after “poor”
trials (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2007; Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Wally, & Borges,
in press). In the Lewthwaite and Wulf (in press) study, there were
similar indications from questionnaire results. Participants in the Better
group rated the “usefulness” of the normative feedback higher than did
participants in the Worse group. Furthermore, in a follow-up study by
Wulf and Lewthwaite (2009) using the same task and similar design,
participants in the Worse group responded more negatively to the question
regarding how they felt after receiving the normative feedback than did
Better group participants. In addition, Worse group participants reported
significantly greater degrees of nervousness both while balancing and
while waiting for the feedback.
Thus, it appears that normative performance feedback influences the

cognitive perception of personal capability (e.g., self-efficacy expectations,
perceived competence) and creates positive or negative affect experienced
for the self (e.g., Bandura, 1990; 1997; Bandura & Jourden, 1991). Self-
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efficacy expectations, in turn, may influence individuals’ goal setting,
effort, and attention to task performance. Recent neuroscientific evidence
links positive affect to the dopamine processing that supports sequence
learning (Siessmeier, Kienast, Wrase, et al., 2006). Negative affect may
also dampen, or interfere with, memory processing (Kuhlmann, Piel, &
Wolf, 2005). In the section on “Focus on the self,” we discuss additional
factors that may be responsible for the effects of normative feedback on
motor learning.
Conceptions of ability
“Musical talent” or “musical ability” is an attribute that is often ascribed to

exceptional performers. Abilities are assumed to determine an individual’s
potential for achieving success in music or other domains. In the past few
years, a number of researchers have asked how people’s conceptions of
key abilities affect their motivation and performance. Specifically, this
line of research has examined whether people view their abilities as
something that is genetically determined (i.e., reflecting a fixed capacity)
versus something that is amenable to change with practice influences
their motivation and learning. Here, we review some of the findings related
to how individuals’ conceptions of abilities affect their performance, and
particularly the learning of motor skills.
Experimental findings
Spearheaded by Dweck and her colleagues, numerous studies have
demonstrated that individuals’ conceptualizations of ability have an effect
on their level of achievement in given activities (e.g., Dweck & Leggett,
1988; Mangels et al., 2006). In general, people tend to differ in their beliefs
as to whether abilities are generally stable and fixed (“entity theorists”)
or learnable and malleable (“incremental theorists”) (e.g., Dweck, 1999;
Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Entity theorists are concerned with proving
their ability by outperforming others. Negative feedback is perceived by
them as a threat to the self because it reveals an available level of ability
that is less than optimal. As a consequence, they show less effort and
persistence in difficult situations that may demonstrate the limits of their
ability, and they may even avoid situations in which they don’t perform
well. In contrast, people who subscribe to incremental theories are more
focused on learning and improving their performance on a given task.
They tend to be more intrinsically motivated and to seek challenging
•
situations. When confronted with difficulties, they try to overcome those
by increasing their effort.
Mangels and colleagues (2006) demonstrated how people’s theories of

intelligence can influence the learning of new information. In that study,
groups of participants were selected on the basis of their conceptions of
intelligence (entity versus incremental theorists). The first phase of the
experiment consisted of a knowledge test. After each question, feedback
about the correctness of their answer, as well the correct answer, were
provided. This was followed by a surprise retention test which consisted of
questions that they had answered incorrectly earlier. Incremental theorists
showed greater improvements on this test than did entity theorists –
suggesting that they learned more from their earlier mistakes.
Concepts of ability can be shaped early in life, and presumably reflect

a person’s past experience (e.g., success/failure histories, feedback) in
relevant achievement situations. An example of how conceptions of ability
can be acquired comes from a study by Cimpian, Arce, Markman, and
Dweck (2007). They found that, in 4-year-old children, self-evaluation and
persistence on a drawing task were affected by minor differences in the
wording of feedback, which either implied that their performance reflected
an inherent ability or a situational application of skill. Children, who were
given feedback suggesting that drawing performance was based on an
inherent ability, showed more negative self-evaluative responses and less
inclination to continue drawing after mistakes. Because mistakes or poor
performance reflect on the person’s underlying “fixed” ability, motivation
and interest in the activity can be dampened.
Even though most adults have certain ability conceptions, these can
also be influenced by instructions given in a learning situation. Some
researchers have manipulated those conceptions to assess their influence
on individuals’ motivation and performance of motor skills (e.g., Belcher,
Lee, Solmon, & Harrison, 2003; Jourden, Bandura, & Banfield, 1991; Li,
Lee, & Solmon, 2005, 2008). For example, Jourden and colleagues (1991)
used a pursuit rotor task, requiring participants to track a moving cursor
with a stylus. They told participants in an inherent aptitude condition that
the apparatus measured their natural capacity for processing dynamic
information. In the acquirable skill condition, participants were informed
that the task represented a learnable skill. Those in the latter group showed
greater self-efficacy, more positive affective self-reactions, and expressed
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•
greater interest in the task. Moreover, individuals in the acquirable skill
group also demonstrated a greater improvement across trials than did
those in the inherent aptitude group. Unfortunately, they did not assess
learning in delayed retention or transfer tests without instructions (see
Schmidt & Lee, 2005, for a discussion of the importance of retention or
transfer phases of experiments that purport to assess learning).
In a more recent study, Wulf and Lewthwaite (in press-a) examined the
influence of (instructionally induced) concepts of ability on the learning
of a balance task by using delayed retention testing. Ability concepts
were induced through instructions depicting performance on the task
as something that reflected either an inherent ability for balance or an
acquirable skill. All participants practiced the task on two days, with
concept-of-ability instructions/reminders provided at the beginning of
each of those days. Learning was assessed in a retention test without
instructions on the third day. On the retention test, the acquirable-skill
group showed a greater improvement across trials than did the inherent-
Practice Retention
0.32
0.3
MPF (Hz)
0.28 Inherent ability
0.26
Acquirable
skill
0.24
0.22
1 2 3
Days
Figure 4
Mean power frequencies (MPF) of platform adjustments of the Inherent Ability

and Acquirable Skill groups during practice and retention in the study by Wulf &
Lewthwaite (in press-a). Higher MPF values indicate the higher frequency/lower
amplitude platform adjustments reflective of more reflexive types of control, or
automaticity.
•
ability group. Moreover, that group also produced a higher frequency of
movement adjustments (see Figure 4), indicating greater automaticity in
performance. Thus, instructions portraying the task as an acquirable skill
resulted in more effective learning than did instructions intimating that
performance reflected an inherent capacity.
Explanations for the effects of ability conceptions

The construction of a task as something that reveals one’s inherent
capacity may act as a threat to one’s ego. Learners who view a task
as a reflection of an inherent ability presumably approach the learning
situation with more apprehension than those who see task performance
as an acquirable skill. This, in turn, may hinder the learning process,
compared to a situation that is regarded by the performer simply as a
learning opportunity.
Similar to the variables discussed above (i.e., attentional focus and

normative feedback), a person’s ability conception appears to affect the
extent to which he or she becomes self-conscious – with concomitant
effects on motor performance and learning. We suspect that the common
denominator of those manipulations is that they induce a focus on the
self. In the following section, we elaborate on this view.
Focus on the self

Instructions or feedback which promote an internal focus of attention,
indicate that one’s performance is below average, or portray a task as
something that reflects an inherent ability presumably direct attention
to the self. Wulf and Lewthwaite (in press-b) hypothesized that internal
attentional focus instructions, with their references to the body, may
serve to trigger thoughts about the self (i.e., body as self). We termed this
mechanism the “self-invoking trigger”. Other conditions may also enjoin
self-related cognition and affect. Self-consciousness, or self-focus, may
lead readily to self-evaluation and activate self-regulatory processes in
attempts to manage thoughts and affective responses (Carver & Scheier,
1978). It is assumed that this sequence of self-related processing may at
times be unconscious (Bargh & Marosella, 2008; Chartrand & Bargh, 2002),
although it may often rise into consciousness. This activity may produce
ongoing “micro-choking” episodes, with attempts to right thoughts and
bring emotions under control.
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•
Support for the view that the self-invoking trigger may play a role in
attentional focus, normative feedback, and ability concept effects comes
from analyses of the frequency of movement adjustments. Performers
whose attention was directed to their body movements, produced lower-
frequency adjustments than did those whose attention was directed to
the effects of their movements on the environment (e.g., Wulf et al., 2001).
Similarly, individuals who believed that their performance was below
average (e.g., Lewthwaite & Wulf, in press), or who viewed the task as
reflecting an inherent, fixed ability (e.g., Wulf & Lewthwaite, in press-a),
demonstrated slower adjustments – indicating conscious control attempts.
In contrast, self-related concerns were presumably alleviated by external
focus instructions, feedback indicating that performance was above
average, or instructions to view the task as a learnable skill – resulting in
reduced active intervention into control processes, or greater movement
automaticity.
When movement skills are automated, some degree of self-regulatory

activity may be accommodated through available “excess” attentional
capacity (e.g., Beilock et al., 2002). However, cognitive and affective
activity ensuing from ubiquitous social influences (e.g., Stapel & Blanton,
2004) and self-evaluation may eventually redirect attention to active
attempts at negative thought and emotion suppression or substitution.
The switching of attention to this self-regulatory activity may necessitate
or activate a switching of control for the concurrent motor task from
a more automatic mode to one involving conscious control in efforts
to re-establish control over movement. Alternatively, efforts to manage
self-related thoughts and emotions may be so demanding that available
attentional capacity is exceeded and performance suffers, prompting the
individual to attempt task- and self-related regulatory activity, which may
promote a more conscious control of both movement and self-regulatory
activities (see Sarter et al., 2006).
Implications for music practice

The findings reviewed above suggest that a focus on the self – was can
be induced through instructions, feedback, or an individual’s conceptions
of his or her ability – tends to have detrimental effects of performance.
Even more importantly, it can degrade the learning of motor skills and
affect a person’s achievement levels in the long term. Although studies
related to music performance are still limited, the findings discussed here
•
have been shown to generalize to a variety of skills, as well as different
populations and age groups, suggesting that these findings might have
important implications for the training of musicians as well.
Instructions or feedback that do not trigger self-related thoughts, or at least

minimize their occurrence, would be expected to result in more effective
performance and learning than those that do. For example, instead of
directing a piano student’s attention to her finger movements, a teacher
could describe the effect to be achieved, such as “the melody line should
push forward and climb towards the climax” or “the accompaniment is
like a peaceful ocean of sound” (Wulf & Mornell, 2008). Also, instead of
asking a flutist to focus on the tension of his lips, a teacher could give
feedback by directing his attention to the flow of air (produced by the
lip opening) (Saxer, 2004). The external focus induced by those types of
instructions should promote greater movement automaticity and enhance
performance and learning.
Normative feedback may not always be given explicitly. But teachers

should be aware that comparisons with others often occur spontaneously
and sometimes without conscious awareness (Stapel & Blanton,
2004). If the (subjective) self-evaluation yields unfavorable results for
an individual, it may hamper the learning process. Therefore, rather
than directing learning learners’ attention to comparisons with others,
teachers could direct their attention to their performance improvements.
Also, while feedback involving corrections, or providing suggestions for
improvements, is important for continued progress, it should be kept in
mind that feedback also has an important motivational role. “Positive”
feedback, highlighting good aspects of, and advances in, an individual’s
performance will also benefit the learning process. Positive feedback may
be particularly critical early in the acquisition process when learners are
making decisions about the enjoyment or aversiveness of the experience
with a given activity.
Learning has been shown to be facilitated by instructions inducing

an incremental relative to an entity theory of abilities (e.g., Dweck &
Leggett, 1988; Wulf & Lewthwaite, in press-a). Importantly, malleable
ability instructions can override dispositional conceptions of ability that
participants may have previously developed. Consequently, practitioners
should avoid ascriptions of natural abilities in motor performance, even
if they may promote a strong sense of pride under conditions of success.
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•
Rather, instructions or feedback should focus on learners’ improvements
or effort invested in practice. As Cimpian et al. (2007) have demonstrated,
even small differences in wording can have an important influence on
individuals’ motivation and continued interest in a task.
The detrimental effects of a self-directed focus on musical performance

have also been discovered by some practitioners. Rawlins (2008) gave
the following example:
“Imagine the conscientious student having these thoughts during a practice
session: ‘Okay, breathe deep, use the diaphragm, and support the air column.
Now open your throat. Hold your head up, relax the jaw, and keep the lips firm.
Gently curve the fingers, but don’t use too much pressure.’ And so forth. These
are all wonderful suggestions, in themselves, but this kind of incessant self-
nagging is bound to have negative consequences. The human body is a highly
complex mechanism and regularly performs many intricate skills on its own.
Tedious minute-by-minute instructions given by the conscious mind can easily
turn into distractions, inhibiting rather than promoting optimum performance.”
Rawlins (2008) also realized that, rather than trying to exert conscious
control over one’s actions, focusing on the effect one wants to achieve is
more effective. For a musician, an obvious movement effect would be the
desired sound:
“The most important factor in any endeavor is to have a clearly defined goal. For
the musician, this goal will be in the form of an aural image. The student must
clearly hear the sound that is desired and then allow the body to reproduce that
sound through the instrument. It’s the objective, not the means of achieving it,
that is the object of concentration… Concentrate on sound. The one primary
area of focus that should always receive a performer’s full attention is the sound
that is desired.”
Even if teachers give instructions that seem to promote a self-related

attentional focus, Rawlins (2008) encourages students to translate them
into “aural images:”
“If a teacher tells a student to use a certain lip pressure, it’s obviously because
something was wrong with the sound. Most likely, the teacher heard a pinched
sound and knew from experience that too much lip pressure can cause such
a problem. The job for the student is to find the improved sound that results
from less lip pressure and to hold that as an aural image. Instead of thinking
of the feeling in the lip … focus on the improved sound that results from less
pressure.”
•
Thus, experimental and anecdotal findings seem to provide converging
evidence of the detrimental effects of self-directed attention. Humans
may have a propensity to focus on the self – especially when performing
publicly. These tendencies are presumably exacerbated in many practical
settings through instructions or feedback provided to the learners. In the
present chapter, we have suggested ways to counteract this tendency. As
we have demonstrated, simple changes in the wording of instructions or
feedback can have a beneficial effect on performance and learning.
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72, 335-344.
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Focus!
Are we musicians focusing on something specific during performance, or
are our thoughts “washed away” by the music? If we can focus, what do
we focus on, and how does this focus effect our playing?
In an experiment designed by Adina Mornell and Gabriele Wulf and

done at the University of Music and Performing Arts Graz, we looked
for possible answers by examining the two types of focus, “internal” and
“external.” As defined in the chapter here by Gabriele Wulf and Rebecca
Lewthwaite, internal focus means attention to body movements, while
external focus targets the effects of movements.
Our participants’ task was to play a short piece of music several times
in a row. We attempted to manipulate focus through verbal instructions
given to the participating musicians prior to each of three trials. After a
practice run-through, each participant was given internal focus, external
focus, or control – no specific focus – instructions as follows:
INTERNAL Evaluation of this performance will be based upon technical

perfection. Try to reproduce the music as accurately as
possible. Make your best effort and concentrate on the
precision of your fingers.
EXTERNAL Evaluation of this performance will be based upon musical

expression. Try to make beautiful music and think of the
piece as a whole. Play for the audience and keep the
meaning of the music in mind.
CONTROL Please play the way you normally play.
The order of the three instructions given was varied so that position
effects could be minimized, and video recordings were made of all
trials. Immediately afterwards, interviews were conducted in which the
participants were asked to recount their performance experience. We
wanted to know whether they actually followed the focus instruction,
and about their prior experience with the piece we had recorded, i.e.,
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whether it had been played in public before or had just recently been
brought up to performance standard. Expert musicians then rated the
three recordings, with no knowledge of the purpose of the experiment or
of the focus conditions.
The following excerpt from the translation of one of interviews (originally

in German) supported our hypothesis: the benefit of external focus.
Regarding this trial:
“Playing with the concentration on my playing: that was my most successful
performance. I could really get into the music. I actually switched off everything
else around me, I just played – with dynamics and expression and so on.”
Concerning the performance with internal focus, the player remembered

the following:
“Concentrating on the technique, even though the piece was very easy, I
suddenly thought: ‘Oh my God! Am I playing right? Are my fingers in the right
place?’ and promptly, my fingers weren’t doing what they were supposed to be
doing.”
This performer’s memory and evaluation of the trials was affirmed by

the experts’ evaluation of these performances. Both the detailed rating
of musical and technical criteria, as well as the judgment of the music
taken as a whole, demonstrated the superiority of the performance with
external focus (see figure below).
Musically Correct Style

Phrasing/ Dynamic
Sound/ Tone
Concentration
Stage Presence Internal Focus
Technical Ability External Focus
Musical Expression
Overall Impression
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Very Good Poor

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Not ju
st motio
n but the motion
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Beating Time: The Role of Kinaesthetic Learning in the

Development of Mental Representations for Music
Background: musicians’ mental representations
When musicians perform from memory, they draw on mental representa-
tions that can take a variety of forms: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and/
or analytic. These enable musicians to give performances that are both
stable, insofar as repeated renditions of the same work can be said to
be the same, and flexible, insofar as performers are capable of respond-
ing to changing demands, for example in the context of accompaniment
(Lehmann & Ericsson, 1995). In a detailed study of a pianist preparing
to perform Bach’s Italian Concerto over the course of 33 hours practice,
Chaffin, Imreh and Crawford (2002) showed how mental representations
are formed. Mental representations are for a specific piece of music; the
same pianist had very different representations for the Italian Concerto
and Debussy’s Clair de Lune (Chaffin, 2005). However it is clear from the
findings of several longitudinal case studies that the nature of a musi-
cian’s mental representations is also determined by the way he or she
practices and rehearses. Perfomers studied in this way to date include a
jazz pianist (Noice, Chaffin, Noice, Jeffrey, & Pelletier, 2004) and a cellist
(Lisboa, Chaffin, Schiarella, & Barrera, 2004; Logan, Begosh, Chaffin, &
Lisboa, 2007), as well as the singer whose practice, rehearsal and recall
forms the basis of the research outlined in this chapter.
While a great deal of research into the cognitive processes underlying

musicians’ practice and performance investigates soloists, singers –
like most instrumentalists other than pianists – typically rehearse and
perform with other musicians. I have been investigating singers’ mental
representations for music for nearly a decade (e.g. Ginsborg, 2003, 2004ab)
but in recent years my colleagues and I have also turned our attention
to the negotiation and development of shared mental representations
using not only the longitudinal case study approach (Ginsborg, Chaffin
& Nicholson, 2006a) – in which I am the subject of the case study – but
also the observation of groups of singer-pianist duos (Ginsborg & King,
2007ab). In this chapter, however, I report that aspect of the case study,
carried out in collaboration with Roger Chaffin, which helps to elucidate
the role of bodily movement – loosely, ‘gesture’ – in the formation of an
individual’s kinaesthetic representation of metre and rhythm.
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Musical features and performance cues

The method pioneered by Chaffin and his colleagues to investigate the
development of musicians’ mental representations requires performers to
provide verbal commentaries as they practice, video-record their practice
sessions, and annotate the musical scores of the works they play after
they have performed from memory. Then they are asked to report the
features of the music to which they remember paying particular attention
when they were practicing (musical features), and which of those features
they thought functioned as ‘landmarks’ or retrieval cues when they were
actually performing (performance cues).
Analysis of the data sets provided by the two pianists, cellist and singer
(myself) confirms that even though this information was provided weeks
after we had started practicing, in some cases, our recorded practice
behaviours – where we started each practice segment, where we stopped,
and how many times we repeated it – was associated with musical
features and performance cues identified subsequently, suggesting that
mental representations for a whole piece determine practice from the
earliest stages. They may be better predictors of behavior, in fact, than
the concurrent verbal commentaries made by the soloist to the camera
during individual practice sessions, and – in the case of the research
into the development of shared mental representations – the discussions
between two musicians preparing for ensemble performance (Ginsborg,
Chaffin & Nicholson, 2006b).
Aim and research questions

The aim of the present study, however, was to investigate the role of
kinaesthetic learning in the development of mental representations. Our
strategy was to note the kinds of body movements that I made while
practicing or rehearsing. It must be emphasized that these movements
– observed also in video-recordings of other singers’ practice sessions
(King & Ginsborg, in preparation) – are only to be seen in rehearsal. Ideally,
they are suppressed in performance, unlike the gestures that enhance
solo (Davidson, 1993, 2001) and ensemble performance (Williamon &
Davidson, 2002; King & Ginsborg, in preparation). While rock and jazz
musicians often tap their feet or click a pulse, it is rare for audiences to
see a classically-trained singer openly ‘beating time.
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We asked three questions:
• What movements did I use?

• When did I use them during the course of four weeks’
practice and rehearsal?
• Where did I use them, in relation to the musical features
and performance cues identified in the music after the
performance?
The most frequently used types of movement, and therefore the ones we
chose to track, were
1. pulse-beating (beating time)

2. conducting (drawing ‘conducting patterns’)
3. gesturing.
4. We also looked at the occasions when I was not moving, or
hardly moving at all.
Method
Participants
It was purely for practical reasons that I was one of the performers in
the study. Conceived both as a contribution to the development of the
longitudinal case study method and as a pilot for future research (now
undertaken) with other singer-pianist duos, it was planned at a time (in
the autumn of 2003) when I was a lecturer in a university psychology
department without easy access to other expert musicians who were likely
to be willing participants. I was a full-time professional singer for many
years, performing regularly with the pianist, conductor and composer
George Nicholson as a duo, and as members of a variety of ensembles.
Materials
I had been asked to take part in a performance of Stravinsky’s Cantata for

two solo singers, women’s choir and small instrumental ensemble. One
movement, Ricercar I (roughly 4 minutes in length) is for solo soprano
and instrumental ensemble, and the study tracked my individual practice
sessions and rehearsals of this movement.
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Procedure
1) Practice, rehearsal and performance
From mid-November to mid-December 2003, I undertook five individual

practice sessions lasting about four and a quarter hours and four joint
rehearsals with the conductor acting as rehearsal pianist lasting two and
three-quarter hours.
These nine practice sessions and rehearsals were video-recorded and

analyzed, but not three rehearsals with the instrumental ensemble which
lasted just under an hour in all. We have reported analyses including the
pianist/conductor’s individual practice session elsewhere (Ginsborg et
al., 2006a). A public performance of the complete Cantata was given, with
George Nicholson conducting, on 16 December 2003.
For the purposes of analysis the practice sessions and rehearsals were
combined into four periods – the singer learning and memorizing alone;
the first joint rehearsal; the singer’s practice session that followed, in
preparation for the final joint rehearsals, and those joint rehearsals in the
run-up to the performance itself.
2) Reports
Soon after the performance we used the procedure developed by Roger

Chaffin, described above, to report our understanding of the formal
structure of the piece, the features that required decisions to be made while
we were rehearsing and the landmarks we were aware of using during
the performance for retrieval. We subsequently categorized these into
basic, interpretive and expressive decisions, and retrieval or performance
cues. These reports were made in the form of annotations on multiple
copies of the musical scores. We then discussed the landmarks we had
both used: the shared performance cues (SPCs).
An example of one page of the score showing how we reported these

landmarks in the form of the annotations we made is provided in Figure
1, below. I underlined the syllable “ter” because I recalled thinking –
as I was singing, during the performance a few days earlier – “I must
remember to stress that part of the word in order to get the meaning over
to the audience”. The pianist/conductor too reported thinking at the time,
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“Jane’s going to stress that word and it has to be absolutely together
with the chord on the first quaver of the cello part so that we make it
sound as though the music is ‘binding to earth.’” We had rehearsed the
rubato represented by the squiggly line, and had agreed that the first
crotchet of the last but one bar, on “sing,” is a gathering point where all
the instruments come together. The arrow after the comma represents
the pianist/conductor’s and my shared awareness that we had to start the
“Amen” absolutely together, and that I would be thinking of the cadence
and coming off from the moment of the ringed cello pizzicato.
These annotations are called shared performance cues because they

were made jointly and referred to the performance. We categorized the
underlining on “ter” and the way it represented “binding to earth,” and
the squiggle representing rubato, as ‘expressive,’ because they were to do
with the way we conveyed our interpretation of the composer’s intentions
to the audience. We categorized the “gathering point,” “cadence,” and
“off” as “basic,” because they were self-evident – to us, at least – from
the score.
Figure 1: Example of annotations representing shared performance

cues
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In all, I made 12 types of annotation representing features requiring
decisions during practice and rehearsal and five types of annotation
representing individual performance cues. Together, the pianist/conductor
and I made seven types of annotation representing shared performance
cues. We reduced these 24 features and cues to 16 by grouping
annotations that, we agreed, fulfilled similar functions. Tables 1 (singer)
and 2 (singer and pianist/conductor) below show the type of feature or
cue represented by each annotation, the ‘name’ of each annotation (these
are headed ‘predictor variables’ since we would subsequently use them
as such in a multiple regression analysis) and the number of locations of
each annotation or group of annotations, out of a possible total of 250,
the number of beats in the piece.
As shown in Table 1 (below), performance cues are a subset of features.

