Albert Einstein

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Contents
Articles
Introduction 1

Main article 2
Albert Einstein 2

Annus Mirabilis and special relativity 31

Annus Mirabilis papers 31
History of special relativity 37

Light and general relativity 65

History of general relativity 65
Relativity priority dispute 71

Unified field theory 92

Classical unified field theories 92

Collaboration and conflict 96

Bohr–Einstein debates 96

Politics 105
Manhattan Project 105

Honors 121
List of things named after Albert Einstein 121

Effect on popular culture 124

Albert Einstein in popular culture 124

Scientific publications 126

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 126

References
Article Sources and Contributors 182
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 185

Article Licenses
License 187
Introduction 1

Introduction
Note. This book is based on the Wikipedia article "Albert Einstein". The supporting articles are those referenced as
major expansions of selected sections.
 2

Main article

Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein, 1921

Born 14 March 1879Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire

Died 18 April 1955 (aged 76)Princeton, New Jersey, USA

Resting place Grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey.

Residence Germany, Italy, Switzerland, USA

Ethnicity Jewish

Citizenship • Württemberg/Germany (until 1896)

• Stateless (1896–1901)
• Switzerland (from 1901)
• Austria (1911–12)
• Germany (1914–33)
[1]
• United States (from 1940)

Alma mater • ETH Zurich

• University of Zurich

Known for • General relativity

• Special relativity
• Photoelectric effect
• Brownian motion
• Mass-energy equivalence
• Einstein field equations
• Unified Field Theory
• Bose–Einstein statistics

Spouse • Mileva Marić (1903–1919)

• Elsa Löwenthal, née Einstein, (1919–1936)
Albert Einstein 3

Awards • Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)

• Copley Medal (1925)
• Max Planck Medal (1929)
• Time Person of the Century

Signature

Albert Einstein (pronounced /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn]  ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April
1955) was a theoretical physicist, philosopher and author who is widely regarded as one of the most influential and
best known scientists and intellectuals of all time. A German-Swiss Nobel laureate, he is often regarded as the father
of modern physics.[2] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and
especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[3]
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the
laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special
theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational
fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity.
He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of
particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the
foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the
structure of the universe as a whole.[4]
On the eve of World War II in 1939, he personally alerted President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be
developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin uranium procurement and nuclear research. As
a result, Roosevelt advocated such research, leading to the creation of the top secret Manhattan Project, and the U.S.
becoming the first and only country to possess nuclear weapons during the war.
Einstein published more than 300 scientific along with over 150 non-scientific works, and received honorary
doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities;[4] he also
wrote about various philosophical and political subjects such as socialism, international relations and the existence of
God.[5] His great intelligence and originality has made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[6]
Albert Einstein 4

Biography

Early life and education

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German
Empire on 14 March 1879.[7] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and
engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family
moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische
Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment
based on direct current.[7]

Einstein at the age of 4.

The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Their son attended a Catholic

elementary school from the age of five until ten.[8] Although Einstein had early
speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[9] [10]
His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must
be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[11]
As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to
show a talent for mathematics.[7] In 1889, Max Talmud (later changed to Max
Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics
and philosophy, including Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's
Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").[12] Talmud was
a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The Jewish community arranged for
Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six years.
Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14).
During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular
educational interests.[13] [14]

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In
search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the
family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father
intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's
regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote
learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using
a doctor's note.[7] During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether
in Magnetic Fields".[15]
Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. Lacking the
requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he got exceptional marks in
mathematics and physics.[16] The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern Switzerland to finish secondary
school.[7] While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Marie.
(His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son Paul.)[17] In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic
theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of
Albert Einstein 5

Württemberg to avoid military service, and in 1896 he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching
diploma program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.
Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six
students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein
and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which
Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma,
but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.[18] There
have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,[19] [20] but historians of
physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.[21] [22] [23] [24]

Marriages and children

In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who was born
in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[25] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[26]
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in
Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin,
while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived
apart for five years.
Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912.
She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the
United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.[27]

Patent office
Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine
and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy
After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching
for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a
job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent
office, as an assistant examiner.[28] He evaluated patent applications
for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss
Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for
promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[29]
Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about
transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical
synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up
conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein
to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental
connection between space and time.[30]

With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion

group, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met
regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included
the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which
influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

Einstein's home in Bern

Albert Einstein 6

Academic career
In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.[31]
On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as
pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New
Determination of Molecular Dimensions".[32] That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis or
"miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special
relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.
By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Berne. The
following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent[33] at the
University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he
returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)[34] and
a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause in his contract that freed him from
most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was
appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[35] [36]
In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent
by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir
Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world
famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read:
"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[37] (Much later, questions
were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to support Einstein's theory.)
In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered somewhat
controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He also received the Copley
Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.

Travels abroad
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked where he got his scientific ideas,
Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a
search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each
other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results.(Einstein 1954)[38]
In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His
travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first
lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where
thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:[39] :307
Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a
feel for art.[39] :308
On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for twelve days in what would become his only visit to that region.
"He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes
Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir
Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him".
In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:
I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul,
and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish
people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.[40] :308
Albert Einstein 7

Emigration from Germany

In 1933, Einstein was compelled to immigrate to the United States due
to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor,
Adolf Hitler.[41] While visiting American universities in April, 1933,
he learned that the new German government had passed a law barring
Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at
universities. A month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with
Einstein's works being among those burnt, and Nazi propaganda
minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish intellectualism is
dead."[40] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of
assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head". One German
magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with
the phrase, "not yet hanged".[40] [42]
Being protected in England after escaping Nazi
Among other German scientists forced to flee were fourteen Nobel Germany in 1933
laureates and twenty-six of the sixty professors of theoretical physics
in the country. Among the other scientists who left Germany, or the other countries it came to dominate, were
Edward Teller, Niels Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern, Victor Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise Meitner, many of
whom made certain that the Allies would develop nuclear weapons first, before the Nazis.[40] With so many other
Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a
friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past
do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."[40]

He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, [43] an affiliation that lasted until
his death in 1955. There, he tried unsuccessfully to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted
interpretation of quantum physics. He and Kurt Gödel, another Institute member, became close friends. They would
take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a renowned
physicist.

World War II and the Manhattan Project

In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II, Einstein was persuaded to write a letter
to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and warn him that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic bomb. The
letter, written with the help of Hungarian emigre physicist Leo Szilard, gave the letter more prestige , with Einstein
also recommending that the U.S. begin uranium enrichment and nuclear research. According to F.G. Gosling of the
U.S. Department of Energy, Einstein, Szilard, and other refugees including Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner,
"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to
build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[44]
British columnist Ambrose Evans-Pritchard notes, however, that Washington at first "brushed off with disbelief" the
fears they expressed. He then describes how quickly Roosevelt changed his mind:
"Albert Einstein interceded through the Belgian queen mother, eventually getting a personal envoy into the
Oval Office. Roosevelt initially fobbed him off. He listened more closely at a second meeting over breakfast
the next day, then made up his mind within minutes. 'This needs action,' he told his military aide. It was the
birth of the Manhattan Project."[45]
Gosling adds that "the President was a man of considerable action once he had chosen a direction," and believed that
the U.S. "could not take the risk of allowing Hitler" to possess nuclear bombs.[44] Other weapons historians agree
that the letter was "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on
the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". As a result of Einstein's letter, and his meetings with Roosevelt, the
Albert Einstein 8

U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb first, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific
resources". It became the only country to develop an atomic bomb during World War II as a result of its Manhattan
Project.[46] Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, in 1954, the last year of his life: "I made one great mistake
in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was
some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them..."[47]

U.S. citizenship

Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling

into his career at Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the
"meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe.
According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to say
and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the
individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from
his own early education. Einstein writes:
What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the
democratic trait among the people. No one humbles himself
before another person or class. . . American youth has the good
fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.[40]
:432
Taking oath of allegiance for U.S. citizenship,
(1940)

As a member of the NAACP at Princeton who campaigned for the civil

rights of African Americans, Einstein corresponded with civil rights
activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism
America's "worst disease".[48] He later stated, "Race prejudice has
unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically
handed down from one generation to the next. The only remedies are
enlightenment and education".[49]

After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in

November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein
the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.[50] The
offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban,
who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the
Einstein with David Ben Gurion, 1951
Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".[39] :522 However, Einstein
declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and
"at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it:

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to
deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more more distressed over these
circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved
complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world.[39] :522 [50] [51]
Albert Einstein 9

Death
On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding
caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had
previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in
1948.[52] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a
television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh
anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to
complete it.[53] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I
want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it
is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[54] He died in Princeton Hospital
early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until
near the end.

Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered around the grounds of the Institute for Advanced
Study.[55] [56] During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's
brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able
to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[57]

Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.
Most were about physics, but a few expressed leftist political opinions
about pacifism, socialism, and zionism.[5] [7] In addition to the work he
did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional
projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator
and others.[58]

Physics in 1900
Einstein's early papers all come from attempts to demonstrate that
atoms exist and have a finite nonzero size. At the time of his first paper
in 1902, it was not yet completely accepted by physicists that atoms
were real, even though chemists had good evidence ever since Antoine
Lavoisier's work a century earlier. The reason physicists were skeptical
was because no 19th century theory could fully explain the properties
of matter from the properties of atoms. Albert Einstein in 1904.

Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist physicist, who

had struggled for years to gain acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an interpretation of the laws of
thermodynamics, suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical. In Boltzmann's way of thinking, the
entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways a system could be configured inside. The reason the entropy goes up
is only because it is more likely for a system to go from a special state with only a few possible internal
configurations to a more generic state with many. While Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy is
universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at the turn of the 20th century it was a minority position.

The statistical idea was most successful in explaining the properties of gases. James Clerk Maxwell, another leading
atomist, had found the distribution of velocities of atoms in a gas, and derived the surprising result that the viscosity
of a gas should be independent of density. Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero as the density
goes to zero, but this is not so, because the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low densities. A subsequent
Albert Einstein 10

experiment by Maxwell and his wife confirmed this surprising prediction. Other experiments on gases and vacuum,
using a rotating slitted drum, showed that atoms in a gas had velocities distributed according to Maxwell's
distribution law.
In addition to these successes, there were also inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold temperatures, atomic
theory predicted specific heats that are too large. In classical statistical mechanics, every spring-like motion has
thermal energy kBT on average at temperature T, so that the specific heat of every spring is Boltzmann's constant kB.
A monatomic solid with N atoms can be thought of as N little balls representing N atoms attached to each other in a
box grid with 3N springs, so the specific heat of every solid is 3NkB, a result which became known as the
Dulong–Petit law. This law is true at room temperature, but not for colder temperatures. At temperatures near zero,
the specific heat goes to zero.
Similarly, a gas made up of a molecule with two atoms can be thought of as two balls on a spring. This spring has
energy kBT at high temperatures, and should contribute an extra kB to the specific heat. It does at temperatures of
about 1000 degrees, but at lower temperature, this contribution disappears. At zero temperature, all other
contributions to the specific heat from rotations and vibrations also disappear. This behavior was inconsistent with
classical physics.
The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of light waves. Continuous waves in a box can be thought of as
infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each possible standing wave. Each standing wave has a specific heat of
kB, so the total specific heat of a continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical mechanics. This is
obviously wrong, because it would mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly sucked up into light
waves, and everything would slow down and stop.
These inconsistencies led some people to say that atoms were not physical, but mathematical. Notable among the
skeptics was Ernst Mach, whose positivist philosophy led him to demand that if atoms are real, it should be possible
to see them directly.[59] Mach believed that atoms were a useful fiction, that in reality they could be assumed to be
infinitesimally small, that Avogadro's number was infinite, or so large that it might as well be infinite, and kB was
infinitesimally small. Certain experiments could then be explained by atomic theory, but other experiments could
not, and this is the way it will always be.
Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career, he was a realist. He believed that a single consistent theory
should explain all observations, and that this theory would be a description of what was really going on, underneath
it all. So he set out to show that the atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to thermodynamics, then to
statistical physics, and to the theory of specific heats of solids.
In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the leading German language physics journal Annalen der Physik
published four of Einstein's papers. The four papers eventually were recognized as revolutionary, and 1905 became
known as Einstein's "Miracle Year", and the papers as the Annus Mirabilis Papers.

Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Einstein's earliest papers were concerned with thermodynamics. He wrote a paper establishing a thermodynamic
identity in 1902, and a few other papers which attempted to interpret phenomena from a statistical atomic point of
view.
His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.
As in Maxwell's work, the finite nonzero size of atoms leads to effects which can be observed. This research, and the
thermodynamic identity, were well within the mainstream of physics in his time. They would eventually form the
content of his PhD thesis.[60]
His first major result in this field was the theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. When in equilibrium, a system has a
maximum entropy and, according to the statistical interpretation, it can fluctuate a little bit. Einstein pointed out that
the statistical fluctuations of a macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring, would be completely
Albert Einstein 11

determined by the second derivative of the entropy with respect to the position of the mirror.
Searching for ways to test this relation, his great breakthrough came in 1905. The theory of fluctuations, he realized,
would have a visible effect for an object which could move around freely. Such an object would have a velocity
which is random, and would move around randomly, just like an individual atom. The average kinetic energy of the
object would be , and the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely determined by the law of friction.
The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like water was discovered by George Stokes. He showed that
for small velocities, the friction force would be proportional to the velocity, and to the radius of the particle (see
Stokes' law). This relation could be used to calculate how far a small ball in water would travel due to its random
thermal motion, and Einstein noted that such a ball, of size about a micrometre, would travel about a few
micrometres per second. This motion could be easily detected with a microscope and indeed, as Brownian motion,
had actually been observed by the botanist Robert Brown. Einstein was able to identify this motion with that
predicted by his theory. Since the fluctuations which give rise to Brownian motion are just the same as the
fluctuations of the velocities of atoms, measuring the precise amount of Brownian motion using Einstein's theory
would show that Boltzmann's constant is non-zero and would measure Avogadro's number.
These experiments were carried out a few years later by Jean Baptiste Perrin, and gave a rough estimate of
Avogadro's number consistent with the more accurate estimates due to Max Planck's theory of blackbody light and
Robert Millikan's measurement of the charge of the electron.[61] Unlike the other methods, Einstein's required very
few theoretical assumptions or new physics, since it was directly measuring atomic motion on visible grains.
Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of statistical physics. It established that
thermodynamic fluctuations were related to dissipation. This was shown by Einstein to be true for time-independent
fluctuations, but in the Brownian motion paper he showed that dynamical relaxation rates calculated from classical
mechanics could be used as statistical relaxation rates to derive dynamical diffusion laws. These relations are known
as Einstein relations.
The theory of Brownian motion was the least revolutionary of Einstein's Annus mirabilis papers, but it is the most
frequently cited, and had an important role in securing the acceptance of the atomic theory by physicists.

Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles

Einstein's thinking underwent a transformation in 1905. He had come to understand that quantum properties of light
mean that Maxwell's equations were only an approximation. He knew that new laws would have to replace these, but
he did not know how to go about finding those laws. He felt that guessing formal relations would not go anywhere.
So he decided to focus on a-priori principles instead, which are statements about physical laws which can be
understood to hold in a very broad sense even in domains where they have not yet been shown to apply. A well
accepted example of an a-priori principle is rotational invariance. If a new force is discovered in physics, it is
assumed to be rotationally invariant almost automatically, without thought. Einstein sought new principles of this
sort, to guide the production of physical ideas. Once enough principles are found, then the new physics will be the
simplest theory consistent with the principles and with previously known laws.
The first general a-priori principle he found was the principle of relativity, that uniform motion is indistinguishable
from rest. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to
space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the
principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another of Einstein's general principles, Mach's principle,
is fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or not is still not definitively established.
The use of a-priori principles is a distinctive unique signature of Einstein's early work, and has become a standard
tool in modern theoretical physics.
Albert Einstein 12

Special relativity
His 1905 paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced his theory of special relativity, which showed
that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes
to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down
and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea
of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.[62] In his
paper on mass–energy equivalence, which had previously been considered to be distinct concepts, Einstein deduced
from his equations of special relativity what has been called the 20th century's best-known equation: E = mc2.[63] [64]
This equation suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy and presaged the
development of nuclear power.[65] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was
accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[66] [67]

Photons
In a 1905 paper,[68] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta
were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became
universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the
measurement of Compton scattering.
Einstein's paper on the light particles was almost entirely motivated by thermodynamic considerations. He was not at
all motivated by the detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his theory until fifteen
years later. Einstein considers the entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it into a low-frequency part and
a high-frequency part. The high-frequency part, where the light is described by Wien's law, has an entropy which
looks exactly the same as the entropy of a gas of classical particles.
Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of possible states, Einstein concludes that the number of states of
short wavelength light waves in a box with volume V is equal to the number of states of a group of localizable
particles in the same box. Since (unlike others) he was comfortable with the statistical interpretation, he confidently
postulates that the light itself is made up of localized particles, as this is the only reasonable interpretation of the
entropy.
This leads him to conclude that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf
each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to
the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric
effect.[69]

Quantized atomic vibrations

Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in 1906, by explaining the specific heat anomaly in solids. This
was the first application of quantum theory to a mechanical system. Since Planck's distribution for light oscillators
had no problem with infinite specific heats, the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the specific heat problem
there. Einstein showed in a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is quantized explains why the specific
heat of a solid goes to zero at zero temperature.
Einstein's model treats each atom as connected to a single spring. Instead of connecting all the atoms to each other,
which leads to standing waves with all sorts of different frequencies, Einstein imagined that each atom was attached
to a fixed point in space by a spring. This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the specific heat is 3NkB,
since the number of independent oscillations stays the same.
Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model is quantized, according to the Planck law, so that each
independent spring motion has energy which is an integer multiple of hf, where f is the frequency of oscillation.
With this assumption, he applied Boltzmann's statistical method to calculate the average energy of the spring. The
Albert Einstein 13

result was the same as the one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures where kBT is much smaller than hf,
the motion is frozen, and the specific heat goes to zero.
So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would solve the main problem of classical physics, the specific heat
anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this formulation are now called phonons. Because all of Einstein's
springs have the same stiffness, they all freeze out at the same temperature, and this leads to a prediction that the
specific heat should go to zero exponentially fast when the temperature is low. The solution to this problem is to
solve for the independent normal modes individually, and to quantize those. Then each normal mode has a different
frequency, and long wavelength vibration modes freeze out at colder temperatures than short wavelength ones. This
was done by Peter Debye, and after this modification Einstein's quantization method reproduced quantitatively the
behavior of the specific heats of solids at low temperatures.
This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.

Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest
Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that
the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete
motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.
Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien
had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves
at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the
same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic
invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The
law that the action variable is quantized was the basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900
and 1925.

Wave-particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on
academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[70] In "über die Entwicklung unserer
Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the
Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed
that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent,
point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by
Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics.

Theory of critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a
fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy
with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of
density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates
this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and
which explains why the sky is blue.[71]
Albert Einstein 14

Zero-point energy
Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator
energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis
by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to
half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made
in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the
thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two
free atoms.

Principle of equivalence
In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein had what he
would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the principle of
relativity could be extended to gravitational fields. He thought about the
case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and
noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an
unchanging gravitational field.[72] He used special relativity to see that
the rate of clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be
faster than the rate of clocks at the bottom. He concludes that the rates
of clocks depend on their position in a gravitational field, and that the
Einstein at the Solvay conference in 1911.
difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to first
approximation.

Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to calculate the deflection of light by gravity, and show that it
is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar theory of gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordström was incorrect.
But the actual value for the deflection that he calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the approximation
he used doesn't work well for things moving at near the speed of light. When Einstein finished the full theory of
general relativity, he would rectify this error and predict the correct amount of light deflection by the sun.
From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift
and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper challenged astronomers to detect the deflection during a solar
eclipse.[73] German astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the
world.[74]
Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational field in the years 1909–1912, studying its properties by means
of simple thought experiments. A notable one is the rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making
experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical
constant pi than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a circle would be
measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity, the circumference would seem to be longer
because the ruler would be contracted.
Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that
spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate general relativity in
this language.
Albert Einstein 15

Hole argument and Entwurf theory

While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He
formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up
looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under
general linear transformations only.
In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a
sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously
less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein
abandoned the theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[75]

General relativity
In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. Once back in Zurich,
he immediately visited his old ETH classmate Marcel Grossmann, now a professor of mathematics, who introduced
him to Riemannian geometry and, more generally, to differential geometry. On the recommendation of Italian
mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use
of tensors) for his gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but
he later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is used
today.[76] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial
motion of other matter. During World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was available only to Central
Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the
United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902
Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of Leiden University. After the war ended, Einstein
maintained his relationship with Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; for ten
years, from 1920 to 1930, he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture.[77]
In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein 's 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson Observatory in
California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational redshift.[78] In 1918, the Lick
Observatory, also in California, announced that it too had disproved Einstein's prediction, although its findings were
not published.[79]
However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur
Stanley Eddington claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of
gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a
solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern Brazil, and
Príncipe, a west African island.[74] Nobel laureate Max Born praised
general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about
nature";[80] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was
"probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[81] The
international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown.

Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse, which
confirmed Einstein's theory that light "bends".
There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken
on the Eddington expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be
comparable to the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to
have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that
the method was inherently unreliable.[37] The deflection of light during
a solar eclipse was confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[82]
Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably among some German
Albert Einstein 16

physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[83] [84]

Cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He
wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix
this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive
cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere[85]
Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's principle. He
had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by
gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe,
he believed that Mach's principle would hold.
Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.

Modern quantum theory

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an
article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of
stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the
maser and the laser.[86] This article showed that the statistics of
absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with
Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n
photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of
light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the
later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper
to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.
Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas,
which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from
this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which
Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics.
This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.
Einstein in his office at the University of Berlin.

Bose–Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a
counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted
that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of
Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its
implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very
low temperatures.[87] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin
Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of
Colorado at Boulder.[88] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons.
Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[]
Albert Einstein 17

Energy momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and
momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation
invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy
and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this
reason.
Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a
choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best
description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev
Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.
The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.

Unified field theory

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric
theory of gravitation, which would allow the explanation of electromagnetism. In 1950, he described his "unified
field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".[89] Although he
continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were
ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream
developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until
many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification.
Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything
and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.

Wormholes
Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary
particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do
Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut
and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.
If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led
Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.

Einstein–Cartan theory
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized
to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

Equations of motion
The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law  – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves,
the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.
Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a
black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law.
So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic
from general relativity itself.
This was established by Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy
Kerr for spinning objects.
Albert Einstein 18

Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics

In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's views are regarded as controversial:
• In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word "force" (a
definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the
equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at as the expression for the transverse mass of
a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to
Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of
energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave
the now familiar expression for the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the
transverse mass predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the 1905 paper that
"With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should naturally obtain other expressions for the masses.
This shows that in comparing different theories... we must proceed very cautiously." [90]
• Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared
in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and today is regarded as being incorrect. The current
theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of
modern quantum mechanics. However, even today, superconductivity is not well understood, and alternative
theories continue to be put forward, especially to account for high-temperature superconductors.
• After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein subsequently entertained doubts about
whether they could be physically realized. In 1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing properties of
geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in
on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a
concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in
their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this position a short time later.
• Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a paper that argues that a star
collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point
where it is about to collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well
understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning
objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood
today (and was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way
Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to which the models of black holes in classical general relativity
correspond to physical reality remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the central singularity implicit
in these models are still not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the existence of event horizons have still
not been successful.
• Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion of singularities might restrict
the class of solutions of the field equations so as to force solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no
such theory has ever been found.
• In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the uncertainty principle was not valid, but by
1927 he had become convinced that it was valid.
• In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete realistic and local representation
of phenomena, given specific definitions of "realism", "locality", and "completeness". The modern consensus is
that Einstein's concept of realism is too restrictive.
• Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a
"blunder".[91] The theory of general relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted
a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four
dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way.
He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be
expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder – the cosmological constant
Albert Einstein 19

is necessary within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero
value today.
• Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-dimensional formulation of special
relativity, although within a few years he had adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation.
• Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was incorrect. He changed his mind
when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that the formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on
Einstein's wave-particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.

Collaboration with other scientists

In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had
some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.

Einstein-de Haas experiment

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the
spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They
confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization
changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small,
but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by
considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic
oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number
of particles in it.
This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger
applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add
his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[92]

Einstein refrigerator
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator.
This Absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[93]
On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1781541 [94] was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator.
Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were
quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.[95]
Albert Einstein 20

Bohr versus Einstein

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory.
Einstein was unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory
developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, both in its outcomes and its
instrumentalist methodology, Einstein being a scientific realist. In this
interpretation, quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite
states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate
between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many years
(including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought
experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by
Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced
that He [God] does not throw dice." [96]

Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's

intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the Einstein and Niels Bohr

issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the
theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.[97] The EPR experiment has since
been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.[98] Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr
debate have found their way into philosophical discourse.

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two
entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different
measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner
could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.
He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already
determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or
momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values
of position or momentum.
This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it has since
been shown to be incompatible with experiments.
Albert Einstein 21

Political views
Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement and later tried to be a
voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of
Israel.[99] Fred Jerome in his Einstein on Israel and Zionism: His
Provocative Ideas About the Middle East argues that Einstein was a
Cultural Zionist who supported the idea of a Jewish homeland but
opposed the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine “with borders,
an army, and a measure of temporal power.” Instead, he preferred a
bi-national state with “continuously functioning, mixed, administrative,
economic, and social organizations.”.[100] [101] However Ami Isseroff
Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa
in his article Was Einstein a Zionist, argues that Einstein supported the
Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future
recognition of the State of Israel and declared it "the fulfillment of our President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr.
dream" when President Harry Truman recognize Israel in May 1948 Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and
and in presidential election 1948 Einstein supported Henry A. Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City
in 1921.
Wallace’s Progressive Party which advocate pro-Soviet and pro-Israel
foreign policy.[102] [103]

Throughout the November Revolution in Germany Einstein signed an appeal for the foundation of a nationwide
liberal and democratic party,[104] [105] which was published in the Berliner Tageblatt on 16 November 1918,[106] and
became a member of the German Democratic Party.[107]
In his article Why Socialism?,[108] published in 1949 in the Monthly Review, Einstein described a chaotic capitalist
society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development". He came to the following
conclusion:
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils [capitalism], namely through the
establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented
toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are
utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the
community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a
livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his
own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in
place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.[108]
He braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. On the floor of
the US Congress, Einstein was accused by John E. Rankin of Mississippi of being a "foreign-born agitator" who
sought "to further the spread of Communism throughout the world".[109] He also participated in the 1927 congress of
the League against Imperialism in Brussels.[110]
After World War II, as enmity between the former allies became a serious issue, Einstein wrote, "I do not know how
the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth – rocks!"[111] (Einstein 1949)
With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before
his death, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and
World Affairs.[112]
Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When the aged
W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case
was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair
of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[113]
Einstein said "Politics is for the moment, equation for the eternity."[114] He declined the presidency of Israel in
1952.[115]
Albert Einstein 22

Religious views
The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological determinism,
and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. He once said:
You may call me an agnostic... I do not share the crusading spirit of the professional atheist whose fervor is
mostly due to a painful act of liberation from the fetters of religious indoctrination received in youth. I prefer
an attitude of humility corresponding to the weakness of our intellectual understanding of nature and of our
own being.[116]

Non-scientific legacy
While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were
included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be
made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[117]
). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500
pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[118]
Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to
The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[119]
[120]

In popular culture
In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be stopped on the street by
people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told
his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[121]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[122] He is a favorite
model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle
have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's
dream come true".[123]

Awards and honors

In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[124] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and
especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric
effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well
supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of
relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical
implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (Einstein 1923)
It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in compliance with
their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[125] shows that he invested
much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression.
In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical Society in Berlin, for
extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.[126]
In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on relativity and the
photo-electric effect.[126]
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration
of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[127]
Albert Einstein 23

The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany. The best known
building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is an
astrophysical observatory that was built to perform checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[128]
The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue depicting Einstein seated
with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in 1979, is located in a grove of trees at the southwest
corner of the grounds of the National Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue.
The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.[129]
[130]
2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.[131]
In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[123] [132] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin
Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein
is synonymous with genius".[133] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 leading physicists ranked Einstein the
"greatest physicist ever".[134] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in
the U.S.[135]
In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans",[136] which is located
east of Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany.[137]
The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 8¢ postage
stamp.