For example I wrote “count” or “listen” or “think” or “watch” (which we
subsumed into a single category “Prepare”) at 35 locations in the music,
but when asked to say where I remembered counting, listening, thinking
or watching during the performance itself, I only identified 20 locations.
Table 1: Singer’s annotations representing features and individual

performance cues
Type of feature/ Predictor variable No. of

PC locations
Structural Start of section 9
Switch 7
Start of phrase 28
Basic Prepare (count, listen, think, watch) 35
Basic words (pronunciation) 25
Breath/technical 45
Interpretive Words (interpretation i.e. meaning) 29
Dynamics/tempo 8
Expressive Expressive 15
Basic PC Prepare PC 20
Technical (including breath) PC 14
Interpretive PC Stress on words (pronunciation + 28
meaning) PC
Expressive PC Expressive PC 12
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Table 2: Singer’s and pianist/conductor’s annotations representing
shared performance cues
Type of Predictor variable No. of

SPC locations
Basic SPC Score SPC (cue entry, co-ordinate rhythm, 11
cadence)
Arrival/off SPC 8
Expressive Expressive SPC 5
SPC
3) Coding rehearsal behaviour
Finally, we coded rehearsal behaviour. This involved noting from the video-
recordings of the practice sessions and rehearsals where we where we
started playing and singing from and where we stopped – in other words,
which segments of the music we worked on and how often we repeated
them. We can illustrate starts, stops and repetitions using graphs such as
the one illustrated in Figure 2.
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This graph – and all those that follow – are read from left to right, i.e. from
the beginning of the score to the end, and from bottom to top, with a line
representing each segment of the piece that was worked on. Thus the
first half of Session 1 was spent on the first two-thirds of the piece, and
the second half on the final third, working on shorter segments. The bulk
of Session 2 was also spent on the final third, with considerable evidence
of combining short segments into longer runs. Here it is clear from the
graph that I started memorizing (represented by the black lines) when I
started working from the beginning in the second session. We then went
on to code the body movement that accompanied each of my practice
segments. We only did this for me, as the singer, since I was preparing
to perform from memory; the pianist was playing – and would also be
conducting – from the score. Our preliminary analysis of the video-
recordings showed that the three main categories of movement I made
were pulse-beating, conducting and gesturing; we therefore asked an
independent judge, Paul Cognata, to watch and code the video-recordings
using these three categories, with “no movement” as a default.
Results and Discussion

1) What movements did I make, and when did I use them?
The different kinds of movement I used in Sessions 1 and 2 are illustrated
below. A comparison of the three graphs shows that pulse beating was used
in the first few practice segments in both sessions (Figure 3a) but quickly
gave way to conducting (Figure 3b); gesture was used comparatively rarely
(Figure 3c). I beat a pulse to establish a steady, reliable framework within
which to ensure the notated rhythms would be accurate. Conducting
developed this accuracy in two ways. As I conducted I was identifying to
myself the first beats of each bar (which in this case could be three or four
beats in length) and thus enacting, or embodying, my cognition of where
stresses should occur, whether explicitly or implicitly, as in notes tied
over the barline. Second, conducting enabled me to group, within each
quaver beat, rhythmic patterns of shorter notes such as semi- and demi-
semiquavers. Gesture tended to reflect or emphasize my understanding
of the meaning of the text. In these two sessions, then, my concern was
to ensure a steady pulse, initially, on the basis of which I could begin to
develop a mental representation for the metrical structure of the piece; I
was also thinking about the meaning of the words, as can be seen in the
use of gesture as I ran through the whole piece (with interruptions) in
Session 1, and in the third section of the piece in Session 2.
Jane Ginsborg 129
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In Session 3 I started at the beginning of the final third of the piece

and practiced short segments, working backwards to combine them into
longer segments so that towards the end of the session I was almost
able (with a few false starts) to sing the whole piece through from start
to end. It is clear from Figure 4b that conducting predominated; pulse
beating (Figure 4a) and gesture (Figure 4c) were used only intermittently.
In this session conducting helped me actively to memorize the metrical
structure within which the words were set to detailed rhythmic patterns.
Session 5 was a short individual practice session that was followed

immediately by Session 6, the first joint rehearsal (indicated at the first
black line on the left representing pulse beating on beats 1 to 5). In Session
5 I sang the whole piece through once, beating a pulse in the relatively
straightforward 4/8 first section (Figure 5a), before moving on to conducting
the more complex second section in which 3/8 and 4/8 subsections
alternate, and the third section in which 3/8 and 4/8 bars alternate.
I then worked on the first short section, conducting myself to

help me focus on accuracy at the within-beat level (Figure 5b). In
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Session 6, we worked through the whole piece, concentrating on the

final third before returning to the start for three attempted run-throughs.
In this session the conductor was playing the piano accompaniment and
conducting only intermittently, when he could free one hand to do so.
As shown in Figures 5a and 5b I beat a pulse to indicate the tempo at

which I wanted to sing (although the final decision would be his) or – to a
greater extent – conducted myself in order to remind myself where I was
in the piece, since I was singing from memory; ultimately, however, my
aim was to sing the piece, as is conventional for this type of music, with
as little movement as possible.
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Again, Figure 5c shows that gesture was hardly used at all.
Session 8 was the individual practice session that took place between
the first joint rehearsal and the final joint preparations for the public
peformance; the piece was now divided into two sections, for the purposes
Jane Ginsborg 135
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of practice, and both sections received equal attention, with particular

focus on five shorter segments.
Conducting was now confined to ‘problem’ locations, worked on intensively

(Figure 6b); otherwise a steady pulse needed to be maintained in the
absence of accompaniment (Figure 6a). There was much more gesture
than in previous sessions (Figure 6c), as I started thinking again about
the words and how best to convey their meaning.
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Session 9 started with attention to the final third of the piece, followed
by concentrated work on the first two phrases before we attempted
(unsuccessfully) a complete run. In Session 12, we managed two run-
throughs but also worked hard on the opening of the final third of the
piece before connecting it to the previous section, returning to the same
location after the second run through. We had intended to give a ‘practice
performance’ in Session 15, but now found we needed to work on a short
section towards the middle of the piece and another short segment in
the last section that suddenly proved problematic. Both pulse-beating
(Figure 7a) and conducting (Figure 7b) were intermittent, at locations
where we were experiencing difficulties and needed to ensure unanimity
in performance. I used gesture almost as much as I had done in Session
6 (Figure 7c). At the start of Session 9, this was associated with work on a
phrase that was just a little too long to sing comfortably without a breath:
I used my hands to indicate that the sense of the words continued over
the break necessitated by taking a quick in-breath towards the end of the
phrase. In Session 12 gesture was associated with emphasis on particular
words at the start of the penultimate section (Right mighty and famus
Elizabeth / Our quen princis / Prepotent and eke glorius) and in Session 15
I managed to sing almost the whole piece without extraneous movement,
but gestured and conducted repetitions in two locations where we made
rhythmic errors.
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Finally, Figure 8 shows the percentages of beats uttered in each of the
sessions or groups of sessions that were accompanied by each of the
three kinds of movement, and no movement.
Figure 8: Percentages of beats uttered with and without movement
Pulse beating was comparatively infrequent, with a peak in Session 8.

Most of the movement involved conducting, which was unsurprising
given that the vocal lines presented few difficulties in terms of pitching
the notes correctly, but – as we have seen – posed some challenges both
rhythmically and metrically. I conducted myself a great deal in my first
practice sessions, and even in the first joint rehearsal with the conductor/
pianist, but by the time we reached the final stages of preparation for
performance, had managed to reduce the proportion of conducting to
less than 5% of beats uttered. I used gesture most often in the individual
practice session I undertook after the first joint rehearsal, and almost as
much in the final joint sessions. “No movement” in the Sessions 1 to 5
represents the time I was sitting at the piano playing the accompaniment
for myself; in contrast, in Sessions 9 to 15, it represents a deliberate attempt
to sing without movement, as required in the public performance.
2) Where did I use movement in relation to musical features and

performance cues?
We have reported elsewhere the extent to which practice behavior (stops,

starts and repetitions) at different stages of the rehearsal process is
determined by musicians’ mental representations of the work that is being
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prepared for performance. These mental representations are inferred from
the annotations made by the musicians, post-performance, representing
musical features and performance cues (e.g. Ginsborg et al., 2006b). In a
forthcoming article (Ginsborg and Chaffin, in preparation), we describe
a detailed analysis demonstrating the extent to which practice behavior,
with and without movement, was determined by the locations of the
annotations. There is only space in this chapter for a brief overview.
A preliminary set of analyses of variance revealed significant interactions

between type of movement (pulse-beating, conducting, gesturing and
no movement), session (1-5, 6, 8, 9-15) and behaviour: specifically,
starting practice segments at annotations representing formal, basic and
expressive features, and performance cues; stopping practice segments
at annotations representing the shared performance cue “Arrival/off,” and
repetitions of practice segments containing performance cues relating to
particular emphases on words.
We then carried out three sets of multiple regressions, one for starts, one
for stops and one for repetitions. The predictor variables were the musical
features and performance cues shown in the previous analysis to interact
with behavior (starts, stops and repetitions) and movement type.
We have already seen that pulse beating and conducting predominated

in Sessions 1 to 5. The results of the regression analysis confirm that
these were used to form a metrical representation, in that I was most
likely to be beating a pulse or conducting myself when I started singing
at the starts of phrases. Gesture was more infrequent but most likely
to occur when I started singing at the locations of “prepare” (beats in
which I was not singing but had to listen to the accompaniment, think
about what was coming next and watch the conductor) but was not yet
thinking about counting through these beats as I would do in subsequent
sessions.
It was suggested earlier that I conducted in Session 6 because the

pianist/conductor was playing the piano to a greater extent than he was
conducting. Again, this was confirmed by the results of the regression
analysis, since – in contrast with the earlier sessions – I was most likely
to conduct through “prepare” beats, and at the locations of the shared
performance cue “arrival/off.” It was important at these latter locations that
the pianist and I (in rehearsal) and the ensemble and I (in performance),
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ended the phrase at the same time, so one of us needed to conduct; in
this rehearsal it was I who did so.
Gesture increased in Session 8 and the regression analysis confirms

the observation that this was associated with conveying the meaning
of the text; indeed gesture was most likely to occur at the locations of
“expressive” features.
Finally, in support of the assertion that “no movement” increased in the

final sessions in preparation for the performance, the regression analysis
confirmed the association of “no movement” with a range of locations:
the starts of phrases; “prepare” and “arrival/off.” As we have seen, these
are all locations associated in previous sessions with pulse beating,
conducting or gesture.
Conclusion
The role of kinaesthetic learning in the development of mental
representations for music is illustrated by the contributions of different
kinds of body movement at different times during the process of preparing
to perform from memory. Beating a pulse, particularly in the early stages
of learning, provides the framework for ensuring rhythmic accuracy.
Conducting, during the memorizing phase, helps in the formation of a
metrical representation. Gesture, once the piece is learned and memorized,
underpins the communication of semantic meaning (whether musical or
verbal). It is also vital, however, for the singer to practice not moving, in
preparation for performance.
Finally, this research adds to what we have already learned from a series of
longitudinal case studies about the nature of practice and rehearsal and
ways in which these are determined by musical features and performance
cues – which in turn are determined by musicians’ mental representations
for the music they are preparing for performance. Previous studies of
musicians’ body movements have either focused on their effects on
audiences, or – in rehearsal – communication between musicians; this
is the first to explore the role of body movement in a singer’s individual
preparation for performance.
There are, of course, limitations on the extent to which it is possible to

generalize from the study of just one musician’s practice and rehearsal.
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After all, different musicians have different concerns, which in turn depend
on the nature of the music to be prepared and indeed the challenges
of specific pieces. These limitations are outweighed, however, by the
advantages of being able to carry out detailed analysis, informed by the
singer’s experience as a performer as well as researcher. I hope other
musicians will find this approach useful in exploring their own approaches
to practice and rehearsal, that we may all learn more about the functions
of movement in art, and art in motion.
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Jane Ginsborg’s chapter about the role of kinaesthetic learning in the
development of mental representations for music reminds me of the
fact that musicians and athletes have more in common than one would
presume.
For example, both of them possess very special skills acquired through
years of hard training. No human being is born with the ability to play
a violin concerto like Vivaldi’s “La Stravaganza,” or Chopin’s “Quatre
Mazurkas” on the piano. And no one can perform a double-backflip ten
feet above the ground at 50mph with his/her feet stuck to a thin piece of
specially glued wood, and touch the ground without getting smashed to
pieces.
Figuring out how it would feel standing up on top of a snowboarding hill,

scared eyes staring at the steep slope leading down towards a monstrous
kicker and the ice-covered landing zone, we understand that there must
be an easier, less scary and less dangerous process by which to acquire
the abilities needed to perform in a so called “big-air-contest.”
We are not born with these abilities, but there are two things we can be
sure we are given at the moment of our birth: first, the ability to learn, to
use our body’s adaptability to reach our goals and subsequently increase
the grade of complexity in this process. And second, there is something
in us that generates the strong will to use this ability.
In the beginning of those learning processes the output is naturally off-

grade. Violin rookies can really cause physical pain in a musicians’ ears;
when athletes learn new kinds of exercises, their movements are coarse
and clumsy. Beginners’ performances are characterized by insufficient
timing of subsequent actions and a bunch of so-called “extra“ or “luxury”
movements. They are unnecessary for the target movement but in the
beginning they are required to balance the lack of coordination so that
the aspired goal can be achieved. Beginners in the discipline of high-
diving have to counterbalance their inexact take-off jump with a mass
amount of arm movement in flight, while experts execute their jumps with
minimal waves of their arms - just like musicians stop beating the pulse if
they have enough practice to play a problematic passage flawlessly and
in rhythm.
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So with higher skills the “extra” movements are reduced to a minimum,
and achieve the maximum output (see Loosch, 1999). This affects
performance, economy and even aesthetic appearance, and is the reason
why highly skilled runners can run faster than others with the same
maximum oxygen intake that limits the overall energy expenditure for
longer distances.
Furthermore, higher skill appears in an increasing concentration and

economy of brain-activity focusing the concerned motoric cortex (Sologub,
1975). Thus the reduction of movement discovered by Jane Ginsborg may
be an indicator of higher skill in performance.
All kinds of athletes draw on mental representations when they perform in

training or competition. In some ways, sport athletes have to stick towards
a score that can be written down and memorized just like musicians
do. For example, dancers follow their choreography, American football
players stick strictly to their competition game-plans, ralley pilots spend
hours studying their charts in order not to end the race in an unexpected
turn and/or wrong gear. In most of these cases the score is not used
during practice, so performing from memory is quite usual.
In some other cases the score is nothing that can be put down on paper,
like the track in downhill skiing. You could bring to paper where to turn
left or right, the steepness of the track or distance between the gates.
Riding the track permits a wide range of variations in how to make the
turns, but forces the skier to react immediately to altered circumstances,
finally leaving only a small range of variability to stay within if you want to
be the fastest one in the group.
So skiers have to read the track like a conductor the score and play their
bodies like an instrument, conducting a whole orchestra of muscles. If
playing the body like an instrument might sound ridiculous to you, just
consider the professional singers’ instruments - it’s their bodies.
For an athlete it might be clear that training always affects the whole body
and mind because in the training process we use our bodies’ adaptability
to alter its features (see Rom, 2007). In the broad jump discipline you can’t
ignore the behaviour of your left arm because it is an important compound
of the whole body’s impetus. High-class athletes have to maintain strain
up to the tips of their fingers so that they do not to waste force on body
Klaus Rom 145
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deformation that could be used for acceleration. The closer we get to the
limits of our performance, the more the relevance of all kinds of aspects
will come to mind. There seems to be nothing that can be left out on the
way to the ultimate peak of performance.
But how do we pay attention to all those things? Maybe we focus our
perception on the cues: we start pulse-beating in rehearsal because
we’ve been reading Jane Ginsborg’s paper - that’s one possibility. We
focus on items by sharing experience with other individuals, no matter
if they are gained by a scientific approach or something else. In other
cases, it’s our body itself or, more precisely, the processes of adaptation
mentioned above that force us to focus our attention.
No pianist would say that he’s training his back when practicing a piece
of music - but he should. This is because we can’t stop the process of
adaptation: it started at fertilization and will only end when we die. But
until then our body and mind will try to adapt to the current environmental
requirements and that means if we play the piano the muscles on our
back adapt to the given stress. This may be no problem at all, if the body
is able to adapt, but if it does not or the stress causes damage, we’re in
trouble. So focus on your practicing position or your body will do that.
And this can be painful!
Athletes and musicians aren’t all that different. You can find all of them
leading ascetic lives, doing a lot of concentrated practice or workout,
and taking care of their oppressed bodies. And you can even find them
indulging their passions with short breaks where they eat all kinds of
junk or hang around in bars until the moment they enter the stage or
put on their protective suits to risk their lives in a multi-competitor four-
cross-race. Being an athlete or a musician may be unhealthy, but is surely
very exciting and sometimes risky way to spend your lifetime.
References
Loosch, E. (1999): Allgemeine Bewegungslehre. Limper Verlag: Wiebelsheim.
Rom, K. (2007): Wissenschaftliche Aussagen und ihr Anspruch auf eine praxisorientierte
Realisierung im sportlichen Trainingsprozess. Dissertation: Graz.
Sologub, J.P. (1982): Elektroenzephalographische Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung
des Trainingszustandes bei Sportlern. In: Anpassungsmechanismen an sportliche
Belastungen. Tittel, K., L. Pickenhain (Hrsg). Leipzig: Barth Verlag.
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Not j
us t m o
tion but the m
otion set
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The Role of Anticipatory Processes in Simulator Based

Training of Complex Psychomotor Skills
This paper discusses the role of anticipatory processes in complex
psychomotor skills. Starting from concepts of anticipatory regulation of
psychomotorprocesses,thisrolewillbeillustratedwithpsychophysiological
data from antidisorientation trainings with pilots, which were conducted
in a flight simulator. The psychophysiological data support the view that
anticipatory processes play a central role in the regulation of complex
behaviors in dynamic environments. Finally, some implications for
psychomotor performance of performance artists are derived.
The concept of anticipatory behavior control

While classical Anglo-American models in psychology predominantly
viewed behavior in an S-R (stimulus response) “behaviorism” perspective,
the anticipation-oriented models date back to the early cognitive
psychology “Wuerzburg School” and Russian action-oriented psychology
(Vygotsky, 1981; Leontjew, 1982). Repeatedly, cognitive models of
behavior and psychomotor processes have emerged, which present
convincing evidence that a broad range of behaviors cannot be explained
without a cognitive anticipation of futures states. One of the most widely
known concepts in this tradition is the Nobel prize winning reafference
principle (von Holst & Mittelstaedt, 1950), which assumes that motor
action is based on continuous feedback and comparison with a mental
representation of the movement “efference copy.” More recent models
have been published by Gigerenzer (2007, 2008), Hoffmann (2003) and
Hommel & Prinz (2001). All of them stress the central role of expectations
or anticipations for the successful regulation of goal-directed behavior.
In the human factors literature, the concept of situation awareness has
become a very common model to explain suboptimal behavior. This model,
which also includes the process of anticipating future states, has been
used for error analysis in aviation and other areas (Endsley, 1995, 2002).
Despite the highly appealing focus, the model has been questioned and
criticized for imperfect precision of the included concepts, for the weak
role of feedback processes, and for the overgeneralization beyond the area
of “aware” processes. A process-oriented modification and extension of
the situation awareness model, which encompasses the basic processes
of perception, understanding, and projection into the future is given in
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Figure 1 (Kallus, 2008). This model stresses that the perception can be
guided by the anticipation in a top-down manner, as it is in Hoffmann´s
model of anticipatory action control (Hoffmann, 2003).
Anticipation and
n) Projection in the
o
Acti Future
(
ted tch
o ma sma
t i
Au h-M ess
c c
at Pro
Perception M Understanding
Figure 1 The ABC Model of Anticipatory Behavior Control
A loop for automatized non-aware processes is included in the model,

which will govern anticipative processes (e.g. “efference copy”) in
automized and subcortical psychomotor processes. In automatized
processes, a continuous match-mismatch comparison is conducted,
which makes sure that the anticipated state is achieved (Kallus, Barbarino,
van Damme, 1997). Small deviations might be tolerated, but larger
deviations will either induce a learned automatized correction loop or
a switch to a controlled mode of action. For more on different modes of
actions, see Shiffrin & Schneider (1977). In cases of inadequate reaction
to mismatches or inadequate anticipation, errors can occur which might
be accompanied by a loss of situation awareness.
Spatial Disorientation
Spatial Disorientation in pilots is an interesting paradigm to use when
studying the role of anticipations in the successful regulation of behavior
in complex environments. In accordance with Gillingham & Previc (1996),
spatial orientation can be defined as “the correct mental representation
of the state of the aircraft in space and time.” Due to perceptual illusions
or insufficient perceptual cues, an adequate match-mismatch process
is hampered during spatial disorientation. Spatial disorientation can be
defined as the “…state characterized by an erroneous sense of one’s
position and motion relative to the plane of the earth’s surface.” (Gillingham,
•
1992). Gillingham distinguishes different types of spatial disorientation.
Type I is unrecognized spatial disorientation. This means that the correct
mental picture is assumed by the pilot, but does not match the reality. Type
II is recognized spatial disorientation. In this case, the pilot is aware of the
fact that his mental representation does not fit the state of the aircraft.
Type III is overwhelming disorientation, in which the state of disorientation
is combined with very high stress levels, which impair the necessary
complex information processing to regain orientation. According to the
ABC model, disorientation of Type I will occur when the match-mismatch
process is disturbed or biased. Biases can occur as a confirmation bias,
disturbances can occur due to perceptual illusions, misled attention or
missing vigilance, in which the necessary regular checking process is
omitted or delayed too much. Conscious check Type I disorientation can
occur in cases where an inadequate error model explains the recognized
discrepancy with a faulty explanation (“a defective instrument”). In cases
where a mismatch between the anticipated state and the perceived state
of the aircraft is recognized (Type II disorientation), procedures to regain
orientation can be taken. These procedures are taught in disorientation
recovery training, which allows pilots to experience different illusions
and disorientation situations. This experience, together with adequate
procedures to regain orientation, reduces the probability of Type I
disorientation as well as Type III overwhelming stress in disorientation
situations.
Spatial disorientation is a major threat in military and general aviation.

Losing orientation is a paradigm of pilot errors, which can be manipulated
experimentally by sensory illusions. Thus, the processes preceding errors,
perceiving errors, coping with errors, and learning how to avoid errors can
be studied within this paradigm. Disorientation has behavioral, emotional,
and physiological effects on the pilot. In addition, effects on the system
as a whole can be studied. Thus the results from experiments with spatial
disorientation can be of interest for other areas of complex psychomotor
performance, in which errors can have major consequences. The next
section demonstrates some of the results from studies on disorientation
recovery exercises with military and private pilots.
Crashes of jet-pilots in the simulator

One of the disorientation exercises in the simulator creates optical
illusions during landing, caused by a very sparsely illuminated runway.
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This so called “black hole approach” gives the wrong impression of
the landing angle and the height of the aircraft resulting in a crash if
not corrected appropriately. Figure 2 depicts the heart rate of 21 pilots
during this simulation exercise (Kallus & Tropper, 2004). The exercise was
performed in a motion-based simulator for antidisorientation training
(DISO Airfox®, AMST Systemtechnik GmbH, Ranshofen, Austria) with an
F-18 jet simulation. Pilots were grouped according to their performance:
“crash” (n=5), “problems” (n=6), and “landing” (n=10). The heart rate
of the group with “problems” (line with triangles) peaks about 30
seconds before the expected landing, which corresponds well with their
maneuvers of “touch and go” or “go around.” Only in this brief period
does their heart rate rise slightly above the landing group. The significant
statistical differences are due to the high rise in the “crash” group, which
shows a clear cut anticipatory heart rate increase more than 60 seconds
preceding the crash. 60 seconds is plenty of time for experienced pilots
to start a safe maneuver, but the crash group does not seem to recognize
this appropriately.
40 10 miles out landing / up / crash

Heart Rate (deviation from baseline)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
s
t
ile
ar
st
m
10
Beginning of the section of measurement
crash (5) problems (6) landing (10)
Figure 2 Changes in the heart rate in the course of the profile “black hole
approach” for the three performance groups.
•
With this result we have a strong indication that anticipatory processes
can be assessed accurately by heart rate and that these processes are
related to error.
The analyses of accidents always suffer because of their ex post facto

nature. Thus, conditions should at least be replicable, as anticipatory
processes might otherwise be attributable to chance. The replication was
conducted in a laboratory simulation with a mock-up of the DISO Airfox®
disorientation trainer. This mock-up shows the visual simulation and the
instruments on two separate computer screens, and the inputs are given
with an extended joystick board. The flight dynamics are identical with
the simulator.
As the sample included non-military pilots and VFR pilots (pilots who
only have a license to fly by visual flight rules and have no instrument
flight rating), a propeller aircraft was simulated in this replication. Figure
3 shows the design of the study (Zauner, 2006), which again grouped
the pilots according to performance. Figure 3 reveals that professional
pilots have a lower probability of getting into trouble during a “black hole
approach” than private VFR pilots.
VFR Pilots Professional Pilots Total

Landing 3 7 10
Crash 5 2 7
Total 8 9 17
Figure 3 Number of crashed pilots in study 2.
The predicted pattern of changes in heart rate could be observed for the
two groups. Crashing pilots showed a significantly elevated heart rate
during the “black hole approach” (see Figure 4). This increase in heart
rate of the crashed pilots (line with squares) is statistically significant
during the first measurement units of the approach and again shortly
before they crash. Landing pilots show similar heart rates during a period
of about 5 to 3 miles out.
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Heart Rate
Landed Pilots
Crashed Pilots
Miles Away from the Airport
Figure 4 Mean heart rate of crashed (lines with squares) and landing
pilots (lines with diamonds) during a “black hole approach.”
A comparable pattern of anticipatory changes can be seen in heart

rate variability. Heart rate variability decreases with increasing effort
(Boucsein, 2007). Pilots who crash have a marked decrease during the
period approaching the runway as can be seen in Figure 5 (crashed pilots
line with squares, landing pilots line with circles).
Heart Rate Variability (ms)
Landed Pilots
Crashed Pilots
Miles Away from the Airport
Figure 5 Mean heart rate variability of crashed (lines with squares) and
landing pilots (lines with circles) during a “black hole approach.”
•
The differences in arousal and effort were well reflected in differences
of the subjective state. The pilot’s subjective state was assessed with
psychometric questionnaires after the exercise. The results for the different
dimensions of the subjective state as assessed by the NASA Task Load
Index (TLX, Hart & Staveland, 1988) are depicted in Figure 6. All task load
dimensions indicate higher subjective task load for the crashed pilots
(black bars) compared to the landing pilots (white bars). The last column
shows that the subjective effort, as assessed by a scale derived form the
Borg scale of perceived effort (Borg,1982), shows the same result.
An additional arousal- and emotion-oriented scale based on the German

adjective check list for mood state (EWL, Janke & Debus, 1978) shows
that even global and emotional arousal are higher for the crashed pilots
and well-being is reduced. As these scales were administered after the
exercise, very cautious interpretation is advised, as one cannot know how
much of these differences reflect the differences between groups before
or during the exercise, and what amount is due to the fact that the crash
itself affected the pilot’s mood state.
Score
Landed Pilots
Crashed Pilots
NASA TLX NASA TLX NASA TLX NASA TLX NASA TLX RSME *
Overall Score * Mental Effort * Frustration * Time Effort * Performance *
Figure 6 Subjective state after a “black hole approach” as reflected by

NASA-TLX for crashed and landed pilots.
The results show that crashes in the simulator are accompanied by

anticipatory processes. Due to the ex post facto nature of accident
analyses, one cannot know the origin of the anticipatory physiological
changes. They can be attributed to the process or to the person.
Attributing changes to the process cannot be demonstrated without
further experimental analysis to determine if the changes reflect an effect
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of anticipating an important action going wrong, or reflect a factor which
causes an impaired action regulation (like stress or anxiety).
Landed Pilots
Crashed Pilots
Mental Balance ** Mood State (*) Anger Arousal
Figure 7 Subjective state after a “black hole approach” as reflected by an