Awards named after him

The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold
medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was
endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first
awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $ 15,000,[138] [139] which was later reduced to $ 5,000.[140] [141] The
winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and
Weyl[142] ) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[139]
The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland. First given in
1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[143]
The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein Peace Prize
Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[144]

See also
• German inventors and discoverers
• Heinrich Burkhardt
• Hermann Einstein
• Historical Museum of Bern (Einstein museum)
• History of gravitational theory
• Introduction to special relativity
• List of coupled cousins
• Relativity priority dispute
• Sticky bead argument
• Summation convention
• The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity)
Albert Einstein 24

Publications
The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his
publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.
• Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the
Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4: 513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306
• Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"
[145]
, Annalen der Physik 17: 132–148 . This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by
Annalen der Physik 18th March.
• Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions. This PhD thesis was completed 30th
April and submitted 20th July.
• Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small
Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17: 549–560. This annus mirabilis paper on
Brownian motion was received 11th May.
• Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17: 891–921. This
annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30th June.
• Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik 18:
639–641. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27th September.
• Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)", Königlich
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844–847
• Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological
Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
• Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)",
Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–128
• Einstein, Albert (11 July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity" [146], Nobel
Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, retrieved 25 March 2007
• Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal
gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse:
261–267. First of a series of papers on this topic.
• Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen
Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223–224, doi:10.1007/BF01510300. On Baer's law and meanders in the
courses of rivers.
• Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of
Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777–780, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777
• Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic) 146: 605,
doi:10.1038/146605a0, ISBN 0707304539
• Einstein, Albert et al. (4 December 1948), "To the editors" [147], New York Times (Melville, NY: AIP, American
Inst. of Physics), ISBN 0735403597
• Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?" [148], Monthly Review, retrieved 16 January 2006
• Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American CLXXXII (4): 13–17
• Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
• Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955, Munich:
Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, ISBN 388682005X
• Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes, Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago: Open Court,
ISBN 0-875-48352-6. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.
• Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos
Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–2006), The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1–10 [149], Princeton
University Press Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the
Albert Einstein 25

Einstein Papers Project [150] and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page [151]

Notes
[1] Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000), Various things about Albert Einstein (http:/ / www. einstein-website. de/ z_information/ variousthings. html),
einstein-website.de, , retrieved 18 July 2009
[2] Zahar, Élie (2001), Poincaré's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to Phenomenology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC),
Carus Publishing Company, p. 41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-X, , Chapter 2, p. 41 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC&
pg=PA41)
[3] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5bLXMl1V0), Nobel Foundation, archived from the original (http:/ /
nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ ) on 5 October 2008, , retrieved 6 March 2007
[4] "Einstein Biography" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein. html) Nobelprize.org
[5] Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper
Torchbook edition), pp. 730–746 His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein
(1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on
science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).
[6] WordNet for Einstein (http:/ / wordnetweb. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn?s=Einstein)
[7] Albert Einstein – Biography (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein-bio. html), Nobel Foundation, , retrieved
7 March 2007
[8] Einstein: the life and times, By Ronald William Clark (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6IKVA0lY6MAC& pg=PA28& lpg=PA28&
dq=einstein+ "Catholic+ elementary+ school"& source=bl& ots=rn-6c9y5U9& sig=jEmNcKzdh42rgKpgxeNnfOqOpkk& hl=en&
ei=KCKLSrH7Ioe6MJfk2ckP& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1#v=onepage& q=einstein "Catholic elementary school"&
f=false)
[9] Rosenkranz, Ze'ev (2005), Albert Einstein – Derrière l'image, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, p. 29, ISBN 3-03823-182-7
[10] Sowell, Thomas (2001), The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late, Basic Books, pp. 89–150, ISBN 0-465-08140-1
[11] Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert Einstein – Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing Company, pp. 8–9
[12] Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student", Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA,
page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF (http:/ / www. chem. harvard. edu/ herschbach/ Einstein_Student. pdf): Max Talmud visited on
Thursdays for six years.
[13] www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf Albert's intellectual growth was strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented
pianist, ensured the children's musical education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family. Uncle Jakob challenged
Albert with mathematical problems, which he solved with "a deep feeling of happiness". Most remarkable was Max Talmud, a poor Jewish
medical student from Poland, "for whom the Jewish community had obtained free meals with the Einstein family". Talmud came on Thursday
nights for about six years, and "invested his whole person in examining everything that engaged [Albert's] interest". Talmud had Albert read
and discuss many books with him. These included a series of twenty popular science books that convinced Albert "a lot in the Bible stories
could not be true", and a textbook of plane geometry that launched Albert on avid self-study of mathematics, years ahead of the school
curriculum. Talmud even had Albert read Kant; as a result Einstein began preaching to his schoolmates about Kant, with "forcefulness"
[14] Einstein's greatest intellectual stimulation came from a poor student who dined with his family once a week. It was an old Jewish custom to
take in a needy religious scholar to share the Sabbath meal; the Einsteins modified the tradition by hosting instead a medical student on
Thursdays. His name was Max Talmud, and he began his weekly visits when he was 21 and Einstein was 10. (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/
magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1607298-1,00. html)
[15] Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's first paper" (http:/ / www. worldscibooks. com/ phy_etextbook/ 4454/ 4454_chap1. pdf) (PDF),
The Golden Age of Physics, World Scientific, ISBN 9810249853, , retrieved 4 March 2007
[16] Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993), The Private Lives of Albert Einstein, London: Faber and Faber, p. 21, ISBN 0-571-17170-2
[17] Highfield & Carter (1993, pp. 21,31,56–57)
[18] Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1, 1987, doc. 67.
[19] Troemel-Ploetz, D., "Mileva Einstein-Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's Mathematics", Women's Studies Int. Forum, vol. 13, no. 5, pp.
415-432, 1990.
[20] E. H. Walker, E. H., "Did Einstein Espouse his Spouse's Ideas?", Physics Today, Feb. 1989. http:/ / philoscience. unibe. ch/ lehre/ winter99/
einstein/ Walker_Stachel. pdf
[21] Pais, A., Einstein Lived Here, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 1-29.
[22] Holton, G., Einstein, History, and Other Passions, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 177-193.
[23] Stachel, J., Einstein from B to Z, Birkhäuser, 2002, pp. 26-38; 39-55. http:/ / philoscience. unibe. ch/ lehre/ winter99/ einstein/ Stachel1966.
pdf
[24] Martinez, A. A., “Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein’s Wife.” School Science Review, 86 (316), March 2005, pp. 49-56. http:/
/ www. ase. org. uk/ htm/ members_area/ journals/ ssr/ ssr_march_05pdf/ eins_wife-pg49. pdf
[25] This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was staying
with her family in or near Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated 4 February 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134).
[26] Albrecht Fölsing (1998). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Penguin Group. ISBN 0140237194; see section I, II,
Albert Einstein 26

[27] Highfield & Carter 1993, p. 216

[28] Now the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property (http:/ / www. ipi. ch/ E/ institut/ i1. shtm), , retrieved 16 October 2006. See also
their FAQ about Einstein and the Institute (http:/ / www. ipi. ch/ E/ institut/ i1094. shtm),
[29] Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389.
[30] Gallison, Question of Time.
[31] Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton, ISBN 0393020010
[32] (Einstein 1905b)
[33] Universität Zürich: Geschichte (http:/ / www. uzh. ch/ about/ portrait/ history. html)
[34] Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin". in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein – Chief Engineer of
the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747
[35] Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor (2005), Albert Einstein: a biography (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC), Greenwood
Publishing Group, p. xix, ISBN 0-313-33080-8, , Timeline, p. xix (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC& pg=PR19)
[36] Heilbron, 2000, p. 84.
[37] Andrzej, Stasiak (2003), "Myths in science" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ embor/ journal/ v4/ n3/ full/ embor779. html), EMBO reports 4 (3):
236, doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor779, , retrieved 31 March 2007
[38] See Albert Einstein, "Geometry and Experience", (1921), reprinted in Ideas and Opinions.
[39] Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007)
[40] Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007) pp. 407-410
[41] "In Brief" (http:/ / www. ias. edu/ people/ einstein/ in-brief). Institute for Advanced Study. . Retrieved 4 March 2010.
[42] Dunn, Jean (2010-07-07). "Albanian Muslims Who Sheltered Jews Honored at Program" (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ press/
albanian-muslims-sheltered. 4808. htm). Voicesnews.com. .
[43] "In Breif (Albert Einstein)" (http:/ / www. ias. edu/ people/ einstein/ in-brief). The Center for History of Physics. American Institute of
Physics. 2005. . Retrieved 2010-11-02.
[44] Gosling, F.G. The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, U.S. Department of Energy, History Division (January, 1999) p. vii
[45] Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (29 August 2010). "Obama could kill fossil fuels overnight with a nuclear dash for thorium" (http:/ / www.
telegraph. co. uk/ finance/ comment/ 7970619/ Obama-could-kill-fossil-fuels-overnight-with-a-nuclear-dash-for-thorium. html). The Daily
Telegraph (London). .
[46] Diehl, Sarah J.; Moltz, James Clay. Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation: a Reference Handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=3PN-NEfl_U0C& pg=PA218& dq=Einstein+ Roosevelt& lr=& as_drrb_is=q& as_minm_is=0& as_miny_is=& as_maxm_is=0&
as_maxy_is=& num=30& as_brr=3& ei=3LkCTNjODJzykwS-qb3kBA& cd=4#v=onepage& q=Letter from Einstein Roosevelt& f=false),
ABC-CLIO (2008) p. 219
[47] Einstein: The Life and Times by Ronald Clark. page 752
[48] Fred Jerome, Rodger Taylor (2006) Einstein on Race and Racism (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4d79VQdOfFUC& pg=PR10&
dq=Einstein+ on+ Race+ and+ Racism+ america's+ worst+ disease& hl=en& ei=rGkNTP-OB9DY4gaN6f1-& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) Rutgers University Press, 2006.
[49] Calaprice, Alice (2005) The new quotable Einstein (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ titles/ 7921. html). pp.148-149 Princeton University Press,
2005. See also Odyssey in Climate Modeling, Global Warming, and Advising Five Presidents (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=dLhVn-McDDgC& pg=PA226& dq=racism+ americas+ worst+ disease+ 1946& hl=en& ei=cWINTOqjGpKX4gavnK22AQ&
sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[50] "ISRAEL: Einstein Declines" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,817454,00. html). Time magazine. 1 December
1952. . Retrieved 31 March 2010.
[51] "Einstein in Princeton / Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon" (http:/ / www. princetonhistory. org/ museum_alberteinstein. cfm). Historical
Society of Princeton. . Retrieved 31 March 2010.
[52] The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass (http:/ / www. medscape. com/ viewarticle/ 436253), 14 June 2002, , retrieved 11 June 2007
[53] Albert Einstein Archives (April 1955), "Draft of projected Telecast Israel Independence Day, April 1955 (last statement ever written)" (http:/
/ www. alberteinstein. info/ db/ ViewImage. do?DocumentID=20078& Page=1), Einstein Archives Online (http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/
), , retrieved 14 March 2007
[54] Cohen, J.R.; Graver, L.M. (November 1995), "The ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm of Albert Einstein", Surgery, Gynecology &
Obstetrics 170 (5): 455–8, ISSN 0039-6087, PMID 2183375.
[55] O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (1997), "Albert Einstein" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Einstein. html), The
MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, , retrieved 14 March 2007
[56] Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76. World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist., New York Times, 19 April 1955, "Princeton, New Jersey, 18
April 1955. Dr. Albert Einstein, one of the great thinkers of the ages, died in his sleep here early today."
[57] The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=4602913), National Public
Radio, , retrieved 3 October 2007
[58] " Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz (http:/ / www. lorentz. leidenuniv. nl/ history/ Einstein_archive/ )". Instituut-Lorentz. 2005.
Retrieved on 21 November 2005.
[59] This did not become possible until the development of alpha particle scintillation detectors early in the twentieth century. Rutherford invited
Mach to take a look at the scintillation screen in a dark room, where the impact of individual alpha particles (Helium nuclei) are directly
Albert Einstein 27

visible to the dark adapted eye.

[60] an account may be found here (http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ ~jdnorton/ Goodies/ Einstein_stat_1905/ index. html)
[61] The charge of a mole of electrons was known and measured as Faraday's constant. Dividing by the charge of a single electron, measured by
Millikan, gives Avogadro's number.
[62] (Einstein 1905d)
[63] Hawking, S. W. (2001), The Universe in short, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-55-380202-X
[64] Schwartz, J.; McGuinness, M. (1979), Einstein for Beginners, Pantheon Books, ISBN 0-39-450588-3
[65] (Einstein 1905e)
[66] For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in
Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 9027724989.
[67] Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, pp. 382–386,
ISBN 019853907X
[68] Einstein, Albert (1905), "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" (http:/ / www.
zbp. univie. ac. at/ dokumente/ einstein1. pdf), Annalen der Physik 17: 132–148, , retrieved 27 June 2009
[69] (Einstein 1905a).
[70] Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, p. 522, ISBN 019853907X
[71] Levenson, Thomas. " Einstein's Big Idea (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ einstein/ genius/ )". Public Broadcasting Service. 2005.
Retrieved on 25 February 2006.
[72] Einstein, A., "Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen (On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It)", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität (Yearbook of Radioactivity) 4: 411–462 page 454 (Wir betrachen zwei Bewegung systeme ...)
[73] Einstein, Albert (1911), "On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light", Annalen der Physik 35: 898–908,
doi:10.1002/andp.19113401005 (also in Collected Papers Vol. 3, document 23)
[74] Crelinsten, Jeffrey. " Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (http:/ / www. pupress. princeton. edu/ titles/ 8165. html)". Princeton
University Press. 2006. Retrieved on 13 March 2007. ISBN 9780691123103
[75] van Dongen, Jeroen (2010) Einstein's Unification Cambridge University Press, p.23.
[76] (Einstein 1915)
[77] Two friends in Leiden (http:/ / www. lorentz. leidenuniv. nl/ history/ einstein/ einstein. html), , retrieved 11 June 2007
[78] Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (http:/ / www. pupress. princeton. edu/ titles/ 8165. html), Princeton
University Press, pp. 103–108, ISBN 978-0-691-12310-3, , retrieved 13 March 2007
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[80] Smith, PD (17 September 2005), The genius of space and time (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ reviews/ scienceandnature/ 0,,1571826,00.
html), London: The Guardian, , retrieved 31 March 2007
[81] Jürgen Schmidhuber. " Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever' (http:/ / www. idsia. ch/ ~juergen/ einstein.
html)". 2006. Retrieved on 4 October 2006.
[82] See the table in MathPages Bending Light (http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s6-03/ 6-03. htm)
[83] Hentschel, Klaus and Ann M. (1996), Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources, Birkhaeuser Verlag, xxi,
ISBN 3-76-435312-0
[84] For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test
Relativity, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691123101, especially chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11.
[85] (Einstein 1917a)
[86] (Einstein 1917b)
[87] (Einstein 1924)
[88] Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ public_affairs/ releases/ n01-04. htm), 9 October 2001, ,
retrieved 11 June 2007
[89] (Einstein 1950)
[90] Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911), Reading:
Addison–Wesley, pp. 325–331, ISBN 0-201-04679-2
[91] Wright, Karen (30 September 2004), The Master's Mistakes (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2004/ sep/ the-masters-mistakes/
article_view?b_start:int=1& -C=), Discover Magazine, , retrieved 15 October 2009
[92] Moore, Walter (1989), Schrödinger: Life and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43767-9
[93] Goettling, Gary. Einstein's refrigerator (http:/ / gtalumni. org/ Publications/ magazine/ sum98/ einsrefr. html) Georgia Tech Alumni
Magazine. 1998. Retrieved on 21 November 2005. Leó Szilárd, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project, is credited
with the discovery of the chain reaction
[94] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=1781541
[95] In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust
appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted
as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.Alok, Jha (21
September 2008), Einstein fridge design can help global cooling (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2008/ sep/ 21/
Albert Einstein 28

scienceofclimatechange. climatechange), London: The Guardian,

[96] (Einstein 1969). A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 388682005X
[97] (Einstein 1935)
[98] Aspect, Alain; Dalibard, Jean; Roger, Gérard (1982), "Experimental test of Bell's inequalities using time-varying analyzers", Physical
Review Letters 49 (25): 1804–1807, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.1804 The first of many experimental tests relating to EPR.
[99] Zionism and Israel Information Center, Albert Einstein and Zionism (http:/ / www. zionism-israel. com/ Albert_Einstein/
Albert_Einstein_about_zionism. htm), , retrieved 14 August 2008
[100] "Einstein and Complex Analyses of Zionism" (http:/ / www. forward. com/ articles/ 109560/ ) Jewish Daily Forward, July 24, 2009
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ALBERT-EINSTEIN-ON-PALESTI-by-Edward-Corrigan-100110-905. html), Edward Corrigan
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[109] David E. Rowe and Robert Schulmann (June 25, 2007). "What Were Einstein's Politics?" (http:/ / hnn. us/ articles/ 39445. html). George
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[111] Calaprice, Alice (2005), The new quotable Einstein (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ titles/ 7921. html), Princeton University Press, p. 173,
ISBN 0-691-12075-7 Other versions of the quote exist.
[112] Butcher, Sandra Ionno (May 2005) (PDF), The Origins of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto (http:/ / www. pugwash. org/ publication/ phs/
history9. pdf), Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, , retrieved 2 May 2007
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harvard. edu/ gazette/ 2007/ 04. 12/ 01-einstein. html), Harvard University Gazette, archived from the original (http:/ / www. news. harvard.
edu/ gazette/ 2007/ 04. 12/ 01-einstein. html) on 29 May 2007, , retrieved 11 June 2007
[114] Hawking, Stephen W. (2001), The universe in short, Bantam Books, p. 26, ISBN 9780553802023
[115] Feldman, Burton (2001), The Nobel prize: a history of genius, controversy, and prestige (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xnckeeTICn0C),
Arcade Publishing, p. 141, ISBN 1-559-70592-2, , Page 141 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xnckeeTICn0C& pg=PA141)
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[117] New York Times obituary (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9A0DEFD9153FF931A25754C0A960948260)
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bylquery=Maloney& month1=01& day1=14& year1=1939& month2=01& day2=14& year2=1939& page=& sort=& submit. x=10& submit.
y=5)
[122] (http:/ / www. cindymctee. com/ einsteins_dream. html) Einstein's Dream for orchestra by Cindy McTee
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albert_einstein5a. html), Time, , retrieved 25 February 2006
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einstein+ science+ park& hl=en& ei=aKFgTJG8HYyOjAeVqrmLCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2&
Albert Einstein 29

ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=albert einstein science park& f=false) Pelican Publishing Company

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magazine/ who_mattered_and_why4a. html), Time, , retrieved 16 July 2007
[133] Howard, Don, and Stachel, John J. Einstein: The Formative Years, 1879–1909, p. 159, Springer (2000)
[134] "Einstein the greatest" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 541840. stm). BBC News. 29 November 1999. .
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[137] (in German) Walhalla Ruhmes- und Ehrenhalle (http:/ / www. walhalla-regensburg. de/ deutsch/ index. shtml), , retrieved 3 October 2007
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[141] Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1967, Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA, 1968, ISSN 0519-2366
[142] Sigmund, Dawson, Muhlberger (2006), Kurt Godel: The Album, Wiesbaden: Vieweg, ISBN 3834801739
[143] Albert Einstein Society in Bern (http:/ / www. einstein-website. de/ z_information/ einsteinsociety. html) retrieved 17 July 2010
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[145] http:/ / lorentz. phl. jhu. edu/ AnnusMirabilis/ AeReserveArticles/ eins_lq. pdf
[146] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein-lecture. pdf
[147] http:/ / phys4. harvard. edu/ ~wilson/ NYTimes1948. html
[148] http:/ / www. monthlyreview. org/ 598einst. htm
[149] http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ einstein/ writings. html#papers
[150] http:/ / www. einstein. caltech. edu/ index. html
[151] http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ einstein/

Further reading
• Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein (http://books.google.com/
books?id=875TTxildJ0C&dq=idiots+guide+to+einstein&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&
ots=W9rxRk0Ukn&sig=gbJach7BrzngSiFjODx95k8e1DU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&
ct=result) ( 1st ed. 2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803
• Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press.
The definitive biography to date.
• Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press.
• Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild. Prometheus Books. A review of Einstein's career and
accomplishments, written for the lay public.
• Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0674028289.
Albert Einstein 30

External links
• Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada)
• The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/
Einstein.html), School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland, April 1997, retrieved
14 June 2009
• Why Socialism? (http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einstein.php) by Albert Einstein, Monthly Review, May
1949
• Nobelprize.org Biography:Albert Einstein (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/
einstein-bio.html)
• The Einstein You Never Knew (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/41492/
the-einstein-you-never-knew) - slideshow by Life magazine
• Albert Einstein (http://www.history.com/topics/albert-einstein)--Watch Videos
• Science Odyssey People And Discoveries (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bpeins.html)
Authority control: PND: 118529579 (http:/ / d-nb. info/ gnd/ 118529579) | LCCN: n79022889 (http:/ / errol. oclc.
org/laf/n79022889.html) | VIAF: 75121530 (http://viaf.org/viaf/75121530)
 31

Annus Mirabilis and special relativity

Annus Mirabilis papers

The Annus Mirabilis papers (from Latin annus mīrābilis,
"extraordinary year") are the papers of Albert Einstein published
in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four
articles contributed substantially to the foundation of modern
physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The Annus
Mirabilis is often called the "Miracle Year" in English or
Wunderjahr in German.[1]

Background
At the time the papers were written, Einstein did not have easy
access to a complete set of scientific reference materials, although
he did regularly read and contribute reviews to Annalen der
Physik. Additionally, scientific colleagues available to discuss his
theories were few. He worked as an examiner at the Patent Office
in Bern, Switzerland, and he later said of a co-worker there,
Michele Besso, that he "could not have found a better sounding Einstein, in 1905, when he wrote the Annus Mirabilis
board for his ideas in all of Europe". In addition to co-workers and papers
the other members of the self-styled "Olympian Academy"
(Solovine and Habicht), his wife, Mileva Marić, may have had some influence on Einstein's work but how much is
unclear.[2] [3] [4] Through these papers, Einstein tackles some of the era's most important physics questions and
problems. In 1900, a lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light",[5] by
Lord Kelvin, suggested that physics had no satisfactory explanations for the results of the Michelson-Morley
experiment and for black body radiation. As introduced, special relativity provided an account for the results of the
Michelson-Morley experiments. Einstein's theories for the photoelectric effect extended the quantum theory which
Max Planck had developed in his successful explanation of black body radiation.

Despite the greater fame achieved by his other works, such as that on special relativity, it was his work on the
photoelectric effect which won him his Nobel Prize in 1921: "For services to theoretical physics and especially for
the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." The Nobel committee had waited patiently for experimental
confirmation of special relativity; however none was forthcoming until the time dilation experiments of Ives and
Stilwell (1938),[6] (1941)[7] and Rossi and Hall (1941).[8]
Annus Mirabilis papers 32

Papers

Photoelectric effect
The paper, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light",[9] proposed the idea
of energy quanta. This idea, motivated by Max Planck's earlier derivation of the law of black body radiation,
assumes that luminous energy can be absorbed or emitted only in discrete amounts, called quanta. Einstein states,
Energy, during the propagation of a ray of light, is not continuously distributed over steadily increasing spaces,
but it consists of a finite number of energy quanta localised at points in space, moving without dividing and
capable of being absorbed or generated only as entities.
In explaining the photoelectric effect, the hypothesis that energy consists of discrete packets, as Einstein illustrates,
can be directly applied to black bodies, as well.
The idea of light quanta contradicts the wave theory of light that follows naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's
equations for electromagnetic behavior and, more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in
physical systems.
A profound formal difference exists between the theoretical concepts that physicists have formed about gases
and other ponderable bodies, and Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic processes in so-called empty space.
While we consider the state of a body to be completely determined by the positions and velocities of an indeed
very large yet finite number of atoms and electrons, we make use of continuous spatial functions to determine
the electromagnetic state of a volume of space, so that a finite number of quantities cannot be considered as
sufficient for the complete determination of the electromagnetic state of space.
[... this] leads to contradictions when applied to the phenomena of emission and transformation of light.
According to the view that the incident light consists of energy quanta [...], the production of cathode rays by
light can be conceived in the following way. The body's surface layer is penetrated by energy quanta whose
energy is converted at least partially into kinetic energy of the electrons. The simplest conception is that a light
quantum transfers its entire energy to a single electron [...]
Einstein noted that the photoelectric effect depended on the wavelength, and hence the frequency of the light. At too
low a frequency, even intense light produced no electrons. However, once a certain frequency was reached, even low
intensity light produced electrons. He compared this to Planck's hypothesis that light could be emitted only in
packets of energy given by hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency. He then postulated that light
travels in packets whose energy depends on the frequency, and therefore only light above a certain frequency would
bring sufficient energy to liberate an electron.
Even after experiments confirmed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, his explanation
was not universally accepted. Niels Bohr, in his 1922 Nobel address, stated, "The hypothesis of light-quanta is not
able to throw light on the nature of radiation."
By 1921, when Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize and his work on photoelectricity was mentioned by name in
the award citation, some physicists accepted that the equation ( ) was correct and light quanta were
possible. In 1923, Arthur Compton's X-ray scattering experiment helped more of the scientific community to accept
this formula. The theory of light quanta was a strong indicator of wave-particle duality, a fundamental principle of
quantum mechanics.[10] A complete picture of the theory of photoelectricity was realized after the maturity of
quantum mechanics.
Annus Mirabilis papers 33

Brownian motion
The article "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" ("On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as
Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat")[11] delineated a stochastic model of Brownian motion.
In this paper it will be shown that, according to the molecular kinetic theory of heat, bodies of a
microscopically visible size suspended in liquids must, as a result of thermal molecular motions, perform
motions of such magnitudes that they can be easily observed with a microscope. It is possible that the motions
to be discussed here are identical with so-called Brownian molecular motion; however, the data available to
me on the latter are so imprecise that I could not form a judgment on the question ...
Brownian motion generates expressions for the root mean square displacement of particles. Using the kinetic theory
of fluids, which at the time was controversial, the article established the phenomenon, which was lacking a
satisfactory explanation even decades after the first observation, provided empirical evidence for the reality of the
atom. It also lent credence to statistical mechanics, which had been controversial at that time, as well. Before this
paper, atoms were recognized as a useful concept, but physicists and chemists debated whether atoms were real
entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists a way to count atoms by looking
through an ordinary microscope. Wilhelm Ostwald, one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told Arnold
Sommerfeld that he had been convinced of the existence of atoms by Einstein's complete explanation of Brownian
motion.