Adjective checklist for crashed and landed pilots.
Nevertheless, there is a factor reflected, which might help to train pilots to

make better decisions than crashing during error-prone situations like the
“black hole approach.” The positive effects of antidisorientation trainings
on performance and physiological arousal have been demonstrated by
Kallus & Tropper (2004) and replicated by Tropper, Kallus & Boucsein
(2008).
Figure 8 shows the heart rate during another error-prone procedure, in

which the pilot takes over the aircraft in an unusual attitude (like nose
up, banked or stalling). The task is to recover as quickly as possible after
taking over control. Pilots with a dummy training (control group, bold
grey line) show the highest heart rate during the exercises, while the
training group (black line) shows the lowest heart rate during the test
exercises, as can be seen in Figure 8 taken from Kallus & Tropper (2004).
Interestingly, pilots in the group with an incomplete awareness oriented
training (grey thin line) show a decrease during the sequence of exercises,
which might reflect a training effect appearing during the test exercises
of the training.
•
Training Group
Awareness Group
Control Group
Heart Rate (Dev. from Baseline)
Start of
Profile
36 Sections of Measurement
Figure 8 Heart rate during unusual recovery exercises after different

training procedures (dummy training = control group, awareness training,
disorientation training = training group, for details see Kallus & Tropper
2004).
Conclusions
The results from pilots in a disorientation prone situation in the simulator
show that errors in the action sequence (which would be fatal in a real
flight) are preceded by anticipatory physiological changes. Training helps
to reduce the probability of these errors. The training is reflected in less
psychophysiological arousal. In addition, errors are accompanied by
psychophysiological changes before the error occurs. These results fit
into the picture, which has been published recently, from brain imaging
studies (Fiehler, Ullsperger & v. Cramon, 2004). These brain imaging
experiments on errors in psychomotor performance also show anticipatory
physiological activity before the errors occur. Most interesting is their
location. The prefrontal and fronto-basal brain areas are involved in
anticipatory planning and action regulation. These areas show changed
activity in error trials “long” before errors occur on the behavioral level.
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These processes are not fully understood, but there is a high potential to use
them for the improvement of training procedure and error avoidance.
One important conclusion can be derived: errors are not events. They are
processes. Processes which can be anticipated and which can be changed
by training. This view of errors as processes might open new ways to
optimize training in high performance areas like professional artists and
high performance sports and for operators in high risk environments.
References
Borg, G. A. (1982). Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Medicine and Science
in Sport, 14, 377-381.
Boucsein, W. (2007). „Psychophysiologie in der Ergonomie”, „Psychophysiologische
Beanspruchungsmessung”, „Systemresponsezeiten“. In K. Landau (Ed.), Lexikon
Arbeitsgestaltung. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.
Boucsein, W. (2007). Psychophysiologie im Flug – eine Fallstudie. In P. G. Richter, R.
Rau & S. Mühlpfordt (Eds.), Arbeit und Gesundheit. Zum aktuellen Stand in einem
Forschungs- und Praxisfeld (pp. 130-142). Lengerich: Pabst Science Publishers.
Endsley, M. R. (1995). Toward a Theory of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems.
Human Factors, 37(1), 32-64.
Endsley, M. R. (2000). Theoretical underpinnings of situation awareness: a critical
review. In M. R. Endsley & D. J. Garland (Eds.), Situation awareness analysis and
measurement (pp. 32-64). Mawah, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Fiehler, K., Ullsperger, M. & von Cramon, D. Y. (2004). Neural correlates of error
detection and error correction: is there a common neuroanatomical substrate?
European Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 3081-3087.
Gigerenzer, G. (2007). Gut feelings: The intelligence of the unconscious. New York:
Viking Press.
Gigerenzer, G. (2008). Rationality for mortals: How people cope with uncertainty.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gillingham, K. K. (1992). The spatial disorientation problem in the United States Air
Force. Journal of Vestibular Research, 2, 297-306.
Gillingham, K. K. & Previc, F. H. (1996). Spatial Orientation in Flight. In R. L. Dehart
(Ed.), Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine (3rd ed.) (pp. 309-398), Baltimore:
Williams & Wilkins.
Hart, S. G. & Staveland, L. E. (1988). Development of the NASA task load index (TLX):
Results of empirical and theoretical research. In P. A. Hancock & N. Meshkati
(Eds.), Human Mental Workload (pp. 139-183). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Hoffmann, J. (2003). Anticipatory Behavioral Control. In M. Butz, O. Sigaud & P.
Gerard (Eds.), Anticipatory behavior in adaptive learning systems (pp. 44-65).
Heidelberg: Springer.
Hommel, B., Musseler, J., Aschersleben, G. & Prinz, W. (2001). The Theory of Event
Coding (TEC): A framework for perception and action planning. Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 24, 849-878.
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Janke, W. & Debus, G. (1978). Die Eigenschaftswörterliste (EWL). Göttingen:
Hogrefe.
Kallus, K. W., Barbarino, M. & VanDamme, D. (1997). Model of the Cognitive Aspects
of Air Traffic Control. Eurocontrol, Brüssel, Ref.No. HUM.ET1.ST01.1000-DEL02,
(55 p.).
Kallus, K. W. & Tropper, K. (2004). Evaluation of a Spatial Disorientation Simulator
Training for Jet Pilots. International Journal of Applied Aviation Studies, 4(1), 45-
55.
Kallus, K. W. (2008). Situationsbewusstsein und antizipative Prozesse. [Situation
Awareness and Anticipatory Processes.] Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft, in
print.
Leontjew, A. N. (1982): Tätigkeit, Bewusstsein, Persönlichkeit. [Action, awareness,
personality.] Köln: Pahl-Rugenstein.
Schneider, W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information
processing: 1. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1-66.
Tropper, K., Kallus, K. W. & Boucsein, W. (2008). Psychophysiological evaluation of an
anti-disorientation training for VFR pilots in a moving base simulator. International
Journal of Aviation Psychology, in print.
von Holst, E. & Mittelstaedt, H. (1950). Das Reafferenzprinzip. [The reafference
principle.] Naturwissenschaften, 37, 464-476.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.),
The concept of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 144-188). Armonk, NY: Sharpe.
Zauner, Ch. (2006). Experimentelle Untersuchung psychophysiologischer Reaktionen
auf verschiedene Flugprofile. [Experimental study of pychophysiological reactions
caused by different flight profiles]. Unpublished thesis. Karl-Franzens-University
of Graz.
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Many a musician can remember experiencing an ominous feeling of
impending doom in the middle of an otherwise successful performance.
Whether a sudden onset of doubt, an extraneous thought (“did I really
lock my car?”) that interferes with focus on the music being played, or
just a “gut sensation” that something is about to happen. In all of these
cases, musicians will undergo either an “accident” or an “incident,” to
use two aviation psychology terms.
The reader doesn’t need a definition of an accident; reports of airplane

accidents inevitably become the subject of news headlines and public
discussion. Interestingly, human factors experts learn much more by
studying the second category, the incidents, or near misses. These are
potential accidents that were successfully averted, due to a pilot making
a quick decision, for example, and reacting appropriately, forestalling
disaster. Similarly, there are concerts in which the musician is able to
avoid hitting a wrong note or making another mistake by one of two
behaviors: either by intensifying vigilance and effort, or – paradoxically
– by reducing control and “going with the flow.” (See the discussion of
internal vs. external focus in the chapter by Wulf and Lewthwaite in this
volume.)
One very dry way to describe instrumental performance is an extended

series of complex motor movement patterns. Each of these involves not
only hours of practice, but also advance planning in the brain before
imminent execution in concert. Multiple factors of the desired musical
effect such as volume, tempo, and expression, are factored into these
anticipatory processes, partially consciously and partially unconsciously.
The net result of this motion planning is that which the audience
witnesses. Similarly, a successful airplane landing can be an aesthetically
satisfying experience for the actuer, passengers and witnesses. On a
neurological level, there are more similarities between pilots and pianists
than differences. Both are groups of individuals attempting to perform a
highly skilled task flawlessly under pressure.
Therefore, it shouldn’t surprise musicians that scientific evidence

collected by aviation psychologists provides evidence for anticipatory
processes. Nor is it difficult to imagine that the observation of heart rate,
heart rate variability, and subjective mood state, in studies such as the
Adina Mornell 159
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ones described here, can open a window to view a person’s potential
for success. The unexpected and exciting part of this current research,
however, is the concept of errors as processes, rather than isolated
events, and the evidence that awareness and other training strategies
can influence the psychophysiology of the pilot or musician, and thus
lead to improved performance.
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Not ju
st motio
n but the motion set in
Thomas Schack 161
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The Architecture of Motion

Abstract
This paper examines the cognitive architecture of human motion, showing
how it is organized over several levels and how it is built up. Basic Action
Concepts(BACs)areidentifiedasmajorbuildingblocksonarepresentation
level. These BACs are cognitive tools for mastering the functional demands
of movement tasks. Results from different lines of research show that
not only the structure formation of mental representations in long-term
memory but also chunk formation in working memory are built up on
BACs and relate systematically to movement structures. We conclude
that such movement representations might provide the basis for action
implementation and action control in skilled voluntary movements in the
form of cognitive reference structures. In human motion, such cognitive
structures are clearly linked to emotions. Because different emotions are
important components of human performance, we integrated the concept
of e-motion in our motion architecture model. Finally, we present new
perspectives concerning mental training methods.
Introduction
Mentalrepresentationplaysacentralroleinthecontrolandimplementation
of actions. In different fields of action, mental representation makes
it possible to select and combine effective sources of information.
Regardless of whether a surgeon has to select the appropriate instrument
for an operation; a mechanic, a suitable tool for repairing an engine; or
a basketball player, which member of the team to pass the ball to, actors
have to use their mental representation as a basis to identify possible and
functionally relevant sensory inputs. Frequently, this identification has to
be made under extreme time pressure. Hence, mental representation has
to be available quickly and provide clear criteria for selecting relevant
pieces of information. At the same time, mental representation forms the
functional basis for a meaningful and, thereby, task-related reduction in
the large number of potential behaviors available to us and our social
and technological systems. Mental representation does not just facilitate
information selection, but also more generally permits a target-related
and purposeful adaptation of behavioral potentials to conditions in
the environment. In other words, mental representation helps to shape
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interaction patterns in purposeful ways. This also includes storing the
cognitive perceptual outcomes of learning processes as items in long-
term memory.
The representational nature and functional role of the long-term memory

structures involved in human movement control remains under much
debate in movement science and cognitive psychology. One fundamental
issue is the representational medium: Is there a special motor memory
completely distinct from perceptual-cognitive structures and processes?
Or, do movements, objects, and external events have a common
representational medium (Hommel, Müsseler, Aschersleben, & Prinz,
2001)? One prominent theoretical position favors the first alternative,
while assuming that motor performance basically means the creation and
use of muscle-related motor programs. Characteristic invariants of such
motor programs may be stored in long-term memory. To give an example,
Schmidt’s (Schmidt & Lee, 1998) theory of generalized motor programs
suggests that relative durations as well as relative forces in patterns of
muscular activation define invariants of motor programs that are stored
in long-term memory. This theory also posits that the absolute duration
and absolute force also need to be planned for motor performance, but
this is done in a situation-specific way.
An alternative view suggests that movements are organized and stored

in memory as perceptible events through a representation of anticipated
characteristic (e.g., sensory) effects, with the corresponding motor
activity automatically and flexibly tuned to serve these effects. A group of
scientists (Mechsner, Kerzel, Knoblich, & Prinz, 2001; Schack & Mechsner,
2006; see Schack & Tenenbaum, 2004 a, b for an overview) hypothesize
that voluntary movements follow perceptual-cognitive representations. In
a similar vein, Ivry and colleagues (Ivry, Diedrichsen, Spencer, Hazeltine,
& Semjen, 2004) as well as Weigelt and colleagues (Weigelt, Kunde, &
Prinz, 2006) hypothesize that central costs and interference in bimanual
movements depend solely on how these movements are represented on
a cognitive level. Assuming that the hypothesis of a perceptual-cognitive
control is correct, it seems plausible to generalize it to more complex tasks
such as those performed by skilled athletes. Should this be true, one could
expect to find the means for addressing the functional and biomechanical
performance in athletes’ perceptual-cognitive movement representations.
The present chapter investigates whether representations of this kind
might be found in the long-term memory of skilled athletes in the form
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of perceptual-cognitive reference structures for movement control. To
gain a better understanding of the functionality of representation and
cognitive categorization in motor control, this chapter starts with a model
addressing the cognitive architecture of motion. It then considers relevant
issues in research methodology and presents methods that can be used
to assess action-relevant knowledge structures experimentally. Empirical
studies based on these methods are used to show relations between
cognitive representation and performance in human movements.
Cognitive Building Blocks and the Architecture of Human

Motion
Ever since Wilhelm Wundt (1893) and William James (1890), there has been
a variety of studies investigating mental processes in action control. As a
result, many different theoretical models have been proposed. Particularly,
during the last two decades, it has become clear that perceptual-cognitive
representations mediate between the anticipated effect of a movement
and current activity (see Schack & Tenenbaum, 2004a, b for an overview).
These have been mapped out step by step in recent studies.
The fact that something like a “model of the needed future” (Bernstein,
1967) plays a central role in the implementation of action can be seen
clearly in a set of studies addressing the end-state comfort effect (e.g.,
Rosenbaum et al., 2007; Rosenbaum & Jorgensen, 1992; Rosenbaum,
Meulenbreuk, & Vaughan, 2004; Weigelt, Kunde, & Prinz, 2006). This
research has shown that individuals are prepared to adopt uncomfortable
positions with their hands or arms when initiating and executing object
manipulations (movement constellations) as long as this leads to a
comfortable position for the final state of movement. For example, to pick
up a pencil that is pointing upwards in a cup, one initially uses an awkward
underhand grip to ultimately hold the pencil in a comfortable writing
posture. Such observations show clearly that movements are planned,
controlled, and performed with reference to the anticipated final position
of the movement. Hence, they indicate the existence of a mental model
(of the needed future) to which all control processes can be related.
In his now classic work O postrojenii dvizenij (On the construction

of movement), Bernstein (1947) presents the most comprehensive
compilation of descriptive and experimental data on the functional
mediation of the building blocks of the movement system available at that
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time. His detailed model of the interplay between, for example, movement
goals, motor representations, and perceptual feedback is composed of
several interdependent levels in a hierarchy headed by an object-related
action organization level. Alongside Bernstein’s (1947) approach to the
construction of action, there have been several formulations of the idea
that movement control is constructed hierarchically. One set of studies
has focused on a hierarchy of different levels of representation (see, e.g.,
Keele, 1986; Perrig & Hofer, 1989; Rosenbaum, 1987; Saltzman, 1979).
Other studies, in contrast, have focused more strongly on the aspect of
a hierarchical execution regulation (e.g., Greene, 1988; Hacker, 1998;
Keele, Cohen, & Ivry, 1990; Rosenbaum, 1987). In contrast, the model
proposed here views the functional construction of actions (Schack,
2004a; Schack & Bar-Eli, 2007; Schack & Hackfort, 2007) on the basis of
a reciprocal assignment of performance-oriented regulation levels and
representational levels (see Table 1). These levels differ according to their
central tasks on the regulation and representation levels; therefore, each
level is assumed to be functionally autonomous.
Table 1
Levels of Action Organization (Schack, 2004a)
Code Level Main function Subfunction Means

Mental Volitional initiation Symbols;
IV Regulation
control control strategies strategies
Mental Effect-oriented Basic action
III Representation
representation adjustment concepts
Perceptual
Sensorimotor Spatial-temporal
II Representation effect
representation adjustment
representations
Functional
Sensorimotor
I Regulation Automatization systems;
control
basic reflexes
The level of sensorimotor control (I) is linked directly to the environment.

In contrast to the level of mental control (IV), which, as explained below,
is induced intentionally, the level of sensorimotor control is induced
perceptually. It is built on functional units composed of perceptual
effect representations, afferent feedback, and effectors. The essential
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invariant (set value) of such functional units is the representation of the
movement effect within the framework of the action. The system is broadly
autonomous. Automatisms emerge when this level possesses sufficient
correction mechanisms to ensure the stable attainment of the intended
effect.
The need for a level of sensorimotor representation (II) is obvious in

this context. It can be assumed that this is where the modality-specific
information representing the effect of the particular movement, among
other information, is stored. The relevant modalities change as a function
of the level of expertise in the learning process and as a function of the
concrete task.
The level of mental representations (Level III) predominantly forms a

cognitive workbench for Level IV, the mental control level, and has already
been sketched for voluntary movement regulation and the coding or the
anticipated outcome of movement. Level III is organized conceptually,
and it is responsible for transferring the anticipated action outcome into
a movement program that suffices to bring about the desired outcome.
Because an action is “no chain of details, but a structure subdivided into
details” (Bernstein, 1988, p. 27, translated), action organization has to
possess a working model of this structure.
So-called Basic Action Concepts (BACs) have been identified as major

representation units for movement control (Schack, 2004a, b; Schack
& Mechsner, 2006). BACs are based on the cognitive chunking of
body postures and movement events concerning common functions
in realization of action goals. They do not refer to behavior-related
invariance properties of objects as is the case in object concepts; rather,
they refer to perception-linked invariance properties of movements. Their
characteristic set of features results from the perceptive and functional
properties of action effects: They tie together their functional and sensory
features. These functional features are derived from action goals, and
this link connects BACs to Level IV. However, BACs also integrate
sensory features of sub-movements, for example, through chunking
(see Verwey, Abrahamse, & Jimenez, 2008). As a result, they also refer to
the perceptual effects of movements. This connects BACs with Level II.
Finally, the connection between BACs and sensory effect representations
permits the intentional manipulation of the cognitive framing conditions
of sensorimotor coordination.
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Altogether, BACs can be viewed as the mental counterparts of functionally
relevant elementary components or transitional states of complex
movements. They are characterized by recognizable perceptual features.
They can be described verbally as well as pictorially, and can often be
labeled with a linguistic marker. For example, “turning the head” or
“bending the knees” could be basic action concepts in the case of, say,
a complex floor exercise. As mentioned above, each individual BAC is
characterized by a set of closely interconnected sensory and functional
features. For example, a BAC in tennis like “whole body stretch motion” is
functionally related to providing energy to the ball, transforming tension
into swing, stretching but remaining stable, and the like. Afferent sensory
features of the corresponding submovement that allow monitoring of the
initial conditions are bended knees, tilted shoulder axis, and body weight
on the left foot. Re-afferent sensory features that allow monitoring of
whether the functional demands of the submovements have been
addressed successfully are: (1) muscles stretched and under tension,
(2) proprioceptive feedback, and, perhaps, (3) visual perception of the
swinging arm and ball in view.
This leads us to ask how we can conceive the mental structures

responsible for complex movements. Is it possible to confirm mutual
overlaps between representation structures and movement structures in
humans (similar categorization in representation and movement) and is it
possible to implement such results on robot platforms to produce human
like movements? To answer such questions the chapter will now move
to different lines of empirical research. Because of its high stability over
time, we will begin with representation in long-term memory.
Structure Formation in Long-Term Memory

Simplification in the domain of cognitive operations and movement
structures is accompanied by order formation. Such order formation
in action knowledge reduces the cognitive effort required to activate
relevant information. In general, cognitive structures improve when more
problem-solving-related classifications (concepts) are formed.
In the present perspective, we have to solve movement tasks purposefully

and step by step within the framework of a voluntary organization of
movement. So, it is of interest to learn about the task-related order
formation of action knowledge.
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Concrete research questions can be derived from the architecture model
presented here. We shall focus on two of these: (1) is it possible to use
experimental methods to confirm specific expertise-dependent (and,
hence, learning-level-dependent) structures in long-term memory (LTM)?
(2) Is the structure of mental representations in LTM formed more by the
spatiotemporal effect structure of the movement or by muscle and joint
constraints?
The experimental approach has been documented in several contributions

(Hodges, Huys, & Starkes, 2007; Schack, 2004a, b; Schack & Hackfort,
2007; Schack & Mechsner, 2006). To introduce our method for measuring
motor (action) representation, we have chosen a special action, the
tennis serve, because it seems well suited for an investigation of potential
conceptual representational structures at different levels of expertise. In
the tennis serve, many degrees of freedom in the musculoskeletal system
have to be controlled, and performance quality is influenced considerably
by training and expertise. On the other hand, it is a finite, recognizable,
and thereby flexible action pattern whose overall structure is well defined
by biomechanical demands (Schack & Mechsner, 2006).
We start by characterizing the task-adequate functional organization of

the tennis serve and formulating a plausible and workable set of basic
action concepts in collaboration with non-players, athletes of different
levels, and coaches. A tennis serve consists of three distinct phases,
each fulfilling distinct functional and biomechanical demands. In a pre-
activation phase, body and ball are brought into position, and tension
energy is stored to prepare for the strike. The following BACs are identified
for this phase: (1) ball throw, (2) forward movement of the pelvis, (3)
bending the knees, and (4) bending the elbow. In the subsequent strike
phase, energy is conveyed to the ball. The following BACs are identified:
(5) frontal upper body rotation, (6) racket acceleration, (7) whole body
stretch motion, and (8) hitting point. In the final swing phase, the balance
is maintained and the racket movement is decelerated after the strike.
The following BACs are identified: (9) wrist flap, (10) forward bending of
the body, and (11) racket follow-through.
Because the usual rating and sorting methods do not permit a psychometric
analysis of the representational structure, we developed an experimental
method for probing mental representation structures (Lander & Lange,
1996; Schack & Schack, 2005). It has now been modified (structural
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dimensional analysis-motoric, SDA-M: Schack, 2004a) for the analysis
of action representation. This (SDA-M) method consists of four steps.
First, we seek to gain information on the distance between selected
representation units (BACs). Because it can be assumed that the structure
of movement representations can only be explicated to a limited extent,
this is done with a special splitting technique. Second, the structured
relations between the N concepts are obtained by compiling a distance
matrix through the scaling procedure presented above and subjecting
it to a hierarchic cluster analysis. Third, a factor analysis is applied to
reveal the dimensions in this structured set of BACs. Fourth, the cluster
solutions are tested for invariance within and between groups (for more
details, see Hodge, Huys, & Starkes, 2007).
Following is an example analysis of action representation. We examined

three groups of tennis players: The expert group consisted of eleven
males (mean age: 24 ± 3.7 years) playing in upper German leagues and
ranked between places 15 and 500 in the German men’s rankings. The
low-level group consisted of eleven males (mean age: 26 ± 4.8 years)
playing in lower German leagues (district leagues) and not listed in the
German men’s rankings. A non-player group consisted of eleven males
(mean age: 24 ± 6.7 years) who had virtually no experience with the game
(maximum: five hours), and had never taken any tennis lessons. In the
first step, participants were familiarized with the above-mentioned BACs
by looking at pictures with a verbal BAC name as a printed heading.
These pictures were positioned in front of each participant throughout
the experiment. In order to determine subjective distances between the
BACs, the participants performed the following split procedure as the
first step in the SDA-M. On a computer screen, one selected BAC was
presented constantly as an “anchoring unit” in red writing. The rest of the
BACs were presented in yellow writing as a randomly ordered list. The
participant judged whether each of these additional yellow BACs was
“functionally related” (associated) to the red anchor BAC “while performing
the movement” or not. This produced two subsets that were submitted
to the same procedure repeatedly until the experimenter decided to do
no further splits. Because each BAC was used as an anchoring unit,
this procedure resulted in eleven decision trees per participant. In the
second step of the SDA-M, we submitted the aforementioned BACs to
a hierarchical cluster analysis with the distances based on subjective
distance judgments of all combinations of pairs of BACs obtained in the
previous step. As a result, we obtained the individual partitioning of the
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BACs. In the third step, the dimensioning of the cluster solutions was
performed using a factor analysis applied to a specific cluster-oriented
rotation process. This resulted in a factor matrix classified by clusters
(see Schack & Mechsner, 2006). Finally, in the fourth step of the SDA-M,
a within- and between-group comparison was used to test for significant
differences between cluster solutions using an invariance measure λcrit.
Alpha was set at 5% in all significance tests.
Figure 1a, b: Representation structures for two chosen expertise groups (experts;
non-players) based on the hierarchical cluster analysis of Basic Action Concepts
(BACs) in the tennis serve. The horizontally aligned numbers denote the BACs (for
the code, see text); the vertical numbers are the Euclidean distances: the lower the
numbers, the lower the distances between BACs in long term memory. For every
group, it holds n = 11; p = 0.05; dcrit = 3.46 (Schack & Mechsner, 2006; Neuroscience
Letters, 391, 77-81. with friendly permission of Neuroscience Letters).
Figure 1 presents dendrograms for the subjective distances of BACs

based on the hierarchical cluster analysis of the means of experts and
non-players. Experts (Figure 1a) showed a cognitive structure close to the
functional structure of the tennis serve. The three functional phases (i.e.,
pre-activation, strike, and final swing) could be identified as distinct tree-
like structured clusters in the dendrograms. Experts seemed to group
BACs in their memory according to generic terms that conformed to the
solution of special movement problems. An invariance analysis (step four of
SDA-M) confirmed this interpretation. There was no significant difference
between the cognitive BAC framework in experts and the biomechanical
demand structure of the movement (l = .70; lcrit = .68). Results, however,
were rather different in non-players (Figure 1b) as BAC clusterings did
not reflect the functionally and biomechanically necessary phases so
well. BACs were less clearly grouped, with no close neighborhoods, and
the partial clusters usually failed to attain significance. The difference
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between the cognitive BAC framework and the functionally demanded
structure of the action even attained significance in non-players (l =
.31; lcrit = .68). Altogether we summarize, in high-level experts, that the
representational frameworks were organized in a distinctive hierarchical
tree-like structure, were remarkably similar between individuals, and
were well matched with the functional and biomechanical demands of the
task. In comparison, action representations in low-level players and non-
players were organized less hierarchically, were more variable between
persons, and were less well matched with functional and biomechanical
demands. This analysis is informative in the sense that it teaches us about
the cognitive reference systems in action control. For instance, in the
case of a non-functional representation, we expect specific problems in
action implementation and action control. Next, we will provide another
example concerning the relationship between representation structure
and performance in elite sport.
Mental representation and performance in extreme
movements
Technically sophisticated and novel techniques (e.g., rotational movements
in windsurfing) have proven to be particularly interesting for investigating
high level performance in sports. Until 1986, the possibility of performing
an end over in windsurfing (see Figure 2) was only speculated upon.
Figure 2. Movement phases of the front-loop in windsurfing. The task-related Basic