Special relativity
Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies")[12] , his third paper
that year, was published on June 30. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of
mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as
Einstein's special theory of relativity.
The paper mentions the name of only five other scientists, Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz,
Christian Doppler, and Hendrik Lorentz. It does not have any references to any other publications. Many of the ideas
had already been published by others, as detailed in history of special relativity. However, Einstein's paper
introduces a new theory of time, distance, mass, and energy that was consistent with electromagnetism, but omitted
the force of gravity.
At the time, it was known that Maxwell's equations, when applied to moving bodies, led to asymmetries, and that it
had not been possible to discover any motion of the Earth relative to the 'light medium'. Einstein puts forward two
postulates to explain these observations. First, he applies the classic principle of relativity, which states that the laws
of physics remain the same for any non-accelerating frame of reference (called an inertial reference frame), to the
laws of electrodynamics and optics as well as mechanics. In the second postulate, Einstein proposes that the speed of
light has the same value in all inertial frames of reference, independent of the state of motion of the emitting body.
Special relativity is thus consistent with the result of the Michelson–Morley experiment, which had not detected a
medium of conductance (or aether) for light waves unlike other known waves that require a medium (such as water
or air). Einstein states,
… the unsuccessful attempts to discover any motion of the earth relatively to the "light medium," suggest that
the phenomena of electrodynamics as well as of mechanics possess no properties corresponding to the idea of
absolute rest.
The speed of light is fixed, and thus not relative to the movement of the observer. This was impossible under
Newtonian classical mechanics. Einstein argues,
… the same laws of electrodynamics and optics will be valid for all frames of reference for which the
equations of mechanics hold good. We will raise this conjecture (the purport of which will hereafter be called
Annus Mirabilis papers 34

the "Principle of Relativity") to the status of a postulate, and also introduce another postulate, which is only
apparently irreconcilable with the former, namely, that light is always propagated in empty space with a
definite velocity c which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. These two postulates
suffice for the attainment of a simple and consistent theory of the electrodynamics of moving bodies based on
Maxwell's theory for stationary bodies. The introduction of a "luminiferous ether" will prove to be superfluous
in as much as the view here to be developed will not require an "absolutely stationary space" provided with
special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic
processes take place.
The theory […] is based—like all electrodynamics—on the kinematics of the rigid body, since the assertions
of any such theory have to do with the relationships between rigid bodies (systems of co-ordinates), clocks,
and electromagnetic processes. Insufficient consideration of this circumstance lies at the root of the difficulties
which the electrodynamics of moving bodies at present encounters.
It had previously been conjectured, by George FitzGerald in 1894 and by Lorentz 1895, independent of each other,
that the Michelson-Morley result could be accounted for if moving bodies were contracted in the direction of their
motion. Some of the paper's core equations, the Lorentz transforms, had been published by Joseph Larmor (1897,
1900), Hendrik Lorentz (1899, 1903, 1904) and Henri Poincaré (1905), in a development of Lorentz's 1904 paper.
Einstein revealed the underlying causes for this geometrical oddity, which differed from the explanations given by
FitzGerald, Larmor, and Lorentz, but were similar in many respects to the reasons given by Poincaré (1905).
His explanation arises from two axioms. First, Galileo's idea that the laws of nature should be the same for all
observers that move with constant speed relative to each other. Einstein writes,
The laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not affected, whether these changes of
state be referred to the one or the other of two systems of co-ordinates in uniform translatory motion.
The second is the rule that the speed of light is the same for every observer.
Any ray of light moves in the "stationary" system of co-ordinates with the determined velocity c, whether the
ray be emitted by a stationary or by a moving body.
The theory, now called the special theory of relativity, distinguishes it from his later general theory of relativity,
which considers all observers to be equivalent. Special relativity gained widespread acceptance remarkably quickly,
confirming Einstein's comment that it had been "ripe for discovery" in 1905. Acknowledging the role of Max Planck
in the early dissemination of his ideas, Einstein wrote in 1913 "The attention that this theory so quickly received
from colleagues is surely to be ascribed in large part to the resoluteness and warmth with which he [Planck]
intervened for this theory". In addition, the improved mathematical formulation of the theory by Hermann
Minkowski in 1907 was influential in gaining acceptance for the theory. Also, and most importantly, the theory was
supported by an ever-increasing body of confirmatory experimental evidence.

Matter and energy equivalence

On September 27 Annalen der Physik published a fourth paper, "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem
Energieinhalt abhängig?" ("Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"),[13] in which Einstein
developed an argument for arguably the most famous equation in the field of physics: E = mc². Einstein considered
the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an
energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies.
The paper is based on James Clerk Maxwell's and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's investigations and, in addition, the axioms
of relativity, as Einstein states,
The results of the previous investigation lead to a very interesting conclusion, which is here to be deduced.
The previous investigation was based "on the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space, together with the
Maxwellian expression for the electromagnetic energy of space ..."
Annus Mirabilis papers 35

The laws by which the states of physical systems alter are independent of the alternative, to which of two
systems of coordinates, in uniform motion of parallel translation relatively to each other, these alterations of
state are referred (principle of relativity).
The equation sets forth that energy of a body at rest (E) equals its mass (m) times the speed of light (c) squared, or E
= mc².
If a body gives off the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by L/c². The fact that the energy
withdrawn from the body becomes energy of radiation evidently makes no difference, so that we are led to the
more general conclusion that
The mass of a body is a measure of its energy-content; if the energy changes by L, the mass changes in the
same sense by L/9 × 1020, the energy being measured in ergs, and the mass in grammes.
[...]
If the theory corresponds to the facts, radiation conveys inertia between the emitting and absorbing bodies.
The mass-energy relation can be used to predict how much energy will be released or consumed by nuclear
reactions; one simply measures the mass of all constituents and the mass of all the products and multiplies the
difference between the two by c2. The result shows how much energy will be released or consumed, usually in the
form of light or heat. When applied to certain nuclear reactions, the equation shows that an extraordinarily large
amount of energy will be released, much larger than in the combustion of chemical explosives, where the mass
difference is hardly measurable at all. This explains why nuclear weapons produce such phenomenal amounts of
energy, as they release binding energy during nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, and also convert a much larger
portion of subatomic mass to energy.

Commemoration
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) resolved to commemorate the 100th year of the
publication of Einstein's extensive work in 1905 as the 'World Year of Physics 2005'. This was subsequently
endorsed by the United Nations.

Notes
[1] "Annalen der Physik - Factbites" (2005), Factbites.com, web: Factbites-Annalen (http:/ / www. factbites. com/ topics/ Annalen-der-Physik):
about annus mirabilis as "miraculous year" in English, or German Wunderjahr.
[2] The suggestion that Mileva actually co-authored some of Einstein's early papers was based largely on what is now generally agreed to have
been a misunderstanding. In an obituary for Einstein in 1955, Abram Joffe wrote "In 1905, three articles appeared in the Annalen der Physik...
The author of these articles, an unknown person at the time, was a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern, Einstein-Marity (Marity - the
maiden name of his wife, which by Swiss custom is added to the husband's family name)." Thus Joffe did not claim co-authorship, he merely
stated that the papers were by an unknown individual, and that Marity was the maiden name of the author's wife, appended to the author's
name by Swiss custom. Joffe's comment was later mis-quoted in a way that suggested co-authorship of the husband and wife.
[3] "Einstein's Wife : The Mileva Question (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ opb/ einsteinswife/ science/ mquest. htm)". Oregon Public Broadcasting,
2003.
[4] Calaprice, Alice, "The Einstein almanac". Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md. 2005.
[5] The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Series 6, volume 2, page 1 (1901)
[6] Ives, Herbert E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1938). "An experimental study of the rate of a moving clock". Journal of the Optical Society of America 28:
215–226. doi:10.1364/JOSA.28.000215.
[7] Ives, Herbert E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1941). "An experimental study of the rate of a moving clock II". Journal of the Optical Society of America
31: 359–374.
[8] Rossi, Bruno; Hall, David B. (February 1, 1941). "Variation of the Rate of Decay of Mesotrons with Momentum" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/
abstract/ PR/ v59/ i3/ p223_1). Physical Review 59 (3): 223–228. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.59.223. . Retrieved 2006-10-01.
[9] Einstein, Albert (1905). "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" (http:/ / www.
physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_132-148. pdf). Annalen der Physik 17: 132–148. . Retrieved 2008-02-18.
[10] Physical systems can display both wave-like and particle-like properties
[11] Einstein, Albert (1905). "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten
suspendierten Teilchen" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_549-560. pdf). Annalen der
Annus Mirabilis papers 36

Physik 17: 549–560. . Retrieved 2008-08-25.

English translation:
• " Investigations on the theory of Brownian Movement (http:/ / users. physik. fu-berlin. de/ ~kleinert/ files/ eins_brownian. pdf)".
Translated by A.D Cowper
[12] Einstein, Albert (1905-06-30). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" (http:/ / www. pro-physik. de/ Phy/ pdfs/ ger_890_921. pdf). Annalen
der Physik 17: 891–921. . See also a digitized version at Wikilivres:Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper.

English translations:
• " On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/ www/ )". Translation by George
Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett in The Principle of Relativity, London: Methuen and Company, Ltd. (1923)
• "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". Translation by Megh Nad Saha in The Principle of Relativity: Original Papers by A.
Einstein and H. Minkowski, University of Calcutta, 1920, pp. 1–34:
[13] Einstein, Albert (1905). "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/
annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_18_639-641. pdf). Annalen der Physik 18: 639–641. . Retrieved 2008-02-18.

English translations:
• " Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ E_mc2/ www/ )".
Translation by George Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett in The Principle of Relativity, London: Methuen and Company, Ltd. (1923).

Works by Einstein

Further reading
• Stachel, John, et al., Einstein's Miraculous Year. Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-691-05938-1
• Renn, Jürgen, and Dieter Hoffmann, "1905 — a miraculous year". 2005 J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 38
S437-S448 (Max Planck Institute for the History of Science) [Issue 9 (14 May 2005)]

External links
• (http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/) - collection of the Annus Mirabilis papers and their English
translations.
• On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (1923 edition)
History of special relativity 37

History of special relativity

The history of special relativity consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert
Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. It culminated in the theory of special relativity proposed by
Albert Einstein, and subsequent work of Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others.

Introduction
Although Isaac Newton based his theory on absolute space and time, he also adhered to the principle of relativity of
Galileo Galilei. This stated that all observers who move uniformly relative to each other are equal and no absolute
state of motion can be attributed to any observer. During the 19th century the aether theory was widely accepted,
mostly in the form given by James Clerk Maxwell. According to Maxwell all optical and electrical phenomena
propagate in a medium. Thus it seemed possible to determine absolute motion relative to the aether and therefore to
disprove Galileo's Principle.
The failure of any experiment to detect motion through the aether led Hendrik Lorentz in 1892 to develop a theory
based on an immobile aether and the Lorentz transformation. Based on Lorentz's aether, Henri Poincaré in 1905
proposed the Relativity Principle as a general law of nature, including electrodynamics and gravitation. In 1905
Albert Einstein published what is now called Special Relativity (SR) – he radically reinterpreted Lorentzian
Electrodynamics by changing the concepts of space and time and abolishing the aether. This paved the way to
General Relativity. Subsequent work of Hermann Minkowski laid the foundations of Relativistic Field Theories.

Aether and Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies

Aether models and Maxwell's equations

Following the work of Thomas Young (1804) and Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1816), it was believed that light
propagates as a transverse wave within an elastic medium called luminiferous aether. However, a distinction was
made between optical and electrodynamical phenomena so it was necessary to create specific aether models for all
phenomena. Attempts to unify those models or to create a complete mechanical description of them did not
succeed,[1] but after considerable work by many scientists, including Michael Faraday and Lord Kelvin, James Clerk
Maxwell (1864) developed an accurate theory of electromagnetism by deriving a set of equations in electricity,
magnetism and inductance, named Maxwell's equations. He first proposed that light was in fact undulations
(Electromagnetic radiation) in the same aetherial medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.
However, Maxwell's theory was unsatisfactory regarding the optics of moving bodies, and while he was able to
present a complete mathematical model, he was not able to provide a coherent mechanical description of the
aether.[2]
After Heinrich Hertz in 1887 demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's theory was widely
accepted. In addition, Oliver Heaviside and Hertz further developed the theory and introduced modernized versions
of Maxwell's equations. The "Maxwell-Hertz" or "Heaviside-Hertz" Equations subsequently formed an important
basis for the further development of electrodynamics, and Heaviside's notation is still used today.[3] Other important
contributions to Maxwell's theory were made by George FitzGerald, Joseph John Thomson, John Henry Poynting,
Hendrik Lorentz, and Joseph Larmor.[4] [5]
History of special relativity 38

Search for the aether

Regarding the relative motion and the mutual influence of matter and aether, two theories were considered: The one
of Fresnel (and subsequently Lorentz), who developed a Stationary Aether Theory in which light propagates as a
transverse wave and aether was partially dragged with a certain coefficient by matter. Based on this assumption,
Fresnel was able to explain the Aberration of light and many optical phenomena.[6] On the other hand, George
Gabriel Stokes stated in 1845 that the aether was fully dragged by matter (later this view was also shared by Hertz).
In this model the aether might be (by analogy with pine pitch) rigid for fast objects and fluid for slower objects. Thus
the Earth could move through it fairly freely, but it would be rigid enough to transport light.[7] Fresnel's theory was
preferred because his dragging coefficient was confirmed by the Fizeau experiment of Hippolyte Fizeau in 1851,
who measured the speed of light in moving liquids.[8]
Albert Abraham Michelson (1881) tried to measure the relative motion
of earth and Aether (Aether-Wind), as it was expected in Fresnel’s
theory, by using an interferometer. He could not determine any relative
motion, so he interpreted the result as a confirmation of the thesis of
Stokes.[9] However, Lorentz (1886) showed Michelson's calculations
were wrong and that he overestimated the accuracy of the
measurement. This, together with the large margin of error, made the
result of Michelson's experiment inconclusive. In addition, Lorentz
showed that Stokes' completely dragged aether lead to contradictory
consequences, and therefore he supported an aether theory similar to
Fresnel's.[10] To check Fresnel's theory Michelson and Edward Morley
(1886) performed a repetition of the Fizeau experiment. Fresnel's
dragging coefficient was confirmed very exactly on that occasion, and
Michelson was now of the opinion that Fresnel's stationary aether
Albert Abraham Michelson theory is correct.[11] To clarify the situation, Michelson and Morley
(1887) repeated Michelson's 1881-experiment, whereby they corrected
the former errors of calculation, and they substantially increased the accuracy of the measurement. However, this
now famous Michelson-Morley experiment again yielded a negative result, i.e., no motion of the apparatus through
the aether was detected. So the physicists were confronted with two seemingly contradictory experiments: The
1886-experiment as an apparent confirmation of Fresnel's stationary aether, and the 1887-experiment as an apparent
confirmation of Stokes' completely dragged aether.[12]

A possible solution to the problem was shown by Woldemar Voigt (1887), who investigated the Doppler Effect for
waves propagating in an incompressible elastic medium and deduced transformation relations that left the Wave
equation in free space unchanged, and explained the negative result of the Michelson-Morley Experiment. The
Voigt-Transformations include the Lorentz factor for the y- and z-coordinates, and a new time variable
which later was called "local time". However, Voigt's work was completely ignored by his
contemporaries.[13] [14]
FitzGerald (1889) offered another explanation of the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. Contrary
to Voigt, he speculated that the intermolecular forces are possibly of electrical origin so that also material bodies
would contract in the line of motion (length contraction). This was in connection with the work of Heaviside (1887),
who determined that the electrostatic fields were contracted in the line of motion (Heaviside Ellipsoid), which leads
to physically undetermined conditions at the speed of light.[15] However, Fitzgerald's idea remained widely unknown
and was not discussed before Oliver Lodge published a summary of the idea in 1892.[16] Also Lorentz (1892b)
proposed length contraction independently from Fitzgerald in order to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment.
For plausibility reasons, Lorentz referred to the analogy of the contraction of electrostatic fields. However, even
Lorentz admitted that that was not a necessary reason and length-contraction consequently remained as a purely
History of special relativity 39

ad-hoc hypothesis.[17] [18]

Lorentz's theory of electrons

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz

Lorentz (1892a) set the foundations of Lorentz aether theory, by assuming the existence of electrons which he
separated from the aether, and by replacing the "Maxwell-Hertz" Equations by the "Maxwell-Lorentz" Equations. In
his model, the aether is completely motionless and, contrary to Fresnel's theory, also is not partially dragged by
matter. An important consequence of this notion was that the velocity of light is totally independent of the velocity
of the source. Lorentz gave no statements about the mechanical nature of the aether and the electromagnetic
processes, but, vice-versa, tried to explain the mechanical processes by electromagnetic ones and therefore created an
abstract electromagnetic æther. In the framework of his theory, Lorentz calculated, like Heaviside, the contraction of
the electrostatic fields.[19] Lorentz (1895) also introduced what he called the "Theorem of Corresponding States" for
terms of first order in . This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the aether) in his "fictitious" field
makes the same observations as a resting observers in his "real" field. An important part of it was local time
, which paved the way to the Lorentz Transformation and which he introduced independently of Voigt.
With the help of this concept, Lorentz could explain the aberration of light, the Doppler Effect and the Fizeau
experiment as well. However, Lorentz's local time was only an auxiliary mathematical tool to simplify the
transformation from one system into another – it was Poincaré in 1900 who recognized that "local time" is actually
indicated by moving watches.[20] [21] [22] Lorentz also recognized the fact that his theory violated the principle of
action and reaction, since the aether acts on matter, but matter cannot act on the immobile aether.[23]
A very similar model was created by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900). Larmor was the first to put Lorentz's
1895-transformation into a form algebraically equivalent to the modern Lorentz transformations, however, he stated
that his transformations preserved the form of Maxwell's equations only to second order of . Lorentz later noted
that these transformations did in fact preserve the form of Maxwell's equations to all orders of . Larmor noticed
on that occasion, that not only can length-contraction be derived from it, but he also calculated some sort of Time
Dilation for electron orbits. Larmor specified his considerations in 1900.[14] [24] Independently of Larmor, also
Lorentz (1899) extended his transformation for second order terms and noted a (mathematical) Time Dilation effect
as well.
However, besides Lorentz and Larmor also other physicists tried to develop a consistent model of electrodynamics.
For example, Emil Cohn (1900, 1901) created an alternative Electrodynamics in which he, as one of the first,
History of special relativity 40

discarded the existence of the aether (at least in the previous form) and would use, like Ernst Mach, the fixed stars as
a reference frame instead. Due to internal failures (like different light speeds in different directions) his theory was
superseded by Lorentz's and Einstein's.[25]

Electromagnetic mass
During his development of Maxwell's Theory, J. J. Thomson (1881) recognized that charged bodies are harder to set
in motion than uncharged bodies. He also noticed that the mass of a body in motion is increased by a constant
quantity. Electrostatic fields behave as if they add an "electromagnetic mass" to the mechanical mass of the bodies.
I.e., according to Thomson, electromagnetic energy corresponds to a certain mass. This was interpreted as some form
of self-inductance of the electromagnetic field.[26] [3] Thomson's work was continued and perfected by FitzGerald,
Heaviside (1888), and George Frederick Charles Searle (1896, 1897). For the electromagnetic mass they gave — in
modern notation — the formula , where is the electromagnetic mass and is the electromagnetic
energy. Heaviside and Searle also recognized that the increase of the mass of a body is not constant and varies with
its velocity. Consequently, Searle noted the impossibility of superluminal velocities, because infinite energy would
be needed to exceed the speed of light. Also for Lorentz (1899), the integration of the speed-dependence of masses
recognized by Thomson was especially important. He noticed that the mass not only varied due to speed, but is also
dependent on the direction, and he introduced what Abraham later called "longitudinal" and "transverse" mass. (The
transversal mass corresponds to what later was called Relativistic Mass).[27]
Wilhelm Wien (1900) assumed (following the works of Thomson, Heaviside, and Searle) that the entire mass is of
electromagnetic origin and the formula for the mass-energy-relationship is . This was formulated in the
context that all forces of nature are electromagnetic ones (the Electromagnetic World View). Wien stated that, if it is
assumed that gravitation is an electromagnetic effect too, then there has to be a proportionality between
electromagnetic energy, inertial mass and gravitational mass.[28] In the same paper Henri Poincaré (1900b) found
another way of combining the concepts of mass and energy. He recognized that electromagnetic energy behaves like
a fictitious fluid with mass density of (or ) and defined a fictitious electromagnetic momentum as
well. However, he arrived at a radiation paradox which was fully explained by Einstein in 1905.[29]
Walter Kaufmann (1901-1903) was the first to confirm the velocity dependence of electromagnetic mass by
analyzing the ratio (where is the charge and the mass) of cathode rays. He found that the value of
decreased with the speed, showing that, assuming the charge constant, the mass of the electron increased with the
speed. He also believed that those experiments confirmed the assumption of Wien, that there is no "real" mechanical
mass, but only the "apparent" electromagnetic mass, or in other words, the mass of all bodies is of electromagnetic
origin.[30]
Max Abraham (1902 - 1904), who was a supporter of the electromagnetic world view, quickly offered an
explanation for Kaufmann's experiments by deriving expressions for the electromagnetic mass. Together with this
concept, Abraham introduced (like Poincaré in 1900) the notion of "Electromagnetic Momentum" which is
proportional to . But unlike Poincaré, he considered it as a real physical entity. Abraham also noted (like
Lorentz in 1899) that this mass also depends on the direction and coined the names "Longitudinal" and "Transverse"
Mass. In contrast to Lorentz, he didn't incorporated the Contraction Hypothesis into his theory, and therefore his
mass terms differed from those of Lorentz. [31]
Based on the preceding work on electromagnetic mass, Friedrich Hasenöhrl suggested that part of the mass of a body
(which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The apparent mass of
radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy,
and he first concluded that . Hasenöhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass relation only holds as
long a body radiates, i.e., if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K. However, Abraham and Hasenöhrl himself
in 1905 changed the result to , the same value as for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest.[32]
History of special relativity 41

Absolute space and time

Some scientists started to criticize Newton's definitions of absolute space and time.[33] [34] [35] For example, Carl
Neumann (1870) introduced a "Body alpha", which represents some sort of rigid and fixed body for defining inertial
motion. Ernst Mach (1883) argued that absolute time and space are meaningless and only relative motion is a useful
concept. He also said that even accelerated motion such as rotation could be related to the fixed stars without using
Newton's absolute space. Based on the definition of Neumann, Heinrich Streintz (1883) argued that if gyroscopes
don't measure any signs of rotation, then one can speak of inertial motion which is related to a "Fundamental body"
and a "Fundamental Coordinate System". Eventually, Ludwig Lange (1885) was the first to coin the expression
inertial frame of reference and inertial time scale as operational replacements for absolute space and time, by
defining "a reference frame in which a mass point thrown from the same point in three different (non co-planar)
directions follows rectilinear paths each time it is thrown is called a inertial frame". And in 1902, Henri Poincaré
published the philosophical and popular-science book "Science and Hypothesis", which included: philosophical
assessments on the relativity of space, time, and simultaneity; the opinion that a violation of the Relativity Principle
can never be detected; the possible non-existence of the aether but also some arguments supporting the aether; many
remarks on non-Euclidean geometry.
There were also some attempts to use time as a Fourth Dimension.[36] [37] This was done as early as 1754 by Jean le
Rond d'Alembert in the Encyclopédie, as it was done by some authors in the 19th century like H. G. Wells in his
novel The Time Machine (1895). And in 1901 a philosophical model was published by Menyhért Palágyi, in which
space and time were only two sides of some sort of "spacetime".[38] He used time as an imaginary fourth dimension,
which he gave the form (where , i.e. imaginary number). However, Palagyi's time coordinate is not
connected to the speed of light like it is in Lorentz's theory. He also rejected any connection with the existing
constructions of n-dimensional spaces and non-Euclidean geometry and consequently rejected the spacetime
formalism of Einstein and Minkowski, so physicists like Max Born argued that his model bears only little
resemblance with relativity.[39]

Light constancy and the Principle of relative motion

In the second half of the 19th century there were many attempts to
develop a worldwide clock network synchronized by electrical signals.
On that occasion, the finite propagation speed of light had to be
considered as well. So Henri Poincaré (1898) in his paper The Measure
of Time drew some important consequences of this process and
explained that astronomers, in determining the speed of light, simply
assume that light has a constant speed, and that this speed is the same
in all directions. Without this postulate it would be impossible to infer
the speed of light from astronomical observations, as Ole Rømer did
based on observations of the moons of Jupiter. Poincaré also noted that
the propagation speed of light can be (and in practice often is) used to
define simultaneity between spatially separate events. He concluded by
saying, that "The simultaneity of two events, or the order of their
succession, the equality of two durations, are to be so defined that the
enunciation of the natural laws may be as simple as possible. In other
Henri Poincaré
words, all these rules, all these definitions are only the fruit of an
unconscious opportunism."[40]

In some other papers, Poincaré (1895, 1900a) argued that experiments like that of Michelson-Morley show the
impossibility of detecting the absolute motion of matter or the relative motion of matter in relation to the aether. He
History of special relativity 42

called this the "principle of relative motion."[41] In the same year he interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of a
synchronization procedure based on light signals. He assumed that 2 observers A and B, which are moving in the
aether, synchronize their clocks by optical signals. Since they believe themselves to be at rest, they must consider
only the transmission time of the signals and then cross-reference their observations to examine whether their clocks
are synchronous. However, from the point of view of an observer at rest in the aether, the clocks are not synchronous
and indicate the local time . But because the moving observers do not know anything about their movement, they do
not recognize this. So, contrary to Lorentz, Poincaré-defined local time can be measured and indicated by clocks.[42]
Therefore, in his recommendation of Lorentz for the Nobel Prize in 1902, Poincaré argued that Lorentz has
convincingly explained the negative outcome of the aether drift experiments by inventing the "diminished time", i.e.
that two events at different place could appear as simultaneous, although they are not simultaneous in reality.[43]
Like Poincaré, Alfred Bucherer (1903) believed in the validity of the relativity principle within the domain of
electrodynamics, but contrary to Poincaré, Bucherer even assumed that this implies the nonexistence of the aether.
However, the theory that was created by him later in 1906 was incorrect and not self-consistent, and the Lorentz
transformation was absent within his theory as well.[44]

Lorentz's 1904 model

In his paper Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light, Lorentz
(1904) was following the suggestion of Poincaré and attempted to create a formulation of Electrodynamics, which
explains the failure of all known aether drift experiments, i.e. the relativity principle. He tried to prove the validity of
the Lorentz transformation for all orders, although he didn't succeed completely. Like Wien and Abraham, he argued
that there exists only electromagnetic mass, not mechanical mass, and derived the correct expression for longitudinal
and transverse mass, which were in agreement with Kaufmann's experiments. However, those experiments were not
precise enough to distinguish between the theories of Lorentz and Abraham. And using the electromagnetic
momentum, he could explain the negative result of the Trouton-Noble experiment, in which a charged parallel-plate
capacitor moving through the aether should orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Another important step was the
postulate that the Lorentz Transformation has to be valid for non-electrical forces as well.[45]
At the same time, when Lorentz worked out his theory, Wien (1903) recognized an important consequence of the
velocity dependence of mass. He argued that superluminal velocities were impossible, because that would require an
infinite amount of energy — the same was already noted by Thomson (1893) and Searle (1897). And in June 1904,
after he had read Lorentz's 1904 paper, he noticed the same in relation to length contraction, because at superluminal
velocities the factor becomes imaginary.[46]
Lorentz's theory was criticized by Abraham, who demonstrated that on one side the theory obeys the relativity
principle, and on the other side the electromagnetic origin of all forces is assumed. Abraham showed, that both
assumptions were incompatible, because in Lorentz's theory of the contracted electrons, non-electric forces were
needed in order to guarantee the stability of matter. However, in Abraham's theory of the rigid electron, no such
forces were needed. Thus the question arose whether the Electromagnetic conception of the world (compatible with
Abraham's theory) or the Relativity Principle (compatible with Lorentz's Theory) was correct.[47]
In a September 1904 lecture in St. Louis named The Principles of Mathematical Physics, Poincaré draw some
consequences from Lorentz's theory and defined (in modification of Galileo's Relativity Principle and Lorentz's
Theorem of Corresponding States) the following principle: "The Principle of Relativity, according to which the laws
of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of
translation, so that we have no means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along
in such a motion." He also specified his clock synchronization method and explained the possibility of a "new
method" or "new mechanics", in which no velocity can surpass that of light for all observers. However, he critically
noted that the Relativity Principle, Newton's action and reaction, the Conservation of Mass and the Conservation of
Energy are not fully established and are even threatened by some experiments.[48]
History of special relativity 43

Also Emil Cohn (1904) continued to develop his alternative model (as described above), and while comparing his
theory with that of Lorentz, he discovered some important physical interpretations of the Lorentz transformations.
He illustrated (like Joseph Larmor in the same year) this transformation by using rods and clocks: If they are at rest
in the aether, they indicate the true length and time, and if they are moving, they indicate contracted and dilated
values. Like Poincaré, Cohn defined local time as the time, which is based on the assumption of isotropic
propagation of light. Contrary to Lorentz and Poincaré it was noticed by Cohn, that within Lorentz's theory the
separation of "real" and "apparent" coordinates is artificial, because no experiment can distinguish between them.
Yet according to Cohn's own theory, the Lorentz transformed quantities would only be valid for optical phenomena,
while mechanical clocks would indicate the "real" time.[25]

Poincaré's Dynamics of the electron

On 5 June 1905, Henri Poincaré submitted the summary of a work which closed the existing gaps of Lorentz's work.
(This short paper contained the results of a more complete work which was published in January 1906). He showed
that Lorentz's equations of electrodynamics were not fully Lorentz-covariant. So he pointed out the group
characteristics of the transformation, and he corrected Lorentz's formulas for the transformations of charge density
and current density (which implicitly contained the relativistic velocity-addition formula, which he elaborated in
May in a letter to Lorentz). Poincaré used for the first time the term "Lorentz transformation", and he gave them the
symmetrical form which is used to this day. He introduced a non-electrical binding force (the so called "Poincaré
stresses") to ensure the stability of the electrons and to explain length contraction. He also sketched a
Lorentz-invariant model of gravitation (including gravitational waves) by extending the validity of
Lorentz-invariance to non-electrical forces.[49] [50]
Eventually Poincaré (independently of Einstein) finished a substantially extended work of his June paper (the so
called „Palermo paper“, received 23 July, printed 14 December, published January 1906 ). He spoke literally of „the
postulate of relativity“. He showed that the transformations are a consequence of the Principle of Least Action and
developed the properties of the Poincaré stresses. He demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the
transformation, which he called the Lorentz group, and he showed that the combination is invariant.
While elaborating his gravitational theory, he said the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in
four-dimensional space about the origin, by introducing as a fourth imaginary coordinate (contrary to Palagyi,
he included the speed of light), and he used an early form of four-vectors. He wrote that the discovery of
magneto-cathode rays by Paul Ulrich Villard (1904) seems to threaten the entire theory of Lorentz, but this problem
was quickly solved.[51] However, although in his philosophical writings Poincaré rejected the ideas of absolute space
and time, in his physical papers he continued to refer to an (undetectable) aether. He also continued (1900b, 1904,
1906, 1908b) to describe coordinates and phenomena as local/apparent (for moving observers) and true/real (for
observers at rest in the aether).[22] [52] So with a few exceptions[53] [54] [55] most historians of science argue that
Poincaré did not invent what is now called special relativity, although it is admitted that Poincaré anticipated much
of Einstein's methods and terminology.[56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61]
History of special relativity 44

Special relativity

Einstein 1905

Electrodynamics of moving bodies

In September 26, 1905 (received 30 June), Albert Einstein published

his annus mirabilis paper on what is now called Special Relativity.
Einstein's paper includes a fundamental new definition of space and
time (all time and space coordinates in all reference frames are equal,
so there is no "true" or "apparent" time) and the abolition of the aether.
He identified two fundamental principles, the Principle of Relativity
and the Principle of the Constancy of Light, which served as the
axiomatic basis of his theory. To better understand Einstein's step, a
summary of the situation before 1905, as it was described above, shall
be given[62] (it must be remarked that Einstein was familiar with the
1895 theory of Lorentz, and "Science and Hypothesis" by Poincaré, but
not their papers of 1904-1905):

a) Maxwell's electrodynamics, in the way as it was presented by

Lorentz in 1895, was the most successful theory at this time. Here, the
Albert Einstein, 1921
speed of light is constant in all directions in the stationary aether, and
completely independent of the velocity of the source; b) The inability
to find an absolute state of motion, which was the consequence of the negative results of all aether drift experiments,
as well as the fact that effects like the moving magnet and conductor problem only depend on relative motion; c) The
Fizeau experiment; d) The aberration of light. This had the following consequences for the speed of light and the
theories known at that time:

1. The speed of light is not composed by the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of a preferred frame of
reference, by b. This contradicts the theory of the (nearly) stationary aether.
2. The speed of light is not composed by the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of the light source, by a and
c. This contradicts the emission theory.
3. The speed of light is not composed by the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of an aether that would be
dragged within or in the vicinity of matter, by a, c, and d. This contradicts the hypothesis of the complete aether
drag.
4. The speed of light in moving media is not composed by the speed of light when the medium is at rest, and the
velocity of the medium, but is determined by Fresnel's dragging coefficient, by c.[63]
To make the preceding theories tenable, the introduction of Ad hoc hypotheses would be required. Yet in science the
assumption of a conspiracy of effects which prevent the discovery of other effects is considered to be very
improbable, and it would violate Occam's razor as well.[64] So Einstein refused to invent auxiliary hypotheses, and
draw the direct conclusions from the facts stated above: That the relativity principle is correct and the speed of light
is constant in all inertial reference frames. Because of his axiomatic method, Einstein was able to derive all results of
his predecessors – and in addition the formulas for the Relativistic Doppler effect and Relativistic aberration – on a
few pages, while his predecessors needed years of long, complicated work to arrive at the same mathematical
formalism. Lorentz and Poincaré had also adopted these same principles, as necessary to achieve their final results,
but didn't recognize that they were also sufficient, and hence that they obviated all the other assumptions (especially
the stationary aether) underlying Lorentz's initial derivations.[60] [65] Another reason for Einstein's rejection of the
aether was probably his work on quantum physics. Einstein found out that light can also be described as a particle, so
the aether as the medium for electromagnetic "waves" (which was highly important for Lorentz and Poincaré) had no
History of special relativity 45

place in his theoretical concepts anymore.[66]

It's notable that Einstein's paper contains no direct references to other papers. However, many historians of science
like Holton,[64] Miller,[57] Stachel,[67] have tried to find out possible influences on Einstein. Einstein himself stated
that his thinking was influenced by the empiricist philosophers David Hume and Ernst Mach. Regarding the
Relativity Principle, the moving magnet and conductor problem (possibly after reading a book of August Föppl) and
the various negative aether drift experiments were important for him to accept that principle — but he denied any
significant influence of the most important experiment: the Michelson-Morley experiment.[67] Other possible sources
are Poincaré's Science and Hypothesis, where he described the Principle of Relativity and which was read by
Einstein in 1904,[68] and the writings of Max Abraham, from whom he borrowed the terms "Maxwell-Hertz
equations" and "longitudinal and transverse mass".[69]
Regarding his views on Electrodynamics and the Principle of the Constancy of Light, Einstein himself stated that
Lorentz's theory of 1895 (or the Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics) and also the Fizeau experiment had considerable
influence on his thinking. He said in 1909 and 1912 that he borrowed that principle from Lorentz's stationary aether
(which implies validity of Maxwell's equations and the constancy of light in the aether frame), but he recognized that
this principle together with the principle of relativity makes the aether useless.[70] As he wrote in 1907 and in later
papers, the apparent contradiction between those principles can be solved if it is realized that Lorentz's local time is
not an auxiliary quantity, but can simply be defined as time and is connected with signal velocity. Before Einstein,
also Poincaré developed a similar physical interpretation of local time and noticed the connection to signal velocity,
but contrary to Einstein he continued to argue that clocks in the aether show the true time, and moving clocks show
the apparent time. Eventually, in 1953 Einstein described the advances of his theory (although Poincaré already
stated in 1905 that Lorentz invariance is a general condition for any physical theory):[70]

“
There is no doubt, that the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905. Lorentz had
already recognized that the transformations named after him are essential for the analysis of Maxwell's equations, and Poincaré deepened this
insight still further. Concerning myself, I knew only Lorentz's important work of 1895 [...] but not Lorentz's later work, nor the consecutive
investigations by Poincaré. In this sense my work of 1905 was independent. [..] The new feature of it was the realization of the fact that the
bearing of the Lorentz transformation transcended its connection with Maxwell's equations and was concerned with the nature of space and
time in general. A further new result was that the "Lorentz invariance" is a general condition for any physical theory. This was for me of
particular importance because I had already previously found that Maxwell's theory did not account for the micro-structure of radiation and
could therefore have no general validity. ”
Mass-energy equivalence
Already in §10 of his paper on electrodynamics, Einstein used the formula

for the kinetic energy of an electron. In elaboration of this he published a paper (received 27 September, November
1905), in which Einstein showed that when a material body lost energy (either radiation or heat) of amount E, its
mass decreased by the amount E/c2. This led to the famous mass–energy equivalence formula: E = mc2. Einstein
considered the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle
possesses an energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies.[29] As it was shown
above, many authors before Einstein arrived at similar formulas (including a 4/3-factor) for the relation of mass to
energy. However, their work was focused on electromagnetic energy which (as we know today) only represents a
small part of the entire energy within matter. So it was Einstein who was the first a) to ascribe this relation to all
forms of energy, and b) to understand the connection of Mass-energy equivalence with the relativity principle.
History of special relativity 46

Early reception

First assessments
Walter Kaufmann (1905, 1906) was probably the first who referred to Einstein's work. He compared the theories of
Lorentz and Einstein, and, although he said Einstein's method is to be preferred, he argued that both theories are
observationally equivalent. Therefore, he spoke of the relativity principle as the "Lorentz-Einsteinian" basic
assumption. The name "Lorentz-Einstein-Theory" was used by others for some years as well.[71] Shortly afterwards,
Max Planck (1906a) was the first who publicly defended the theory, and who interested his students Max von Laue
and Kurd von Mosengeil for this theory. He described Einstein's theory as a "generalization" of Lorentz's theory, and
to this "Lorentz-Einstein-Theory" he gave the name "relative theory", while Alfred Bucherer changed Planck's
notation into the now common "theory of relativity". On the other hand, Einstein himself and many others continued
to simply refer to the new method as the "relativity principle". And in an important overview article on the relativity
principle (1908a), Einstein described SR as a "union of Lorentz's theory and the relativity principle", including the
fundamental assumption that Lorentz's local time can be described as real time. (Yet, Poincaré's contributions were
rarely mentioned in the first years after 1905.) All of those expressions (Lorentz-Einstein theory, relativity principle,
relativity theory) were used by different physicists alternately in the next years.[72]

Kaufmann-Bucherer experiments
Kaufmann (1905, 1906) announced the results of his new experiments on the charge to mass ratio, i.e. the velocity
dependence of mass. They represented, in his opinion, a clear refutation of the relativity principle and the
Lorentz-Einstein-Theory, and a confirmation of Abraham's theory. For some years, Kaufmann's experiments
represented a weighty objection against the relativity principle, although it was criticized by Planck and Adolf
Bestelmeyer (1906). Following Kaufmann, other physicists like Alfred Bucherer (1908), and Günther Neumann
(1914) also examined the velocity-dependence of mass, and this time it was thought that the "Lorentz-Einstein
theory" and the relativity principle is confirmed, and Abraham's theory is disproved. However, it was later pointed
out that the Kaufmann-Bucherer-Neumann experiments only showed a qualitative mass increase of moving electron,
but they were not precise enough to distinguish between the models of Lorentz-Einstein and Abraham. So it lasted
until 1940, when experiments of this kind were repeated with sufficient accuracy for confirming the Lorentz-Einstein
formula.[71] However, this problem occurred only for this kind of experiments. The investigations of the fine
structure of the hydrogen lines already in 1917 provided a clear confirmation of the Lorentz-Einstein formula, and
the refutation of Abraham's theory.[73]
History of special relativity 47

Relativistic momentum and mass

Planck (1906a) defined the relativistic momentum and gave the correct
values for the longitudinal and transverse mass by correcting a slight
mistake of the expression given by Einstein in 1905. Planck's
expressions were in principle equivalent to those used by Lorentz in
1899.[74] Based on the work of Planck, the concept of relativistic mass
was developed by Gilbert Newton Lewis and Richard C. Tolman
(1908, 1909) by defining mass as the ratio of momentum to velocity.
So the older definition of longitudinal and transverse mass, in which
mass was defined as the ratio of force to acceleration, became
superfluous. Finally, Tolman (1912) interpreted relativistic mass
simply as the mass of the body.[75] However, many modern textbooks
on relativity don't use the concept of relativistic mass anymore, and
mass is considered as an invariant quantity.

Mass and energy

Einstein (1906) showed that the inertia of energy

Max Planck (mass-energy-equivalence) is a necessary and sufficient condition for
the conservation of the center of mass theorem. On that occasion, he
noted that the formal mathematical content of Poincaré paper on the center of mass(1900b) and his own paper were
mainly the same, although the physical interpretation was different in light of relativity.[29]
Kurd von Mosengeil (1906) by extending Hasenöhrl's calculation of black-body-radiation in a cavity, derived the
same expression for the additional mass of a body due to electromagnetic radiation as Hasenöhrl. Hasenöhrl's idea
was that the mass of bodies included a contribution from the electromagnetic field, he imagined a body as a cavity
containing light. His relationship between mass and energy, like all other pre-Einstein ones, contained incorrect
numerical prefactors (see Electromagnetic mass). Eventually Planck (1907) derived the mass-energy-equivalence in
general within the framework of special relativity, including the binding forces within matter. He acknowledged the
priority of Einstein's 1905 work on , but Planck judged his own approach as more general than
Einstein's.[76]

Experiments by Fizeau and Sagnac

As it was explained above, already in 1895 Lorentz succeeded in deriving Fresnel's dragging coefficient (to first
order of v/c) and the Fizeau experiment by using the electromagnetic theory and the concept of local time. After first
attempts by Jakob Laub (1907) to create a relativistic "optics of moving bodies", it was Max von Laue (1907) who
derived the coefficient for terms of all orders by using the colinear case of the relativistic velocity addition law. In
addition, Laue's calculation was much simpler than the complicated methods used by Lorentz.[23]
In 1911 Laue also discussed a situation where on a platform a beam of light is split and the two beams are made to
follow a trajectory in opposite directions. On return to the point of entry the light is allowed to exit the platform in
such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. Laue calculated a displacement of the interference pattern if the
platform is in rotation – because the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source, so one beam has
covered less distance than the other beam. A experiment of this kind was performed by Georges Sagnac in 1913,
who actually measured a displacement of the interference pattern (Sagnac effect). While Sagnac himself concluded
that his theory confirmed the theory of an aether at rest, Laue's earlier calculation showed that it is compatible with
special relativity as well because in both theories the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source. This
effect can be understood as the electromagnetic counterpart of the mechanics of rotation, for example in analogy to a
Foucault pendulum[77] [Already in 1909–11, Franz Harress (1912) performed an experiment which can be
History of special relativity 48

considered as a synthesis of the experiments of Fizeau and Sagnac. He tried to measure the dragging coefficient
within glass. Contrary to Fizeau he used a rotating device so he found the same effect as Sagnac. While Harress
himself misunderstood the meaning of the result, it was shown by Laue that the theoretical explanation of Harress'
experiment is in accordance with the Sagnac effect.[78] ] Eventually, the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment
(1925, a variation of the Sagnac experiment) indicated the angular velocity of the Earth itself in accordance with
special relativity and a resting aether.

Relativity of simultaneity
The first derivations of relativity of simultaneity by synchronization with light signals were also simplified.[79]
Daniel Frost Comstock (1910) placed an observer in the middle between two clocks A and B. From this observer a
signal is sent to both clocks, and in the frame in which A and B are at rest, they synchronously start to run. But from
the perspective of a system in which A and B are moving, clock B is first set in motion, and then comes clock A – so
the clocks are not synchronized. Also Einstein (1917) created a model with an observer in the middle between A and
B. However, in his description two signals are sent from A and B to the observer. From the perspective of the frame,
in which A and B are at rest the signals are sent at the same time and the observer "is hastening towards the beam of
light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming from A. Hence the observer will see the
beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as
their reference-body must therefore come to the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earlier than the
lightning flash A."

Emission theories of light

Walter Ritz (1908) and others sketched an emission theory, according to which the speed of light in all reference
frames is only constant relative to the source of emission (and not to an aether), whereby he used the
Galilei-Transformation instead of the Lorentz-Transformation (i.e., in systems where the source is moving at ± v, the
light propagates with the velocity equal to c ± v). Also, Einstein briefly considered such a hypothesis before 1905.
So this theory obeys the relativity principle and although it violates the constancy of light, it explains the
Michelson-Morley-experiment. So the experiment cannot be considered as a direct proof of the constancy of the
speed of light in all reference frames.[80] However, the solution provided by special relativity is preferred over an
emission theory, for such a theory would require a complete reformulation of electrodynamics, which is not
supported by the success of Maxwell's theory. And finally the emission theory is considered to be disproved by
Willem de Sitter (1913), who showed that, for the case of a double-star system seen edge-on, light from the
approaching star might be expected to travel faster than light from its receding companion and overtake it. If the
distance was great enough for an approaching star's "fast" signal to catch up with and overtake the "slow" light that it
had emitted earlier when it was receding, then the image of the star system should appear completely scrambled.[81]
However, due to extinction that argument is invalid for optical wavelengths, but it was shown by Brecher (1977) that
even at X-ray wavelengths, the velocity of light is independent of the velocity of the stars. Other effects that rule out
the theory are the Sagnac effect and the experiments by Alväger, et al. (1964), who measured the velocity of γ-rays
after the decay of π0-mesons – the result show that the velocity of light is independent of the source.
History of special relativity 49

Spacetime physics

Minkowski's spacetime

Poincaré's attempt of a four-dimensional reformulation of the new

mechanics was not continued by himself, because in his opinion that
would entail too much effort.[51] So it was Hermann Minkowski
(1907), who worked out the consequences of that notion. That was
based on the work of many mathematicians of the 19th century like
Arthur Cayley, Felix Klein, or William Kingdon Clifford, who
contributed to Group theory, Invariant theory and Projective
geometry.[82] Using similar methods, Minkowski succeeded in
formulating a geometrical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation.
He completed, for example, the concept of four vectors; he created the
Minkowski diagram for the depiction of space-time; he was the first to
use expressions like world line, proper time, Lorentz
invariance/covariance, etc.; and most notably he presented a
four-dimensional formulation of electrodynamics. Similar to Poincaré
he tried to formulate a Lorentz-invariant law of gravity, but that work
Hermann Minkowski
was superseded by Einstein's elaborations on gravitation.

In 1907 Minkowski named four predecessors who contributed to the formulation of the relativity principle: Lorentz,
Einstein, Poincaré and Planck. And in his famous lecture Space and Time (1908) he mentioned Voigt, Lorentz and
Einstein. Minkowski himself considered Einstein's theory as a generalization of Lorentz's and credited Einstein for
completely stating the relativity of time, but he criticized his predecessors for not fully developing the relativity of
space. However, modern historians of science argue that Minkowski's claim for priority was unjustified. That is
because Minkowski (like Wien or Abraham) adhered to the electromagnetic world-picture and apparently didn't fully
understand the difference between Lorentz's electron theory and Einstein's kinematics.[83] [84] In 1908, Einstein and
Laub rejected the four-dimensional electrodynamics of Minkowski as too complicated and published a "more
elementary", non-four-dimensional derivation of the basic-equations for moving bodies. But it was Minkowski's
formalism which a) showed that special relativity is a complete and consistent theory, and b) served as a basis for
further development of relativity.[85] Eventually, Einstein (1912) agreed on the importance of Minkowski's spacetime
formalism and used it for his work on the foundations of general relativity.

Today special relativity is seen as an application of linear algebra, but at the time special relativity was being
developed the field of linear algebra was still in its infancy. There were no textbooks on linear algebra as modern
vector space and transformation theory, and the matrix notation of Arthur Cayley (that unifies the subject) had not
yet come into widespread use. In retrospect, we can see that the Lorentz transformations are simply hyperbolic
rotations, as explicitly noted by Minkowski.

Vector notation and closed systems

Minkowski's space-time formalism was extended and therefore was quickly accepted.[84] For example, Arnold
Sommerfeld (1910) replaced Minkowski's matrix notation by an elegant vector notation and coined the terms "four
vector" and "six vector". He also introduced a trigonometric formulation of the relativistic velocity addition rule,
which according to Sommerfeld, removes much of the strangeness of that concept. Other important contributions
were made by Laue (1911, 1913), who used the spacetime formalism to create a relativistic theory of deformable
bodies and elementary particle theory.[86] [87] He extended Minkowski's expressions for electromagnetic processes to
all possible forces and thereby clarified the concept of mass-energy-equivalence. Laue also showed that
non-electrical forces are needed for ensure the proper Lorentz transformation properties and for the stability of
History of special relativity 50

matter – he could show that the "Poincaré stresses" are a natural consequence of relativity theory so that the electron
be a closed system.

Lorentz transformation without second postulate

There were some attempts to derive the Lorentz transformation without the postulate of the constancy of the speed of
light. Vladimir Ignatowski (1910) for example used for this purpose a) the principle of relativity, b) and homogeneity
and isotropy of space c) the requirement of reciprocity. Philipp Frank and Hermann Rothe (1911) argued that this
derivation is incomplete and needs additional assumptions. Their own calculation was based on the assumptions that
a) the Lorentz transformation forms a homogeneous linear group, b) when changing frames, only the sign of the
relative speed changes, c) length contraction solely depends on the relative speed. However, according to Pauli and
Miller such models were insufficient to identify the invariant speed in their transformation with the speed of light —
for example, Ignatowski was forced to recourse to electrodynamics to include the speed of light. So Pauli and others
argued that both postulates are needed to derive the Lorentz transformation.[88] [89] However, until today, others
continued the attempts to derive special relativity without the light postulate.

Non-euclidean formulations without imaginary time coordinate

It was noted by Minkowski (1907) that his space-time formalism represents a "four-dimensional non-euclidean
manifold", but in order to emphasize the formal similarity to the more familiar Euclidean geometry, Minkowski
noted that the time coordinate could be treated as imaginary. This was just a way of representing a non-Euclidean
metric while emphasizing the formal similarity to a Euclidean metric. However, many subsequent writers have
dispensed with the imaginary time coordinate, and simply written the metric in explicitly non-Euclidean form (i.e.,
with a negative signature), since it makes no difference to the content or results of the equations. It merely affects
(slightly) their appearance. Sommerfeld (1910) gave a trigonometric formulation of velocities, and Vladimir Varićak
(1912) emphasized the similarity of this formulation to (Bolyai-Lobachevskian) hyperbolic geometry and tried to
reformulate relativity using that non-euclidean geometry. Alfred Robb (1911) introduced the concept of Rapidity as
a hyperbolic angle to characterize frame velocity. Edwin Bidwell Wilson and Gilbert N. Lewis (1912) introduced a
vector notation for spacetime. Émile Borel (1913) derived the kinematic basis of Thomas precession.[90] Different
authors have used the phrase hyperbolic plane to refer both to (Bolyai-Lobachevskian) hyperbolic geometry and
Minkowski geometry but these are two different geometries. Space-time is described by Minkowski space, but the
velocity space is described by hyperbolic geometry. In particular the hyperboloid model was identified with
velocities by Minkowski (1908). Today one still finds texts on special relativity that make use of an imaginary time
coordinate, but most have adopted real-valued coordinates and a metric with negative signature. (The implications of
the two different formalisms in the context of general relativity - as in the recent work of Hawking - are beyond the
scope of this article.)