Action Concepts (BACs) are allocated to the respective phases. In the take-off phase,
the front-loop can hardly be distinguished from a regular jump. The surfer waits until
the angular point of the slope angle and then abruptly pushes the sail’s pressure
point forward-down.
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Up to this time, it hadn’t been clear how the impulse for forward rotation
could be generated out of an ongoing forward motion. In 1987, Cesare
Cantagalli became the first to perform a forward rotation (which was
later titled a “Cheese Roll”) in international competition. This evoked a
boom of experimentation with highly complex movement actions in many
people interested in the sport. Mark Angulo turned this sideways-rotation
into the spectacular front-loop (end over) with the characteristic rotation
over the mast top (see Figure 2).
The front-loop represents a mixture of a rotation around the horizontal

axis and a rotation around the longitudinal axis. We are dealing with
a movement which represents a technical challenge for both highly
skilled hobby windsurfers and competitive windsurfing-professionals.
This evaluation is supported by the fact that there are windsurfers with
high technical abilities who are unable to perform jumps involving
forward rotations. For the execution of this forward rotation, the following
subproblems of the movement task have to be solved:
1. The athlete has to execute a sufficiently high jump from the

water surface (optimally 5-8 m, but at least as high as the mast)
(energizing problem).
2. At the peak of the jump, the athlete has to introduce the rotation.
The impulse starts at the sail’s pressure point which, after take-
off from the water surface, is located above the barycenter of the
complete system. At this point, an enormous mass moment of
inertia has to be overcome (impulse-introduction problem).
3. During the forward rotation, the windsurfing-board-system has
to be stabilized (stabilization problem).
4. During the entire movement, numerous orientation problems
resulting from the rotation have to be solved. For example, a
permanent orientation regarding the situation in space is
necessary for initiation, stabilization, and completion of the
rotational movement. The water, the sail-system, and the horizon
represent bench marks in this context (orientation problem).
5. Various movement phases can be distinguished in biomechanical
terms. As explained in the tennis-example, these movement
phases can be subdivided into main phase and supportive
phases. This subdivision becomes apparent in Figure 2.
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BACs were ascertained for the presented functional phases, which
constituted substantial means to the solution of the movement tasks
and the connected movement problems. To permit an allocation to the
biomechanically (functionally) determined movement phases, these BACs
are already entered in this figure. The concepts relevant for the movement
were explored in a process involving several stages. First, a group of athletes
consisting of experts (n = 8) and beginners (n = 7) gave spontaneous
descriptions of the movement (front-loop in windsurfing). Subsequently,
the subjects were interviewed individually regarding the BACs from their
point of view. At this point, it became apparent that BACs were not only
verbally labeled, but could also be demonstrated as a specific movement
pattern (see Figure 3). Following an active execution of the movement,
the formerly gained results were complemented – respectively corrected
– using video-based self-confrontation. Furthermore, subsequent
complementing allocation-experiments were conducted (Schack, 2002).
Figure 3. A windsurfing-expert illustrates a Basic Action Concept for the realization

of the front-loop.
The acquired BACs for the frontal loop are: (1) High-low-high, (2) Take-
off, (3) Opening the sail, (4) Moving center of gravity to the front, (5)
Introduction of rotation, (6) Becoming compact, (7) Shifting the sail, and
(8) Turning the head.
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A total of 40 test subjects (experts and novices) participated in a special
study for the preparation of new forms of technical preparation: n = 20
experts (all male); mean age: 28.8 years; engaged in windsurfing for 15.8
years on average; execution of front-loop on average for 9.4. This group
of people consisted of American, French, and German athletes who, at
that point, were members of the world elite in windsurfing. A number of
these athletes rank among the pioneers of windsurfing and have been
involved in the movement from its beginning. All athletes are participants
in international competition (World Cup, Grand Prix, etc.) and professional
windsurfers. They are able to perform the front-loop reliably and variably
in a competitive setting (some as a double frontal loop). They train about
30 weeks annually. Expert status was based on at least 7 years duration
of front-loop execution on a competitive level.
In the same manner, the group of novices (n = 20, 18 males, 2 females;

mean age: 22 years; engaged in windsurfing for 8.2 years on average;
front-loop on average for 1.6 years) consisted predominantly of German
and American athletes. These athletes reported training approximately
23 weeks annually. They participated in national and international
competition, but to this point do not hold world rankings and are not
able to perform the front-loop under competitive circumstances. Overall,
the (potential) course of development for this group is comparable to
the expert group. Hence, we are talking about persons who have the
capability to reach the level of experts, but haven’t achieved that status
yet. For the underlying study it was mainly of interest that the novices, as
compared to the experts, mastered the technical execution of the front-
loop far less reliably and variably. The sovereign execution of the movement
(according to expert testimony) depends highly on the experience in
windsurfing and on the repeated practical performance of the movement
under various conditions. The minimum condition for acceptance into
the novice group was that the subjects had performed that front-loop at
least twice (according to their own testimony). The results of this study
are illustrated in the following figures. For this illustration, α is constantly
set at 5%; this equals a dcrit value of 3.51.
Figure 4 displays the group-structure of the experts (n = 20) as the result

of cluster analysis in form of a dendrogram and contends the factor matrix
arranged according to clusters. Cluster analysis provides three clusters.
The ascertained structures of mental movement representation in the
expert group show a remarkable affinity to the biomechanical functional
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d
4.8
Prepare Rotation 3.5

Rotation
Take-Off
1 2 8 7 6 5 4 3
1. High-low-High; 2. Take-Off; 3. Open the Sail; 4. Center

of Gravitiy to the Front; 5. Introduction of Rotation;
6. Becoming Compact; 7. Shift Sail; 8. Turn Head
Figure 4. Results of the hierarchical cluster analysis of Basic Action Concepts of the
front-loop in the expert group. The lower the value of an interconnection between
the study units (see the Euclidian distance scale on the right), the lower the distance
of the concepts (n = 20; α = 5 %; dcrit = 3.51).
structure of the movement. As can be seen in Figure 6, the functional

structure of the movement could be divided into several phases. Take-
off could be classified as a second order supportive phase, preparation
of rotation as a first order supportive phase, and rotation as the main
phase.
d
4.4
3.5
6 5 8 7 2 1 4 3
Figure 5. Results of the hierarchical cluster analysis of Basic Action Concepts of the
front-loop in the novice group (n = 20; α = 5 %; dcrit = 3.51).
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The superordinate concepts acquired on the basis of clusters (take-off,

preparation of rotation, rotation) are spatially separate and temporally-
sequentially organized. We are assuming that they serve as means to
the solution of specific subproblems (energizing, introduction of impulse,
rotation).
Figure 5 illustrates the cluster solution of the novice group (n = 20).
It is characteristic for these cluster solutions that the elements have a weak
structural link. The BACs are located slightly above the critical distance
(dcrit = 3.51); therefore, no structure can be proven for the whole group.
Obviously, the technique-related representational structures are too
weak at this point. For technical preparation, though, claims regarding
movement representations in individual cases are especially interesting.
d
4.6
3.5
3 6 7 2 1 4 8 5
Figure 6. An individual novice’s solution (subject 4) in the learning stage of

rough coordination as the result of hierarchical cluster analysis. The circular mark
denotes the link between two elements that is obviously based on surface features.
Explanations in the text (α = 5 %; dcrit = 3.51).
When comparing the dendrogram of the novice group with that of the
expert group, a significant difference in the clusters becomes obvious.
While the cluster solution of the expert group follows a functionally-based,
phase-structured movement, in contrast, a comparable structure cannot
be found in the novice group. As for the novice group, the elements
are arranged differently and neither a phase-related clustering nor a
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temporal-sequential structure is noticeable. Furthermore, inexpedient

mental structures are apparent. Subject 4 (Figure 6) combines elements
from different movement phases. As an example, this results in a cluster,
which consists of elements 5 (rotation) and 8 (head turn). Both elements
of the cluster represent rotary motions, yet, regarding functional aspects,
have nothing in common. While element 5 plays an important part in the
introduction of the rotation, element 8 completes it. Obviously, surface
features – and no functional features – were consulted for classification
of the elements. The unification of these elements on the representational
level is oftentimes linked with typical movement errors on this level
of motor learning (rough coordination). In this context, novices often
forget the head turn to complete the movement, which usually leads to
dangerous falls.
In this study, we were able to show the relation of cognitive representation

and performance in a special movement-technique. It is evident that
the cognitive structure of persons with a high ability to perform is more
differentiated and more strongly function-oriented than is the case with
beginners. Experts are obviously better able to apply their knowledge
practically to aim for optimal execution of the movement. Furthermore,
statements concerning cognitive structures are given, which are of
immediate relevance for training processes. Based on these statements, a
coach might be better able to decide the cognitive context which athletes
can understand and work on. This is particularly relevant for movements
which have to be carried out under extreme time pressure and which
make use of athletes’ non-declarative knowledge.
Other studies are done in an artistic area, to elicit differences in dancers’

mental representations (i.e., cognitive structure) varying in skill-level in
two basic ballet movements. Participants showed movement-specific
differences in the mental representations in long term memory related to
skill level. A similar cognitive structure was noted in advanced amateurs
and professionals for the Pirouette en dehors, which referred clearly to the
movement structure, and less functional representations in beginners. For
the Pas assemblé, the experts’ representation structure was different from
the ones of amateurs and novices, pointing to differences in movement
execution. The results point toward a unique mental representation as
a function of skill-level and movement nature (Blaesing, Tenenbaum &
Schack, 2008).
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However, are these long-term memory structures functional for
movement performance? We consider this to be the case, because
they are very plausible within the context of a perceptual-cognitive, or
anticipatory, control scheme as hypothesized above. Indeed, we can see
no other way of addressing the functional demands related to BACs
other than by controlling the corresponding submovements directly
through their anticipated perceptual effects. As we have emphasized
herein, characteristic perceptual features of BACs relate meaningfully
to corresponding functional features. Sensory feedback tells the athlete
whether or not he or she has performed the movement properly and
effectively. Taken together, it is plausible that functionally successful
movements require the use of an anticipatory control that draws on BAC
networks. We conclude, then, that the controlling system may well use
the revealed cognitive BAC networks in long-term memory to construct
situation-specific reference structures for anticipatory control.
Analyses concerning representational and biomechanical structures

of a movement make it possible to derive consequences of technical
preparation and mental training. Thus, it becomes apparent in which
phase of movement respective representational problems are located. A
significant consequence for technical preparation is to train precisely this
specific motion sequence. For this aim, a specific way of teaching was
developed (Garzke, 2001; Schack & Hackfort, 2007).
Horizontal and Vertical Cooperation between Cognitive

Systems in Motion
Results from different lines of research addressing the mental
representation level showed that not only the structure formation of
representations in long-term memory (LTM) but also that chunk formations
in working memory are built up on BACs and relate systematically to
movement structures (Schack, 2004a). Experiments were designed to
assess both the structure of mental representations in LTM (determined
with the SDA-M) and chunking in working memory (determined with
Cognition and Movement Chronometry, CMC; Schack, 2004a). If the
interaction assumption is true, identifying functional modules of the
movement architecture with both groups of experiments should make it
possible to match indications of structure in LTM with those in working
memory. Results confirmed this, demonstrating that cognitive systems
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interact to produce complex movements. Our experiments have shown
that both the order formation in LTM (Schack, 2004 a, b; Schack & Bar-
Eli, 2007; Schack & Hackfort, 2007; Schack & Mechsner, 2006) and the
chunking in working memory (Schack, 2004a) build on the topological
(spatiotemporal) structure of the movement. This provides experimental
evidence that structures in movement and memory mutually overlap.
To gain a fuller understanding of the cognitive architecture of complex

movements, it is not only important to know whether LTM and working
memory cooperate horizontally on, for example, one level of mental
representations. It is also crucial to know whether there is a vertical
cooperation between the level of mental representations and the level of
sensorimotor control. One could ask whether biomechanically relevant
features can be found in the structure of mental representations. Some
of our studies have been designed to systematically search for pathways
between biomechanical aspects and mental movement representation
(Heinen & Schack, 2004; Schack, 2003). This has required us to develop
methodological approaches to measure kinematic parameters and the
structure of mental representations.
Experimental studies (Schack, 2003) showed that representational

frameworks were organized in a hierarchical tree-like structure and
revealed a good match with the biomechanical demands of the task.
After measuring kinematic parameters, we investigated the relationship
between the structure of motor representation and the kinematic
parameters of different movements. These studies (Heinen & Schack, 2003;
Schack, 2003) have revealed significant correlations between kinematic
parameters (time structure, angles according to the take-off-phase,
tilt angle, angular velocities, etc.) of movement and the corresponding
parts of mental representations. Hence, the results suggest that there
is a level in the organization of movement from which representations
are translated directly into movement. According to this perspective,
the representation structure can access all the topological properties
that support the movement. It can also be inferred, then, that no special
translation mechanism is required between perception, representation,
muscle control, and movement performance. Altogether, our experimental
results support the hypothesis that voluntary movements are executed
in a person-task-environment constellation and are directly stored in
memory through representations of their anticipated perceptual effects.
Thomas Schack 179
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Emotions in motion architectures

Performers in many arenas such as art and sport exhibit high-level
performance in practice, but sometimes struggle under stressful/
competitive conditions (see Beilock & Gray, 2007 for extensive review).
Though motor skills and mental representations of these skills are inherited
and learned, the performer’s use of them alters under emotional/mental
and temporal pressure. How, though, does the architecture/framework
change under pressure? What are the underlying mechanisms that permit
or prevent an efficient course of action? Questions such as these cannot
be answered with confidence at this stage. Though sound theories and
extensive research have been devoted to explore this linkage, empirical
efforts have yet to take an integrative approach. Therefore, we will now
propose a conceptual framework, offering an integrative approach, to
understand mental and motor operations in relation to emotions in motor
performance.
The functioning of motion is not only based on cognitive modules. Emotions

are important components of motor control and performance; therefore,
we have to give attention to the functional meaning of emotions and we
have to think about ways to integrate the concept of emotions in our
architecture model. From such a point of view, negative emotions, such as
anxiety, should be understood not only as having an undermining effect
on performance, but also as a process of adaptation to specific events
or a motivating factor for a particular action. A performer’s anxiety in a
particular moment of an action can reinforce their sensitivity to dangerous
situations, prompting the adoption of defensive strategies, and their
engaging in more realistic decision-making. Carver and Scheier’s (1988)
control process model of anxiety and performance holds that anxiety can
have both facilitative and debilitative effects on performance depending on
subjects’ expectancy of being able to cope with anxiety and complete the
action. Support for this contention in sport comes from the work of Jones
and colleagues, where high skilled swimmers (Jones, Hanton, & Swain,
1994) and cricketers (Jones & Swain, 1995) interpreted both cognitive and
somatic anxiety symptoms as more facilitative to performance. Swimmers
who had positive expectancies of goal attainment interpreted anxiety as
more facilitative than swimmers who had negative expectations of goal
attainment (Jones & Hanton, 1996). Thus, cognitive anxiety can improve
motivation and facilitate appropriate attention focus (Jones, Swain, &
Hardy, 1993).
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When movements were performed following exposure to emotional stimuli,
active defensive circuitry resulted in faster, but more variable, voluntary
movements. In Coombes, Couraugh, and Jannelle’s study (2006), exposure
to unpleasant images led to an increase in mean force production of a
sustained voluntary movement more than exposure to pleasant stimuli,
as well as acceleration of central processing times. Furthermore, the
length of exposure to affective stimuli mediated both speed and accuracy
of motor performance, and, compared to pleasant stimuli, unpleasant
stimuli led to either increased error or increased speed. According to
the biphasic theory of emotion (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997), the
wide array of emotion can be classified by two dimensions; valence (i.e.,
appetitive or defensive), and arousal intensity. When performing a task,
these two affective dimensions are activated by the functional brain,
priming physiological adaptations and mental representations, which
correspond with the environmental context. Thus, the nature of the task,
the context, and the emotion eliciting stimuli all mediate the production
of movement (Coombes et al., 2006).
Figure 7. Interaction between cognitive and emotional processes in the architecture

of motion
Thomas Schack 181
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The relationship between emotion and cognition from an action-oriented
perspective is depicted in Figure 7. The appraisal of events, action effects,
or stimuli in the environment is the first cognitive process in action
organization in the model. The result of one’s appraisal is not only stored
in memory, but is of central meaning for evoking emotions as well. The
stimuli and appraisal-dependent emotions are stored in memory as
specific elements of cognitive event profiles. Furthermore, emotions are
functionally linked with the beginning and maintaining of motivation. One
stimulus may produce not only one, but several types of motivation.
At this stage, one’s level of mental control comes into play. Processing
at this level starts with the decision about a relevant action. The result
of this decision making process is the intention to reach specific action
effects. Based on this intention, an action plan is created and the mental
control processing runs to a module, which is responsible for action-
execution. This module is linked to the level of sensorimotor control (see
Table 1), and includes all motor components necessary for production
of goal-directed action effects. The type and quality of action effects are
important information for the action system. But, if the action effects are
not congruent to the intended outcomes, or not valid to cope with the
actual situation, the appraisal system will read an insufficient action, and
will evoke negative emotions. In the case of problems in action realization
(e.g., the real situation in competition is much more difficult than the
expected one), mental control processing must run through another path.
If this occurs, the performer must use action-strategies such as control
of attention, control of emotion, or motivational control. Such strategies
are supported by inner speech (self-talk), and are used to stabilize action
realization. Thus, if the performer lacks such strategies, they have no tools
to control the action in a befitting manner. If the performer lacks mental
control, they will not realize their intentions and will lack intended action
effects. This kind of information is negatively valued by the appraisal
system, and influences the development of emotions dramatically. Thus,
one important link between emotion and information storage is caused
by the representation of emotionally induced action effects in long term
memory. From this point of view, emotions are a part of information
storage in general.
Interestingly, the model shows a functional relationship between the

level of mental control and emotions (Figure 7). From this point of view,
the development of emotions is functionally related to actual generated
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action effects. Of importance to the formation of emotions is the difference
between intended and actual effects, and the appraisal of this difference.
For this reason, the model is in accordance with specific emotion theories.
For example, Mandler (1979, 1985) assumes that the abortion of a planned
action can be seen as a central reason for anxiety development. Based
on Mandler’s approach, task relevant stimuli are perceived through the
increased interruption of action. In turn, these stimuli demand their own
attentional resources, and therefore disturb action performance. Thus,
anxiety could not only be the reason of a performance interruption, but also
stringently seen as its consequence. The models (see Table 1 and Figure
1) rest on the assumption that the interruption of activated performance
plans and the increasing inability to subordinate the action performance
to an action program are attributed negatively and emotionally.
Perspectives for applied fields

Theoretical considerations regarding the construction of motion are helpful
when trying to identify suitable psychological training methods for applied
work. As before, we shall start by using specific diagnostic procedures to
investigate the systems involved in the organization of action. Diagnosis
and training methods regarding mental representation level have been
discussed at great length. In this context, it is important to note that we
also apply the results of such experimental diagnoses in the consulting
process so that athletes receive feedback on their memory structure
(Schack & Hackfort, 2007). This diagnosis is important when deciding
whether an athlete possesses a good disposition for optimal process
regulation. Problems regarding the capacity to perform in competitive
settings may be located in the field of process regulation, as well as
in basic regulation. The term process regulation refers to the execution-
related organization of an action, whereas basic regulation describes the
generation of emotional and motivational conditions for the action. Basic
regulation is primarily produced at the level of mental control. Therefore,
we applied appropriate diagnostic tools to test components such as
stress regulation, competition anxiety, self-talk, or different components
of volition. Results are given to the athlete as a mental profile (Schack
& Hackfort, 2007). Such results can be used to help practitioners make
better decisions on appropriate psychological training methods for
athletes. If problems are diagnosed on the level of mental control, training
methods to develop mental control are preferred. These may be exercises
to optimize self-talk, relaxation methods, procedures for optimizing stress
Thomas Schack 183
•
regulation, and so forth. If problems concerning movement memory and
motor coordination are diagnosed on the level of mental representations,
imagery training or technical preparation would be more appropriate. The
advantage of this combination of mental training and memory analysis
lies in the fact that athletes’ memory structures are integrated into mental
training providing sufficient consideration of their individual dispositions.
This makes the methods developed here (e.g., SDA-M) directly significant
for developing new forms of mental training. The primary disadvantage
of traditional procedures is that they try to optimize performance through
repeatedly imagining the movement without taking the athlete’s mental
technique representation into account (i.e., they are representation-blind).
However, if the movement’s cognitive reference structure has structural
gaps or errors, these will tend to be stabilized rather than overcome by
repeated practice. The alternative developed here allows practitioners
to measure the mental representation of the movement before mental
training and then integrate these results into that training.
Mental training is now being applied not only in various professional

and amateur sports (Schack & Hackfort, 2007) but also in rehabilitation
(Braun, Beursken, Borm, Schack & Wade, 2006; Braun, Beurskens, Schack,
Marcellis, Oti, Schols, & Wade, 2007). In cases of injury, mental training
offers a means of training even when active movement execution is severely
impaired. As a result, new opportunities for the use of mental training
have opened up in the fields of medical and orthopedic-traumatologic
rehabilitation. In this context, mental training has proved to be of great use
when it comes to regaining lost movement patterns after joint operations
or joint replacements. It can also be applied successfully in neurological
rehabilitation for stroke patients by stabilizing and gradually improving
their grasping movements. Thus, mental training provides a general
means to link together imagery and movement in various areas of life.
Conclusion
This chapter has shown how the practical work of sport psychologists,
coaches and therapists requires a theoretical foundation and intervention
techniques based on appropriate methods. Such a perspective views
theory as an instrument to be applied in practical work. Such an instrument
either has to prove its worth or be further investigated and developed.
In applied sport psychology, this results in a decisive triad composed of
theory, technology, and practice.
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To back up the techniques of sport psychologists, we have presented
methods that focus on precisely defined components of an action. It is
clearly advantageous for a coach to know how mental structures form,
stabilize, and change in sport action. A coach who possesses such
knowledge is also better able to address the individual athlete on his
or her current level of learning, and shape instructions specific to each
athlete. The methods presented here make it possible to take the essential
information on the underlying cognitive-perceptual action system into
account, and address the individual needs of an athlete in a better way.
The theoretical perspective on the construction of motion developed here,
and the accompanying methods (technological steps) are, therefore, not
just relevant for optimizing the daily work of the sport psychologist, but
also for opening up new perspectives to modify approaches to mental
training and technical preparation (Schack & Bar-Eli, 2007; Schack &
Hackfort, 2007).
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The Cognitive Architecture of Complex Movement:

Mental Representations for Alternating Single Strokes
Between Hands and Feet on the Drum-set
Recent research has revealed that voluntary movements are planned,
executed and stored through mental representations of their anticipated
perceptual effects in long-term-memory. So-called Basic Action Concepts
(BACs) are identified to be the major units of movement control. BACs
integrate functional and perceptual features of movements and are
organized in hierarchical structures. They can be described verbally as well
as pictorially. The distances between the BACs, which are ascertained by
the SPLIT-procedure, provide information about the structure of mental
representations (for more details about SPLIT see Schack, p. 168).
The investigated movement consists of alternating single strokes between

right hand and right foot respectively, and left hand and left foot. Lifting
the drumstick or the beater with either hand or foot is called “upstroke,”
hitting the drum is called “downstroke.” When executing this motion at
high speed, the up- and downstroke motions of the respective limbs
usually interlock, e. g., right hand makes an upstroke, while the right
foot executes a downstroke at the same time. For this reason, each BAC
consists of two movements (except the first BAC).
______________________________________ 6.1
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . _____.____ 4.3
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . ____.____ _____ 2.3
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
_____._______ _____._____ . . ___._______ 1.3
___.__ . . . . . . . . . 0.8
. . . . ___.__ ___.__ . . . . . 0.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 1 1 1
6 5 1 2 7 3 4 0 1 2 3 8 9
Figure A: Expert Structure (High-level-player)

Cluster 2, 3, 8, 9: up- and downstroke motions right side
Cluster 5, 6, 11, 12: up- and downstroke motions left side
Cluster 7, 13, 4, 10: up- and downstroke motions between left and right
respectively right and left side
Christian Frauscher 189
•
These clusters contain BACs which belong functionally to each other. The
temporal aspect does not play an important role. The expert drummer
arranges the BACs in a functionally correct order. He combines up- and
downstrokes of the right side strictly separated from the left side. The
transition from one side to the other is also classified separately. BAC 1
was identified as not belonging to the overall movement and was therefore
correctly singled out by experts.
_______________________________ 5.9
. ______________._____________ 5.4
. . .
. . _______._______ 5.1
. ____.____ . . 4.7
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . ___.____ 3.5
. . . . . .
. . . ____.____ . . 2.9
___.____ . . . . . . 2.6
. . . . . . . . _____ 2.4
. __.___ . . . ___.__ . __.___ 2.2
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . ___._______ . . . . . . 0.8
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 1 1 1
2 3 1 3 7 8 9 6 4 5 2 1 0
Figure B: Novice Structure (Low-level-player)

No clear structure can be recognized. There is no classification referring
to upstroke and downstroke motions which belong to each other from a
functional point of view. It seems that this drummer tried to find an order
by referring to the temporal aspect.
Comparing these two structures, the coach/teacher can decide which

strategy for improvement should be chosen. This might be mental training
or another method. In this particular case, the low-level player might
practice the up- and downstroke motions for each limb first, and it can
be assumed that he is not aware of the interlocking aspect of the up- and
downstroke motions.
As a consequence of this research, it will be possible in the future to

ascertain internal structures of movement representation in order to
improve performance itself as well as the instructions given by teachers
or coaches. Obviously, mistakes in the mental representations will
prevent the player from executing a movement properly. Understanding
the individual internal representations can lead to better results in
performance than innumerable hours of rehearsal. The teacher now has
a new instrument to find out the reasons for failure in performance. This
knowledge might help to enhance performance especially for high-level
performers in disciplines like music.
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Not jus n
t motion but the motion set in motio
•
Teaching Music Physiology and Motor Learning

Processes at a University: Experience and Evaluation
Introduction
Thinking about art in motion is of central importance for work at a
university of music. The movements involved in playing or singing are the
connection between musical ideas, inspirations and emotions, and the
actual sound. Movements are the decisive transition from the actions of
the player or singer to the instrument or voice. It is just not possible for
instrumentalists or singers to produce sound without movement.
“....movements are comparable to melodies, which we create with the body as
an instrument.” (Günzel 1989)
For dance and drama, and the corresponding gestures, this quote may
still apply, and allow natural movement behavior. For singing, and even
more so with the playing movements on musical instruments, we must
make do with a kind of “second nature,” for in the long years of training,
the movements predominantly follow the requirements of the voice or of
the instrument.
First of all, I would like to talk briefly about the epidemiology of musicians’
diseases, and the historical development of my specialist area. Then I will
outline what we offer in terms of teaching and advice, using the example
of the Zurich University of the Arts, and I will report on some scientific
evaluation projects relating to this provision. In the third part, I will talk
about the role of (self-) instruction styles and motor learning processes
in the education of musicians and in the prevention and treatment of
diseases that affect musicians.
Part 1: Epidemiology of musicians’ diseases and the

development of music physiology and musicians’ medicine
The term “music physiology” includes research into and teaching of the
human functions involved in making music. The specialist area of music
medicine or musicians’ medicine deals with the health and medical
concerns of professional musicians, and often needs to pull together
knowledge from several individual medical disciplines in order to be able
to understand and solve a problem that is specific to the occupation. The
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rise in music physiology and musicians’ medicine in the 1980s and 1990s
was to a considerable extent triggered by the alarming studies on the
state of health of professional musicians, music students, and children
studying music.
Figure 1 shows the results of one of the most prominent studies in the
USA from the 1980s, in which the number of people suffering problems
amounts to more than 75% of those surveyed. What is also noticeable
is the large number of those with multiple problems. If we include less
serious problems, as many as 85% of the musicians in the survey are
affected.
40
36
35
30
25
Number in %
20
15 14 14
12
10
0
1 serious medical 2 serious medical 3 serious medical 4 serious medical
problem problems problems problems
Fig. 1: Fishbein et al. 1988, numbers of problems in 2212 orchestral

musicians, in percentages (USA)
The results of various epidemiological studies in various countries

show that with an average of about 75%, most professional musicians
suffer occupation-related problems which hinder them in pursuing their
profession. Despite some methodological problems in, for example,
differentiating symptom areas, pre-existing or multiple conditions,
as well as the sometimes unclear separation of point prevalence and
period prevalence, overall the studies show that the diseases relate to
many different medical fields. However, the main focus is clearly on
orthopaedic and neurological problems, as well as on psychological and
psychosomatic problems. Since only a few studies explicitly inquire about
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psychological and psychosomatic problems, one may suppose that lurking
behind pain syndromes, which initially fall under the areas of neurology or
orthopaedics, there are frequently also psychosomatic symptom profiles
(Hildebrandt 2002). Stage fright, whose great significance becomes clear
in some of the studies, is among the typical stress factors in musicians,
and is presumably likewise of significance in the generation of tension
and overstressing of the locomotor system.
In the study by Seidel et al. (1999) in Germany, anxieties in connection

with playing music were explicitly inquired after. Through this, the ranking
results for the symptom areas are given in Figure 2.
90
80 Students n=100
Professionals n=88
70
60
Number in %
50
85,0
40
30 60,0
57,0
50,0
20
33,0
10
16,0
0
Anxiety when playing music Musculo-skeletal problems E ar problems
Fig. 2: Seidel et al., 1999 Frequency of problems occurring in music

students (n=100) and professional musicians (n=88), in percentages
(Germany)
This study and others also show that manifest problems exist even in
the training of future musicians. As with orchestral musicians, the main
emphasis is on problems concerning the locomotor system and on
psychosomatic problems. Those students who play sport regularly are
notably less frequently affected by musculoskeletal problems (Blum 1995,
Seidel 1999). Music students who come from families of musicians are
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more frequently affected by problems than the average. This suggests
the influence of high performance expectations and socialization factors
(Seidel 1999).
Thus even in the training of musicians, the necessity arises for both
therapeutic advice and care and the provision of early prevention, with
the aim of preventing or ameliorating symptoms. The frequent functional
disorders as early stages of diseases are described as disorders, which
at that stage are still very amenable to treatment, particularly in school
children and students.
Causes of occupation-related problems

The next three tables show a very brief overview of the causes of occupation-
related problems affecting musicians (according to Hildebrandt 2002 /
2006), which have not really been systematically researched to date.
Table 1: Causes of occupation-related problems
1. Lack of sensitivity to the warning signs of overuse, for example coordinative

and muscular fatigue.
2. Absence of warming up, playing in and cooling down.
3. Unsuitable forms of training and training schedules (too few breaks and
too infrequent change of practicing position or “postures”).
4. Lack of variety, imagination and change when practicing (too infrequent
change of practicing strategies and content of practice).
5. Lack of balance in relation to everyday working life and stressful outside
activities (lack of relaxation, movement and recuperation, one-sided
hobbies).
Table 1 predominantly concerns everyday behavior, and covers factors

that can readily be influenced through information and education.
1. Inappropriate ergonomic equipment, for example chairs, shoulder and

chin rests, straps, thumb rests, size and shape of instrument, mouthpieces,
strings.
2. Inadequate posture and movement control, lack of psychophysical
variability.
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3. Untrained breath control and awareness of the body.