Time dilation and twin paradox

Einstein (1907a) proposed a method for detecting the Transverse Doppler effect as a direct consequence of time
dilation. And in fact, that effect was measured in 1938 by Herbert E. Ives and G. R. Stilwell (Ives–Stilwell
experiment).[91] And Lewis and Tolman (1909) described the reciprocity of time dilation by using two light clocks A
and B, traveling with a certain relative velocity to each other. The clocks consist of two plane mirrors parallel to one
another and to the line of motion. Between the mirrors a light signal is bouncing, and for the observer resting in the
same reference frame as A, the period of clock A is the distance between the mirrors divided by the speed of light.
But if the observer looks at clock B, he sees that within that clock the signal traces out a longer, angled path, thus
clock B is slower than A. However, for the observer moving alongside with B the situation is completely in reverse:
Clock B is faster and A is slower. Also Lorentz (1910–1912) discussed the reciprocity of time dilation and analyzed
a clock "paradox", which apparently occurs as a consequence of the reciprocity of time dilation. Lorentz showed that
there is no paradox if one considers that in one system only one clock is used, while in the other system two clocks
History of special relativity 51

are necessary. So the relativity of simultaneity has to be considered as well.

A similar situation was created by Paul Langevin in 1911 with what
was later called the "twin paradox", where he replaced the clocks by
persons (Langevin never used the word "twins" but his description
contained all other features of the paradox). Langevin solved the
paradox by alluding to the fact that one twin accelerates and changes
direction, so Langevin could show that the symmetry is broken and the
accelerated twin is younger. However, Langevin himself interpreted
this as a hint to the existence of an aether. Although Langevin's
explanation is used in principle until today, his deductions regarding
the aether were not accepted. Laue (1913) pointed out that the
acceleration can be made arbitrarily small in relation to the inertial
motion of the twin. So it is much more important that one twin travels
within two inertial frames during his journey, while the other twin
remains in one frame. Laue was also the first to visualize the situation
using Minkowski diagrams – he demonstrated how the world lines of
inertially moving bodies maximize the proper time elapsed between
two events.[92]
Max von Laue

Acceleration

Einstein (1908) tried - preliminarily in the framework of special relativity - also to include accelerated motions
within the relativity principle. In the course of this attempt he recognized that for any single moment of acceleration
one can define an inertial reference frame, in which the accelerated body is temporarily at rest. It follows that in
accelerated frames defined in this way, the application of the constancy of the speed of light to define simultaneity is
restricted to small localities. However, the equivalence principle that was used by Einstein in the course of that
investigation, which expresses the equality of inertial and gravitational mass and the equivalence of accelerated
frames and homogeneous gravitational fields, transcended the limits of special relativity and resulted in the
formulation of general relativity.[93]

Nearly simultaneously with Einstein, also Minkowski (1908) considered the special case of uniform accelerations
within the framework of his space-time formalism. He recognized that the world-line of such an accelerated body
corresponds to an hyperbola. This notion was further developed by Born (1909) and Sommerfeld (1910) whereby
Born introduced the expression "hyperbolic motion". He noted that uniform acceleration can be used as an
approximation for any form of acceleration within special relativity. In addition, Harry Bateman and Ebenezer
Cunningham (1910) showed that Maxwell's equations are invariant under a much wider group of transformation then
the Lorentz-group, i.e., the so called "conformal transformations". Under those transformations the equations
preserve their form for some types of accelerated motions. A general covariant formulation of electrodynamics in
Minkowski space was eventually given by Friedrich Kottler (1912), whereby his formulation is also valid for general
relativity. Concerning the further development of the description of accelerated motion in special relativity, the
works by Langevin and others for rotating frames (Born coordinates), and by Wolfgang Rindler and others for
uniform accelerated frames (Rindler coordinates) must be mentioned.[94] [95]
History of special relativity 52

Rigid bodies and Ehrenfest paradox

Einstein (1907b) discussed the question of whether, in rigid bodies, as well as in all other cases, the velocity of
information can exceed the speed of light, and explained that information could be transmitted under these
circumstances into the past, and then causality would be violated. Since this contravenes radically against every
experience, superluminal velocities are thought impossible. He added that a dynamics of the rigid body must be
created in the framework of SR. Eventually, Max Born (1909) in the course of his above mention work concerning
accelerated motion, tried to include the concept of rigid bodies into SR. However, Paul Ehrenfest (1909) showed that
Born's concept lead the so called Ehrenfest paradox, according to which the circumference of a rotating disk is
shortened because of length contraction by a constant radius. This question was also considered by Gustav Herglotz,
Fritz Noether, and 1911 by Laue. It was recognize by Laue that the classic concept is not applicable in SR since a
"rigid" body possesses infinitely many Degrees of freedom.[96] In connection to the Ehrenfest paradox, it was also
discussed (by Vladimir Varićak and others) whether length contraction is "real" or "apparent", and whether there is a
difference between the dynamic contraction of Lorentz and the kinematic contraction of Einstein. However, it was
rather a dispute over words because, as Einstein and Wolfgang Pauli said, the kinematic length contraction is
"apparent" for an co-moving observer, but for an observer at rest it is "real" and the consequences are measurable.
While Born's definition was not applicable on rigid bodies, it was very useful in describing rigid motions of
bodies.[97]

Gravitation
The first attempt to formulate a relativistic theory of gravitation was undertaken by Poincaré (1905). He tried to
modify Newton's law of gravitation so that it assumes a Lorentz-covariant form. He noted that there were many
possibilities for a relativistic law, whereby he discussed two of them. It was shown be Poincaré that the argument of
Pierre-Simon Laplace, who argued that the speed of gravity is many times faster then the speed of light, is not valid
within an relativistic theory. That is, in a relativistic theory of gravitation, planetary orbit are stable even when the
speed of gravity is equal to that of light. Similar models as that of Poincaré were discussed by Minkowski (1907b)
and Sommerfeld (1910). However, it was shown by Abraham (1912) that those models belong to the class of "vector
theories" of gravitation. The fundamental defect of those theories is that they implicitly contain a negative value for
the gravitational energy in the vicinity of matter, which would violate the energy principle. As an alternative,
Abraham (1912) and Gustav Mie (1913) proposed different "scalar theories" of gravitation. While Mie never
formulated his theory in a consistent way, Abraham completely gave up the concept of Lorentz-covariance (even
locally), and therefore it was irreconcilable with relativity.
In addition, all of those models violated the equivalence principle, and Einstein argued that is impossible to
formulate a theory which is both Lorentz-covariant and satisfies the equivalence principle. However, Gunnar
Nordström (1912, 1913) was able to create a model which fulfills both conditions. This was achieved by making
both the gravitational and the inertial mass dependent on the gravitational potential. Nordström's theory of
gravitation was remarkable because it was shown by Einstein and Adriaan Fokker (1914), that in this model
gravitation can be completely described in terms of space-time curvature. Although Nordström's theory is without
contradiction, from Einstein's point of view a fundamental problem persisted: It doesn't fulfill the important
condition of general covariance, as in this theory preferred frames of referenced can still be formulated. So contrary
to those "scalar theories", Einstein (1911-1915) developed a "tensor theory" (i.e. general relativity), which fulfills
both the equivalence principle and general covariance. As a consequence, the notion of a complete "special
relativistic" theory of gravitation has to be given up, as in general relativity the constancy of light speed (and Lorentz
covariance) is only locally valid. The decision between those models was brought about by Einstein, when he was
able to exactly derive the Perihelion precession of Mercury, while the other theories gave erroneous results. In
addition, Einstein's theory was the only which gave the correct value for the deflection of light near the sun.[98] [99]
History of special relativity 53

Acceptance of special relativity

Eventually, around 1911 most mathematicians and theoretical physicists accepted the results of special relativity. For
example, already Planck (1909) compared the implications of the modern relativity principle — especially Einstein's
relativity of time — with the revolution by the Copernican system.[100] As a result, the fundamental difference
between the dynamical approach of Lorentz and the kinematical of Einstein was pointed out, and the term
"Lorentz-Einstein-Theory" wasn't used anymore. Only a few theoretical physicists like Lorentz, Poincaré, Abraham
or Langevin, still believed in the existence of an aether in any form.[101] Another important reason for accepting
special relativity was the extension of Minkowski's space-time formalism around 1910–1913[84] So in 1912 Wilhelm
Wien recommended both Lorentz and Einstein for the Nobel Prize in Physics – even though this prize was never
awarded for special relativity. After formulating GR, Einstein in 1915, for the first time, used the expression "special
theory of relativity" to distinguish between the theories.

Priority
Some claim that Poincaré (and Lorentz), not Einstein, are the true founders of special relativity. For more see the
article on relativity priority dispute.

Criticisms
Some criticized Special Relativity for various reasons, such as lack of empirical evidence, internal inconsistencies,
rejection of mathematical physics per se, philosophical reasons. Examples are: Max Abraham, Friedrich Adler,
Henri Bergson, Herbert Dingle, Harald Nordenson, Hugo Dingler, Louis Essen, Herbert E. Ives, Emanuel Lasker,
Hjalmar Mellin, Albert Abraham Michelson, Menyhért Palágyi, Walter Ritz, Georges Sagnac. Other reasons were
Antisemitism within the Deutsche Physik. Examples are: Ernst Gehrcke, Philipp Lenard, Johannes Stark, Bruno
Thüring, and, relating to his reception history, Hans Hörbiger, whose Welteislehre was referred to as the "German
Theory of Relativity" among German right-wing circles during the Weimar Republic.
One early criticism was the assertion that light simply travels with the earth in a so-called "co-moving luminiferous
aether". In the process of traveling through its "immediately surrounding physical reality", the speed light attains
appears different for observers who move at different speeds relative to each other, the same as with every other
known phenomenon.
Critics asserted the Michelson-Morley experiment null result was not the theoretical enigma some scientists
believed. So the then-current understanding of light apparently needed to be changed according to this new belief:
the medium for light was not rigid after all.
But other critics had already concluded, from stellar aberration, that there had to be a rigid aether which carried the
light as the Earth moved through it. The two results suggested contradictory conclusions: was the aether local and
fluid, or was it universal and rigid?
Lorentz's solution made the Earth shorter in the direction of travel around the Sun, and later also modified the speed
of time. This was criticized by scientists at first, but Einstein's and Minkowski's interpretations implied Lorentz's
hypothesis as the natural consequence of some postulates.
Although there still are critics of relativity outside the scientific mainstream, the overwhelming majority of scientists
agree that Special Relativity has been verified in many different ways and there are no inconsistencies within the
theory.[102]
History of special relativity 54

See also
• Lorentz ether theory
• Aether theories
• History of Lorentz transformations
• Relativity priority dispute
• Mass–energy equivalence

References

Primary sources
• Abraham, Max (1902), "Dynamik des Electrons", Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse: 20–41
• Abraham, Max (1903), "Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons", Annalen der Physik 315 (1): 105–179,
doi:10.1002/andp.19023150105
• Abraham, Max (1904), "Die Grundhypothesen der Elektronentheorie", Physikalische Zeitschrift 5: 576–579
• Abraham, Max (1914), "Neuere Gravitationstheorien" [103], Jahrbuch für Radioaktivität und Elektronik 11 (4):
470–520.
• Alväger, Farley, Kjellmann, Walle (1964), "Test of the second postulate of special relativity in the GeV region",
Phys. Rev. Letters 12 (3): 260–262, doi:10.1016/0031-9163(64)91095-9
• Bartoli, Adolfo (1876/1884), "Il calorico raggiante e il secondo principio di termodynamica" [104], Nuovo Cimento
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History of special relativity 60

Notes and Secondary sources

[1] Whittaker (1951), 128ff
[2] Whittaker (1951), 240ff
[3] Miller (1981), 46
[4] Whittaker (1951), 319ff
[5] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 20
[6] Whittaker (1951), 107ff
[7] Whittaker (1951), 386f
[8] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 4–15
[9] Whittaker (1951), 390f
[10] Whittaker (1951), 386ff
[11] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 18–19
[12] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 19–20
[13] Miller (1981), 114–115
[14] Pais (1982), Chap. 6b
[15] Miller (1981), 99–100
[16] Brown (2001)
[17] Miller (1981), 27–29
[18] Janssen (1995), Chap. 3.3
[19] Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3
[20] Miller (1982)
[21] Zahar (1989)
[22] Galison (2002)
[23] Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.1
[24] Macrossan (1986)
[25] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 31–32
[26] Whittaker (1951), 306ff; (1953) 51f
[27] Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.4
[28] Miller (1981), 46, 103
[29] Darrigol (2005), 18–21
[30] Miller (1981), 47–54
[31] Miller (1981), 61–67
[32] Miller (1981), 359–360
[33] Lange (1886)
[34] Giulini (2001), Ch. 4
[35] DiSalle (2002)
[36] Goenner (2008)
[37] Archibald (1914)
[38] Boyce Gibson (1928)
[39] Hentschel (1990), 153f.
[40] Galison (2003)
[41] Katzir (2005), 272–275
[42] Darrigol (2005), 10–11
[43] Galison (2002), Ch. 4 – Etherial Time
[44] Darrigol (2000), 369–372
[45] Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3, 3.4
[46] Miller (1981), Chap. 1, Footnote 57
[47] Miller (1981), 75ff
[48] Katzir (2005), 275–277
[49] Miller (1981), 79–86
[50] Katzir (2005), 280–288
[51] Walter (2007), Ch. 1
[52] Miller (1981), 216–217
[53] Whittaker (1953), 27–77
[54] Zahar (1989), 149–200
[55] Logunov (2004)
[56] Holton (1973/1988), 196–206
[57] Miller (1981)
[58] Pais (1982), 126–128
History of special relativity 61

[59] Hentschel (1990), 3–13

[60] Darrigol (2005), 15–18
[61] Katzir (2005), 286–288
[62] Whittaker (1951)
[63] For many other experiments on light constancy and relativity, see PhysicsFaq: What is the experimental basis of special relativity? (http:/ /
math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/ Relativity/ SR/ experiments. html)
[64] Holton (1988)
[65] Janssen (1995), Ch. 4
[66] Rynasiewicz/Renn (2006)
[67] Stachel (1982)
[68] Darrigol (2004), 624
[69] Miller (1981), 86–92
[70] Born (1956), 193
[71] Miller (1981), 334–352
[72] Miller (1981), 88
[73] Pauli (1921), 636–637
[74] Miller (1981), 329–330
[75] Pauli (1921), 634–636
[76] Miller (1981), 359–367
[77] Laue (1921), pp. 25 & 146–148
[78] Laue (1921), pp. 25–26 & 204–206
[79] Bjerknes (2002)
[80] Norton (2004)
[81] Pauli (1921), 549–553
[82] Klein (1910)
[83] Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.6
[84] Walter (1999b), Ch. 3
[85] Walter (1999a), 49
[86] Miller (1981), Ch. 12.5.8
[87] Janssen/Mecklenburg (2007)
[88] Pauli (1921), 555–556
[89] Miller (1981), 218–219
[90] Walter (1999b)
[91] Miller (1981), 245–253
[92] Miller (1981), 257–264
[93] Pais (2000), pp. 177-183
[94] Pauli (1921), 690–691
[95] Rindler (2001)
[96] Pauli (1921), 690–691
[97] Pauli (1921), 556–557
[98] Norton (2005)
[99] Walter (2007)
[100] Pais (1982), 11a
[101] Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.12
[102] CosmosMagazine: Was Einstein a fake? (http:/ / www. cosmosmagazine. com/ node/ 1162)
[103] http:/ / libcoll. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ elib/ all_documents/ Abrah_Neuer_01_1915
[104] http:/ / fisicavolta. unipv. it/ percorsi/ pdf/ press. pdf
[105] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3109m/ f215. chemindefer
[106] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k31103/ f703. table
[107] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k15334h/ f7. table
[108] http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/
[109] http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ E_mc2/ www/
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• Archibald, R.C. (1914), "Time as a fourth dimension" (http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183422749),

Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 20: 409–412, doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1914-02511-X
• Born, Max (1964), Einstein's Theory of Relativity, Dover Publications, ISBN 0486607690
• Born, Max (1956), Physics in my generation (http://www.archive.org/details/physucsinmygener006567mbp),
London & New York: Pergamon Press, pp. 189–206
• Brown, Harvey R. (2001), "The origins of length contraction: I. The FitzGerald-Lorentz deformation hypothesis"
(http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00000218/), American Journal of Physics 69 (10): 1044–1054,
doi:10.1119/1.1379733
• Darrigol, Olivier (2000), Electrodynamics from Ampére to Einstein, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198505949
• Darrigol, Olivier (2004), "The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincaré Connection", Isis 95 (4): 614–626,
doi:10.1086/430652, PMID 16011297
• Darrigol, Olivier (2005), "The Genesis of the theory of relativity" (http://www.bourbaphy.fr/darrigol2.pdf),
Séminaire Poincaré 1: 1–22
• Robert DiSalle (Summer 2002), "Space and Time: Inertial Frames" (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/
sum2002/entries/spacetime-iframes/), in Edward N. Zalta, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Einstein, Albert (1989), "The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900–1909", in Stachel, John et al., The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein, 2, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08526-9
• Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton,
ISBN 0393326047
• Giulini, Domenico (2001), "Das Problem der Trägheit" (http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P190.
PDF), Preprint, Max-Planck Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte 190: 11–12, 25–26
• Goenner, Hubert (2008), "On the history of geometrization of space-time", 414. Heraeus-Seminar,
arXiv:0811.4529.
• Hentschel, Klaus (1990), Interpretationen und Fehlinterpretationen der speziellen und der allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie durch Zeitgenossen Albert Einsteins, Basel – Boston – Bonn: Birkhäuser, ISBN 3764324384
History of special relativity 63

• Holton, Gerald (1988), Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein, Harvard University Press,
ISBN 0674877470
• Janssen, Michel (1995), A Comparison between Lorentz's Ether Theory and Special Relativity in the Light of the
Experiments of Trouton and Noble, (thesis) (http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/)
• Janssen, Michel & Mecklenburg, Matthew (2007), "From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic
models of the electron" (http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001990/), in V. F. Hendricks, et al.,
Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 65–134
• Janssen, Michel & Stachel, John (2008), The Optics and Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (http://www.
mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P265.PDF)
• Katzir, Shaul (2005), "Poincaré's Relativistic Physics: Its Origins and Nature", Phys. Perspect. 7: 268–292,
doi:10.1007/s00016-004-0234-y
• Keswani, G. H., Kilmister, C. W. (1983), "Intimations Of Relativity: Relativity Before Einstein" (http://osiris.
sunderland.ac.uk/webedit/allweb/news/Philosophy_of_Science/PIRT2002/Intimations of Relativity.doc),
Brit. J. Phil. Sci. 34: 343–354, doi:10.1093/bjps/34.4.343
• Klein, Felix (1910/21), "Über die geometrischen Grundlagen der Lorentzgruppe", Gesammelte mathematische
Abhandlungen 1: 533–552
• Lange, Ludwig (1886), Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des Bewegungsbegriffes (http://www.archive.org/
details/diegeschichtlic00langgoog), Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann
• Laue, Max von (1921), Die Relativitätstheorie, Braunschweig: Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn. = 4. Edition of Laue
(1911).
• Macrossan, M. N. (1986), "A Note on Relativity Before Einstein" (http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view.
php?pid=UQ:9560), Brit. J. Phil. Sci. 37: 232–234
• Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation
(1905–1911), Reading: Addison–Wesley, ISBN 0-201-04679-2
• Norton, John D. (2004), "Einstein's Investigations of Galilean Covariant Electrodynamics prior to 1905" (http://
philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001743/), Archive for History of Exact Sciences 59: 45–105,
doi:10.1007/s00407-004-0085-6
• Norton, John D. (2005), "Einstein, Nordström and the early demise of scalar, lorentz covariant theories of
gravitation" (http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/papers/Nordstroem.pdf), in Renn, Jürgen, The Genesis of
General Relativity (Vol. 1), Printed in the Netherlands: Kluwer
• Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, New York: Oxford
University Press, ISBN 0-19-520438-7
• Pauli, Wolfgang (1921), "Die Relativitätstheorie" (http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/
?IDDOC=201990), Encyclopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften 5 (2): 539–776
• Polanyi, Michael (1974), Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy, Chicago: University Press,
ISBN 0226672883
• Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 0-19-850836-0
• Rynasiewicz, Robert; Renn, Jürgen. (2006), "The turning point for Einstein's annus mirabilis." (http://
philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00002567/), Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 31 (1): 5–35
• Schaffner, Kenneth F. (1972), Nineteenth-century aether theories, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 99–117 und
255–273, ISBN 0-08-015674-6
History of special relativity 64

• Stachel, John (1982), "Einstein and Michelson: the Context of Discovery and Context of Justification" (http://
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982AN....303...47S), Astronomische Nachrichten 303: 47–53,
doi:10.1002/asna.2103030110
• Stachel, John (2002), Einstein from "B" to "Z", Boston: Birkhäuser, ISBN 0-8176-4143-2
• Staley, Richard (2009), Einstein's generation. The origins of the relativity revolution, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, ISBN 0226770575
• Walter, Scott (1999a), "Minkowski, mathematicians, and the mathematical theory of relativity" (http://www.
univ-nancy2.fr/DepPhilo/walter/papers/mmm.xml), in H. Goenner, J. Renn, J. Ritter, and T. Sauer, Einstein
Studies, 7, Birkhäuser, pp. 45–86
• Walter, Scott (1999b), "The non-Euclidean style of Minkowskian relativity" (http://www.univ-nancy2.fr/
DepPhilo/walter/papers/nes.xml), in J. Gray, The Symbolic Universe: Geometry and Physics, Oxford
University Press, pp. 91–127
• Walter, Scott (2005), "Henri Poincaré and the theory of relativity" (http://www.univ-nancy2.fr/DepPhilo/
walter/papers/hpeinstein2005.htm), in Renn, J., Albert Einstein, Chief Engineer of the Universe: 100 Authors
for Einstein, 3, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, pp. 162–165
• Walter, Scott (2007), "Breaking in the 4-vectors: the four-dimensional movement in gravitation, 1905–1910"
(http://www.univ-nancy2.fr/DepPhilo/walter/papers/breaking2007.pdf), in Renn, J., The Genesis of General
Relativity, 3, Berlin: Springer, pp. 193–252
• Warwick, Andrew (2003), Masters of Theory: Cambridge and the Rise of Mathematical Physics, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226873757
• Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1910), A History of the theories of aether and electricity (http://www.archive.org/
details/historyoftheorie00whitrich) (1. ed.), Dublin: Longman, Green and Co.
• Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1951), A History of the theories of aether and electricity Vol. 1: The classical
theories (2. ed.), London: Nelson
• Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1953), "The relativity theory of Poincaré and Lorentz", A History of the theories of
aether and electricity; Vol. 2: The modern theories 1900–1926, London: Nelson, pp. 27–77
• Zahar, Elie (1989), Einstein's Revolution: A Study in Heuristic, Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company,
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Non mainstream
• Bjerknes, Christopher Jon (2002), "A Short History of the Concept of Relative Simultaneity in the Special Theory
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• Logunov, A.A. (2004), Henri Poincaré and relativity theory, Moscow: Nauka, arXiv:physics/0408077,
ISBN 5-02-033964-4

External links
• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Special relativity" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
HistTopics/Special_relativity.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
• Mathpages: Corresponding States (http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s1-05/1-05.htm), The End of My Latin
(http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s3-06/3-06.htm), Who Invented Relativity? (http://www.mathpages.com/
rr/s8-08/8-08.htm), Poincaré Contemplates Copernicus (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath305/
kmath305.htm)
 65

Light and general relativity

History of general relativity

Creation of General Relativity

Early investigations
As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial
motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion
(even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.[1] So in 1908 he published an article on acceleration under
special relativity. In that article, he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer
the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the Equivalence principle. In the same article,
Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation. In 1911, Einstein published another article
expanding on the 1907 article, in which additional effects such as the deflection of light by massive bodies were
predicted.
General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915.
According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of
space and time by those masses.
Before the advent of general relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation had been accepted for more than two
hundred years as a valid description of the gravitional force between masses, even though Newton himself did not
regard the theory as the final word on the nature of gravity. Within a century of Newton's formulation, careful
astronomical observation revealed unexplainable variations between the theory and the observations. Under
Newton's model, gravity was the result of an attractive force between massive objects. Although even Newton was
bothered by the unknown nature of that force, the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion.
However, experiments and observations show that Einstein's description accounts for several effects that are
unexplained by Newton's law, such as minute anomalies in the orbits of Mercury and other planets. General relativity
also predicts novel effects of gravity, such as gravitational waves, gravitational lensing and an effect of gravity on
time known as gravitational time dilation. Many of these predictions have been confirmed by experiment, while
others are the subject of ongoing research. For example, although there is indirect evidence for gravitational waves,
direct evidence of their existence is still being sought by several teams of scientists in experiments such as the LIGO
and GEO 600 projects.
General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the
current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light
can escape. Their strong gravity is thought to be responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of
astronomical objects (such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars). General relativity is also part of the framework
of the standard Big Bang model of cosmology.
History of general relativity 66

General covariance and the hole argument

By 1912, Einstein was actively seeking a theory in which gravitation was explained as a geometric phenomenon. At
the urging of Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began by exploring the use of general covariance (which is essentially the
use of curvature tensors) to create a gravitational theory. However, in 1913 Einstein abandoned that approach,
arguing that it is inconsistent based on the "hole argument". In 1914 and much of 1915, Einstein was trying to create
field equations based on another approach. When that approach was proven to be inconsistent, Einstein revisited the
concept of general covariance and discovered that the hole argument was flawed.

The development of the Einstein field equations

When Einstein realized that general covariance was actually tenable, he quickly completed the development of the
field equations that are named after him. However, he made a now-famous mistake. The field equations he published
in October 1915 were
,
where is the Ricci tensor, and the energy-momentum tensor. This predicted the non-Newtonian perihelion
precession of Mercury, and so had Einstein very excited. However, it was soon realized that they were inconsistent
with the local conservation of energy-momentum unless the universe had a constant density of
mass-energy-momentum. In other words, air, rock and even a vacuum should all have the same density. This
inconsistency with observation sent Einstein back to the drawing board. However, the solution was all but obvious,
and in November 1915 Einstein published the actual Einstein field equations:

where is the Ricci scalar and the metric tensor. With the publication of the field equations, the issue became
one of solving them for various cases and interpreting the solutions. This and experimental verification have
dominated general relativity research ever since.

Einstein and Hilbert

Although Einstein is credited with finding the field equations, the German mathematician David Hilbert published
them in an article before Einstein's article. This has resulted in accusations of plagiarism against Einstein (never from
Hilbert), and assertions that the field equations should be called the "Einstein-Hilbert field equations". However,
Hilbert did not press his claim for priority and some have asserted that Einstein submitted the correct equations
before Hilbert amended his own work to include them. This suggests that Einstein developed the correct field
equations first, though Hilbert may have reached them later independently (or even learned of them afterwards
through his correspondence with Einstein).[2] However, others have criticized those assertions.[3]

Sir Arthur Eddington

In the early years after Einstein's theory was published, Sir Arthur Eddington lent his considerable prestige in the
British scientific establishment in an effort to champion the work of this German scientist. Because the theory was so
complex and abstruse (even today it is popularly considered the pinnacle of scientific thinking; in the early years it
was even more so), it was rumored that only three people in the world understood it. There was an illuminating,
though probably apocryphal, anecdote about this. As related by Ludwik Silberstein,[4] during one of Eddington's
lectures he asked "Professor Eddington, you must be one of three persons in the world who understands general
relativity." Eddington paused, unable to answer. Silberstein continued "Don't be modest, Eddington!" Finally,
Eddington replied "On the contrary, I'm trying to think who the third person is."
History of general relativity 67

Solutions

The Schwarzschild solution

Since the field equations are non-linear, Einstein assumed that they were insoluble. However, in 1916 Karl
Schwarzschild discovered an exact solution for the case of a spherically symmetric spacetime surrounding a massive
object in spherical coordinates. This is now known as the Schwarzschild solution. Since then, many other exact
solutions have been found.

The expanding universe and the cosmological constant

In 1922, Alexander Friedmann found a solution in which the universe may expand or contract, and later Georges
Lemaître derived a solution for an expanding universe. However, Einstein believed that the universe was apparently
static, and since a static cosmology was not supported by the general relativistic field equations, he added a
cosmological constant Λ to the field equations, which became

This permitted the creation of steady-state solutions, but they were unstable: the slightest perturbation of a static state
would result in the universe expanding or contracting. In 1929, Edwin Hubble found evidence for the idea that the
universe is expanding. This resulted in Einstein dropping the cosmological constant, referring to it as "the biggest
blunder in my career". At the time, it was an ad hoc hypothesis to add in the cosmological constant, as it was only
intended to justify one result (a static universe).

More exact solutions

Progress in solving the field equations and understanding the solutions has been ongoing. The solution for a
spherically symmetric charged object was discovered by Reissner and later rediscovered by Nordström, and is called
the Reissner-Nordström solution. The black hole aspect of the Schwarzschild solution was very controversial, and
Einstein did not believe that singularities could be real. However, in 1957 (two years after Einstein's death in 1955),
Martin Kruskal published a proof that black holes are called for by the Schwarzschild Solution. Additionally, the
solution for a rotating massive object was obtained by Kerr in the 1960s and is called the Kerr solution. The
Kerr-Newman solution for a rotating, charged massive object was published a few years later.

Testing the theory

The perihelion precession of Mercury was the first evidence that general relativity is correct. Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington's 1919 expedition in which he confirmed Einstein's prediction for the deflection of light by the Sun during
the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919 helped to cement the status of general relativity as a likely true theory. Since
then many observations have confirmed the correctness of general relativity. These include studies of binary pulsars,
observations of radio signals passing the limb of the Sun, and even the GPS system. For more information, see the
Tests of general relativity article.

Alternative theories
Finally, there have been various attempts through the years to find modifications to general relativity. The most
famous of these are the Brans-Dicke theory (also known as scalar-tensor theory), and Rosen's bimetric theory. Both
of these theories proposed changes to the field equations, and both suffer from these changes permitting the presence
of bipolar gravitational radiation. As a result, Rosen's original theory has been refuted by observations of binary
pulsars. As for Brans-Dicke (which has a tunable parameter ω such that ω = ∞ is the same as general relativity), the
amount by which it can differ from general relativity has been severely constrained by these observations. However,
History of general relativity 68

general relativity and quantum mechanics (a theory that has been experimentally verified more than GR) are known
to be inconsistent. Much speculation exists that modifications of GR (but not QM) are needed on the smallest scales
(as GR has not been tested rigorously on the smallest scales). In the other camp, speculation exists that QM needs to
be modified (for example, it usually assumes a fixed (flat) spacetime background). Most researchers believe that
both theories are in need of modification.

More about GR history

The study of general relativity, entered the mainstream of theoretical physics. Terms were introduced, including
black holes and 'gravitational singularity'. At the same time, the study of physical cosmology entered the mainstream
including the Big Bang.
• Role of curvature in general relativity;
• Theoretical importance of the black holes;
• Importance of geometrical machinery and levels of mathematical structure, especially local versus global
spacetime structure;
• Overall legitimacy of cosmology by the wider physics community.
A competitor to general relativity (the Brans-Dicke theory), and the first "precision tests" of gravitation theories.
Discoveries in observational astronomy are:
• Quasars (objects the size of the solar system and as luminous as a hundred modern galaxies, so distant that they
date from the early years of the universe);
• Pulsars (soon interpreted as spinning neutron stars);
• The first credible candidate black hole, Cygnus X-1;
• The cosmic background radiation, hard evidence of the Big Bang and the subsequent expansion of the universe.

Timeline

1950s
• 1953: P. C. Vaidya Newtonian time in general relativity, Nature, 171, p260.
• 1956: John Lighton Synge publishes the first relativity text emphasizing spacetime diagrams and geometrical
methods,
• 1957: Felix A. E. Pirani uses Petrov classification to understand gravitational radiation,
• 1957: Richard Feynman introduces sticky bead argument,
• 1959: Pound-Rebka experiment, first precision test of gravitational redshift,
• 1959: Lluis Bel introduces Bel-Robinson tensor and the Bel decomposition of the Riemann tensor,
• 1959: Arthur Komar introduces the Komar mass,

1960s
• 1960: Martin Kruskal and George Szekeres independently introduce the Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates for the
Schwarzschild vacuum,
• 1960: Shapiro effect confirmed,
• 1960: Thomas Matthews and Allan R. Sandage associate 3C 48 with a point-like optical image, show radio source
can be at most 15 light minutes in diameter,
• 1960: Carl H. Brans and Robert H. Dicke introduce Brans-Dicke theory, the first viable alternative theory with a
clear physical motivation,
• 1960: Joseph Weber reports observation of gravitational waves (a claim now generally discounted),
• 1960: Ivor M. Robinson and Andrzej Trautman discover the Robinson-Trautman null dust solution [5]
• 1961: Pascual Jordan and Jürgen Ehlers develop the kinematic decomposition of a timelike congruence,
History of general relativity 69

• 1962: Roger Penrose and Ezra T. Newman introduce the Newman-Penrose formalism,
• 1962: Ehlers and Wolfgang Kundt classify the symmetries of Pp-wave spacetimes,
• 1962: Joshua Goldberg and Rainer K. Sachs prove the Goldberg-Sachs theorem,
• 1962: Ehlers introduces Ehlers transformations, a new solution generating method,
• 1962: Cornelius Lanczos introduces the Lanczos potential for the Weyl tensor,
• 1962: R. Arnowitt, Stanley Deser, and Charles W. Misner introduce the ADM reformulation and global
hyperbolicity,
• 1962: Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat on Cauchy problem and global hyperbolicity,
• 1962: Istvan Ozsvath and Englbert Schücking rediscover the circularly polarized monochromomatic gravitational
wave,
• 1962: Hans Adolph Buchdahl discovers Buchdahl's theorem,
• 1962: Hermann Bondi introduces Bondi mass,
• 1963: Roy Kerr discovers the Kerr vacuum solution of Einstein's field equations,
• 1963: Redshifts of 3C 273 and other quasars show they are very distant; hence very luminous,
• 1963: Newman, T. Unti and L.A. Tamburino introduce the NUT vacuum solution,
• 1963: Roger Penrose introduces Penrose diagrams and Penrose limits,
• 1963: First Texas Symposium on Gravitational Astrophysics held in Dallas, December 16–18,
• 1964: R. W. Sharp and Misner introduce the Misner-Sharp mass,
• 1964: M. A. Melvin discovers the Melvin electrovacuum solution (aka the Melvin magnetic universe),
• 1965: Roger Penrose proves first of the singularity theorems,
• 1965: Newman and others discover the Kerr-Newman electrovacuum solution,
• 1965: Penrose discovers the structure of the light cones in gravitational plane wave spacetimes,
• 1965: Kerr and Alfred Schild introduce Kerr-Schild spacetimes,
• 1965: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar determines a stability criterion,
• 1965: Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discover the cosmic microwave background radiation,
• 1966: Sachs and Ronald Kantowski discover the Kantowski-Sachs dust solution,
• 1967: Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discover pulsars,
• 1967: Robert H. Boyer and R. W. Lindquist introduce Boyer-Lindquist coordinates for the Kerr vacuum,
• 1967: Bryce DeWitt publishes on canonical quantum gravity,
• 1967: Werner Israel proves the no hair theorem,
• 1967: Kenneth Nordtvedt develops PPN formalism,
• 1967: Mendel Sachs publishes factorization of Einstein's field equations,
• 1967: Hans Stephani discovers the Stephani dust solution,
• 1968: F. J. Ernst discovers the Ernst equation,
• 1968: B. Kent Harrison discovers the Harrison transformation, a solution-generating method,
• 1968: Brandon Carter solves the geodesic equations for Kerr-Newmann electrovacuum,
• 1968: Hugo D. Wahlquist discovers the Wahlquist fluid,
• 1969: William B. Bonnor introduces the Bonnor beam,
• 1969: Penrose proposes the (weak) cosmic censorship hypothesis and the Penrose process,
• 1969: Stephen W. Hawking proves area theorem for black holes,
• 1969: Misner introduces the mixmaster universe,
History of general relativity 70

1970s
• 1970: Franco J. Zerilli derives the Zerilli equation,
• 1970: Vladimir A. Belinskiǐ, Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov, and Evgeny Lifshitz introduce the BKL conjecture,
• 1970: Chandrasekhar pushes on to 5/2 post-Newtonian order,
• 1970: Hawking and Penrose prove trapped surfaces must arise in black holes,
• 1970: the Kinnersley-Walker photon rocket,
• 1970: Peter Szekeres introduces colliding plane waves,
• 1971: Peter C. Aichelburg and Roman U. Sexl introduce the Aichelburg-Sexl ultraboost,
• 1971: Introduction of the Khan-Penrose vacuum, a simple explicit colliding plane wave spacetime,
• 1971: Robert H. Gowdy introduces the Gowdy vacuum solutions (cosmological models containing circulating
gravitational waves),
• 1971: Cygnus X-1, the first solid black hole candidate, discovered by Uhuru satellite,
• 1971: William H. Press discovers black hole ringing by numerical simulation,
• 1971: Harrison and Estabrook algorithm for solving systems of PDEs,
• 1971: James W. York introduces conformal method generating initial data for ADM initial value formulation,
• 1971: Robert Geroch introduces Geroch group and a solution generating method,
• 1972: Jacob Bekenstein proposes that black holes have a non-decreasing entropy which can be identified with the
area,
• 1972: Carter, Hawking and James M. Bardeen propose the four laws of black hole mechanics,
• 1972: Sachs introduces optical scalars and proves peeling theorem,
• 1972: Rainer Weiss proposes concept of interferometric gravitational wave detector,
• 1972: J. C. Hafele and R. E. Keating perform Hafele-Keating experiment,
• 1972: Richard H. Price studies gravitational collapse with numerical simulations,
• 1972: Saul Teukolsky derives the Teukolsky equation,
• 1972: Yakov B. Zel'dovich predicts the transmutation of electromagnetic and gravitational radiation,
• 1973: P. C. Vaidya and L. K. Patel introduce the Kerr-Vaidya null dust solution,
• 1973: Publication by Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne and John A. Wheeler of the treatise Gravitation, the first
modern textbook on general relativity,
• 1973: Publication by Stephen W. Hawking and George Ellis of the monograph The Large Scale Structure of
Spacetime,
• 1973: Geroch introduces the GHP formalism,
• 1974: Russell Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover the Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar,
• 1974: James W. York and Niall Ó Murchadha present the analysis of the initial value formulation and examine
the stability of its solutions,
• 1974: R. O. Hansen introduces Hansen-Geroch multipole moments,
• 1974: Tullio Regge introduces the Regge calculus,
• 1974: Hawking discovers Hawking radiation,
• 1975: Chandrasekhar and Steven Detweiler compute quasinormal modes,
• 1975: Szekeres and D. A. Szafron discover the Szekeres-Szafron dust solutions,
• 1976: Penrose introduces Penrose limits (every null geodesic in a Lorentzian spacetime behaves like a plane
wave),
• 1978: Penrose introduces the notion of a thunderbolt,
• 1978: Belinskiǐ and Zakharov show how to solve Einstein's field equations using the inverse scattering transform;
the first gravitational solitons,
• 1979: Richard Schoen and Shing-Tung Yau prove the positive mass theorem.
History of general relativity 71

See also
• Contributors to general relativity
• History of general relativity
• Golden age of physics
• Golden age of cosmology

Notes
[1] Albert Einstein, Nobel lecture (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein-lecture. html) in 1921
[2] Leo Corry, Jürgen Renn, John Stachel: "Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute", SCIENCE, Vol. 278, 14 November 1997 -
article text (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ ~corry/ publications/ articles/ science. html)
[3] Friedwart Winterberg's response to the Cory-Renn-Stachel paper (http:/ / physics. unr. edu/ faculty/ winterberg/ Hilbert-Einstein. pdf) as
printed in "Zeitschrift für Naturforschung" 59a (http:/ / www. znaturforsch. com/ c59a. htm), 715-719.
[4] John Waller (2002), Einstein's Luck, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-860719-9
[5] http:/ / cdsads. u-strasbg. fr/ abs/ 1960PhRvL. . . 4. . 431R

References
• Pais, Abraham (1982). Subtle is the lord: the science and life of Albert Einstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-853907-X.
• Genesis of general relativity series (http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/gen.GR.html)

Relativity priority dispute

Albert Einstein presented the theories of Special Relativity and General Relativity in groundbreaking publications
that either contained no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his
predecessors for fundamental results on which he based his theories, most notably to the work of Hendrik Lorentz
for special relativity, and to the work of Gauss, Riemann, and Mach for general relativity. Subsequently claims have
been put forward about both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before
Einstein. At issue is the extent to which Einstein and various other individuals should be credited for the formulation
of these theories, based on priority considerations.
The general history of the development of these theories, including the contributions made by many other scientists,
is found at History of special relativity and History of general relativity.

The candidates for credit

Concerning special relativity, the most important names that are mentioned in discussions about the distribution of
credit are Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré, and Hermann Minkowski. Consideration is also given to
numerous other scientists for either anticipations of some aspects of the theory, or else for contributions to the
development or elaboration of the theory. These include Larmor, Hasenohrl, Foppl, Planck, von Laue, Lewis and
Tolmann, etc. In addition, polemics exist about alleged contributions of others such as the Italian Olinto De Pretto
and Einstein's wife Mileva Marić, although these are not considered to have any foundation by serious scholars.
Concerning general relativity, it is generally accepted that Einstein should be credited for it, although many others
(such as Gauss, Riemann, Ricci, and Levi-Cevita) contributed to the development of the mathematical tools and
geometrical ideas underlying the theory. Also, there is a controversy about the amount of credit that should go to
David Hilbert.
Relativity priority dispute 72

Undisputed and well known facts

The following facts are undisputed and generally known:

Special relativity
• In 1889, ([Poi89]), Henri Poincaré argued that the ether might be unobservable, in which case the existence of the
ether is a metaphysical question, and he suggested that some day the ether concept would be thrown aside as
useless. However, in the same book (Ch. 10) he considered the ether a "convenient hypothesis" and continued to
use the concept also in later papers in 1908 ([Poi08], Book 3) and 1912 ([Poi13], Ch. 6).
• In 1895, Poincaré argued that experiments like that of Michelson-Morley show that it seems to be impossible to
detect the absolute motion of matter or the relative motion of matter in relation to the ether. In [Poi00] he called
this the Principle of Relative Motion, i.e., that the laws of movement should be the same in all inertial frames.
Alternative terms used by Poincaré were "relativity of space" and "principle of relativity".[1] In 1904 he expanded
that principle by saying: "The principle of relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be
the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no
means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a motion."
However, he also stated that we do not know if this principle will turn out to be true, but that it is interesting to
determine what the principle implies.
• In [Poi00], Poincaré published a paper in which he said that radiation could be considered as a fictitious fluid with
an equivalent mass of . He derived this interpretation from Lorentz's 'theory of electrons' which
incorporated Maxwell's radiation pressure.
• Poincaré had described a synchronization procedure for clocks at rest relative to each other in [Poi00] and again
in [Poi04]. So two events, which are simultaneous in one frame of reference, are not simultaneous in another
frame. It is very similar to the one later proposed by Einstein.[2] However, Poincaré distinguished between "local"
or "apparent" time of moving clocks, and the "true" time of resting clocks in the ether.
• Lorentz' paper [Lor04] containing the transformations bearing his name appeared in 1904.
• Albert Einstein in [Ein05c] derived the Lorentz equations by using the principle of constancy of velocity of light
and the relativity principle. He was the first to argue that those principles (along with certain other basic
assumptions about the homogeneity and isotropy of space, usually taken for granted by theorists) are sufficient to
derive the theory. See Postulates of special relativity. He said: "The introduction of a luminiferous ether will
prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the view here to be developed will not require an absolutely stationary space
provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which
electromagnetic processes take place." * Einstein's Elektrodynamik paper [Ein05c] contains no formal references
to other literature. It does mention, in §9, part II, that the results of the paper are in agreement with Lorentz's
electrodynamics. Poincaré is not mentioned in this paper, although he is cited formally in a paper on special
relativity written by Einstein the following year.
• In 1905 Einstein was the first to suggest that when a material body lost energy (either radiation or heat) of amount
, its mass decreased by the amount .[3]
• Hermann Minkowski showed in 1907 that the theory of special relativity could be elegantly described using a
four-dimensional spacetime, which combines the dimension of time with the three dimensions of space.
Relativity priority dispute 73

General relativity
• The proposal to describe gravity by means of a pseudo-Riemannian metric was first made by Einstein and
Grossmann in the so called Entwurf theory published 1913 . This was followed by several attempts of Einstein to
find valid field equations for this theory of gravity.
• David Hilbert invited Einstein to Göttingen for a week to give six 2-hour lectures on general relativity, which he
did in June-July 1915. Einstein stayed at Hilbert's house during this visit. Hilbert started working on a combined
theory of gravity and electromagnetism, and Einstein and Hilbert exchanged correspondence until November
1915. Einstein gave four lectures on his theory on Nov 4, Nov 11, Nov 18 and Nov 25 in Berlin, published as
Einstein (1915a, 1915b, 1915c, 1915d)
• November 4, Einstein published non-covariant field equations and on November 11 returned to the field equations
of the "Entwurf" papers, which he now made covariant by the assumption that the trace of the energy-momentum
tensor was zero, as it was for electromagnetism.
• Einstein sent Hilbert proofs of his papers of Nov 4 and Nov 11. (Sauer 99, notes 63, 66)
• Nov 15 Invitation issued for Nov 20 meeting at the Academy in Göttingen. "Hilber legt vor in die Nachrichten:
Grundgleichungen der Physik". (Sauer 99, note 73)
• Nov 16 Hilbert spoke at the Göttingen Mathematical Society "Grundgleichungen der Physik" (Sauer 99, note 68).
Talk not published.
• Nov 16 or Nov 17 Hilbert sent Einstein some information about his talk of Nov 16 (letter lost)
• Nov 18 Einstein replies to Hilbert's letter (received by Hilbert Nov 19) saying as far as he (Einstein) could tell
Hilbert's system was equivalent to the one he (Einstein) had found in the preceding weeks. (Sauer 99, note 72).
Einstein also told Hilbert in this letter that he (Einstein) had "considered the only possible generally covariant
field equations three years earlier", adding that "The difficulty was not to find generally covariant equations for
the ;this is easy with the help of the Riemann tensor. What was difficult instead was to recognize that these
equations form a generalization, and that is, a simple and natural generalization of Newton's law" (A. Einstein to
D. Hilbert, 18 Nov, Einstein Archives Call No. 13-093). Einstein also told Hilbert in that letter that he (Einstein)
had calculated the correct perihelion advance for Mercury, using covariant field equations based on the
assumption that the trace of the energy momentum tensor vanished as it did for electromagnetism.
• Nov 18 Einstein presents the calculation of the perihelion advance to Prussian Academy.
• Nov 20 Hilbert lectured to the Göttingen Academy. The proofs of his paper show that Hilbert proposed a
non-covariant set of equations as the fundamental equations of physics. Thus he wrote "in order to keep the
deterministic characteristic of the fundamental equations of physics [...] four further non-covariant equations ...
[are] unavoidable." (proofs, pages 3 and 4. quoted by Corry et al.). Hilbert then derives these four extra equations
and continues "these four differential equations [...] supplement the gravitational equations [...] to yield a system
of 14 equations for the 14 potentials : the system of fundamental equations of physics". (proofs, page 7,
quoted by Corry et al.).
• In his last lecture on Nov 25 Einstein submitted the correct field equations. The published paper (Einstein 1915d)
appeared on December 2, and it did not mention Hilbert.
• Hilbert's paper took considerably longer to appear. He had galley proofs that were marked "December 6" by the
printer in December 1915. Most of the galley proofs have been preserved, but about a quarter of a page is
missing.[4] The extant part of the proofs contains Hilbert's action from which the field equations can be obtained
by taking a variational derivative, and using the contracted Bianchi identity derived in theorem III of Hilbert's
paper, though this was not done in the extant proofs.
• Hilbert rewrote his paper for publication (in Mar 1916), changing the treatment of the energy theorem, dropping a
non-covariant gauge condition on the coordinates to produce a covariant theory, and adding a new credit to
Einstein for introducing the gravitational potentials into the theory of gravity. In the final paper he said his
differential equations seemed to agree with the "magnificent theory of general relativity established by Einstein in
his later papers"[5]
Relativity priority dispute 74

• The events of late November through December 1915 caused bad feelings from Einstein towards Hilbert. In a
November 25 letter to Zangger, Einstein accused Hilbert (without mentioning his name) of attempts to
appropriate ('nostrify') his theory. On Dec 4, Hilbert nominated Einstein for election as a corresponding member
of the Göttingen Mathematical Society. In a December 20 letter to Hilbert, Einstein proposed to settle the dispute.
• The 1916 paper was rewritten and republished in 1924 [Hil24], where Hilbert wrote: Einstein [...] kehrt
schließlich in seinen letzten Publikationen geradewegs zu den Gleichungen meiner Theorie zurück. (Einstein [...]
in his most recent publications, returns directly to the equations of my theory.)[6]

Disputed claims
The following things seem to be unclear, unknown or disputed:

Special relativity
• To what degree Einstein was familiar with Poincaré's work
• It is known that Einstein was familiar with [Poi02], but it is not known to what extent he was familiar with
other work of Poincaré in 1905. However it is known that he knew [Poi00] in 1906, because he quoted it in
[Ein06].
• Lorentz' paper [Lor04] containing the transformations bearing his name appeared in 1904. The question is
whether Einstein was familiar in 1905 with either this paper itself or a review of it (which appeared in the
Annalen der Physik).
• To what degree Einstein was following other physicists' work at the time. Some authors claim that Einstein
worked in relative isolation and with restricted access to the physics literature in 1905. Others, however, disagree;
a personal friend of Einstein, Maurice Solovine, later acknowledged that he and Einstein both pored for weeks
over Poincaré's 1902 book, keeping them "breathless for weeks on end" [Rot06].
• To what degree his wife, Mileva Marić, may have contributed to Einstein's work.

General relativity
• Before 1997, "the commonly accepted view was that David Hilbert completed the general theory of relativity at
least 5 days before Albert Einstein submitted his conclusive paper on this theory on 25 November 1915. Hilbert's
article, bearing the date of submission 20 November 1915 but published only on 31 March 1916, presents a
generally covariant theory of gravitation, including field equations essentially equivalent to those in Einstein's
paper" (Corry, Renn and Stachel, 1997). Since the discovery of printer's proofs of Hilbert's paper of Nov 20, dated
6 Dec 1915, which show a number of differences from the finally published paper, this 'commonly accepted view'
has been challenged.
• Whether Einstein got the correct mathematical formulation for general relativity from Hilbert, or formulated it
independently. Points at issue:
• The content of Hilbert's November 16 letter/postcard to Einstein is not known. It is however, clear from
Einstein's response that it was an account of Hilbert's work.
• It is not known what was on the missing part of Hilbert's printer proofs. The missing portion is large enough to
have contained the field equations in an explicit form. There are several competing speculations about the
content of the missing piece.
• Based on the above, it is not known whether Hilbert had formulated the field equations in an explicit form
before December 6 (the date of the printer's proofs) or not.
• It is known from the proofs that Hilbert introduced four non-covariant equations in order to specify the
gravitational potentials and that this approach was dropped from his revised paper.
• Whether Hilbert ever tried to claim priority for the field equations - it seems clear that he regarded the theory of
general relativity as Einstein's theory.
Relativity priority dispute 75

• What Hilbert thought he was referring to when he used the term "equations of my theory" about Einstein's
research. Hilbert made a similar remark in a letter to Karl Schwarzschild.[7]
There are a large number of opinions related to these involving questions of "who should get the credit" - these are
not enumerated here.