4. Lack of suitable means of expression or playing and singing techniques, as
well as of individual leeway for interpretation.
5. Expression inhibitions, indispositions, excessive stage fright.
6. Unhealthy eating habits, misuse of alcohol, prescription medicines and
drugs.
Table 2 calls for much more educational reform, attentiveness and

patience, and stronger intervention in the living and working habits of
students and teachers. Changes can range for example from deepening
awareness of the body to programs for withdrawing from substances
that are harmful to health.
1. Demand for exaggerated and too constant tempo and volume.

2. Stressful workplace conditions, for example because of noise level, lack of
space and light.
3. Lack of sleep and unfavorable apportionment of working time; for example
through weekly and daily rhythms; touring, working and rehearsal schedules;
practice times determined by third parties.
4. Psychosocial stress, for example through competition, isolation in everyday
working life, bullying, authoritarian organizational structures, failure to
achieve career goals, and financial uncertainty.
5. Particular anatomical features, as well as various predispositions and pre-
existing conditions, for example hyper- and hypomobility, compartment
syndrome, and various anomalies.
In Table 3, the requirements and traditions of the professional environment

are particularly strongly represented. To some extent, they require difficult
negotiations in relation to occupational politics. Also listed are the
individual anatomical circumstances and limits that must be recognized
and respected. To take one example: the viola player with short arms and
small hands, who for acoustic reasons plays an enormous viola – this is
a typical subject for the acoustically experienced instrument maker in
cooperation with the musico-physiologist.
In the listing of causes for occupation-related disorders in musicians, a

broad spectrum of factors becomes apparent, which can best be conceived
of within the framework of a bio-psychosocial disease model. Thus in
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the genesis of problems, as a rule factors from several areas interact
with one another in a complex way. In relation solely to the disorders
of the locomotor system, the fatigue that precedes most problems is
itself the consequence of the most diverse psychological, physical and
environmental factors. This applies likewise to stress and stage fright,
which in turn should be seen in connection with the musical-technical
performance. Stress and stage fright in turn are important triggers for
the occurrence of strains and problems related to overuse. For musicians’
medicine, what is needed is simultaneous diagnostics, in the sense of
interdisciplinary understanding of the genesis of a disorder, which do
justice to the demands of bio-psychosocial understanding.
The so-called diseases of musicians are also occasionally mentioned in

medical sources dating from the last four centuries. In the 18th and 19th
centuries, three standard works appeared on the subject of occupational
diseases and diseases affecting musicians (Ramazzini 1700, Happ 1778,
Sundelin 1832). From the mid-19th century onward, some individual
diseases affecting musicians were mentioned in journal publications
of the newly-emerging specialist medical disciplines. Right up until the
1960’s and 1970’s, two monographs determined the way diseases of
musicians were viewed: J. Flesch’s “Occupational diseases of the musician”
(1925) and K. Singer’s “The occupational diseases of musicians” (1926).
However, little attention was paid to these works in the medical world. In
order to meet the care needs of sick musicians, in the course of the 20th
century former musicians and therapists in the non-medical area created
a separate market in forms of training and therapy, which continues to
be actively used by sick musicians outside of the official university-based
medical system.
Table 4: Overview of forms of training and therapy for musicians

(according to Hildebrandt 2002)
1. Functional approaches (“western”), for example: Alexander technique,
Brügger, Bobath concept, Caland, dispokinesis, eutony, eurhythmie,
Feldenkrais, functional kinesiology, ideokinesis, Janda, Laab, Laban, Kabat,
solution therapy, Maitland, McKenzie, Medau, Mensendiek, pilates, PNF,
resonance theory, retraining therapy (Candia, Boullet, Chamagne), spiral
dynamics, Brunkow isometric muscle training, vocal training methods,
stretching, Trager, zilgrei
2. Functional approaches (“eastern”), for example: Aikido, chi gong, do
in, katsugen undo, kum nuye, tai chi, tibetan, taekwondo, yoga
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3. Breathing-based approaches, for example: Dore Jacobs, Elsa Gindler,

Middendorf, Parow, Pranayama, Schaarschuch, Schlaffhorst-Andersen,
Schmitt
4. Mental training and relaxation forms, meditation, for example:
Autogenic training, various forms of imagination, NLP, progressive
relaxation, various suggestion and hypnosis techniques, mental training,
transcendental meditation, contemplation, yoga, zen
5. Body-oriented psychotherapies, for example: Bioenergetic methods,
various movement and physical therapies, focusing, gestalt therapy, hakomi,
hypno-systemic approaches, psychomotor therapy, dance therapy
6. Manual methods and techniques, for example: Acupressure /
acupuncture, chiropractic, cranio-sacral balancing, Cyriax, Dorn, various
manual therapies, ortho-bionomy, osteopathy, polarity, reiki, Rolfing,
shiatsu, spiral pressure therapy, touch for health, tuina
7. Kinesiology and various balance methods
It is only in the last 30 years or so that the problems and diseases affecting
musicians have increasingly entered public awareness and have also been
recognized as important by the medical world. Various standard works
in book form followed journal publications with the usual delay (Sataloff
et al. 1991/98, Blum 1995, Tubiana 2001, Hildebrandt 2002, Wagner 2005,
Rosset I LIobet et al. 2007)
What had long been taken for granted for sportsmen under the heading
of “performance physiology” and “sports medicine” slowly became
established towards the end of the 20th century under the heading of
Music Physiology and Musicians’ Medicine or Performing Arts Medicine
as a separate specialist area for professional musicians too.
Common themes in music education and music medicine
The stimulation and direction of sensorimotor learning and developmental

processes is certainly a main focus of music education and artistic
work, as well as in health-oriented work. However, I am always aware
that sensorimotor theory – understood here as a unity and simultaneity
of perception and movement – is just one aspect in the complex
phenomenology of playing music. We should also draw attention here
at least briefly to the fact – which is important to musicians – that
regardless of age, the overall tone of the musculature and therefore also
of the quality of movement is constantly influenced by the most diverse,
even unconscious areas of our life. These include, amongst other things,
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automated performance such as reflexes, kinesic memory, and processes
of integration, adaptation and coordination. Overall, the spectrum of these
influences ranges from the psycho-physical drive and motivation situation
through to the stored sum of all movement and learning experience
gained to date.
Table 5: Common themes in music education and music medicine

1. The need to instruct sensorimotor learning processes and development
processes
2. The need to take account of a broad spectrum of influence:
3. From the current psycho-physical drive and motivation situation through to
the stored sum of all movement and learning experience gained (consciously
or unconsciously) to date
4. Constant relation to current musical and emotional expressive needs
From the connections we have named above alone, it can be deduced

that in work in music education or music medicine, the connection to
the individual emotional expressive need of school children and students
must always be ensured. This applies in relation to the piece of music,
but also to the respective current life situation. The recourse to deeply
engrained patterns of developmental stages lying years in the past, which
frequently occurs in sensorimotor learning processes, makes the task
of the teacher and adviser a demanding but also fascinating one. On
the part of the teacher, advisor or person providing treatment, what is
required in addition to professional experience is a special paedagogical-
psychological skill, and corresponding further training.
Apart from the beginnings of musico-physiological research and treatment

specialization in musicians’ medicine, systematic and scientifically well-
founded concepts and programs for the prevention of health problems
in musicians remain isolated instances. This applies in particular for
prevention within the scope of education at music schools and university
music departments.
Part 2: Music physiology and musicians’ medicine in music

education – Pilot projects and scientific evaluation
Because of the necessity of concrete practical prevention, from 1993 to
2001 I founded and led the “Musico-physiological Consultation” program
as a pilot project at the Lahr (GER) music school.
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Lahr musico-physiological consultation 1993-2001
1. 2 hours a week at set times in the school building

2. Individually and in groups
3. With students, teachers and parents
4. With elements from various forms of training and therapy (for example,
dispokinesis, functional kinesiology and the Feldenkrais method)
5. With components offered as part of teacher training courses, for example
as “Lahr International training courses for applied music physiology”
This consisted of a weekly consultation session on prevention and re-

habilitation in youth training, including teachers and parents. The part
played by teachers and parents, often unconsciously, as role models was
frequently a significant factor in solving problems. The known dissemi-
nation function of the teacher prompted me to introduce the interna-
tionally accessible training courses for applied music physiology in Lahr.
Through the start and the international presentation of these pilot projects
amongst others, in Lahr for the prevention and treatment of playing and
health problems in children and young people, early prevention became
a component of regular musician education in Europe. I received invita-
tions from all various European countries to deliver preventive teaching
projects, and this was followed by my regular main appointment, which
continues to this day, at the Zurich and Basel universities of music.
- 1997: Founding of the Music Physiology and Musicians’

Medicine Section of the Zurich University of the Arts
Teaching and consultation provision arose from a foundation course for
the prevention of playing and health problems
- 1999: Founding of the Music Physiology and Musicians’

Medicine Section of the Basel University of Music
Teaching and consultation provision arose from the method work with
stringed instrument players and from performance training for players
and singers
- 2005/2006: Founding of the Swiss University Centre for Music

Physiology
Cooperative project of all Music Physiology sections at Swiss music
universities
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Mutual access to consultation sessions, teaching provision and joint
further training and research projects
With the founding of the Music Physiology and Musicians´ Medicine

sections of the Zurich University of the Arts, the first full professorship
in music physiology and musicians’ medicine in Switzerland was also
created. Various teaching and consultation programs arose from a
foundation course for the prevention of playing and health problems.
This is made up of a lecture on musico-physiology with a related practical
seminar. This will be described separately.
A decisive advantage in international comparison exists at the universities

of Zurich and Basel in that the lecturers in the new department are
well incorporated into everyday educational life and form part of the
teaching staff of their respective music universities, and can thereby –
with their medical therapeutic know-how – also participate in the core
tasks of the university, to ensure comprehensive education and further
development of the artistic and paedagogical skills. Particularly in the
area of the functional disorders that cause the majority of all problems in
playing music, early improvement of the capacity for self-organization in
musicians (“help you help yourself”) can achieve a great deal. Through
this, the general tendency to pathologize, medicalize and commercialize
when dealing with occupation-related problems can be counteracted.
The following list shows the courses and consultations on offer at the
moment, taking my department at the Zurich University of the Arts as an
example.
Teaching and consultation offered at the Music Physiology and

Musicians’ Medicine Section of the Zurich University of the Arts
a. Physical development / Music and the body / Music and movement

/ Functional kinesiology / Introduction to various schools of physical
perception and various forms of self-awareness
b. Prevention of playing and health problems – Disposition
c. Learning strategies & physiology & mental training
d. Psycho-physiological stage performance training
e. Individual instruction in music physiology as a subsidiary subject
f. Individual consultations in music physiology / consultation sessions on
“musicians’ medicine”
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g. Courses in music physiology for methodological and subject-related

didactics groups for all instruments and voice
h. Courses in music physiology for main subject classes
i. (Self-) instruction styles based on physiological principles
j. Extended masters-level training in music physiology for music teachers
who are already working, within the framework of the Swiss university
centre for music physiology
Course B in this list was, as I have already mentioned, the foundation

course for the whole subject area and the starting point for the other
courses offered. One can see here that over time, cooperation with the
music teachers has become increasingly intensive. This is demonstrated
amongst other things by the fact that with some teachers, I regularly
collaborate in main subject classes, and the teachers send numerous
students to my one-to-one consultation sessions. It is decisive that in
individual cases, it is possible to switch between individual and group
lessons, or a combination, in order to ensure that the students and
lecturers receive optimum attention. Thus for example one can start with
the basic skills of standing and sitting in groups. The individual adaptation,
particularly in the case of instruments that are played asymmetrically,
such as the flute or guitar, is however left to the subject-related didactic
classes and one-to-one classes or music physiology consultations.
Straightforward ergonomic questions such as choosing and adjusting
a chair, or choosing footwear, can be dealt with on a general level in
groups. The ergonomic equipment for the instrument and more specific
physiological topics on the other hand often require more detailed
individual attention. Examples would be the adaptation of chin rests and
shoulder rests, or spikes for stringed instruments, as well as straps, thumb
rests and knee rests for wind instruments and plucked instruments. The
biometric hand assessment according to Wagner (2005), as the basis
for an individual risk profile and the basis for ergonomic decisions (for
example, when choosing the size of a viola and when adjusting the keys
on a saxophone) or when choosing fingerings (for example on keyboard
instruments), as a rule can only be carried out profitably in small groups,
or within the scope of individual consultations.
Dispokinesis (Klashorst 2002, Hildebrandt and Müller 2004) plays an

important role in our work at the music university. A total of three lecturers,
including myself, are trained in dispokinesis and use it in everyday teaching
situations.
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1. Dispokinesis (according to van de Klashorst)

2. Sensorimotor and psychomotor form of training and therapy for musicians
and stage artists
3. Encouragement of natural postural, breath and movement control, through
work on the postural reflex level (related to the Bobath concept)
4. Building up an individual instrumental and stage disposition (posture,
movement, breathing, instrumental techniques and stage techniques)
5. Individual adaptation of ergonomic aids
6. Independent programs for practice at home, no dependence on therapists
or equipment
Dispokinesis is a form of training and therapy specially developed for

musicians and stage artists. It can be used in teaching and prevention,
as well as in therapy and rehabilitation. With its so-called Urgestalten
– prototypes or origins – of posture, breathing and movement, we
work through a person’s sensorimotor and psychomotor development,
from lying, through crawling, to standing. In the course of this, any
developmental gaps are dealt with, and in particular the postural reflexes
(righting reflexes) are supported. A particular role continues to be
played by the specially developed exercises for instrumental and voice
technique, as well as by the ergonomic aids developed within the sphere
of dispokinesis. Technical instrumental or vocal competence, and physical
awareness and expressive awareness are consistently trained with regard
to the requirements of a stage situation.
In the following a very short description of the classes and consultations

is given.
a. Physical development / Music and the body / Music and

movement / Introduction to various schools of physical
perception and various forms of self-awareness, for example
Physical training through dance, relaxation techniques, fitness training,
functional kinesiology, Alexander technique, Feldenkrais method, tai chi,
chi gong, yoga, dispokinesis, spiral dynamics, breathing therapy
At the start of the course of study, our central focus is on training physical
perception in connection with the experience of music. Besides the
rhythmic physical level, we also take account of the individual emotional
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context of the body and movement when playing and listening to music.
There is also the opportunity here to deal with possible problems as
a topic, and provide individual advice or treatment. In the group, one
can also look at physical strengths or weaknesses with and without the
instrument, the “postures” when sitting and standing, the whole-body
coordination, and social skills. There is also an opportunity to get to know
certain forms of relaxation, perception and movement training; in this
case, for example, the selection for the summer semester 2008 is listed
in the heading.
b. Prevention of playing and health problems - Disposition

In these music physiology courses specifically aimed at prevention,
topical aspects of science and medicine that are important for artistic and
educational work are communicated in comprehensible language. An
overview is provided of the functional anatomy and physiology of postural,
respiratory and movement systems, as well as of the various occupational
risks, opportunities for prevention and treatment, and ergonomic
solutions. Special exercises from the most varied forms of training and
therapy are worked out which have proved successful in teaching, stage
performance and in one’s own practicing. They relate above all to posture,
movement, breathing, coordination, learning behavior and stage behavior.
Main points of focus are on sensorimotor and psychomotor aspects, and
offer important developmental neurological perspectives, particularly in
relation to the reflexes.
Semester-long course of 2 hours per week
a = 1-hour lecture in music physiology / music medicine:

– Occupation-related aspects from science and medicine, in
generally comprehensible language
– Introduction to functional anatomy and physiology, as well as to
ergonomics and the various forms of therapy for musicians
b = 1 hour of practical exercises (related to class a):

– Exercises from various forms of training and therapy on the
topics of relaxation, posture, movement, breathing, coordination,
learning behavior and stage behavior
The aim of the exercises is an instrumental, vocal and stage disposition

that has a psycho-physiological foundation.
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In 1999, the effectiveness of this course was demonstrated in a scientific

study (Spahn et al. 2001, Hildebrandt 2002):
Effectiveness of the one-semester preventive course “Prevention of

playing problems and health problems – Disposition”
Test group (n=23 ) versus waiting / control group (n=23)
Method: Pre / post comparison measurement of the group mean values

by means of validated psychometric scales (HADS, KASSL, FKKS, STAI,
SAM, HIL)
1. Decrease in general burden of symptoms (p<0.05*), of problems when

playing music (p<0.01**) as well as in mood disorders (p<0.01**) and of
the level of anxiety (p<0.05*)
2. Improvement in the sense of health and of physical well-being (p<0.05*)
3. Improvement in getting to grips with the work as a musician (p<0.001***)
and in the sense of security in stage situations (p<0.05*)
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The results of the foundation course, amongst other things, enabled
the department of music physiology in Zurich to be enlarged, and to be
further anchored in the curriculum.
c. Learning strategies & physiology & mental training
In the course on “Learning strategies & physiology & mental training,”

besides the most important fundamental principles of physiology and
functional anatomy of the brain, the central focus is on learning and
practicing strategies, and these are related to the everyday experience
of practicing, teaching and performing in public. The current status of
research in relation to learning, memory and presentation before the
public, as well as motor learning, forms of mental training and the various
concentration techniques play a significant role here. It must however be
mentioned here that the scientific foundations for motor learning with
musical instruments are rather sparse. In cooperation with the University
and ETH Zurich (see Victor Candia’s article in this book), amongst others
we are however making efforts in the field of fundamental research.
The effectiveness of this form of course was demonstrated in 2006 in

a scientific study involving 37 music students at the Basel University of
Music (Hildebrandt and Nübling 2006):
Effectiveness of the one-semester course in learning strategies &

physiology & mental training (2006)
Test group (n=19) versus waiting / control group (n=18), numerical

differences tested as statistically irrelevant
Method: Pre / post comparison measurement of the group mean values by

means of validated psychometric scales (FSKN-FSVE, HADS) and newly
developed evaluation questionnaires for assessing changes in relevant
parameters of practicing (HIL-Ü)
1. Very significant increase in behavioral and decision-making certainty

(p<0.01**)
2. Significant decrease in values for anxiety (p<0.05*)
3. Highly significant increase in getting to grips with practicing (p<0.001***)

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Here too, once again one can see that the decrease in anxiety appears to
be connected to the professional skills. Amongst the students involved,
the knowledge conveyed about the brain functions and the control of the
motor systems appears to play a role in getting to grips with one’s own
practicing.
d. Psycho-physiological public performance training
The course “Psycho-physiological public performance training” is attended

weekly by students of all levels, with the aim of acquiring performance
competence and gaining more audition routine and constructive feedback.
In an explicitly constructive atmosphere, a repertoire of solutions for the
possible problems in an audition situation is built up. This includes dealing
with “stage fright” and its possible consequences, such as inhibition of
expression, shaking, dryness, sweating, respiratory blocks, tension, “black-
outs,” etc. Stage instructions and exercises with a psycho-physiological
foundation are worked out directly with the instrument and for singing,
which have proved successful in concerts, examinations and auditions.
In this way, with practice performances with applause and bows, etc.,
competent stage behavior and a realistic self-assessment are learned. The
successes of the participants in competitions, auditions and examinations
in recent years confirm the underlying idea that the capacity to perform
in public and self-direction can be learned if an appropriate constructive
framework is available. Within the course, for each performance, part
of the time is used for learning physiologically meaningful self-help
techniques, directly in front of an audience. To monitor success, a modern
video system is used on a voluntary basis.
e. Individual instruction in music physiology as a subsidiary

subject and
f. Individual consultations in music physiology / consultation

sessions on “musicians’ medicine”
In one-to-one music physiology tuition, individual topics can be dealt with
for which there is not enough room in the group sessions, and which for
example serve to prepare for examinations in the respective music study
main subject. The individual consultation sessions in music physiology or
the consultation sessions on “musicians’ medicine” are accessible across
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Switzerland and in mutual exchange at the university level; these can also
result in referrals to other medical, dental and psychological specialists.
g. Courses in music physiology for methodological and subject-

related didactics groups for all instruments and voice and
h. Courses in music physiology for main subject classes

With their teachers, subject-related didactics groups and main subject
classes can go through the instrument-specific material in block courses,
in relation to aspects of music physiology, and they can obtain instruction
and feedback in classes and lecture exercises. These courses are
simultaneously of great importance for the trust between the lecturers
in the music physiology subjects and the lecturers for the main subjects
and subject-related didactics.
i. (Self-) instruction styles with a physiological basis
The course on “(self-) instruction styles with a physiological basis” for

(prospective) teachers concerns the influences of verbal and non-verbal
patterns of communication on the sensorimotor and psychomotor systems
in lessons. In particular, it is about the possibilities for optimizing postural,
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breathing and movement sequences towards an individual instrumental,
vocal and stage disposition. One main focus is on the so-called quality
characteristics of (self-) instruction in relation to action patterns that are
to be learned for the first time or corrected. I shall deal with these quality
characteristics in more detail in the third part.
This course too demonstrated its effectiveness in a study at the Zurich

University of the Arts (Hildebrandt and Nübling 2004):
Effectiveness of the one-semester course on (self-) instruction styles with

a physiological basis
Teacher test group (n=13) versus teacher waiting / control group

(n=13)
Method: Pre / post comparison measurement of the group mean values

with validated psychometric scales (HADS, KASSL, S-BUS) and newly
developed evaluation questionnaires for assessing changes in students
and teachers (EVAL-S, and EVAL-L, HIL-Q)
1. Significant increase in responsibility for playing instructions (p<0.05*) in

teachers
2. Very significant increase in the differentiation of leading and following
movements (p<0.01**) in teachers
Student test group (n=39) versus student waiting / control group

(n=27), numerical differences tested as statistically irrelevant
1. Very significant change in instrumental posture and movement control

(p<0.01**) in students
2. Significant change in the verbal instructions / explanations of their teachers
(p<0.05*) from the perspective of students
In the factor analysis of the items for the evaluation questionnaires

that were used, the topic block on posture, movement and dealing with
symptoms showed a significant change (p<0.05*) amongst students in
the test group compared with students in the control group.
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j. Extended masters-level training in music physiology for music

teachers who are already working, within the framework of the
Swiss university centre for music physiology
The Swiss University Centre for Music Physiology (SHZM – Schweizeri-
sches Hochschulzentrum für Musikphysiologie, www.kmhs.ch/shzm) of-
fers a new opportunity for interdisciplinary work in music physiology at
the university level. Through exchange between the teachers involved, in
2006 the establishment of the SHZM provided the possibility of bringing
together the existing skills of the various Swiss university departments.
This also opens up the possibility of bringing about the training of a suc-
cessor generation of people teaching music physiology at music univer-
sities and music schools. Together with music teachers, these can then
serve as disseminators of music physiology content, and can serve as
role models.
Swiss University Centre for Music Physiology
1) Nationwide access for students and lecturers to:

- Consultation sessions and advice offered at the music universities
- Lecture courses relevant to music physiology and music medicine
- Further education provision at the various universities, for example
for the MAS (Master of Advanced Studies) in music physiology
for music teachers with main subject one-to-one tuition, audition
training, anatomy, physiology, lesson practicals with supervision,
observation visits and self-awareness.
2) Joint research projects

Since autumn 2006, under the umbrella of the SHZM, the subject area of
music physiology has been available as a main topic in a so-called Master
of Advanced Studies, in close cooperation with other courses, for example
in music education and music practicals. In addition to the courses listed
earlier, there is also one-to-one tuition in applied music physiology, with
and without instrument or voice. This includes a supervised practical
lesson; in other words, individual paedagogical work under instruction.
The curriculum also includes self-awareness courses in various forms of

training and therapy, project management courses with a music physiology
dissertation on a project of one’s own, as well as observation visits in
music physiology courses, consultation sessions and advice sessions. The
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aim of this newly structured range of courses is for students to acquire
skills and solution strategies based on music physiology and preventive
medicine for everyday vocational experience, and to be able to apply
them in practical situations.
Part 3: (Self-) instruction styles and motor learning processes

in music education
In educational establishments for training musicians, teaching and
learning styles are formed. The career paths and successes of the future
musicians and teachers are decisively influenced by the success or failure
of instruction or direction. The instruction that the student receives from
the teacher is the model for his self-instruction when practicing on his
own and for what he will later, as a teacher, convey to his own students.
In this way, both theories of learning and values are passed on down the
generations.
Working on the basis of one’s own approaches to solutions and ideas

still appears to be the exception – at least in music education, but also
in relation to individual attention to the foundations of our musical
and expressive culture. For this reason, working out favorable forms of
instruction assumes an important place in the lecture courses in music
physiology which the author introduced at the Zurich University of the
Arts and Basel University of Music. In view of the increasing time pressure
in musician education for example, and a graduate age that is dropping
around the world, these courses represent an important space for dealing
with such fundamental topics.
Table 6: Reflection of instruction experiences in relation to playing and

singing motor systems
1. Musicians have on average 4-5 main subject teachers by the end of their
training
2. These 4-5 main subject teachers mostly come from different schools /
traditions / generations
3. Frequently, contradictory instructions are given by these 4-5 teachers in
relation to playing or singing motor sequences
4. Musicians with long term health problems in addition often received
contradictory instructions by therapists and doctors
5. In a music medicine consultation session, the analysis of these instruction
experiences is consequently often of an “archaeological” nature
•
Detailed questioning about experiences of direction and instruction is
frequently a part of the musical case history that points the way ahead,
both in the lesson and in therapy. For clearer understanding of the effects
of experience of instruction, a distinction should be made between the
experiences of instruction on playing posture and playing technique,
and the experiences of instruction on the general posture or the socially
desired bodily expression in everyday life. A “case history of instruction”
should be viewed as an equally important part of a comprehensive case
history.
For the prevention and treatment of playing problems and health problems
too, the subject of instruction plays a significant role: one need only think for
example of physiotherapy or training in rehabilitation. Practically all those
musicians who were ill or whose health was at risk and whom the author
has treated or taught were searching for more favorable self-direction
techniques or were engaged in processing and correcting instructions
that they had been given. In this connection, the desire to enlarge the
individual capacity for musical expression was usually expressed.
Selected quality characteristics of (self-) instruction

In this section, I will deal with the role of playing instructions, and
merely mention other aspects of instruction, for example non-verbal
communication about body language, physical contact and eyes, as well
as the sound of the instrument or the singing voice. (Self-) instruction in
musicians is characterized in a context-specific manner and in a complex
way; we find:
1. Conscious and unconscious motor learning and acting in the sense of a

“bio-psychosocial” model
2. Characterizationthroughacontinuallyeffective“audiomotor-communicative”
functional cycle (motor exercises without acoustic feedback tend to be rare
in education)
3. Influences of different styles of music, musical expression and the audience
on this functional cycle
4. Hardly any scientific foundations for expression-related instructions for
playing and acting that have proved their worth in stage situations
One of the significant differences between playing music and sport

results from the focus on the sound that is aimed for when playing
music, and the articulation of art and content, or the appropriate artistic
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content. Unfortunately, as can be seen in the epidemiological studies,
successful sound and professional success are not always synonymous
with physiologically sensible movement, and thus do not automatically
guarantee lifelong health in motor terms. Taking account of a “bio-
psychosocial” model, with regard to the (self-) instruction of musicians
one could speak of an “audiomotor-communicative” functional cycle
(Hildebrandt 2002), in which the piece of music and the audience are
included.
In the following, I shall outline those insights which we have gained

from experience with playing and singing instructions. I would like to
call them quality characteristics of (self-) instruction (Hildebrandt 2002,
Hildebrandt and Nübling 2004), and they are to be understood not as
scientifically grounded rules, but as aids gained from practical lessons
and from sensorimotor therapy. To a great extent, they still need to be
backed up by scientific experiments, and are presented here without any
claim to completeness. The gap between directions for playing and acting
that have a long proven record in stage situations on the one hand, and
psycho-physiological fundamental research on the other, can still only be
partially bridged.
The following examples can in each case have as their subject a playing
action that is to be learned for the first time or corrected. To that extent,
they are of interest for prevention and therapy as well as for education
theory in the sense of improving or developing performance.
Quality characteristic of (self-) instruction 1

“Give the respective instruction for practice or correction for a
limited time”
The time limitation for instructions for practice or correction is intended
to ensure that the learning step can be carried out within a sensible time
interval. Frequently, the occurrence of symptoms or learning blocks shows
that over the years of study under various teachers, numerous but often
contradictory versions of the same playing movement are accumulated,
each of which appeared to stake a claim to lifelong validity, or were not
subject to any time limitation and checking. One possibility, which is
favorable in terms of organization, lays in time-limiting the instruction
until the next lesson (or until the next telephone conversation) as the
locus of feedback and of checking its success. The decision for a version
•
that has only limited currency, for practicing within a limited time frame,
can influence learning and therapeutic processes very favorably, or even
enable them in the first place.
Instructions from the early years of study prove to be particularly

characterizing. Thus for example a group of stringed instrument players
with symptoms in the most varied regions of the right hand and right
forearm had been taught in the first few lessons that the thumb should be
held in a “round” position on the bow. This rule applied regardless of the
length of the thumb and the bow position (the thumb reacts differently on
the nut and the tip). Nor was this instruction fundamentally questioned
over the course of many years of study and work. In another group, wind
instrument players and singers were told to actively lift the sternum at
the end of an intake of breath, and to open the ribs. This was commonly
misunderstood as involving an overextension of the thoracic spine, which
led to symptoms of overburdening the entire back, and to a drawing back
of the shoulders, but not to the desired effect of deeper breathing. In
both example groups, bidding farewell to the instruction in question was
a decisive step in therapy, and led to improved body sensation. It is one of
the important tasks of methodology or subject-related didactics teaching
at music universities to limit the respective instructions for action in time,
so that the students do not automatically assume that they have “lifelong”
validity.