Special Relativity

Historians of special relativity

In his History of the theories of ether and electricity from 1953, E. T. Whittaker claimed that relativity is the creation
of Lorentz and Poincaré and attributed to Einstein's papers only little importance.[8] However, most historians of
science, like Gerald Holton, Arthur I. Miller, Abraham Pais, John Stachel, or Olivier Darrigol have other points of
view. They admit that Lorentz and Poincaré developed the mathematics of special relativity, and many scientists
originally spoke about the „Lorentz-Einstein theory“. But they argue that it was Einstein who completely eliminated
the classical ether and demonstrated the relativity of space and time. They also argue that Poincaré demonstrated the
relativity of space and time only in his philosophical writings, but in his physical papers he maintained the ether as a
privileged frame of reference that is perfectly undetectable, and continued (like Lorentz) to distinguish between
"real" lengths and times measured by observers at rest within the aether, and "apparent" lengths and times measured
by observers in motion within the aether.[9] [10] [11] [12] Darrigol summarizes:
Most of the components of Einstein's paper appeared in others' anterior works on the electrodynamics
of moving bodies. Poincaré and Alfred Bucherer had the relativity principle. Lorentz and Larmor had
most of the Lorentz transformations, Poincaré had them all. Cohn and Bucherer rejected the ether.
Poincaré, Cohn, and Abraham had a physical interpretation of Lorentz's local time. Larmor and Cohn
alluded to the dilation of time. Lorentz and Poincaré had the relativistic dynamics of the electron. None
of these authors, however, dared to reform the concepts of space and time. None of them imagined a
new kinematics based on two postulates. None of them derived the Lorentz transformations on this basis.
None of them fully understood the physical implications of these transformations. It all was Einstein's
unique feat.[13]

Comments by Lorentz, Poincaré, and Einstein

Lorentz, Poincaré
In a paper that was written in 1914 and published in 1921,[14] Lorentz appreciated the Palermo paper (1906)[15] of
Poincaré on relativity. Lorentz stated:

“ Indeed I have not given the most appropriate transformation for some physical quantities encountered in the formulae. This was done by
Poincaré and later by Einstein and Minkowski. [..] I had not thought of the straight path leading to them, since I considered there was an
essential difference between the reference systems x, y, z, t and x', y', z', t'. In one of them were used - such was my reasoning - coordinate
axes with a definite position in ether and what could be termed true time; in the other, on the contrary, one simply dealt with auxiliary
quantities introduced with the aid of a mathematical trick. [..] I have not established the principle of relativity as rigorously and universally
true. Poincaré, on the other hand, has obtained a perfect invariance of the electro-magnetic equations, and he has formulated 'the postulate of
relativity', terms which he was the first to employ. [..] Let's add that while thus correcting the imperfections of my work he never blamed me
for them.
[16]
”
However, a 1916 reprint of his main work "The theory of electrons" contains notes (written in 1909 and 1915) in
which Lorentz sketched the differences between his results and that of Einstein as follows:[17]
Relativity priority dispute 76

“
[p. 230]: the chief difference [is] that Einstein simply postulates what we have deduced, with some difficulty and not altogether satisfactorily,
from the fundamental equations of the electromagnetic field. [p. 321]: The chief cause of my failure was my clinging to the idea that the
variable t only can be considered as the true time and that my local time t' must be regarded as no more than an auxiliary mathematical
quantity. In Einstein's theory, on the contrary, t' plays the same part as t; if we want to describe phenomena in terms of x', y', z', t' we must
work with these variables exactly as we could do with x, y, z, t. ”
Regarding the fact, that in this book Lorentz only mentioned Einstein and not Poincaré in connection with a) the
synchronisation by light signals, b) the reciprocity of the Lorentz transformation, and c) the relativistic
transformation law for charge density, Janssen comments:[18]

“
[p.90]: My guess is that it has to do with the fact that Einstein made the physical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation the basis for a
remarkably clear and simple discussion of the electrodynamics of moving bodies, whereas Poincaré’s remarks on the physical interpretation of
Lorentz transformed quantities may have struck Lorentz as inconsequential philosophical asides in expositions that otherwise closely followed
his own. I also have a sense that Lorentz found Einstein’s physically very intuitive approach more appealing than Poincaré’s rather abstract but
mathematically more elegant approach. ”
And at a conference on the Michelson-Morley experiment in 1927 at which Lorentz and Michelson were present,
Michelson suggested that Lorentz was the initiator of the theory of relativity. Lorentz then replied:[19]

“
I considered my time transformation only as a heuristic working hypothesis. So the theory of relativity is really solely Einstein's work. And
there can be no doubt that he would have conceived it even if the work of all his predecessors in the theory of this field had not been done at
all. His work is in this respect independent of the previous theories. ”
Poincaré
Poincaré attributed the development of the new mechanics almost entirely to Lorentz. He only mentioned Einstein in
connection with the photoelectric effect,[20] but not in connection with special relativity. For example, in 1912
Poincaré raises the question whether "the mechanics of Lorentz" will still exist after the development of the quantum
theory. He wrote:[20]

“
In all instances in which it differs from that of Newton, the mechanics of Lorentz endures. We continue to believe that no body in motion will
ever be able to exceed the speed of light; that the mass of a body is not a constant, but depends on its speed and the angle formed by this speed
with the force which acts upon the body; that no experiment will ever be able to determine whether a body is at rest or in absolute motion
either in relation to absolute space or even in relation to the ether. ”
Einstein
It is now known that Einstein was well aware of the scientific research of his time. The well known historian of
science, Jürgen Renn, Director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science wrote on Einstein's
contributions to the Annalen der Physik:[21]

“ The Annalen also served as a source of modest additional income for Einstein, who wrote more than twenty reports for its Beiblätter - mainly
on the theory of heat - thus demonstrating an impressive mastery of the contemporary literature. This activity started in 1905.
[22]
and
probably resulted from his earlier publications in the Annalen in this field. Going by his publications between 1900 and early 1905, one would
conclude that Einstein's specialty was thermodynamics. ”
Einstein wrote in 1907[23] that one needed only to realize that an auxiliary quantity that was introduced by Lorentz
and that he called "local time" can simply be defined as "time." And in 1910[24] and 1912[25] Einstein explained that
he borrowed the principle of the constancy of light from Lorentz's immobile ether, but he recognized that this
principle together with the principle of relativity makes the ether useless and leads to special relativity. It is also
known[26] that he read Poincaré's 1902-book „Science and hypothesis“ before 1905, which included:
• philosophical assessments on the relativity of space, time, and simultaneity
• the definition of the principle of relativity and the opinion that a violation of that principle can never be detected
• the possible non-existence of the ether
Relativity priority dispute 77

• many remarks on the non-Euclidean geometry.

Einstein refers to Poincaré in connection with the inertia of energy in 1906[27] and the non-Euclidean geometry in
1921,[28] but not in connection with the Lorentz transformation, the relativity principle or the synchronisation
procedure by light signals. However, in the last years before Einstein's death he acknowledged some of Poincaré's
contributions (according to Darrigol, maybe because his biographer Pais in 1950 sent him a copy of Poincarè's
Palermo paper, which he said that he had not read before). Einstein wrote in 1953:[29]

“
There is no doubt, that the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905. Lorentz had
already recognized that the transformations named after him are essential for the analysis of Maxwell’s equations, and Poincaré deepened this
insight still further. Concerning myself, I knew only Lorentz's important work of 1895 [...] but not Lorentz's later work, nor the consecutive
investigations by Poincaré. In this sense my work of 1905 was independent. [..] The new feature of it was the realization of the fact that the
bearing of the Lorentz transformation transcended its connection with Maxwell's equations and was concerned with the nature of space and
time in general. A further new result was that the "Lorentz invariance" is a general condition for any physical theory. ”
General Relativity

Did Hilbert claim priority for parts of General Relativity?

Kip Thorne concludes, based on Hilbert's 1924 paper, that Hilbert regarded the General Theory of relativity as
Einstein's: "Quite naturally, and in accord with Hilbert's view of things, the resulting law of warpage was quickly
given the name the Einstein field equation rather than being named after Hilbert. Hilbert had carried out the last few
mathematical steps to its discovery independently and almost simultaneously with Einstein, but Einstein was
responsible for essentially everything that preceded those steps...".[30] However, Kip Thorne also stated,
"Remarkably, Einstein was not the first to discover the correct form of the law of warpage[. . . .] Recognition for the
first discovery must go to Hilbert."[31]
Arguments have been made that Hilbert claimed priority for the field equations themselves; the sources cited for this
are:
• Hilbert's article (dated 20 November 1915), when it appeared in 1916, contained the text "Die so zu Stande
kommenden Differentialgleichungen der Gravitation sind, wie mir scheint, mit der von Einstein in seinen späteren
Abhandlungen aufgestellten großzügigen Theorie der allgemeinen Relativität in gutem Einklang." - in translation,
"The differential equations of gravity arrived at in this way are, I think, in good agreement with those of Einstein
in his later papers in which he presented his comprehensive theory of general relativity." Hilbert refers here to the
"later papers" of Einstein, obviously to distinguish them from the Entwerf theory of 1913 and the preliminary
papers prior to the end of November 1915 when Einstein published the equations of general relativity in their final
form. Hilbert's sentence has sometimes been mis-interpreted by replacing the word "later" with "subsequent", and
suggesting that Hilbert was writing in a clairvoyant sense about papers of Einstein that would be written
subsequent to the paper that Hilbert was presently writing. Serious scholars dismiss such misconstruals as obvious
nonsense.
• Wuensch [32] points out that Hilbert refers to the field equations of gravity as "meine Theorie" ("my theory") in
his February 6, 1916 letter to Schwarzschild. This, however, is not at issue, since no one disputes that Hilbert had
his own "theory", which Einstein criticized as naive and overly ambitious. Hilbert's theory was based on the work
of Mie combined with Einstein's principle of general covariance, but applied to matter and electromagnetism as
well as gravity.
• Mehra [33] and Bjerknes[34] point out that Hilbert's 1924 version of the article contained the sentence "..und
andererseits auch Einstein, obwohl wiederholt von abweichenden und unter sich verschiedenen Ansätzen
ausgehend, kehrt schließlich in seinen letzten Publikationen geradenwegs zu den Gleichungen meiner Theorie
zurück" - "Einstein [. . .] in his last publications ultimately returns directly to the equations of my theory."[35] .
These statements of course do not have any particular bearing on the matter at issue. No one disputes that Hilbert
Relativity priority dispute 78

has "his" theory, which was a very ambitious attempt to combine gravity with a theory of matter and
electromagnetism along the lines of Mie's theory, and that he equations for gravitation agreed with those that
Einstein presented beginning in his Nov 25 paper (which Hilbert refers to as Einstein's later papers to distinguish
them from previous theories of Einstein). None of this bears on the precise origin of the trace term in the Einstein
field equations (a feature of the equations that, while theoretically significant, does not have any effect on the
vacuum equations, from which all the empirical tests proposed by Einstein were derived).
• Sauer says "the independence of Einstein's discovery was never a point of dispute between Einstein and Hilbert ...
Hilbert claimed priority for the introduction of the Riemann scalar into the action principle and the derivation of
the field equations from it, "[36] (Sauer mentions a letter and a draft letter where Hilbert defends his priority for
the action functional) "and Einstein admitted publicly that Hilbert (and Lorentz) had succeeded in giving the
equations of general relativity a particularly lucid form by deriving them from a single variational principle".
Sauer also stated, "And in a draft of a letter to Weyl, dated 22 April 1918, written after he had read the proofs of
the first edition of Weyl's 'Raum-Zeit-Materie' Hilbert also objected to being slighted in Weyl's exposition. In this
letter again 'in particular the use of the Riemannian curvature [scalar] in the Hamiltonian integral' ('insbesondere
die Verwendung der Riemannschen Kruemmung unter dem Hamiltonschen Integral') was claimed as one of his
original contributions. SUB Cod. Ms. Hilbert 457/17."[37]
• Einstein wrote to Hilbert on 20 December 1915 that there was an "ill-feeling between us" and it has been
suspected that this ill feeling was the result of Einstein's bitterness over Hilbert's "nostrification" of his
(Einstein's) theory. Others have suggested that Hilbert might have felt that Einstein had derived some benefit or
hints from his (Hilbert's) letters, and that those had helped him to arrive at the trace term of the field equations,
and if so, that Einstein should have acknowledged this in his paper. But this is pure speculation, aside from
Einstein's comment that he believed others (presumably Hilbert) had tried to "nostrify" his theory.
So far, there seems to be no consensus that these statements form a clear claim by Hilbert to have published the field
equations first.

Did Einstein develop the field equations independently?

For a long time, it was believed that Einstein and Hilbert found the field equations of gravity independently. While
Hilbert's paper was submitted somewhat earlier than Einstein's, it only appeared in 1916, after Einstein's field
equations paper had appeared in print. For this reason there was no good reason to suspect plagiarism on either side.
In 1978, a November 18, 1915 letter from Einstein to Hilbert resurfaced, in which Einstein thanked Hilbert for
sending an explanation of Hilbert's work. This was not unexpected to most scholars, who were well aware of the
correspondence between Hilbert and Einstein that November, and who continued to hold the view expressed by
Albrecht Fölsing in his Einstein biography:
In November, when Einstein was totally absorbed in his theory of gravitation, he essentially only corresponded
with Hilbert, sending Hilbert his publications and, on November 18, thanking him for a draft of his article.
Einstein must have received that article immediately before writing this letter. Could Einstein, casting his eye
over Hilbert's paper, have discovered the term which was still lacking in his own equations, and thus
'nostrified' Hilbert? [38]
In the very next sentence, after asking the rhetorical question, Folsing answers it with "This is not really probable...",
and then goes on to explain in detail why
"[Einstein's] eventual derivation of the equations was a logical development of his earlier arguments—in
which, despite all the mathematics, physical principles invariably predominated. His approach was thus quite
different from Hilbert's, and Einstein's achievements can, therefore, surely be regarded as authentic."
In their 1997 Science paper [Cor97], Corry, Renn and Stachel quote the above passage and comment that "the
arguments by which Einstein is exculpated are rather weak, turning on his slowness in fully grasping Hilbert's
mathematics", and so they attempted to find more definitive evidence of the relationship between the work of Hilbert
Relativity priority dispute 79

and Einstein, basing their work largely on a recently discovered pre-print of Hilbert's paper. A discussion of the
controversy around this paper is given below.
Those who contend that Einstein's paper was motivated by the information obtained from Hilbert have referred to the
following sources:
• The correspondence between Hilbert and Einstein mentioned above. More recently, it became known that
Einstein was also given notes of Hilbert's November 16 talk about his theory[39] .
• Einstein's November 18 paper on the perihelion motion of Mercury, which still refers to the incomplete field
equations of November 4 and 11. (The perihelion motion depends only on the vacuum equations, which are
unaffected by the trace term that was added to complete the field equations.) Reference to the final form of the
equations appears only in a footnote added to the paper, indicating that Einstein had not known the final form of
the equations on November 18. This is not controversial, and is consistent with the well-known fact that Einstein
did not complete the field equations (with the trace term) until November 25.
• Letters of Hilbert, Einstein, and other scientists may be used in attempts to make guesses about the content of
Hilbert's letter to Einstein, which is not preserved, or of Hilbert's lecture in Göttingen on November 16.
Those who contend that Einstein's work takes priority over Hilberts [Cor97], or that both authors did their work
independently [Tod06] have used the following arguments:
• Hilbert modified his paper in December 1915, and the November 18 version sent to Einstein did not contain the
final form of the field equations. The extant part of the printer proofs does not have the explicit field equations.
This is the point of view defended by Corry, Renn, Stachel, and Sauer.
• Sauer (1999) and Todorov (2005) agree with Corry, Renn and Satchel that Hilbert's proofs show that Hilbert had
originally presented a non-covariant theory, which was dropped from the revised paper. Corry et al. quote from
the proofs: "Since our mathematical theorem ... can provide only ten essentially independent equations for the 14
potentials [...] and further, maintaining general covariance makes quite impossible more than ten essential
independent equations [...] then, in order to keep the deterministic characteristic of the fundamental equations of
physics [...] four further non-covariant equations ... [are] unavoidable." (proofs, pages 3 and 4. Corry et al.)
Hilbert derives these four extra equations and continues "these four differential equations [...] supplement the
gravitational equations [...] to yield a system of 14 equations for the 14 potentials , : the system of
fundamental equations of physics". (proofs, page 7. Corry et al.). Hilbert's first theory (lecture Nov 16, lecture
Nov 20, proofs Dec 6) was titled "The fundamental equations of Physics". In proposing non-covariant
fundamental equations, based on the Ricci tensor but restricted in this way, Hilbert was following the causality
requirement that Einstein and Grassman had introduced in the Entwurf papers of 1913 (Sauer, 1999).
• One may attempt to reconstruct the way in which Einstein may have arrived at the field equations independently.
This is, for instance, done in the paper of Logunov, Mestvirishvili and Petrov quoted below [Log04]. Renn and
Sauer [Ren96] investigate the notebook used by Einstein in 1912 and claim he was close to the correct theory at
that time.

Attackers and defenders

This section cites notable publications where people have expressed a view on the issues outlined above.

Sir Edmund Whittaker (1954)

In 1954 Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker, an English mathematician and historian of science, credited Poincaré with the
equation , and he included a chapter entitled The Relativity Theory of Poincaré and Lorentz in his book A
History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (1954). He credited Poincaré and Lorentz, and attributed to
Einstein's relativity paper only little importance. Whittaker also stated that David Hilbert had derived the theory of
General Relativity from an elegant variational principle nearly simultaneously with Einstein's discovery of the
Relativity priority dispute 80

theory.

G. H. Keswani (1965)
In a 1965 series of articles tracing the history of relativity [Kes65], Keswani claimed that Poincaré and Lorentz
should have the main credit for special relativity - claiming that Poincaré pointedly credited Lorentz multiple times,
while Lorentz credited Poincaré and Einstein, refusing to take credit for himself. He also downplayed the theory of
general relativity, saying "Einstein's general theory of relativity is only a theory of gravitation and of modifications
in the laws of physics in gravitational fields".[40] . This would leave the special theory of relativity as the unique
theory of relativity. Keswani cited also Vladimir Fock for this same opinion.
This series of articles prompted responses, among others from Herbert Dingle and Karl Popper.
Dingle said, among other things, ".. the 'principle of relativity' had various meanings, and the theories associated with
it were quite distinct; they were not different forms of the same theory. Each of the three protagonists.... was very
well aware of the others .... but each preferred his own views"[41]
Karl Popper says "Though Einstein appears to have known Poincaré's Science and Hypothesis prior to 1905, there is
no theory like Einstein's in this great book."[42]
Keswani did not accept the criticism, and replied in two letters also published in the same journal ([Kes66a] and
[Kes66b]) - in his reply to Dingle, he argues that the three relativity theories were at heart the same: ".. they meant
much that was common. And that much mattered the most."[43]
Dingle commented the year after on the history of crediting: "Until the first World War, Lorentz's and Einstein's
theories were regarded as different forms of the same idea, but Lorentz, having priority and being a more established
figure speaking a more familiar language, was credited with it." (Dingle 1967, Nature 216 p. 119-122).

Albrecht Folsing on the Hilbert-Einstein interaction (1998)

From Folsing's 1998 Einstein biography (footnote references in the quote are from the original text and the actual
notes are not reproduced here):
During the decisive phase Einstein even had a congenial colleague, though this caused him more annoyance
than joy, as it seemed to threaten his primacy. "Only one colleague truly understood it, and he now tries
skillfully to appropriate it."29 he complained to Zangger about what he evidently regarded as an attempt at
plagiarism. This colleague was none other than David Hilbert, with whom, as recently as the summer, Einstein
had been "absolutely delighted." What must have irritated Einstein was that Hilbert had published the correct
field equations first—a few days before Einstein.
Einstein presented his equations in Berlin on November 25, 1915, but six days earlier, on November 20,
Hilbert—had derived the identical field equations for which Einstein had been searching such a long time.31
How had this happened?
David Hilbert had concerned himself intensively with physics for a number of years; had read everything
about electrons, matter, and fields: and in this context had invited Einstein to Göttingen toward the end of June
1915 to lecture on relativity theory. Einstein had stayed at the Hilberts' home, and one must assume that the
week he and Hilbert spent together would have consisted of dawn-to-dusk discussions of physics. They
continued their debate in writing, although Felix Klein records that "they talked past one another, as happens
not infrequently between simultaneously producing mathematicians."32 Hilbert was in fact aiming at greater
things than Einstein: at a theory of the entire physical world, of matter and fields, of universe and
electrons—and in a strictly axiomatic structure.
In November, when Einstein was totally absorbed in his theory of gravitation, he essentially corresponded only
with Hilbert, sending Hilbert his publications and, on November 18, thanking him for a draft of his treatise.
Einstein must have received that treatise immediately before writing this letter. Could Einstein, casting his eye
Relativity priority dispute 81

over Hilbert's paper, have discovered the term which was still lacking in his own equations, and thus
"appropriated" Hilbert? This is not really probable: Hilbert's treatise was exceedingly involved, or indeed
confused—according to Felix Klein, it was the kind of work "that no one understands unless he has already
mastered the whole subject."33 It cannot be entirely ruled out that Hilbert's treatise made Einstein aware of
some weakness in his own equations. Nevertheless, his eventual derivation of the equations was a logical
development of his earlier arguments—in which, despite all the mathematics, physical principles invariably
predominated. His approach was thus quite different from Hilbert's, and Einstein's achievements can,
therefore, surely be regarded as authentic.
For a few weeks relations between Einstein and Hilbert were clouded; at least, we know that Einstein was
convinced that his Göttingen lectures and some of his other thoughts had—perhaps inadvertently—been
plagiarized by Hilbert. It may well be, though, that he was somewhat mollified when he saw the printed
version of Hilbert's treatise, since Hilbert, in the very first sentence, paid tribute to "the gigantic problems
raised by Einstein and the brilliant methods developed by him for their solution,"34 which represented the
prerequisites of a new approach to the fundamentals of physics. Thirty years later, Einstein told his assistant
Ernst G. Straus, who in turn after another thirty years told Abraham Pais, that "Hilbert had sent him a written
apology, informing him that he had 'quite forgotten that lecture.' "35 If that is what happened, then it must have
satisfied Einstein, for just before Christmas he wrote to Hilbert: "There has been between us something like a
bad feeling, the cause of which I don't wish to analyze further. I struggled against a resulting sense of
bitterness, and I did so with complete success. I once more think of you in unclouded friendship, and would
ask you to try to do likewise toward me. It is, objectively speaking, a pity if two fellows who have worked
their way out of this shabby world cannot find pleasure in one another."36 The reconciliation worked so well
that no one else seems to have noticed any friction, and a legend arose that there had never been anything but
friendly feelings between Einstein and Hilbert.37 Hilbert, like all his other colleagues, acknowledged Einstein
as the sole creator of relativity theory.
(Source: Folsing, "Albert Einstein")[44]
From the publication date of his book, it appears that Folsing did not know of the printer proofs discussed in
[Cor97].

Cory/Renn/Stachel and Friedwardt Winterberg (1997/2003)

In 1997, Cory, Renn and Stachel published a 3-page article in Science entitled "Belated Decision in the
Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute" [45], concluding that Hilbert had not anticipated Einstein's equations.
Friedwardt Winterberg, a professor of physics at the University of Nevada, Reno, disputed [46] these conclusions,
observing that the galley proofs of Hilbert's articles had been tampered with - part of one page had been cut off. He
goes on to argue that the removed part of the article contained the equations that Einstein later published, and he
wrote that the cut off part of the proofs suggests a crude attempt by someone to falsify the historical record.
"Science" declined to publish this; it was printed in revised form in "Zeitschrift für Naturforschung", with a dateline
of June 5, 2003. Winterberg wrote that the correct field equations are still present on the existing pages of the proofs
in various equivalent forms. In this paper Winterberg asserted that Einstein sought the help of Hilbert and Klein to
help him find the correct field equation, without mentioning the research of Folsing (1997) and Sauer (1999)
according to which Hilbert invited Einstein to Göttingen to give a week of lectures on general relativity in June 1915,
which however does not necessarily contradict Winterberg. Hilbert at the time was looking for physics problems to
solve.
A short reply to Winterberg's article could be found at [47]; the original long reply can be accessed via the Internet
Archive at [48]. In this reply, Winterberg's hypothesis is called "paranoid" and "speculative". Cory et al. offer the
following alternative speculation: "it is possible that Hilbert himself cropped off the top of p. 7 to include it with the
three sheets he sent Klein, in order that they not end in mid-sentence."
Relativity priority dispute 82

As of September 2006, the Max Planck Institute of Berlin has replaced the short reply with a note [49] saying that
the society "distances itself from statements published on this website [...] concerning Prof. Friedwart Winterberg"
and stating that "the Max Planck Institute will not take a position in [this] scientific dispute".
Ivan Todorov, in a paper published on ArXiv (Todorov 2005), says of the debate:
Their [CRS's] attempt to support on this ground Einstein’s accusation of “nostrification” goes much too far. A
calm, non-confrontational reaction was soon provided by a thorough study (Sau 99) of Hilbert’s route to the
“Foundations of Physics” (see also the relatively even handed survey (Viz 01)).
In the paper recommended by Todorov as calm and non-confrontational, Tilman Sauer (1999) concludes that the
printer's proofs show conclusively that Einstein did not plagiarize Hilbert, stating
any possibility that Einstein took the clue for the final step toward his field equations from Hilbert's note [Nov
20, 1915] is now definitely precluded.
Bjerknes [50] has disputed Sauer's conclusion,
[. . .]Dr. Sauer's vague and arbitrary arguments regarding Einstein's plagiarism do not follow from his
premises. There is no evidence or circumstance which would preclude Einstein's plagiarism. On the contrary,
the evidence and the circumstances surrounding Einstein’s publication of the generally covariant field
equations of gravitation containing the trace term on 25 November 1915 prove beyond any reasonable doubt
that Einstein plagiarized them from David Hilbert.
Max Born's letter to David Hilbert, quoted in Wuensch [51] vindicates Bjerknes's view there is a real possibility that
Einstein copied from Hilbert.[52]
Logunov (2004) commenting on the "Belated decision" paper, but not aware of the Born letter, concludes
Their [Hilbert's and Einstein's] pathways were different but they led exactly to the same result. Nobody
"nostrified" the other ... All is absolutely clear: both authors made everything to immortalize their names in the
title of the gravitational field equations. But general relativity is Einstein’s theory.[12]
Todorov ends his paper by stating:
Einstein and Hilbert had the moral strength and wisdom - after a month of intense competition, from which, in
a final account, everybody (including science itself) profited - to avoid a lifelong priority dispute (something in
which Leibniz and Newton failed). It would be a shame to subsequent generations of scientists and historians
of science to try to undo their achievement.