“Define clear initiation points in kinetic chains! Define leading
and following movement components, or: What should be
moved when and where to?”
By “kinetic chain,” we mean the connected elements of the motor organs
involved in a movement, but in particular the muscles that move them.
Precise information about the perceived or imagined initiating location
within a kinetic chain is of great importance for instrumental and vocal
teaching, but also for prevention and therapy. Naturally this information
depends on the respective school to which the teachers or therapists
belong. Usually there are several possibilities for a movement pattern that
makes sense and fits from a physiological perspective. For example, it is a
great advantage, and makes a qualitative difference, for the dexterity but
also the economy, clarity and above all reproducibility (synonymous with
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“ability to be practiced”) of finger/arm coordination when playing, if for
the overall movement, the initiative lies in the area of the finger or hand
(in other words, in the fine motor area) instead of points of initiation in the
arm and shoulder (in other words, in the gross motor area). The outward
picture of the two movement versions can show great similarities, and
the difference may be apparent only to practiced observers.
Particular attention on the part of teachers and therapists is required for

corrective work on the gross motor components of the playing sequence
– for example, blocked following movements of the arms, which often
occur. By focusing on them, these components in the movement control
can become temporarily dominant. In a further step, and quite in the spirit
of what has already been said, these gross motor components should
then be subordinated once more to an overall movement that is initiated
on the fine motor level.
Example: An orchestral musician (viola player) had considerable muscular

problems in the right upper arm and shoulder area, which lasted for
eighteen months and were resistant to treatment. The first upward stroke
movements showed dominant lifting initiation points in the elbow, thereby
pressing the upper arm into the shoulder. After changing the instruction,
the hand then tended to lead, and initially the elbow sensibly relaxed and
moved backwards and downwards out of the way. Just a few days after
the one-off consultation, he was able to resume work again practically
without symptoms.
Unfortunately there are still teachers who, as we put it, teach “stereo-
typically dominant gross motor initiation points” in the bowing technique.
These and other contradictory initiation points at various points in the
chain are almost always to be found with muscular overuse, functional
movement disorders, and structural damage to the organs of movement.
In the area of music too, there are successful playing instructions with a
focus on components lying outside the body (see Wulf 2007), for example
the tip of a drum stick, or the hair of the bow, the floor beneath a piano
pedal or the sound being reflected by the wall of the concert hall.

“Provide a model for a reproducible action pattern that can also
be sufficient in stage situations”
•
To start with, let me pose a test question: When you do extra practice
before performances, do you experience a drop in level, which makes
practicing seem not worthwhile, or even harmful? In the musician’s case
history, this important question can make the reliability of the patterns
of feeling and action in stage situations a topic for consideration.
Overtraining can certainly play a role here, as can the ever fluctuating
psycho-physical starting activities or inconstant readiness tone. Even
more frequently however, the constantly changing or new playing
instructions cause musicians to become confused, and entangled in
contradictory and ever new versions of a playing action. The more one
practices, the more versions are stored and the more unlikely it becomes
that a favorable and clear version will be produced under performance
conditions. The attempt to compensate for this uncertainty by increased
practicing completes the “vicious circle,” and moreover leads to fatigue
and overloading. Apparent miracles worked by teachers or therapists
in just one hour are not infrequently attributable to working out, in an
orderly manner, an unmistakable and clear version. These “master class
effects” often fade after the lesson phase if there is no change in the style
of self-instruction.
Decision-making aids for reproducible patterns could for example be:
Table 7: Decision-making aids for building up reproducible patterns

(according to Hildebrandt 2006)
1. Design the entry movements and restarting movements metrically, and

explain them in relation to breathing in and out
2. Implement dynamics, tone colors and phrasing as conscious and memory-
forming design elements in concrete terms, even when practicing
3. Design jumps, register changes and overblowing sequences in clear
relation to tempo (macro- and micro-timing),
4. Define the start and aim of the finger movements in precise terms of time
and location. Fully open / half-open / over the old or new string / key /
valve.
5. Within passages, bring fingers, arms and respiratory (auxiliary) muscles
rhythmically into preparatory starting positions and activities
6. Clarify how the playing movements are incorporated into a phrase, metrical
movement, and possibly sweeping gestures.
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The decision for a reliable version does not of course preclude later
practicing in phrasing, dynamic, tempo and style variations in order to
clarify and refine. This context interference principle is unfortunately often
misunderstood by musicians as a distraction from problems, and needs
the basis of a clear version, in order not to have a counterproductive
effect.

“Developing constructiveness: The corrective instruction
should include a directly tangible solution strategy, but not the
analyzed problem”
The analysis of unfavorable action patterns right down to the physiological-
anatomical connections is no doubt very useful. However, the corrective
playing instruction that is then found should no longer contain this
analytical “error-oriented” part, so that through the negation, the
reaction speed and the emotional “inner connection” of the movements
are not destroyed. Rather, the playing instruction should constructively
emphasize the individual “resources” in the individual, and not divert
attention to the emotionally often stressful idea of “avoiding mistakes.”
Seen in psychological terms too, a solution-oriented instruction style
instead of avoidance behavior in relation to possible problems in concerts,
lessons and therapy makes a great deal of sense. For example, instead
of the deficit-oriented instruction “not to push,” the idea of a direction of
movement or a movement analogy would be more suitable, particularly
if this also has an emotionally stimulating effect. A significant disruptive
factor besides the discouraging component of problem-oriented
instructions is the greater amount of time they require. For the problem
in question, in its negation, must first of all be respectively transformed
into a corrective plan of action, which – particularly in a stage situation
– requires a great deal of attention and time, and is therefore seldom
successful. Experienced specialists in education theory and therapy are
in a position to give constructive pointers, including specifically for stress
situations. A significant factor in the constructiveness of the instruction
is the unifying feeling that they awaken for the simultaneity of the various
parameters and individual components of the action pattern. One solution
that has proved successful is the figurative comparison with a familiar
form of action that has already been mastered “analogously,” and which
for example can originate from the everyday life or childhood experience,
•
and thus from the sphere of natural success, or the resource. In relation
to this, here are some examples:
Table 8: Examples of movement analogies from non-musical everyday

life
1. Types of bowing can be compared to brushstrokes or swinging movements

in the most varied connections.
2. Blowing away a feather on a smooth surface, or blowing gently towards a
candle flame can be a model for breath control.
3. Percussive movements can be compared to the elastic springing movement
on a trampoline, of a rubber ball, or to knocking on a door.
The advantage of this comparing manner of instruction is the resulting

unified experience of the action. In each case several parameters adjust
themselves automatically, and in relation to each other. Tempo, direction,
objective, size, point of initiation and sequence or simultaneity of the
movement components are understood without further ado if they are
compared to familiar and natural gestures or actions. In this connection,
we also speak of the superiority of an instrumental expressive gesture as
“second nature” (see the introduction of this chapter), which manages
with few rational control mechanisms. Viewed in psychological terms, what
is created here is an “eliciting” of an action pattern that is experienced as
non-directive.

“Give the verbal playing or correction instruction a favorable
motor ‘charge,’ or: Find instruction extracts and short formulae
for the stage”
When teaching and practicing, we can assume that verbal instructions
will elicit responses that are direct and rapid, often half-conscious or
unconscious. The content of a verbal instruction is also called the “motor
charge.” Thus to take a negative example, the word “grip,” which is often
used in music teaching, suggests an activity state of the hand and arm,
which is associated with grasping an object. But it is precisely this activity
state of grasping that is one of the most frequent causes of dyscoordination
and strain in musicians. In this case, we would speak of an unfavorable
“motor charge,” and would replace the word “grip.” Alternatively one
could use words such as “finger position,” “hold,” “accommodate,” or
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“touch” to elicit a more favorable activity of the hand and arm, when they
are linked with the specific instrumental and individual requirements in
a suitable way.
Just as it has been customary in sport for a long time now, in musical
presentations the use of constructive self-direction formulae as summary
“instruction extracts” has proved worthwhile. As figurative analogies or
symbols, these formulae should be brief but full of content, and can be
practiced separately as “sub-texts” in mental training. Saying them out
loud can reinforce their effect when practicing. Just before the start,
and before difficult passages in a piece, positive formulations and auto-
suggestions as psychophysical points of anchor can help to prevent many
stress reactions.

“Give a stimulus for one’s own, inner perception of movement,
instead of for a purely visual imitation, or: Use the eye and the
mirror only for what can actually be seen”
Control via the ear and inner sensing of movement is many times faster
and more precise than via the eye. The (reversed) mirror image can, like
looking directly at the hands, interfere with the capability for movement
and hearing. Often, the eyes are made to face the mirror for example,
for the purpose of detailed checking of one’s own playing and singing
sequences. But for more than an orientating glance, and particularly in
the case of flowing complex movement sequences (for example vibrato,
trills, runs), vision is much too slow, and can lead to loss of the feeling
for the movement. The visual reminder, for example, of a successful
version or an inspiring (role) model can then no longer be transferred
into the individual expressive world, and the attempt is made to copy it
as a predominantly external aspect. Sometimes when one closes one’s
eyes one is shocked at the sound and the unfamiliar playing sensation,
which however soon opens into a rapid rise in level through a more
direct interaction of hearing and movement. Particularly important in this
connection is the regained confidence in one’s own body and its capacity
for expression – particularly under performance conditions. Clear and
differentiated perceptions of tactile contact, temperature, resonance
and vibration as well as gestures and musical-acoustic aspects return
as emotionally significant learning channels in a constructive way if the
instruction allows them the corresponding space.
•

“Specifically call for exaggerations and other transient versions
of an action pattern”
Amongst musicians with playing problems and health problems, one
frequently encounters a style of playing music in which there is a lack of
gradation and shaping sequences in the sense of breathing as well as
musically motivated tension and relaxation. It is possible here to produce
a significant connection between therapeutic and musical-interpretative
work. It is not unusual for just such musicians, when working towards a
concert-ready version, to shrink from allowing temporary, exaggerated
clarifications and design features, for example an emphasis of coordinating
sounds or tone groups through dynamics, length, accents and tone colors,
into the learning process. But it is precisely through this that possible
weaknesses and uncertainties can even be transformed into strengths.
For purposeful exaggerations are an excellent way of trying out corrections
and fixing them in one’s memory as a step in the right direction. Usually,
to the surprise of the performer, the attempt at exaggeration on the stage
is deemed by the audience to be “just sufficient.” The comparison with
putting on stage make-up for the theatre can be useful here, for what
looks good from the auditorium is often that which close up in the mirror
looks like hefty exaggeration.
The constructive preparation for possible crisis situations by means of

“exaggerations” includes – in addition to experiences with surprising
performances – practicing with hands, lips, mouthpieces and reeds that
are wet or too dry. One should also gain experience with disruptive ambient
noises and under unusual acoustic conditions. Training on different levels
of physical activity and tension has also proved useful. Thus for example
a slow phrase can be practiced with a high pulse rate and respiratory
rate, which has been deliberately induced beforehand through dynamic
physical activity.

“Give an idea of the desired movement, which is capable
of separating itself from the physical reality in favor of the
movement feeling and the musical expressive content”
Here, we turn once again – perhaps provocatively for the motor system
researchers – to the motor learning that is dominantly controlled via
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hearing, but we presuppose that basic motor skills have already been
acquired. Playing problems and health problems can occur in musicians
where the playing instruction attempts to directly grasp and control
the physical reality of the playing process “by the book.” For example,
with regard to the embouchure and tongue coordination for wind
instrumentalists, attempts at such influencing can lead to failure if the
concept of sound does not retain the upper hand. A person who attempts
outwardly to visualize and control his embouchure usually runs a high
risk. That the instruction level and the real level of action can and must
be quite different is shown by the following examples:
– For singers and wind instrument players, it is natural, in a longer phrase

with several necessary breath marks, to sense it “unrealistically” in one
long breath.
– For players of stringed instruments, it is natural to conceive of the

bow change, “unrealistically,” as an endless movement, since the actual
physical instructions to change bowing direction properly disable any
melodic phrases and sound combinations.
– Players of keyboard instruments successfully direct their finger

movements “unrealistically” from the fingertips, while in fact executing a
majority of their finger movements from the metacarpophalangeal joint.
However, they easily suffer cramping if they imagine the movement’s
origin specifically there or in the musculature effecting the movement.
– In legato passages, stringed instrument players are successfully yet

“unrealistically” instructed to achieve a vibrato effect by seeing it as
“continuous,” even if in real terms, an extremely brief vibrato stop – which
is important for the intonation – has been demonstrated at the start of
the sound.
One could mention a few more quality characteristics which deal more
closely with specific musical topics. It remains a challenge for music
teachers and therapists to find an instruction style which is benefit for
the quality of movements and sound as well as for the expressive needs
of musicians.
•
References
Blum, J. (Ed.). (1995). Medizinische Probleme bei Musikern. Stuttgart, New York:
Thieme.
Fishbein, M., Middlestadt, S., Ottati, V., Straus, S., & Ellis, A. (1988). Medical problems
among ICSOM musicians: Overview of a national survey. Medical Problems of
Performing Artists, 4, 1-8.
Flesch, J. (1925). Berufskrankheiten des Musikers. Celle: Niels Kampmann.
Günzel, W. (Ed.). (1989). Körper und Bewegung, Improvisieren – Gestalten – Darstellen.
Baltmannsweiler: Pädagogische Verlagsbücherei Schneider.
Happ, K. F. (1778). Über Unannehmlichkeiten der Musikinstrumente, die durch das
Blasen gespielt werden.
Hildebrandt, H. (2002). Musikstudium and Gesundheit. Aufbau und Wirksamkeit eines
präventiven Lehrangebotes. (2nd ed. 2004). Bern/ New York: Peter Lang.
Hildebrandt, H., & Müller, A. (2004). Dispokinesis – Freies Verfügen über Haltung,
Atmung, Bewegung und Ausdruck. Musikphysiologie und Musikermedizin, 11(1&2),
55-59.
Hildebrandt, H., & Nübling, M. (2004). Providing Further Training in Musico-Physiology
to Instrumental Teachers: Do Their Professional and Pre-Professional Students
Derive Any Benefit? Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 19, 62-69.
Hildebrandt, H. (2006). Üben und Gesundheit. Ausgewählte musikphysiologische
Aspekte des Übens und ihre besondere Bedeutung für den Ausbildungs- und
Berufsalltages. In U. Mahlert (Ed.), Handbuch Üben. Grundlagen, Konzepte,
Methoden (pp. 67-97). Wiesbaden/ Paris: Breitkopf & Härtel.
Hildebrandt, H., & Nübling, M. (2006). Üben lernen auf physiologischer Grundlage.
Ein Forschungsprojekt an der Hochschule für Musik Basel. Musikphysiologie und
Musikermedizin, 13(2), 56-63.
Hildebrandt, H. (2009). Körperorientierte Schulungs- und Therapieformen in der
Musikermedizin. In C. Spahn, B. Richter & E. Altenmüller (Eds.), Musikermedizin.
Stuttgart, New York: Schattauer (in preparation).
Klashorst, G. O. van de (2002). The disposition of the musician. Amsterdam: Broekmans
& van Poppel.
Ramazzini, B. (1718). Kranckheiten der Handwercker und Künstler, worinnen die
Kranckheiten, womit fast alle Künstler und Handwercker befallen werden. [Diseases
of craftsmen and artists, of which the diseases that affect almost all artists and
craftsmen]. (Italian original 1700.)
Rosset i Llobet, J., & Adam, G. (2007) The Musician´s Body. A maintenance manual for
peak performance. Burlington: Ashgate.
Sataloff, R. T., Brandfonbrener, A., & Ledermann, R. (Eds.). (1998). Performing Arts
Medicine (2nd ed.). San Diego: Singular Publishing Group.
Seidel, E., Höpfner, R., & Lange, E. (1999) Vergleichende Studie zu klinisch relevanten
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Singer, K. (1926). Die Berufskrankheiten der Musiker. Berlin: Max Hesse.
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Spahn, C., Hildebrandt, H., & Seidenglanz, K. (2001). Effectiveness of a prophylactic
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Problems of Performing Artists, 16, 24-31.
Sundelin, K. (1832). Ärztlicher Rathgeber für Musiktreibende. Berlin: Gröbenschütz &
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Tubiana, R. (2001). Functional disorders in musicians. Paris, New York, Tokyo: Editions
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Wagner, C. (2005). Hand und Instrument. Musikphysiologische Grundlagen, Praktische
Konsequenzen. Wiesbaden, Paris: Breitkopf & Härtel.
Wulf, G., McConnel, N., Gärtner, M., & Schwarz, A. (2002). Enhancing the learning
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171-82.
Susanne Herwelly · K. Wolfgang Kallus 223
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•
Injury Prevention in the Orchestra

Work-related disorders of the upper extremities are generally connected
to work involving computers. However, among professional musicians,
musculoskeletal disorders and unspecified complaints of the upper
extremities are among the most common work-related health problems
with an occurrence of between 39% and 87% (Zaza and Farewell, 1997).
Reasons for these health problems include individual factors such as
stress during playing or improper technique and posture as well as
occupational factors, such as repertoire, inadequate lighting, and
uncomfortable seating (Zaza et al., 1998).
The causes for these disorders are not only repetitive movements
and insufficient ergonomics: psychosocial factors such as stress, low
job control and low social support can influence the appearance of
symptomology. Poor recovery is another relevant factor in the etiology of
work-related upper extremity problems (Bongers et al., 2002).
The most important link between psychosocial factors and the development
of upper extremity symptoms is the psychophysiological stress reaction.
During high mental and emotional stress, muscle tension increases, mainly
in the trapezoid muscle (e.g. Van Galen et al., 2002); breathing is changed
in the direction of hyperventilation (Forsman et al, 2001), and peripheral
blood circulation is reduced (Carayon et al., 1999). The combination of
these factors leads to a metabolic overload and hypoxia of the muscles
and furthermore to minor injuries, so-called microtraumata. Continued
stress impedes the recovery from these microtraumata and leads to a
further accumulation of symptoms.
The existing theories on the development of work-related upper extremity

disorders lead to the conclusion that both stretching and other physical
exercises which intend to alleviate the physical causes of the problems
and relaxation exercises which should elevate recovery and relieve stress
are effective methods to prevent the development of symptoms.
In May and June of 2007 in the city of Graz, the Opera Orchestra, in
cooperation with the Karl-Franzens University, introduced two programs
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to prevent the development of work-related upper extremity disorders in
musicians. Twenty-two musicians either volunteered to participate either
in stretching-and-invigorating exercises or relaxation exercises, or were
put on a waiting list (control group). To have a positive impact on the
physical recovery the exercises took place in the breaks during orchestra
rehearsals.
Before and after an intervention period of six weeks, pain intensity, pain-
induced physical strain, state of health during a rehearsal, physical
symptoms and the state of recovery and strain were surveyed by means
of psychometric questionnaires. Additionally, in a small sample (3 persons
per group) the EMG of the trapezoid muscle, the peripheral temperature,
and the ECG were recorded.
The results regarding pain intensity showed the tendency of a significant

interaction (p=.08). While pain intensity remained constant in both
intervention groups, it increased in the control group. Similar results
were obtained for the negative impact of pain. Both results indicate that
although no improvement took place in both intervention groups, at least
the symptoms were not exacerbated.
During the six weeks of intervention the control group showed an increase
in strain while both intervention groups remained stable (p=.04). This
means the exercises had a similar preventive effect on stress as in pain
intensity. Psychosocial resources increased in the group doing stretching-
and-invigorating exercises (p=.04), while burnout symptoms decreased
slightly (p=.15). This result could be an indication of a communicative
aspect of the stretching and invigorating exercises: while exercising the
musicians within the small group could talk about their problems and the
positive effect of the exercises. This fact might also have had a positive
effect on the cooperation outside the group.
Differences in physiological parameters could only be found with the

EMG. In the control group, the EMG standard deviation increased
but it remained stable in the two intervention groups. This is a sign of
muscle hyperreactivity of participants in the control group, but not in the
intervention groups. Altogether, both interventions can be considered as
having a positive effect in the prevention of work-related upper extremity
disorders in orchestra musicians.
Susanne Herwelly · K. Wolfgang Kallus 225
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References
Bongers P. M. Kremer A.-M., ter Laak, J. (2002). Are psychosocial factors, risk factors
for symptoms and signs of the shoulder, elbow, or hand/wrist?: A review of the
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(2002). Forearm EMG response activity during motor performance in individuals
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Not ju y
st motion but the se t i n mo tion b
motion
Charles H. Shea · Attila J. Kovacs · John J. Buchanan 227
•
Perceptual and Attentional Influences on Bimanual

Coordination
Abstract
Numerous experimental findings, from behavioral to brain activity

patterns, have been interpreted within the context of in-phase and anti-
phase bimanual coordination as the only (or most often only) bimanual
patterns that can be stably produced without extensive practice. The
present chapter will review recent research demonstrating the powerful
impact of perceptual and attention focus contexts on the ability of the
motor system to overcome the attraction to in-phase and anti-phase
coordination. The thesis of this work is that 1:1 and polyrhythmic bimanual
coordination patterns that have been thought to be difficult to perform
without extensive practice can be effectively tuned-in with relatively little
practice when salient integrated perceptual information is provided,
attention is directed to the extrinsic feedback, and additional attention
demands are minimized. These results lead to the conclusion that an
understanding of how performance context links perceptual processes
to motor processes is paramount for the continued development of motor
control and motor learning theories, whether the theories are based
on information processing, internal models, or coordination dynamic
frameworks.
Perceptual and Attentional Influences on Bimanual

Coordination
Bimanual movement patterns are used in many everyday tasks such
as tying one’s shoes, jumping rope, or steering an automobile. More
complicated bimanual movement patterns are observed in juggling
or playing a musical instrument. One musical example of a complex
movement pattern involves the production of polyrhythms for drumming.
Figure 1 (top) illustrates the music notation for a 5:3 polyrhythm and
Figure 1 (bottom) illustrates the temporal order.
Over the last 25 years numerous experiments have been conducted in

attempts to characterize the coordination dynamics of rhythmic bimanual
movements (Swinnen & Duysens, 2004; Kelso 1995). A common finding that
links together bimanual coordination work performed by individuals from
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5:3
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3
Figure 1. Notation for drummer to produce a 5:3 polyrhythm (top) and temporal
organization (bottom).
diverse perspectives, e.g., information processing (Ivry & Spencer, 2004)

and coordination dynamics (Kelso, 1995), is the predominance of spatial
and temporal constraints that limit the number of movement patterns that
can be effectively performed without extensive practice in a laboratory or
extensive practice in a skill domain such as music. The existence of spatial-
temporal constraints is often illustrated in experiments where 1:1 rhythmic
movements of the limbs (fingers, wrists, arms) are strongly attracted to in-
phase (ϕ=0°) and anti-phase (ϕ=180°) coordination with the anti-phase
pattern less stable than the in-phase pattern (e.g., Kelso, 1984). Indeed,
an increase in movement frequency leads to a loss of stability in the
anti-phase pattern and participants spontaneously transition to the more
stable in-phase coordination pattern in many experimental tasks (e.g.,
Kelso, 1984). This pattern of results has been explained using concepts
taken from Haken’s synergetics (Haken, 1983) and the tools of nonlinear
dynamical system’s theory and modeled using nonlinearly coupled limit
cycle oscillators perturbed by stochastic forces (Haken, Kelso, & Bunz,
1985; Schöner, Haken, & Kelso, 1986). When required to produce other
bimanual phase relations (e.g., 30°, 45°, 90° relative phase between the
•
limbs), participants show a strong attraction to the more stable in-phase
and anti-phase coordination patterns (Tuller & Kelso, 1984; Yamanishi
et al. 1980). In other words, other relative phase patterns are not stable
and the motor system shows a bias towards what has been labeled the
intrinsic dynamics of in-phase and anti-phase coordination (Schöner &
Kelso, 1988). Importantly, the tendency for in-phase movements of the
two fingers or limbs was initially thought to be due to a bias originating
in the motor portion of the perception-action system. In other words, the
models were developed based on the kinematics of the limbs motion,
and not based on the perceptual input driving the action.
Recent findings, however, involving bimanual isochronous and

polyrhythmic coordination research (Mechsner et al. 2001), visuomotor
tracking research (Wilson et al. 2005a,b), and even unimanual rapid
aiming research constrained by Fitts’ Law (Kovacs, Buchanan, & Shea,
2008) illustrate that performance once thought to be constrained by the
intrinsic dynamics of the motor system can be achieved with relatively
little practice if salient information is provided and attentional demands
are reduced. The strong tendencies found in many bimanual studies
that were attributed for the most part to the intrinsic dynamics of the
motor system may actually represent task dependent detrimental effects
linked to perceptual information (multiple sensory signals to track) and
attentional focus (competition between monitoring the stimulus and the
action resulting in rapid shifts in attention) demands imposed in the
testing environment. We propose that given an external focus of attention
and integrated salient extrinsic feedback, participants can essentially
“tune-in” complex bimanual coordination patterns with extremely little
practice (i.e., 5 minutes instead of 5 days, Swinnen, Dounskaia, Walter,
Serrien, 1997). This hypothesis is in stark contrast to earlier claims that
these coordination patterns were difficult, if not impossible, to learn in
continuous tasks without extensive practice.
The purpose of this chapter is to review recent research of ours that

highlights the strong influence of perceptual information and attention
on the production of polyrhythmic and isochronous coordination patterns.
Although it may not be the logical order, we will review work on polyrhythms
first because we conducted these experiments first and findings from
them led us to propose additional hypotheses concerning other bimanual
coordination patterns. Next, we will discuss recent findings related to 1:1
coordination patterns with various phase relationships. Finally, we will
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discuss our interpretation of these findings and propose that although
there are intrinsic advantages of in-phase coordination patterns, other
phase relationships have similar advantages when provided salient
feedback.
Polyrhythmic 2:1 and 3:2 coordination patterns.

More than 50 years ago Fraisse (1946) described limitations in participants’
ability to produce bimanual polyrhythms. The temporal control of discrete
movements, such as finger tapping, requires the specification of a series
of discrete signals related to the endpoints of movements. In contrast, the
temporal control of continuous movements requires signals that specify
continuous spatial-temporal relationships between components (limbs).
Additionally, the temporal control of discrete and continuous movements
is thought to have distinct underlying neural mechanisms (Robertson et
al., 1999). Indeed, some complex polyrhythms (e.g., 2:3, 4:3, 5:3), which
can be produced in tapping tasks, were not only thought to be difficult,
but were thought to be virtually impossible to perform effectively with
the limbs moving continuously. This line of thinking is illustrated in the
following quotation:
“While a 2:1 ratio in a bimanual tapping task is relatively easy to perform,
producing the same ratio in tasks involving the wrist or elbow oscillations where
the limbs are moving continuously is extremely difficult.” (Summers, Davis, &
Byblow, (2002) p. 702)
Bimanual tapping research has shown that 2:1 and 3:1 harmonic
ratios can be produced effectively by novice participants after several
sessions of practice and with little or no practice by trained musicians
(Peper & Beek, 1995; 1998; Summers, Todd, & Kim, 1993; Walter, Corcos
& Swinnen, 1998). However, producing continuous motion in harmonic
ratios pose quite difficult challenges for the nervous system and require
extensive practice (Byblow & Goodman, 1994; Swinnen et al, 1997). With
regard to polyrhythms, the preferred mode of study is through the use of
tapping tasks (Boonstra et al., 2007; Klapp, Nelson, & Jagacinski, 1998;
Kurtz & Lee, 2003) and most often with skilled musicians (e.g., Bogacz,
2005; Collier & Wright, 1995; Peper, Beek, & Vanwieringen, 1995c; Peper,
Pressing, Summers, & Magill, 1996). Under certain conditions, continuous
limb motion bimanual polyrhythms can be established over short periods
spanning several movement cycles, e.g., when swinging pendulums with
different Eigen-frequencies (Treffner & Turvey, 1995; 1996) or tracing
•
circles of disparate diameters (Buchanan & Ryu, 2006). However, the
establishment of long time epochs of stable polyrhythmic performance
has not been evident in the literature.
Why is it so difficult to produce bimanual polyrhythms with the limbs

moving continuously compared to discretely as in tapping tasks? As with
1:1 coordination patterns the reason for this difficulty was thought to
arise from the strong phase attraction intrinsic in the nervous system.
However, other more perceptual/cognitive explanations have recently
been proposed. For example, Mechsner, Kerzel, Knoblich, and Prinz (2001),
have argued and provided compelling data consistent with the notion
that movements are organized in terms of their perceptual goals and the
resulting motor activity “is spontaneously and flexibly tuned in.” Their data
suggests that the symmetry bias that emerges in 1:1 bimanual movement
experiments is actually toward spatial and perceptual symmetry rather
than motoric or muscle symmetry. This was demonstrated by altering
the perceptual information through a change in the orientation of one
hand relative to the other (e.g., from pronation - pronation to pronation
- supination) in a 1:1 finger task. Work examining intralimb wrist-elbow
(Kelso, Buchanan, & Wallace, 1991; Buchanan & Kelso, 1993) and wrist-
ankle (Baldissera et al. 1982; 1991) coordination has also shown that
joint rotation direction can override the symmetry bias associated with
homologous muscle activity based on the orientation (e.g., pronation -
supination) of the limbs. Meschner et al. also demonstrated that a difficult
4:3 polyrhythm could be performed relatively well when perceptual
symmetry was provided. In this example, participants moved two visible
flags by way of cranks hidden under the table. The gears for one flag
were set at 1:1 so that each full turn of the crank resulted in one full circle
of one of the flags while the gears for the other flag were set so that a
¾ turn produced one full revolution of the flag. The task was to turn the
cranks so that the flags turned in an in-phase (0°) or anti-phase (180°)
pattern. Provided this perceptual information, participants were able to
perform the 1:1 in-phase and anti-phase flag patterns (i.e., an actual 4:3
bimanual polyrhythm) relatively well after only 20 minutes of practice.
Recently, we (Kovacs, Buchanan, & Shea, 2009b) asked participants to

produce a 2:1 bimanual coordination pattern by making flexion-extension
movements of their right and left limbs in the horizontal plane. The
independent motion of both limbs was displayed to the participants in
an integrated manner using a Lissajous plot and cursor (Figure 2, top)
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200
A
150
100
50
Slower Limb
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
Faster Limb
200
B
150
100
50
Amplitude
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 250 500 750 1000
Time
Figure 2. Lissajous plot for a 2:1 polyrhythm (top) and example of displacement that
represent a perfect 2:1 ratio.
projected onto the wall in front of them. When the participant extended or
flexed the right, faster moving limb, the cursor (small circle) moved right
and left, respectively. When the slower moving left limb was extended or
flexed the cursor moved up and down. The participants were instructed
to move the cursor around a goal Lissajous pattern that defined a perfect
2:1 ratio of right-arm to left-arm motion if arm motion is purely sinusoidal
(Figure 2, bottom). We anticipated that the goal pattern and this form
of concurrent feedback would provide easily interpretable concurrent
feedback that participants could use to produce the desired movement
pattern. Using this information, participants could easily detect and correct
their performance errors and hopefully tune-in the desired coordination
pattern.
Participants were asked to move the cursor with the same general pattern
as the goal pattern displayed in front of them, but it was made clear
that we were not asking them to trace the pattern. In this experiment
participants were reminded throughout the first few blocks of practice
to attempt to increase their movement speed without sacrificing the
desired movement pattern. We had observed that using a metronome
•
Figure 3. Left and right limb displacements and Lissajous plots for 6 participants in
the covered limb condition (left) and 6 participants in the uncovered limb condition
(right).
to pace the movement prompted participants to direct their attention

to the metronome to the detriment of the production of the polyrhythm
and tended to cause their movement to become more discrete (lower
harmonicity). This experiment included two conditions – one in which the
limbs were covered and one in which the limbs could be observed. We
had observed that participants provided vision of their limbs appeared
to periodically direct their attention to the movement of their limbs to
the detriment of coordination performance. As it turns out this may have
been an important observation.
As we initially predicted, participants were able to produce the desired

2:1 rhythm quite well after only 5 minutes of practice. Figure 3 illustrates
a segment of the left and right limb displacements and corresponding
Lissajous plots for 6 participants in the covered limb (left) and uncovered
limb (right) conditions. What is obvious from these examples is that
allowing for vision of the arms was detrimental to the coordination
between the arms. In a later section on attentional focus, we will discuss
our interpretation of this finding. What is less obvious is that the motion
of both arms in the covered limb condition is harmonic, indicating that
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participantsproducedfew(ifany)unnecessaryhesitationswhenproducing
the polyrhythm. When vision of the limbs was permitted, however, left-arm
motion was more discrete in nature while the movement of the right-arm
remained harmonic. One interpretation of the harmonicity findings is that
participants when permitted vision of their limbs directed attention to the
left-arm in attempts to exert conscious control on the limb’s motion to
the detriment of coordinated performance between the limbs. In essence
the limbs became more weakly coupled.
In a second experiment, we examined the production of a 2:3 polyrhythm

thought to be a much more difficult than a 2:1 harmonic ratio. In fact, we
are not aware of another experiment that has tested this coordination
pattern using a continuous motion task, although 2:3 polyrhythms have
been studied using tapping tasks. This coordination pattern requires 2
cycles of motion of the left limb during the time that the right limb produces
3 cycles. The goal Lissajous portrait (top) and example of left and right
limb displacements (bottom) resulting in a perfect 2:3 continuous motion
polyrhythm are presented in Figure 4.
350
A
300
250
Slower Limb
200
150
100
50
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Faster Limb
350
B
300
250
Amplitude
200
150
100
50
0 750 1500 2250 3000

Time
Figure 4. Lissajous plot for a 3:2 polyrhythm (top) and example of displacement that
represent a perfect 3:2 ratio.
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The 2:3 experiment was conducted in a manner identical to that of the
2:1 experiment except that the goal Lissajous pattern was changed.
The results of the experiment were also very similar to that of the 2:1
experiment. Remarkably, participants were able to produce this pattern
2:3 polyrhythm effectively after only 5 minutes of practice, with the errors
and variability in relative phase for the covered limb group very similar
to those observed for the covered limb group in the 2:1 experiment. As
in the 2:1 experiment, limb movements were harmonic when vision of
the limbs was occluded (Figure 5, left) and left limb movements were
disrupted when vision of the limbs was permitted (Figure 5, right). Several
performance measures indicated a significant increase in task difficultly
Figure 5. Left and right limb displacements and Lissajous plots for 6 participants in
the covered limb
condition (left) and 6 participants in the uncovered limb condition (right).

when vision of the limbs was permitted in the 2:3 task, e.g., variability of
relative phase and errors in relative phase were approximately 5 times
that of the covered limb group performing the 2:3, and were about 3
times the values of the covered limb group in the 2:1 experiment. The
bottom line was that these seemingly difficult coordination patterns were
easily and effectively produced after very little practice when the limbs
were occluded and attention directed towards the feedback display.
These findings led us to believe that other seemingly difficult bimanual
coordination patterns could also be easily performed if salient integrated
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feedback was provided and secondary sources of attention capturing
features in the task were eliminated.
Isochronous 1:1 Coordination Patterns

It appears that, (especially for continuous bimanual movements), there is
no single location in the brain responsible for the control of the spatial-
temporal patterns of bimanual coordination, rather a distributed neural
network is involved (Debaere et al., 2001). In addition, the brain areas
involved (activated), also differ depending on the type of coordination
patterns performed. For example activation levels in the SMA, S1, M1,
CMA and PM were higher when an anti-phase coordination pattern
was performed compared to when an in-phase pattern was performed
(Stephan, 1999; Jancke et al., 2000a; Toyokura et al., 1999). Increased
activation was found in prefrontal and pre-SMA areas when task related
attention requirements were increased. For example, when trained
musicians (pianists) performed a familiar piece, increased activation
was found in the SMA whereas when they performed unfamiliar pieces
increased activation was found in the pre-SMA (Sergent, 1993).
Additionally, Cardoso de Oliveira et al. (2001) have shown that during

in-phase (symmetric) coordination the correlations between inter-
hemispheric motor cortical areas (the areas activated in both hemispheres)
are much stronger than during anti-phase coordination. As Swinnen
(2002) noted, such inter-hemispheric activations may provide the neural
basis of crosstalk between limbs observed at the behavioral level. In other
words, neural crosstalk during bimanual coordination arises when both
hemispheres send signals to the contralateral side of the body via crossed
cortico-spinal pathways, and also simultaneously send the same signal
to the ipsilateral side of the body via uncrossed cortico-spinal pathways.
When performing an in-phase coordination pattern, the signals arriving
at the muscles of one limb from both the contralateral and ipsilateral
pathways are congruent (homologous muscles are activated), not
conflicting. However, when anti-phase pattern is performed, the same
limb might receive different signals from the contralateral and ipsilateral
hemispheres (non-homologous muscles are activated) that yield a non-
congruent, conflicting signal (Cattaert et al. 1999; Kagerer et al. 2003;
Kennerley et al. 2002). Moreover, the notion of neural cross-talk combined
with the identified activation areas might give us a clue as to why musicians
are able to perform with extended practice difficult coordination patterns
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much better than non-musicians. Without going in great detail, it has been
noted that cortical activation areas as well as activation levels change as
a function of practice with more activation in more extended areas early
in practice. Pianists (people with extensive training) show lower degrees
of activation in primary and secondary motor areas than non-musicians
(Jancke et al, 2000). Consequently, lower activation levels might yield less
conflicting signals via uncrossed cortico-spinal pathways for musicians.
Displacement Left 1 A
-1
-1 0 1
Displacement Right
Right
Left
Normalized Amplitude
1 B
-1
00 15 30
Figure 6. Lissajous plot for a 1:1 coordination pattern with 90o phase shift (top) and
example of displacements that represent a perfect 1:1 ratio with 90o phase.
While many experiments have been conducted on polyrhythmic

coordination patterns the literature on isochronous coordination patterns
is even more expansive. The focal point of many 1:1 bimanual coordination
experiments has been on the stability (low standard deviation) or instability
(transitions and pattern switching) of the relative phase between the
oscillating components and the degree to which one coordination pattern
may be drawn toward another (phase attraction intrinsic to the motor
system). If arms or fingers are used for in-phase movements, the two
limbs follow mirror symmetry trajectories involving homologous muscles,
but for anti-phase movements the trajectories are asymmetric with
homologous muscles flexing and extending in alteration. While the in-
phase and anti-phase patterns have been shown to be relatively stable, an
in-phase coordination pattern tends to be more stable than an anti-phase
coordination pattern especially at faster frequencies. By comparison, a
1:1 90º relative phase bimanual coordination pattern has been shown to
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be initially unstable and consequently hard to perform without extended
practice (Fontaine, Lee, & Swinnen, 1997; Lee, Swinnen, & Verschueren,
1995; Zanone & Kelso, 1992, 1994). The difficulty in producing the non-
intrinsic coordination patterns (e.g., 90º relative phase) has typically
been attributed to phase attraction that draws the movement of one limb
toward the other (e.g., deGuzman & Kelso, 1991; Kelso & deGuzman, 1988;
Peper, Beek, & vanWieringen, 1995c; Treffner & Turvey, 1993) and/or the
instability associated with the activation of non-homologous muscles via
crossed and uncrossed cortical pathways (e.g., Kennerley et al, 2002).
Figure 7. Left and right limb displacements and relative phase plots for a participant
on the Test 1 with feedback (left) and Test 2 without feedback.
However, we hypothesized that unified and integrated perceptual

information may allow participants to effectively tune-in, with minimal
practice, what have traditionally been deemed difficult 1:1 phase lag
patterns. In Kovacs, Buchanan, and Shea (2009b also see Kovacs,
Buchanan, & Shea, in press) it was our goal to determine if this type of
feedback provided in the form of a Lissajous plot and cursor representing
the current position of the two limbs will allow participants to effectively
perform a 1:1 coordination pattern with a 90º relative phase lag between the
limbs (see Figure 6). We also wanted to determine if performance is solely
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dependent on the extrinsic feedback provided or whether participants
will be able to continue to perform the required phase relationship when
the extrinsic information is withdrawn. We selected a 90° relative phase to
use in this experiment because this coordination pattern has been used
quite frequently in the bimanual learning literature. In this experiment,
as in the polyrhythm experiments, we only allowed 5 minutes of practice.
Following practice two performance conditions were tested: one with
the extrinsic display provided and one with this information withdrawn.
Figure 7 provides an example of the displacement traces and relative
phase plots for three participants on Test 1 with feedback and Test 2
without concurrent feedback.
The results indicated that participants were very effective at producing the
90° relative phase pattern after 5 minutes of practice. When the extrinsic
feedback was provided (Test 1) continuous relative phase errors and
variability in relative phase were quite small (see Figure 8B and C) while
limb motion was harmonic and cycle to cycle variability was relatively
small (Figure 8D and E).
Figure 8. CE, VE, AE for relative phase (top) and harmonicity, cycle duration, and
cycle duration variability for the left and right limb (bottom).
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However, when the Lissajous display was withdrawn (Test 2) both relative
timing errors and relative timing variability were substantially increased.
Harmonicity and cycle to cycle variability, however, were not negatively
influenced by the withdrawal of the visual display. That is, participants’
movements did not destabilize but rather simply drifted from the goal
relative phase.
Emerging Picture
Cooperation between limbs
An influential chapter entitled “Order in time: How the cooperation
between hands informs the design of the brain” by Kelso and deGuzman
in 1988 focused on the difficulty observed in maintaining coordination
when the two limbs were required to do different things (e.g., phase lags,
harmonic ratios, and polyrhythmic coordination patterns). They argued
that by placing the participant (organism) in particular contexts the
scientist can view the boundary conditions of limb cooperation which
should “… afford insights into the relationships between the brain and
behavior” (p. 180). At these boundary conditions the system can lose
stability and spontaneous transitions to more stable states can occur.
One of these boundary conditions observed in bimanual coordination
was thought to be defined by an intrinsic phase attraction for a preferred
set of phase relationships between the limbs. The result is that when
frequency is increased in 1:1 anti-phase movements, for example, the
coordination between the limbs breaks down and transitions to in-phase
movements occur. Likewise, higher order polyrhythms are thought to be
difficult, if not impossible, to produce and increasing movement speed can
drive the system from one polyrhythmic ratio to a lower order harmonic
ratio (Treffner & Turvey, 1993). The difficulty of multi-frequency patterns
and the resulting transitions have typically been discussed with regard to
the coupling strength between the two limbs. An increase in movement
frequency is thought to decrease the coupling strength between the limbs
and this results in a transition from a higher to lower order frequency ratio
(Peper et al. ; Haken et al. 1996; Treffner & Turvey, 1993). Thus, focusing on
how coordination breaks down under specific conditions was the focus of
much of the research on bimanual coordination because it was thought
that these breakdowns as one approaches the boundary conditions
provided special insight into the dynamics of brain and behavior.
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In our recent experiments we have taken another approach. That is, we
soughttodetermineifwechangedtheperceptualandattentionalconditions
typically associated with testing participants in these coordination patterns
would we find different boundary conditions - boundary conditions related
to the perceptual information available in the performance environment.
In our recent polyrhythm experiments participants in the covered and
uncovered limb condition increased movement frequency with practice,
without resulting in a transition to some other ratio. This suggests that
the coupling between the two limbs was not weakened by an increase
in self-paced movement frequency. Vision of the limbs, however, was
associated with non-harmonic motion (quasi-discrete) in the left-arm.
The harmonicity values in the left-arm in the current experiments and
the increased cycle duration variability are characteristic of reciprocal
limb motion that is composed from concatenated discrete movement
segments that are linked together (Buchanan et al. 2003, 2004, 2006a,b;
Guiard 1997). In the polyrhythmic tasks, vision of the limbs resulted in
reduced coupling strength between the arms and appears to have led
to a breakdown of a continuous arm motion (left-arm) into a series of
discrete segments.
Potential perceptual influences

Recently constraints related to the perceptual information available in the
testing environment have been the focus of research. Mechsner, Kerzel,
Knoblich, & Prinz (2001), for example, have provided compelling evidence
that coordinated movements can be organized in terms of perceptual
symmetry and not motoric symmetry as was previously thought. In this
context perceptual symmetry refers to the limbs moving in mirror symmetry
and motor symmetry refers to the activation of homologous muscles. In
their first experiment using a bimanual finger oscillation task, Mechsner
et al. (Exp. 1) demonstrated that in-phase movements as defined by
spatial symmetry (fingers moving towards each other) was more stable
than anti-phase movements (fingers moving in parallel). This was true
regardless of the positioning of the hand/fingers (pronation or supination)
that required either homologous or non-homologous muscle activation to
achieve the perceptual symmetry pattern. Thus, Mechsner et al concluded
that muscle activation pattern is not a relevant constraint during bimanual
coordination, and rather suggest that voluntary movements are organized
in terms of perceptual symmetry and the corresponding motor activity is
spontaneously and flexibly tuned-in.
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Another clue to the importance of perceptual information to bimanual
coordination arises from studies examining interpersonal coordination
(e.g., Schmidt, Carello & Turvey, 1990) and unimanual visuomotor tracking
(e.g., Bingham, 2004a,b; Wilson, Collins, & Bingham, 2005a,b), both of which
exhibit stable coordination patterns at 0o and 180o relative phase. There
is no direct neuromuscular connection/coupling between the oscillators
in interpersonal and unimanual tracking tasks. Bingham, Schmidt and
Zaal (1999) have argued that the only explanation for the same type of
phenomenon (attraction to 0° and 180°, transitions, etc.) must be that
people are able to visually perceive relative phase when coordinating
to an external event. In other words, coupling between the oscillating
components can and does occur at a perceptual level. Indeed, Bingham et
al (also Zaal, Bingham & Schmidt, 2000) have provided evidence showing
that participants perceive and judge in-phase and anti-phase patterns
as appearing to be more coordinated than other phase relationships.
These findings led Bingham and colleagues to conclude that “one
cannot perform what one cannot perceive” indicating that performance
of various bimanual coordination patterns is highly dependent upon how
relative phase and relative phase stability are perceived. Emphasizing
perceptual processes, Bingham and colleagues (e.g., 2004a, b; Wilson
Collins & Bingham 2005a,b; Bingham et al. 1999; Zaal et al. 2000) have
argued that bimanual coordination can be limited by the performer’s
ability to perceptually detect a given relative phase pattern. That is, if a
participant rates a given pattern of behavior as uncoordinated and cannot
distinguish the amount of variability in the pattern, then it is likely that
they will not be able to produce the pattern. Thus, the reason for poor
performance in some bimanual tasks may be that participants are unable
to detect their errors and thus, are unable to initiate corrections. The tacit
assumption of this argument is that if perceptual information is provided
that facilitates error detection (and correction) then stable performance
could be effectively tuned in. This is consistent with visuomotor tracking
work that has shown that displaying a 180° relative phase pattern between
a tracking signal and a motion signal as a 0° relative phase pattern
results in stabilizing the 180° pattern (Amazeen, daSilva, & Amazeen,
2008), with the same outcome of stabilization occurring for a required
90° relative phase pattern when portrayed as a 0° relative phase pattern.
In the current tasks, the one-degree of freedom visual display simplified
the overall task allowing participants to more easily detect and correct
coordination errors.
•
Similarly, Franz, Zelaznik, Swinnen & Walter (2001) have shown for a 1:1
coordination task that when the spatial trajectories of two different limbs
can be integrated in a geometric arrangement to form a unified visual
representation this leads to more stable coordination between the limbs.
In other words, what is initially perceived as a dual task becomes a single
task by the integration of the two tasks into a single unified representation.
Additionally, bimanual coordination while performing a polyrhythm (a
different rhythm for each hand performed simultaneously) has proved
difficult to perform continuously unless the two different rhythms can be
integrated into a unified temporal representation (Summers et al., 1993).
A primary feature of facilitating perceptual information may well be
whether or not the information reduces an actor’s perception of controlled
degrees of freedom. In other words, in the Kovacs et al (2008a,b, in press)
experiments, when vision of the limbs was occluded, attention was focused
on controlling a single degree of freedom (cursor) instead of two degrees
of freedom (limbs). Thus, their results suggest that an understanding
of the “design of the brain” can only be forthcoming when the roles of
the both the motor side (Kelso & deGuzman, 1988) and the perceptual
sides (Mechsner et al. 2001) are integrated in a true perception-action
dynamics regarding performance (see Bingham 2004a,b; Bingham et al.
1999; Zaal et al. 2000).
In closing this section, we return to the explanation of anti-phase (and

other phase relationships) instability being based on neural crosstalk in
descending muscle commands. This explanation locates one source of
instability to incongruent motor commands arriving simultaneously at the
muscles. Did the occlusion of the limbs remove this incongruent aspect
of descending motor commands in the 90° phase lag or 2:3 polyrhythmic
task? We do not have a measure of this aspect of neural control. However,
logically, if the limbs are moving in opposite directions, then the task
requires more than just the activation of homologous muscles. For
example, the 2:3 polyrhythm actually requires the limbs to be coordinated
at constantly changing phase relationships. This would indicate that
neural cross-talk should also have a continually changing impact on
performance. With vision of the limbs, performance was degraded and
neural cross-talk would certainly play a contributing role. Without vision
of the limbs, the 2:3 polyrhythm was tuned in within 5 minutes. This finding
leads to the hypothesis that salient perceptual information can overcome
the detrimental control aspects linked to neural crosstalk. Identifying
exactly how perceptual information dampens the effect of neural cross-
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talk requires further examination, however, one possibility may be the
focus of attention.
Potential attentional focus influences
In the 4:3 polyrhythm experiment by Meschner et al. (2001, Experiment

3), the participants’ attention was directed towards flags rotating in the
horizontal plane and not toward the actual motion of their limbs that
was blocked from view. We believe this design feature was important
because participants appear to have a strong tendency to attempt to
consciously control the movement of their limbs, especially early in
practice, when the limbs (movements) are visible, but tend to relinquish
conscious control when the limb movements are hidden from view and/
or when the participant’s attention is directed to other salient information
relative to movement outcome. This hypothesis is partially based on
research findings investigating focus of attention effects (see Wulf, 2007,
for review). A relatively recent but growing literature on attentional focus,
spearheaded by the work of Gaby Wulf (see Wulf, 2007 for review), has
clearly demonstrated that participants who are instructed to focus on the
movements of their limbs (internal focus) while practicing a motor skill
learn more poorly than participants instructed to focus on the outcome
(external focus) of their movement. This appears to hold regardless of
the skill level of the performer (e.g., Wulf et al., 2002; Wulf & Su, 2007)
and has been demonstrated for a large variety of tasks ranging from
balancing on a stabilometer (e.g., McNevin, Shea, & Wulf, 2004; Wulf et
al., 2003) to hitting a golf ball (e.g., Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999; Wulf
& Su, 2007). The benefit of external versus internal focus of attention
is thought to result because participants instructed to focus on the
movement of their limbs attempt to actively intervene in the ongoing
control processes required to produce the movement. In this regard, Wulf,
McNevin, & Shea (2003; also see McNevin, Shea, & Wulf, 2003) proposed
the constrained action hypothesis. This hypothesis was based in part on
two findings from their experiment where participants attempted to learn
to balance on a stabilometer: 1) internal focus of attention instructions
decreased the MPF (mean power frequency) of the platform’s motion
and increased the average deviation from horizontal (RMSE); and 2)
external focus of attention instructions were associated with an increase
in MPF and decreased deviations from horizontal. The slowing down of
the corrective actions under internal focus was thought to result from
active intervention of the participants in the control processes with this
•
type of control inhibiting more natural, reflexive control process typically
responsible for balance control. Similar findings have been observed
in shooting and pointing experiments (e.g., Keogh, Morrison, & Barrett,
2004) wherein participants had to hold the extended arm as still as
possible and maintain a stable hand position while holding a pistol or
laser pointer – given a brief rest period – then asked to again maintain a
stable limb position. The counterintuitive findings were that participants
were more stable during the rest period than during the test period when
they were specifically asked to be as stable as possible. These data are
consistent with the notion that conscious attempts to intervene in the
control processes can be detrimental to performance.
As suggested by the stabilometer study, providing vision of the limbs

during a bimanual coordination task may well increase the likelihood that
participants will consciously intervene in the control of one or both limbs
to the detriment of bimanual performance. Interestingly, Mechsner et al
(2001) noted that “Anecdotal evidence seems to suggest that attention
to the hands disrupts control of the iso-frequency relationship between
the flags” (p. 72). Clearly, the results from the polyrhythm experiments
we discuss here which used covered and uncovered limb conditions
are consistent with this notion (Kovacs et al., 2008b). This seems quite
remarkable given that both groups were provided the same instructions
and the same extrinsic feedback (Lissajous plot and cursor representing
position of the two limbs) with only vision of the limbs manipulated. This
suggests that vision of the limbs, even though other salient information
is provided, provides a strong inducement to adopt an internal focus of
attention and actively intervene in the control of the limbs.
The role of attention demands in bimanual movements has also received

a good deal of experimental investigation (e.g., Summers, Maeder, Hiraga,
& Alexander, in press; Summers, Byblow, Bysouth-Young, & Semjen, 1988;
Hiraga, Summers, & Temprado, 2004). The findings suggest that attention
demands during multi-frequency coordination of the limbs are high and
attention directed to one limb typically leads to performance decrements
emerging in the other limb. The present data suggests that attempts to
decrease the demands on attentional resource may result in enhanced
performance. In this regard we have observed in our pilot testing that the
utilization of metronomes (visual and auditory) can lead to less harmonic
motion than when the metronomes are removed. Less harmonic motion
in one limb relative to the other could lead to increases in relative phase
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•
errors and variability similar to that observed when vision of the limbs
was permitted. This hypothesis, however, will require experimental
confirmation.
Bimanual coordination patterns: Two tasks or one integrated

task?
From a dynamical systems perspective bimanual tasks are conceived as
a single task based on the required coordination goal between the two
limbs, e.g., in-phase, anti-phase, polyrhythms etc. Coordination between
the limbs is not prescribed but emerges as perceptual and motor
information constrain the body’s many degrees of freedom at multiple
levels to achieve the coordination goal (Turvey, 1990; Kelso, 1995). In
other words, order is not prescribed by a higher command center and
coordination is not dependent on some form of central representation;
instead, the dynamics of the coordination patterns observed are mapped
onto attractors (fixed-point, limit-cycle) of some dynamical system.
The equation of motion for the system is typically formulated so that a
parameter in the equation represents some external driving source, e.g.,
movement frequency (Kelso, 1984) or trajectory curvature (Buchanan,
Kelso, deGuzman, 1997), that captures the dynamics (stability, loss of
stability, transitions) of a variety of interrelated patterns, e.g., in-phase
and anti-phase (Haken et al., 1985) or harmonic ratios and polyrhythms
(Haken et al., 1996; Treffner & Turvey, 1993). The dynamics of the model
are then taken as analogous to the dynamics of the perceptual and motor
constraints that underlie performance.
On the other hand, information processing perspectives often view

bimanual coordination as dual tasks where structural interference,
resource limitation, processing capacity, and cognitive representation
limits some forms of bimanual coordination (e.g., Povel, 1981; Swinnen
& Wenderoth, 2004; Swinnen et al., 1998). Perceptual information and
central representation play an integral role in bimanual coordination.
Thus, 1:1 in-phase bimanual movements are very stable because of
limited structural interference, i.e., homologous muscles are activated
and the pattern is easy to monitor, falling well within resource and
processing capacity limitations. Alternatively, 1:1 anti-phase movements
have increased structural interference resulting from the opposing roles
of the muscles and additional resources are required to monitor the
progress of the coordination pattern because the two effectors are doing
•
different things although at slower cycling frequencies the resource and
processing requirements may fall well within the systems limitations.
Higher cycling frequencies, however, resulting in increased structural
interference can tax the processing capacity requiring that either the
frequency is reduced or the pattern is changed to one that falls within
the processing capacity.
With the limbs covered, the results from the 2:1 and 3:2 polyrhythm
tasks strongly suggest that the arms were coordinated with regard to
the single goal of tracing the required template. The continuous relative
angle errors were quite small and both the left (slower moving) and right
(faster moving) limb movements were harmonic and cycling frequency
was relatively stable although the left limb was a little more variable than
the right. The movement of the limbs appeared to be integrated with
both limbs exhibiting characteristics of cyclical movement, harmonic
and continuous movement trajectories. In practical terms the desired
polyrhythm appeared to be performed as a single integrated task with
the Lissajous plot providing sufficient visually integrated perceptual
information to coordinate the limbs. Under these conditions oscillator
models of coordination are suggested. With the limbs uncovered, however,
the results strongly suggest that the arms were acting independently or
doing different tasks. Motion of the right limb was harmonic and cycling
frequency variability was minimal, with motion of the left-limb more discrete
and cycle frequency was significantly larger. The control of the two limbs
did not appear integrated with different types of control being used for
the left and right limbs, consistent with a dual task description offered by
some information processing accounts of bimanual coordination. Thus,
vision of the limbs may have disrupted performance by shifting the task
from a single unified task to a dual task with different modes of control
and different perspectives providing a more compelling account of each
type of task. It should be noted, however, that the unified control with
harmonic motion of the two limbs should be considered the preferred
mode of control by virtue of the ease and effectiveness with which
performance was “tuned-in” when vision of the limbs was occluded.
Franz et al. (2001; also see Swinnen & Wenderoth, 2004) have argued that
it is difficult, if not impossible, to simultaneously coordinate the movement
of the two limbs without a unifying abstract temporal representation.
Presumably musicians with extensive experience with polyrhythms have
over extended practice developed auditory representations resulting
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•
in their ability to produce multi-frequency ratios. It is proposed that an
extrinsic unified representation was provided by the goal pattern displayed
with the Lissajous portrait – the result was a very effective production of
the required multi-frequency patterns with very little practice. However,
since this representation was extrinsic it could only be used to produce
the desired behavior when it was being utilized. When vision of the limbs
was provided, varying amounts of attention were directed away from the
extrinsic information to monitoring and/or controlling limb movement
resulting in the disruption of the integration of the two movement
frequencies.
Summary
Within the current chapter we presented recent research highlighting
the strong impact of perceptual and attentional influences on bimanual
coordination in continuous movement tasks. This work clearly
demonstrated that polyrhythmic bimanual coordination patterns and 90°
phase lag patterns, thought to be difficult to perform without extensive
practice, can be very rapidly tuned-in with little practice (< 5 minutes).
The two key features underlying this tuning were that (1) the perceptual
representation of the pattern contained fewer degrees of freedom than
controlled by the motor system at the behavioral level, (2) that additional
attentional demands associated with motion of the limbs were minimized,
and (3) that the participants attentional focus was directed to the integrated
information provided and not to the limb movement. These findings provide
strong evidence that bimanual coordination is not constrained solely by
patterns of phase attraction, but by a combination of perceptual and
motor constraints present in the performance environment. The current
results emphatically suggest that a true understanding of the “design of
the brain” can only be forthcoming when the roles of both the motor and
the perceptual systems are better integrated in our perception-action
models.
Author Note
This chapter is dedicated to Walter Norris. His insights and abilities
in producing complex polyrhythms was the inspiration for writing this
chapter.
•
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structure and experimental agenda. In S. P. Swinnen, H. Heuer, J. Massion, & P.
Casaer (Eds.), Interlimb coordination: Neural, dynamical, and cognitive constraints
(pp. 461-490), San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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•

•
A composer working on a symphony would have written a finale such
as Charles Shea’s chapter. His hypotheses, theoretical discussion, and
experimental results weave together many of the main themes of the
previous authors, combining learning principles (Schmidt) with attentional
focus effects (Wulf/ Lewthwaite); adding mental representations
(Ginsborg and Schack) to complex psychomotor processes (Kallus);
considering brain plasticity and the development of motor skill (Candia)
in connection to training strategies and feedback (Hildebrandt). And he
provides evidence from the laboratory for the experience-based advice
given by Norris in his essay (p. 28): “Mind over matter […] The brain
is designed to resolve problems and our body desires to be activated.”
Shea’s chapter takes the reader beyond an understanding of the subject
matter presented previously and provides an original contribution to the
book, addressing skill learning of complex rhythmic patterns that require
two hands to seemingly operate against each other.
Surprised at the above synopsis? Just as the tonal (or atonal) language
of a contemporary piece of music may leave the listener puzzled after the
first hearing, Shea’s scientific vocabulary may present an initial hurdle to
the reader, for example, a musician who is new to this field of research.
It may take a second reading before the themes sound familiar. Closer
study will reveal that “bimanual coordination” can also be thought of as
“playing with two hands.” One translation of the “perceptual representation
of the pattern” could be “the phrase musicians hear in their inner ear”;
“degrees of freedom” are the number of joints or possible ways in which
a body can be moved by a muscle or a combination of muscles, and
“constraints” can be thought of as the limitations imposed upon those
movements, either by physiology or the task itself.
For those burning to know whether we are really limited by our motor
and perceptual systems when confronting a work of music that seems
“unplayable” or facing an athletic challenge that looks like it’s beyond the
range of human possibility, there’s enough motivational drive to sustain
attention through this text and play interpreter, so that nothing here
will be “lost in translation” or remain without translation. Over time, one
comes to understand that Shea’s investigation into underlying principles
of human motion is applicable to motor learning and performance, both
athletic and musical. This is a prime example of the study of art first
Adina Mornell 255
•
through thought, followed by investigative action in the form of empirical
research, providing conclusions, that, if put in motion, have the potential
to increase our understanding of human behavior and facilitate art. This
cycle was indeed the intention of the participants of the symposium and
the contributors to this book.
Looking back at the creative and intelligent thoughts contained in this

volume, it’s easy to conclude that we have gotten off to a good start.
A continuing dialog about these topics will include a wider circle of
professionals, but also readers willing to contribute their insights and
input (email addresses of all authors can be found in the following list).
Then, to reaffirm Richard Schmidt’s assessment of the situation at the
end of his chapter: “There is a lot to do.”
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•
Not j n
ust motion b i on by motio
ut the motion set in mot
Contributors 257
•
All of the authors welcome your correspondence with regards to

the contents of this book.
Buchanan, John J.
Dr. John J. Buchanan is an associate professor in the Human Performance
Laboratories at Texas A&M University and received his PhD from the
Center for Complex Systems at Florida Atlantic University. His research
focuses on identifying constraints that link perception to action in single
limb and bimanual skills. One goal of his research is to determine the
best practice formats for learning in observation and computer simulation
contexts.
jbuchanan@hlkn.tamu.edu
Candia, Victor
Born in Chile, Victor Candia holds German citizenship. He studied
classical guitar at the National Conservatory and the Catholic University
in Chile, and at the Musikhochschule Trossingen, Germany. He was a
guitar teacher in South Germany. He studied psychology and received his
doctoral degree on brain plasticity and neurorehabilitation at the University
of Konstanz, Germany, and did postdoctoral work in neuroradiology at
the University of Zurich hospital. He is currently senior scientist at the
Collegium Helveticum of the University of Zurich and the ETH Zurich,
and associate research fellow in the Department of Music at the Zurich
University of Arts.
candiav@collegium.ethz.ch
Frauscher, Christian
Christian Frauscher from Linz, Austria, studied instrumental pedagogy as
a piano major at the Mozarteum University in Salzburg at the University
of Music and Performing Arts Vienna. He received both his Bachelors
and Masters degrees with honors. He teaches drum-set and piano and
became a research assistant at the Anton Bruckner University (Linz) in
2008. In addition, he works freelance as a biofeedback and mental trainer
and is involved in the Austrian biofeedback association (ÖBfP), and the
Austrian network for sports psychology (ÖBS). In addition to doctoral
studies in Graz, he is currently studying psychology at the University of
Hagen, Germany.
c.frauscher@bruckneruni.at
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Ginsborg, Jane
Jane Ginsborg’s first career was as a professional singer. She is now a

Research Fellow at the RNCM where she investigates the social and
cognitive processes underlying expert music performance and teaches
music psychology. She holds undergraduate degrees in music (York) and
psychology (Open), an Advanced Diploma (Guildhall School of Music and
Drama) and a PhD (Keele). She has lectured and carried out research in
psychology at the Universities of Manchester and Sheffield, and was a
Senior Lecturer in Psychology at Leeds Metropolitan University until 2005.
She has won prizes and awards from the British Psychological Society, the
British Voice Association and Palatine, the UK Higher Education Academy
Subject Centre for Music, Dance and Drama.
jane.ginsborg@rncm.ac.uk
Grabner, Elisabeth
Since 1988 Elisabeth Grabner has taught viola at the University of Music
and Performing Arts Graz, as well as performed in concerts worldwide
as a chamber musician. She is an instructor and researcher in the field
of musicians’ health, as well as an executive coach and counselor for
managers and teams in profit- and non-profit organizations. She has
worked with over 600 musicians, coaching successful performance skills.
Her focus is on supporting them so that they can joyfully unfold their full
potential as artists.
office@musicoach.at
Herwelly, Susanne
Susanne Herwelly, born in 1983 in Graz, is a musician, violin teacher and
psychologist. Her studies focus on health care of performing artists and
the influences of strain and recovery on condition and performance.
susanne.herwelly@gmx.at
Hildebrandt, Horst
Born 1963 in Marburg/ Lahn, (Germany), Horst Hildebrandt holds degrees

in solo classical violin, pedagogy and orchestra from the University of
Music Freiburg (Germany) and Royal College of Music, London (UK).
He received his medical degree and doctorate from the University of
Contributors 259
•
Freiburg and holds a certificate in “dispokinesis” (psycho-and sensory
motor training and therapy for musicians). For 20 years he has been
performing and teaching violin, viola and chamber music at various
music schools and universities. In the years 1993 to 2001 he ran a pilot
project “Musicophysiological Consultation” at the Lahr Music School in
Germany. Since 1997 he has lead the music physiology and musicians’
medicine departments of the Zurich University of Arts and Basel University
of Music (both Switzerland). Since 2005 he is the coordinator of the
SHZM, a cooperative project of all departments of music physiology at
the Swiss music universities, and since 2008 he is an associated fellow of
the Collegium Helveticum (University of Zurich and ETH Zurich).
edu@h-hildebrandt.org
Höldrich, Robert
Robert Höldrich is Professor of Electronic Music and Audio Engineering
at the University of Music and Performing Arts in Graz, Austria, where he
is currently Vice Rector for Arts and Research. Before that, he was Chair
of the Institute of Electronic Music and Acoustics (IEM). Robert Höldrich
holds Master’s degrees in electrical engineering and music composition,
as well as a PhD in applied mathematics. He has published more than
70 papers on a variety of topics such as digital signal processing, sound
synthesis, sound rendering, psychoacoustics, media philosophy and
sound installation art.
robert.hoeldrich@kug.ac.at
Kallus, K. Wolfgang
K. Wolfgang Kallus is currently Professor of Psychology in the Work,

Organizational and Environmental Psychology section of the Department
of Psychology at the Karl-Franzens University Graz, where he focuses on
assessment of stress at work, cognitive task analysis in ATM, evaluation
of training, changing working conditions and new technologies. One of
his work fields and special interests is Human Factors in aviation – one
of his most recent projects was “The role of motion cues in disorientation
recovery training (MOBADI).” His background includes positions at the
Universities of Düsseldorf, Würzburg, Gießen and Hamburg as Researcher,
Assistant Professor and Full Professor.
wolfgang.kallus@uni-graz.at
Him
•
Kovacs, Attila J.
Attila J. Kovacs is a doctoral student in Motor Neuroscience under the
direction of Dr. Charles H. Shea. His research has focused on the learning
and production of unimanual and bimanual movement sequences. He
expects to finish his degree requirement in August 2009.
akovacs@hlkn.tamu.edu
Lewthwaite, Rebecca
Dr. Rebecca Lewthwaite received her PhD from the University of
California, Los Angeles in Kinesiology. She serves as Director of Research
and Education in Physical Therapy and as the Director of Rehabilitation
Outcomes Management at Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation
Center in Los Angeles, California. She is also an adjunct faculty member
in the Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy at the University of
Southern California. Her research interests include motivation in motor
learning and performance in applied and clinical settings.
rlewthwaite@dhs.lacounty.gov
Mornell, Adina
Born in Los Angeles, Adina Mornell is a classical pianist and recording artist
who studied Music, American Literature, Musicology, and Psychology,
receiving degrees in the United States, Germany, and Austria, the latter
being a doctorate in Music Psychology. She is currently Professor and
Chairwoman of the Department of Instrumental and Vocal Pedagogy
(IGP) at the University of Music and Performing Arts in Graz, Austria. Her
book on stage fright, Lampenfieber und Angst bei ausübenden Musikern,
is one of the few scientific publications on the topic in the German
language. In addition to her empirical research on musical performance
and expertise, and her career as a concert artist, she is active as an
educator for musicians and music teachers, as well as for executives
and managers, at institutions of higher education in both Europe and the
United States.
adina@mornell.info
Norris, Walter
Born 12/27/31 in Little Rock, Arkansas, Walter Norris began studying
classical piano at 4 ½ and was playing professionally by age 12. After
Contributors 261
•
graduating from high school in 1950, he joined Mose Allison’s quartet, but
eventually departed for 21 months of military service in Japan and Korea.
In 1952, he worked 6 months with Jimmy Ford’s quartet in Houston; in
1953, he formed a trio for 9 months in Las Vegas at the El Morocco; then
to Los Angeles where he was a part of the West Coast scene, working
with such artists as Chet Baker, Ornette Coleman, Sonny Criss, Buddy
DeFranco, Eric Dolphy, Teddy Edwards, Stan Getz, Dexter Gordon, Johnny
Griffin, Joe Maini, Herb Geller, Howard McGhee, Charlie Mariano, Frank
Rosolino, Art Pepper, Jack Sheldon, Zoot Sims, Charlie Ventura and Steve
White.
In 1960, Walter moved to New York where he was pianist, musical
director and entertainment manager for the New York Playboy Club from
1963 until 1970. During that time he studied classical piano with Heida
Hermanns and Linda Kessler-Ferri at Manhattan School of Music. He
moved to Berlin in January 1977 for work with the Sender-Freies Berlin
Radio Orchestra. In 1984 through 1994, he was Guest Professor for Piano
and Voice Improvisation at the Berlin University of the Arts. From 1990
to 1995 he was a recording artist for Concord Jazz, Inc. In 1998, Walter
formed his own label, Sunburst Recordings, Inc. He is the subject of Chuck
Dodson’s film “Walter Norris, a Documentary” that premiered at the W. J.
Clinton Presidential Library 5/14/09 in Little Rock, Arkansas.
info@walter-norris.de
Rom, Klaus
Born 1977 in Austria, Klaus Rom studied physical education and physics
and received his doctorate in sports sciences from the Karl-Franzens
University Graz, Austria, where he has been scientific assistant since 2003
at the Institute for Sport Science. His main interests are sports training,
computer aided sport analysis, and training pedagogy.
kl.rom@uni-graz.at
Schack, Thomas
Thomas Schack has been working at different German universities in

the field of psychology and motor control for many years. Since 2005 he
is a full and permanent professor and the head of the “Neurocognition
and Action Research Group” at the Bielefeld University (Germany). An
important component in his research laboratory is the combination of
Him
•
experimental and modeling methods from psychology, biomechanics,
cognitive science and robotics to learn about the construction and
principles of human actions.
thomas.schack@uni-bielefeld.de
Schmidt, Richard
Richard Schmidt, PhD is Professor (Emeritus) of Psychology at UCLA,

working on human performance and learning, with four books and over
150 articles in these areas. Since 1994, he has been a consultant in
human factors (ergonomics) and human performance through his own
firm Human Performance Research (www.HP-Research.com). He studies
various accidents, and consults with professionals in speech and physical
therapy, medicine, race car driving, police work, and, now, music.
RASchmidt@HP-Research.com
Schulz, Georg
Born in Graz in 1963, Georg Schulz studied chemistry there at the Karl-
Franzens University, receiving his scientific PhD in 1990. He received
a Masters in 1992 as a performance major in accordion in Graz. His
extensive musical career includes concerts worldwide as a soloist, as well
as performances in various ensembles and orchestras. In October 2000,
he was named Vice Dean of the University of Music and Performing Arts
Graz (KUG), followed by his appointment to Vice Rector for Academics
between October 2003 and September 2007, then becoming Rector of the
KUG on October 1, 2007.
georg.schulz@kug.ac.at
Shea, Charles
Charles H. Shea is Professor of Kinesiology in the Human Performance

Laboratories at Texas A&M University. His research over the last 30 years
has focused on the learning and transfer of movement skills. Recent work
has concentrated on understanding the way in which learners impose
a structure on the complex movement sequences and the impact this
structure has on transfer and relearning.
cshea@hlkn.tamu.edu
Contributors 263
•
Silli, Mona
Mona Silli, born in Graz, studied Harp and Instrumental Pedagogy at
the University of Music and Performing Arts Graz (KUG), Musicology
at the Karl-Franzens University Graz, completed a postgraduate diploma
in Performance at the Trinity College of Music, London, and wrote her
doctoral dissertation in Music Aesthetics and Criticism. She is very much
in demand as a soloist, chamber-musician, and orchestra harpist in both
England and Austria. Apart from performing with the Graz Philharmonic
Orchestra and teaching harp, she is currently a research assistant in the
KUG Department of Instrumental and Vocal Pedagogy.
msharfe@hotmail.com
Stöckel, Tino
Tino Stöckel studied Sport Science, Mathematics, and Communication

and Media Sciences at the University of Leipzig, were he received a Master
of Arts degree in 2005. He continued to work as a research assistant at
the Institute for General Kinesiology and Athletic Training. In 2009, he
completed his PhD thesis with a focus on motor learning and bilateral
transfer research, for which he received the Carl Diem Award (3rd prize)
in the same year.
tstoeck@rz.uni-leipzig.de
Weigelt, Matthias
Matthias Weigelt studied Sport Sciences at the University of Jena

(Germany), and the University of Virginia (USA), where he received a
Master of Education degree in 2001. After a post-graduate position with
Gabriele Wulf in Reading (England), he went on to work in Wolfgang
Prinz’s group at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain
Science in Munich (Germany), receiving his PhD in Psychology in 2004.
Currently, he is an assistant professor in Thomas Schack’s Neurocognition
and Action Research Group at the University of Bielefeld.
matthias.weigelt@uni-bielefeld.de
Wulf, Gabriele
Gabriele Wulf is a Professor in the Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition

Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Her research centers on motor
Him
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skill learning, in particular the effects of the performer’s focus of attention,
self-controlled practice, feedback, and, more recently, social-cognitive
influences on learning. She has published three books and more than
120 articles. She served as an associate editor for Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, as consulting editor for Journal of Motor Behavior, and
is on the editorial boards of various other journals.
gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

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Motion

(Ed.) Art in Motion

(Ed.) Art in Motion

Editor: Adina Mornell

E-ISBN 978-3-653-05166-7 (E-Book)

7 Strategies for Pianist Improvisers

I Thought Set in Motion

7 Principles of Practice for the Development of Skilled

I Thought Set in Motion

7 Playing Beyond the Limits of Health: Loss and Regain

I Thought Set in Motion

7 Attentional and Motivational Inﬂuences on Motor

I Thought Set in Motion

7 Beating Time: The Role of Kinaesthetic Learning in the

I Thought Set in Motion

7 The Role of Anticipatory Processes in Simulator

I Thought Set in Motion

7 The Architecture of Motion

I Thought Set in Motion

7 Teaching Music Physiology and Motor Learning

I Thought Set in Motion

7 Perceptual and Attentional Inﬂuences on Bimanual

I Thought Set in Motion

I wish to extend my personal gratitude to Professor Mornell and her team

However, what is “artistic research?” Even though the meaning of

Such necessary richness of methods requires a paradigmatic change

My appreciation and special debt of gratitude are owed to the project

Art and Thought in Motion

As with most skills, whether piano playing or gymnastics, practice patterns

For example, in order to transfer an exercise from sports to music or

Without these interim steps of abstraction and structural analysis, no

Unfortunately, it’s part of human nature to be resistant to change.

My students do respond positively after trying out my sometimes crazy

A brief reader’s guide

7 The overture is provided by Walter Norris’ essay, which I would

7 Richard Schmidt’s basic research in the ﬁeld of motor learning has

7 Victor Candia brings his background as a musician and

7 Gabriele Wulf and Rebecca Lewthwaite have teamed up here,

7 Jane Ginsborg picks up the discussion of mental representations

7 Thomas Schack uses the topics of motor leaning and mental

7 Musicians’ medicine and music physiology are central to Horst

7 The ﬁnal pages of this book return to empirical motor learning

I To provide a synthesis of theory and practice, as well as a juxtaposition

Sources of inspiration, catalysts, and helping hands

Strategies for Pianist Improvisers

b. Play E natural again and repeat a. above. This breathing proce-

In 1969 I suffered a complete lower right-arm muscle spasm; this muscle

2. Physical and mental coordination exercises for pianists.

a. With your right hand, play an improvised or notated phrase while

4. It is important to practice with your eyes closed so that the ﬁnger

5. Improvise, or play stave notation, while executing the following

b. As you play, read aloud printed material (poetry or a magazine)

a. Clef inversion of ‘Gigue in G Major’ by W. A. Mozart is notated

7. Handicaps for pondering dissonance.

a. Compose by using intervals of ﬂatted 9ths, major sevenths, and

b. Improvise by using only intervals of major or minor 2nds, 4ths and

I have improvised for seven decades and as a consequence, I change the

However, the most important strategy for performance is to practice

A brief statement on unpreparedness: anxiety manifests immediately

I must mention another point worthy of deliberation. An elite performing

Guided Sight Reading by Leonard Deutsch is, unfortunately, out of print. He

By 1992, I had lost my absolute pitch because of the different frequencies

On the subject of gymnastics, I want to lay emphasis on stretching muscles