Christopher Jon Bjerknes (2003)

This author has written several books and articles claiming that Einstein plagiarized the theories of relativity.
Examples are "Anticipations of Einstein in the General Theory of Relativity" and "Albert Einstein: the incorrigible
plagiarist". [53] [54]

Olivier Darrigol on Special Relativity (2004)

In his 2004 article, "The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincaré Connection", Darrigol wrote:
• "By 1905 Poincaré's and Einstein's reflections on the electrodynamics of moving bodies led them to postulate the
universal validity of the relativity principle, according to which the outcome of any conceivable experiment is
independent of the inertial frame of reference in which it is performed. In particular, they both assumed that the
velocity of light measured in different inertial frames was the same. They further argued that the space and time
measured by observers belonging to different inertial systems were related to each other through the Lorentz
transformations. They both recognized that the Maxwell-Lorentz equations of electrodynamics were left invariant
by these transformations. They both required that every law of physics should be invariant under these
transformations. They both gave the relativistic laws of motion. They both recognized that the relativity principle
Relativity priority dispute 83

and the energy principle led to paradoxes when conjointly applied to radiation processes. On several points -
namely, the relativity principle, the physical interpretation of Lorentz's transformations (to first order), and the
radiation paradoxes - Poincaré's relevant publications antedated Einstein's relativity paper of 1905 by at least five
years, and his suggestions were radically new when they first appeared. On the remaining points, publication was
nearly simultaneous."
• "I turn now to basic conceptual differences. Einstein completely eliminated the ether, required that the expression
of the laws of physics should be the same in any inertial frame, and introduced a "new kinematics" in which the
space and time measured in different inertial systems were all on exactly the same footing. In contrast, Poincaré
maintained the ether as a privileged frame of reference in which "true" space and time were defined, while he
regarded the space and time measured in other frames as only "apparent." He treated the Lorentz contraction as a
hypothesis regarding the effect of the edgewise motion of a rod through the ether, whereas for Einstein it was a
kinematic consequence of the difference between the space and time defined by observers in relative motion.
Einstein gave the operational meaning of time dilation, whereas Poincaré never discussed it. Einstein derived the
expression of the Lorentz transformation from his two postulates (the relativity principle and the constancy of the
velocity of light in a given inertial system), whereas Poincaré obtained these transformations as those that leave
the Maxwell-Lorentz equations invariant. Whereas Einstein, having eliminated the ether, needed a second
postulate, in Poincaré's view the constancy of the velocity of light (in the ether frame) derived from the
assumption of a stationary ether. Einstein obtained the dynamics of any rapidly moving particle by the direct use
of Lorentz covariance, whereas Poincaré reasoned according to a specific model of the electron built up in
conformity with Lorentz covariance. Einstein saw that Poincaré's radiation paradoxes could be solved only by
assuming the inertia of energy, whereas Poincaré never returned to this question. Lastly, Poincaré immediately
proposed a relativistic modification of Newton's law of gravitation and saw the advantages of a four-vector
formalism in this context, whereas Einstein waited a couple of years to address this problem complex."
• "These differences between the two theories are sometimes regarded as implying different observable predictions
even within the domain of electromagnetism and optics. In reality, there is no such disagreement, for Poincaré’s
ether is by assumption perfectly undetectable, and every deduction made in Einstein’s theory can be translated
into a deduction in Poincaré’s theory ..."
• In sum, then, Einstein could have borrowed the relativity principle, the definition of simultaneity, the physical
interpretation of the Lorentz transformations, and the radiation paradoxes from Poincaré. ... The wisest attitude
might be to leave the coincidence of Poincaré’s and Einstein’s breakthroughs unexplained, ...
(Source: [Dar04])

Anatoly Alexeevich Logunov (2004)

Logunov is a former Vice President of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and currently "Advisor" of the Institute for
High Energy Physics.[55][56] Author of a book about Poincaré's relativity theory [57]. Coauthor, with Mestvirishvili
and Petrov, of an article rejecting the conclusions of the Corry/Renn/Stachel paper. They discuss both Einstein's and
Hilbert's papers, claiming that Einstein and Hilbert arrived at the correct field equations independently. Specifically,
they conclude that:
Their pathways were different but they led exactly to the same result. Nobody "nostrified" the other. So no
“belated decision in the Einstein–Hilbert priority dispute”, about which [Corry, Renn, and Stachel] wrote, can
be taken. Moreover, the very Einstein–Hilbert dispute never took place.
All is absolutely clear: both authors made everything to immortalize their names in the title of the
gravitational field equations. But general relativity is Einstein’s theory.[58]
His book about Poincaré's relativity theory [57] is a useful introduction to the subject. Starting on p. 113 is an English
translation by V. A. Petrov, using modern notations, of the part of Poincaré's 1900 article containing E=mc2.
Logunov states that Poincaré's 1905 papers Sur la dynamique de l'électron (On the Dynamics of the Electron) are
Relativity priority dispute 84

superior to Einstein's 1905 Elektrodynamik paper. According to Logunov, Poincaré was the first scientist to
recognize the importance of invariance under the Poincaré group as a guideline for developing new theories in
physics. In chapter 9 of this book, Logunov points out that Poincaré's second paper was the first one to formulate a
complete theory of relativistic dynamics, containing the correct relativistic analogue of Newton's F=ma.
On p. 142, Logunov points out that Einstein wrote reviews for the Beiblätter Annalen der Physik, writing 21 reviews
in 1905. This contradicts the claims that Einstein worked in relative isolation and with limited access to the scientific
literature, claims which are usually made to exculpate Einstein from plagiarism. Among the papers reviewed in 1905
Beiblätter are a review, in the fourth (of 24) issue of 1905, of Lorentz' paper in the Versl. K. Ak. van Wet. 12(1904),
p. 986 containing the Lorentz transformation. The review also contained these transformations. This supports the
view that Einstein was familiar with the Lorentz' paper containing the correct relativistic transformation in early
1905, while his June 1905 Elektrodynamik paper does not mention Lorentz in connection with this result.

Jules Leveugle and Christian Marchal (2004/2005)

Similar to Anatoly A. Logunov, Christian Marchal and Jules Leveugle argue that the contribution of Albert Einstein
to the special theory of relativity is minor compared to that of Henri Poincaré [59]. Compare also: Jules Leveugle, La
Relativité et Einstein, Planck, Hilbert - Histoire véridique de la Théorie de la Relativité, L'Harmattan, Paris 2004.

Daniela Wuensch (2005)

Daniela Wuensch, a historian of science and a Hilbert and Kaluza expert, responded to Bjerknes, Winterberg and
Logunov's criticisms of the Corry/Renn/Stachel paper in a book which appeared in 2005 [60], wherein she defends
the view that the cut to Hilbert's printer proofs was made in recent times. Moreover, she presents a theory about what
might have been on the missing part of the proofs, based upon her knowledge of Hilbert's papers and lectures.
She defends the view that knowledge of Hilbert's November 16, 1915 letter was crucial to Einstein's development of
the field equations: Einstein arrived at the correct field equations only with Hilbert's help ("nach großer Anstrengung
mit Hilfe Hilberts"), but nevertheless calls Einstein's reaction (his negative comments on Hilbert in the November 26
letter to Zangger) "understandable" ("Einstein's Reaktion ist verständlich") because Einstein had worked on the
problem for a long time.
According to her publisher, Wuensch concludes though that:
This comprehensive study concludes with a historical interpretation. It shows that while it is true that Hilbert
must be seen as the one who first discovered the field equations, the general theory of relativity is indeed
Einstein's achievement, whereas Hilbert developed a unified theory of gravitation and electromagnetism. [60]
In 2006, Wuensch was invited to give a talk at the annual meeting of the German Physics Society (Deutsche
Physikalische Gesellschaft) about her views about the priority issue for the field equations.[61]

Klaus Sommer (2005)

Klaus Sommer is a historian of science and Hilbert expert. In an article in "Physik in unserer Zeit" (Sommer 05)
[62], he supports Wuensch's view that Einstein obtained not independently but from the information obtained from
Hilbert's November 16 letter and from the notes of Hilbert's talk.
While he does not call Einstein a plagiarist, Sommer speculates that Einstein's conciliatory December 20 letter was
motivated by the fear that Hilbert might comment Einstein's behaviour in the final version of his paper, claiming that
a scandal caused by Hilbert could have done more damage to Einstein than any scandal before ("Ein Skandal
Hilberts hätte ihm mehr geschadet als jeder andere zuvor").
Relativity priority dispute 85

See also
• History of special relativity
• History of general relativity
• Henri Poincaré
• David Hilbert
• Twin paradox
• Equivalence principle
• List of scientific priority disputes
• Einstein-Hilbert action

Footnotes
[1] [Poi02]
[2] [Sta89], p. 893, footnote 10
[3] [Ein05d], last section
[4] http:/ / termessos. de/ prooffotos. htm
[5] D. Hilbert, Nac. Ges. Wiss. Goettingen 1916, 395, cited in [Cor97].
[6] [Hil24] page 2
[7] [Wue05], p. 83
[8] Whittaker (1953), pp. 27-77
[9] Holton (1988), pp. 202-207
[10] Miller (1981), pp. 216-217
[11] Pais (1982), pp. 126-128
[12] Torretti (1983), pp. 83-87
[13] Darrigol (2005)
[14] Lorentz, H.A. (1921), " Deux Memoirs de Henri Poincaré sur la Physique Mathematique (http:/ / www. new. dli. ernet. in/ scripts/
FullindexDefault. htm?path1=/ data/ upload/ 0050/ 246& first=702& last=724& barcode=1990050050241)", Acta Mathematica 38: 293–308
Reprinted in Poincaré, Oeuvres tome XI (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ ceuvresdeehenrip027739mbp), S. 247-261.
[15] Poincaré, H. (1906), " Sur la dynamique de l'électron (http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ P-1905. pdf)", Rendiconti del Circolo
matematico Rendiconti del Circolo di Palermo 21: 129–176 Reprinted in Poincaré, Oeuvres, tome IX, pages 494-550. See also the partial
English translation (http:/ / www. univ-nancy2. fr/ poincare/ bhp/ ).
[16] En effet, pour certaines des grandeurs physiques qui entrent dans les formules, je n'ai pas indique la transformation qui convient le mieux.
Cela a été fait par Poincaré et ensuite par M. Einstein et Minkowski. [..] C'est que je n'avais pas songé a la voie directe qui y conduit, et cela
tient a ce que j'avais l’idée qu'il y a une différence essentielle entre les systèmes x, y, z, t et x', y’, z’, t’. Dans l’un on se sert - telle était ma
pensée - d'axes des coordonnées qui ont une position fixe dans l’éther et de ce qu'on peut appeler le « vrai » temps; dans l’autre système, au
contraire, on aurait affaire a de simples grandeurs auxiliaires dont l’introduction n'est qu'un artifice mathématique. [..] mais je n'ai pas établi le
principe de relativité comme rigoureusement et universellement vrai. Poincaré, au contraire, a obtenu une invariance parfaite des équations de
l’électrodynamique, et il a formule le « postulat de relativité » , termes qu’il a été le premier a employer. [..] Ajoutons qu'en corrigeant ainsi les
imperfections de mon travail il ne me les a jamais reprochées.
[17] Lorentz, H.A (1916), The theory of electrons (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ electronstheory00lorerich), Leipzig & Berlin: B.G.
Teubner
[18] Janssen, M. (1995), A Comparison between Lorentz's Ether Theory and Special Relativity in the Light of the Experiments of Trouton and
Noble (http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ en/ sources/ index. html#articles)(thesis)
[19] Lorentz, H.A. (1928), " Conference on the Michelson-Morley Experiment (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1928ApJ. . . . 68. . 341M)", The
Astrophysical Journal 68: 345–351
[20] Poincaré, H. (1913), Last Essays (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ mathematicsandsc001861mbp), New York: Dover Publication (1963)
[21] Renn, J.,: Albert Einstein in den Annalen der Physik (http:/ / einstein-annalen. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ home), 2005
[22] The titles of 21 reviews written in 1905 can be found in "The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 2". See online (http:/ / press.
princeton. edu/ TOCs/ c4453. html).
[23] Einstein, A. (1907), " Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen (http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/
E-1907. pdf)", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik 4: 411–462
[24] Einstein, A. (1909), " Über die Entwicklungen unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung (http:/ / www.
ekkehard-friebe. de/ EINSTEIN-1909-P. pdf)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 10 (22): 817–825. See also English translation
[25] Einstein, A. (1912), " Relativität und Gravitation. Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung von M. Abraham (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg.
de/ annalen/ history/ papers/ 1912_38_1059-1064. pdf)", Annalen der Physik 38: 1059–1064
Relativity priority dispute 86

[26] Darrigol, O. (2004), " The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincaré Connection (http:/ / www. journals. uchicago. edu/ doi/ full/ 10. 1086/
430652)", Isis 95 (4): 614–626, doi:10.1086/430652, PMID 16011297
[27] Einstein, A. (1906), " Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie (http:/ / www. physik.
uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ papers/ 1906_20_627-633. pdf)", Annalen der Physik 20: 627–633
[28] Einstein, A. (1922), Sidelights on relativity (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ ebooks/ 7333), London: Methuen & Co. This work includes the
English translations of "Ether and the theory of relativity (1920)" and "Geometry and experience (1921)".
[29] Born, M. (1956), Physics im my generation (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ physucsinmygener006567mbp), London & New York:
Pergamon Press
[30] [Tho94]
[31] [Tho94, p. 117]
[32] [Wue05], p. 83
[33] [Meh74, p. 84]
[34] [Bje03a, p. 17; Bje06 p. 2079]
[35] [Hil24] English translation from Bje03a, p. 17; Bje06, p. 2079]
[36] [Sau99] footnote 158
[37] [Sau99]
[38] [Fol98] (page needed)
[39] [Wue05], page 74
[40] [Kes65 part 3, section 3, page 276
[41] [Din65]
[42] [Pop65]
[43] [Kes66a]
[44] [Fol98] page 375
[45] http:/ / www. garfield. library. upenn. edu/ histcomp/ einstein-a_all-w-citing-pre-56_e/ node/ 12342. html
[46] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070629183442/ http:/ / physics. unr. edu/ faculty/ winterberg/ Hilbert-Einstein. pdf
[47] http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ texts/ Winterberg-Antwort. pdf
[48] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050313161944/ http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ texts/ Winterberg-Antwort. html
[49] http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ texts/ Winterberg-Antwort. html
[50] [Bje03, p. 10]
[51] [Wue05]
[52] [Wue05 Som05]
[53] http:/ / lccn. loc. gov/ 2003019787
[54] http:/ / lccn. loc. gov/ 2002005657
[55] http:/ / www. biograph. comstar. ru/ bank/ logunov. htm
[56] http:/ / www. ihep. su/ ihep/ info/ contact. htm
[57] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0408077
[58] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0405075
[59] http:/ / www. annales. org/ archives/ x/ poincare. html
[60] http:/ / termessos. de/ einsteinhilbertdispute. htm
[61] http:/ / www. dpg-tagungen. de/ program/ muenchen/ gr302. pdf
[62] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ abstract/ 111083634/ ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1& SRETRY=0

References

Works of physics (primary sources)

[Ein05c]
Albert Einstein: Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, Annalen der Physik 17(1905), 891-921. Received June
30, published September 26, 1905. Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], p. 276-306 English translation, with
footnotes not present in the 1905 paper, available on the net (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/
specrel/)
[Ein05d]
Albert Einstein: Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energiegehalt abhängig?, Annalen der Physik
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Relativity priority dispute 87

[Ein06]
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 92

Unified field theory

Classical unified field theories

Since the 19th century, some physicists have attempted to develop a single theoretical framework that can account
for the fundamental forces of nature – a unified field theory. Classical unified field theories are attempts to create a
unified field theory based on classical physics. In particular, unification of gravitation and electromagnetism was
actively pursued by several physicists and mathematicians in the years between World War I and World War II. This
work spurred the purely mathematical development of differential geometry. Albert Einstein is the best known of the
many physicists who attempted to develop a classical unified field theory.
This article describes various attempts at a classical, relativistic unified field theory. For a survey of classical
relativistic field theories of gravitation that have been motivated by theoretical concerns other than unification, see
Classical theories of gravitation. For a survey of current work toward creating a quantum theory of gravitation, see
quantum gravity.

Overview
The early attempts at creating a unified field theory began with the Riemannian geometry of general relativity, and
attempted to incorporate electromagnetic fields into a more general geometry, since ordinary Riemannian geometry
seemed incapable of expressing the properties of the electromagnetic field. Einstein was not alone in his attempts to
unify electromagnetism and gravity; a large number of mathematicians and physicists, including Hermann Weyl,
Arthur Eddington, Theodor Kaluza, Lancelot Law Whyte, and R. Bach also attempted to develop approaches that
could unify these interactions.[1] [2] These scientists pursued several avenues of generalization, including extending
the foundations of geometry and adding an extra spatial dimension.

Early work
The first attempts to provide a unified theory were by G. Mie in 1912 and Ernst Reichenbacher in 1916.[3] [4]
However, these theories were unsatisfactory, as they did not incorporate general relativity – in the former case,
because general relativity had yet to be formulated. These efforts, along with those of Forster, involved making the
metric tensor (which had previously been assumed to be symmetric and real-valued) into an asymmetric and/or
complex-valued tensor, and they also attempted to create a field theory for matter as well.

Differential geometry and field theory

From 1918 until 1923, there were four distinct approaches to field theory: the gauge theory of Weyl, Kaluza's
five-dimensional theory, Lancelot Law Whyte's theory based on the Unitary Principle and Eddington's development
of affine geometry. Einstein corresponded with these researchers, and collaborated with Kaluza, but was not yet fully
involved in the unification effort.

Weyl's infinitesimal geometry

In order to include electromagnetism into the geometry of general relativity, Hermann Weyl worked to generalize the
Riemannian geometry upon which general relativity is based. His idea was to create a more general infinitesimal
geometry. He noted that in addition to a metric field there could be additional degrees of freedom along a path
between two points in a manifold, and he tried to exploit this by introducing a basic method for comparison of local
Classical unified field theories 93

size measures along such a path, in terms of a gauge field. This geometry generalized Riemannian geometry in that
there was a vector field Q, in addition to the metric g, which together gave rise to both the electromagnetic and
gravitational fields. This theory was mathematically sound, albeit complicated, resulting in difficult and high-order
field equations. The critical mathematical ingredients in this theory, the Lagrangians and curvature tensor, were
worked out by Weyl and colleagues. Then Weyl carried out an extensive correspondence with Einstein and others as
to its physical validity, and the theory was ultimately found to be physically unreasonable. However, Weyl's
principle of gauge invariance was later applied in a modified form to quantum field theory.

Kaluza's fifth dimension

Kaluza's approach to unification was to embed space-time into a five-dimensional cylindrical world; one of four
space dimensions and one of time. Unlike Weyl's approach, Riemannian geometry was maintained, and the extra
dimension allowed for the incorporation of the electromagnetic field vector into the geometry. Despite the relative
mathematical elegance of this approach, in collaboration with Einstein and Einstein's aide Grommer it was
determined that this theory did not admit a non-singular, static, spherically symmetric solution. This theory did have
some influence on Einstein's later work and was further developed later by Klein in an attempt to incorporate
relativity into quantum theory, in what is now known as Kaluza-Klein theory.

Lancelot Law Whyte's unitary field theory

This theory was based on an organizing process called by Lancelot Law Whyte the "Unitary Principle". The history
of this theoretical approach is: Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell worked from Rudjer Boscovich's theory,
which dealt with non-Euclidean and higher-dimensional geometry. This prompted mathematicians such as Gauss and
Riemann to investigate that area of mathematics. The mathematics that Riemann developed was used by Einstein in
his theory of general relativity, but that was not as extensive a description as Boscovich's theory, for which the
mathematics had been only incompletely developed. Lancelot Law Whyte's ideas were adopted for experimental
work by Leo Baranski, who planned a series of books based upon this theory. Only Baranski's first book was
published before his death, upon which this line of investigation based upon classical physics was abandoned by
academia.

Eddington's affine geometry

Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington was a noted astronomer who became an enthusiastic and influential promoter of
Einstein's general theory of relativity. He was among the first to propose an extension of the gravitational theory
based on the affine connection as the fundamental structure field rather than the metric tensor which was the original
focus of general relativity. Affine connection is the basis for parallel transport of vectors from one space-time point
to another; Eddington assumed the affine connection to be symmetric in its covariant indices, because it seemed
plausible that the result of parallel-transporting one infinitesimal vector along another should produce the same result
as transporting the second along the first. (Later workers revisited this assumption.)
Eddington emphasized what he considered to be epistemological considerations; for example, he thought that the
cosmological constant version of the general-relativistic field equation expressed the property that the universe was
"self-gauging". Since the simplest cosmological model (the De Sitter universe) that solves that equation is a
spherically symmetric, stationary, closed universe (exhibiting a cosmological red shift, which is more conventionally
interpreted as due to expansion), it seemed to explain the overall form of the universe.
Like many other classical unified field theorists, Eddington considered that in the Einstein field equations for general
relativity the stress-energy tensor , which represents matter/energy, was merely provisional, and that in a truly
unified theory the source term would automatically arise as some aspect of the free-space field equations. He also
shared the hope that an improved fundamental theory would explain why the two elementary particles then known
Classical unified field theories 94

(proton and electron) have quite different masses.

The Dirac equation for the relativistic quantum electron caused Eddington to rethink his previous conviction that
fundamental physical theory had to be based on tensors. He subsequently devoted his efforts into development of a
"Fundamental Theory" based largely on algebraic notions (which he called "E-frames"). Unfortunately his
descriptions of this theory were sketchy and difficult to understand, so very few physicists followed up on his
work.[5]

Einstein's geometric approaches

When the equivalent of Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism is formulated within the framework of Einstein's
theory of general relativity, the electromagnetic field energy (being equivalent to mass as one would expect from
Einstein's famous equation E=mc2) contributes to the stress tensor and thus to the curvature of space-time, which is
the general-relativistic representation of the gravitational field; or putting it another way, certain configurations of
curved space-time incorporate effects of an electromagnetic field. This suggests that a purely geometric theory ought
to treat these two fields as different aspects of the same basic phenomenon. However, ordinary Riemannian
geometry is unable to describe the properties of the electromagnetic field as a purely geometric phenomenon.
Einstein tried to form a generalized theory of gravitation that would unify the gravitational and electromagnetic
forces (and perhaps others), guided by a belief in a single origin for the entire set of physical laws. These attempts
initially concentrated on additional geometric notions such as vierbeins and "distant parallelism", but eventually
centered around treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. (Because they are
not independent, the metric-affine theory was somewhat complicated.) In general relativity, these fields are
symmetric (in the matrix sense), but since antisymmetry seemed essential for electromagnetism, the symmetry
requirement was relaxed for one or both fields. Einstein's proposed unified-field equations (fundamental laws of
physics) were generally derived from a variational principle expressed in terms of the Riemann curvature tensor for
the presumed space-time manifold.[6]
In field theories of this kind, particles appear as limited regions in space-time in which the field strength or the
energy density are particularly high. Einstein and coworker Leopold Infeld managed to demonstrate that, in
Einstein's final theory of the unified field, true singularities of the field did have trajectories resembling point
particles. However, singularities are places where the equations break down, and Einstein believed that in an ultimate
theory the laws should apply everywhere, with particles being soliton-like solutions to the (highly nonlinear) field
equations. Further, the large-scale topology of the universe should impose restrictions on the solutions, such as
quantization or discrete symmetries.
The degree of abstraction, combined with a relative lack of good mathematical tools for analyzing nonlinear equation
systems, make it hard to connect such theories with the physical phenomena that they might describe. For example, it
has been suggested that the torsion (antisymmetric part of the affine connection) might be related to isospin rather
than electromagnetism; this is related to a discrete (or "internal") symmetry known to Einstein as "displacement field
duality".
Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research on a generalized theory of gravitation, and most physicists
consider his attempts ultimately unsuccessful. In particular, his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces
ignored developments in quantum physics (and vice versa), most notably the discovery of the strong nuclear force
and weak nuclear force.[7]
Classical unified field theories 95

Schrödinger's pure-affine theory

Inspired by Einstein's approach to a unified field theory and Eddington's idea of the affine connection as the sole
basis for differential geometric structure for space-time, Erwin Schrödinger from 1940 to 1951 thoroughly
investigated pure-affine formulations of generalized gravitational theory. Although he initially assumed a symmetric
affine connection, like Einstein he later considered the nonsymmetric field.
Schrödinger's most striking discovery during this work was that the metric tensor was induced upon the manifold via
a simple construction from the Riemann curvature tensor, which was in turn formed entirely from the affine
connection. Further, taking this approach with the simplest feasible basis for the variational principle resulted in a
field equation having the form of Einstein's general-relativistic field equation with a cosmological term arising
automatically.[8]
Skepticism from Einstein and published criticisms from other physicists discouraged Schrödinger, and his work in
this area has been largely ignored.

Later work
After the 1930s, progressively fewer scientists worked on classical unification, due to the continual development of
quantum theory and the difficulties encountered in developing a quantum theory of gravity. Einstein continued to
work on unified field theories of gravity and electromagnetism, but he became increasingly isolated in this research,
which he pursued until his death. Despite the publicity of this work due to Einstein's celebrity status, it never resulted
in a resounding success.
Most scientists, though not Einstein, eventually abandoned classical theories. Current research on unified field
theories focuses on the problem of creating quantum gravity and unifying such a theory with the other fundamental
theories in physics, which are quantum theories. (Some programs, most notably string theory, attempt to solve both
of these problems at once.) With four fundamental forces now identified, gravity remains the one force whose
unification proves problematic.

References
[1] Weyl, H. (1918). "Gravitation und Elektrizität". Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss.: 465.
[2] Eddington, A. S. (1924). The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, 2nd ed.. Cambridge Univ. Press.
[3] Mie, G. (1912). "Grundlagen einer Theorie der Materie". Ann. Phys. 37: 511–534. doi:10.1002/andp.19123420306.
[4] Reichenbächer, E. (1917). "Grundzüge zu einer Theorie der Elektrizität und der Gravitation". Ann. Phys. 52: 134–173.
doi:10.1002/andp.19173570203.
[5] Kilmister, C. W. (1994). Eddington's search for a fundamental theory. Cambridge Univ. Press.
[6] Einstein, A. (1956). The Meaning of Relativity. 5th ed.. Princeton Univ. Press.
[7] Gönner, Hubert F. M.. "On the History of Unified Field Theories" (http:/ / relativity. livingreviews. org/ open?pubNo=lrr-2004-2). Living
Reviews in Relativity. . Retrieved August 10, 2005.
[8] Schrödinger, E. (1950). Space-Time Structure. Cambridge Univ. Press.
 96

Collaboration and conflict

Bohr–Einstein debates
The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about
quantum mechanics between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr who were
two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their
importance to the philosophy of science. An account of them has been
written by Bohr in an article titled "Discussions with Einstein on
Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics".[1] Despite their
differences of opinion regarding quantum mechanics, Bohr and
Einstein had a mutual admiration that was to last the rest of their
lives.[2]

Pre-revolutionary debates
Einstein was the first physicist to say that Planck's discovery of the
quantum (h) would require a rewriting of physics. As though to prove
his point, in 1905 he proposed that light sometimes acts as a particle
which he called a light quantum (now called the photon). Bohr was one
of the most vocal opponents of the photon idea and did not openly Niels Bohr with Albert Einstein at Paul
[3]
embrace it until 1925. His later ability to work creatively with an Ehrenfest's home in Leiden (December 1925)

idea he had so long resisted is quite unusual in the history of science.

The photon appealed to Einstein because he saw it as a physical reality (although a confusing one) behind the
numbers. Bohr disliked it because it made the choice of mathematical solution arbitrary. He did not like that a
scientist had to choose between equations.[4]

1913 brought the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom which made use of the quantum to explain the atomic spectrum.
Einstein was at first dubious, but quickly changed his mind and embraced it. He tolerated Bohr's model despite the
fact that its underlying reality could not be pictured in detail because he considered it a work in progress.

The quantum revolution

The quantum revolution of the mid-1920s occurred under the direction of both Einstein and Bohr, and their
post-revolutionary debates were about making sense of the change. The shocks for Einstein began in 1925 when
Werner Heisenberg introduced matrix equations that removed the Newtonian elements of space and time from any
underlying reality. The next shock came in 1926 when Max Born proposed that the mechanics was to be understood
as a probability without any causal explanation. Finally, in late 1927, Heisenberg and Born declared at the Solvay
Conference that the revolution was over and nothing further was needed. It was at that last stage that Einstein's
skepticism turned to dismay. He believed that much had been accomplished, but the reasons for the mechanics still
needed to be understood.[4]
Einstein's refusal to accept the revolution as complete reflected his rejection of the idea that positions in space-time
could never be completely known and by the way quantum probabilities did not reflect any underlying causes. He
did not reject the statistics or probabilities on their own and Einstein himself was a great statistical thinker. It was the
lack of any reason for an event that Einstein rejected.[4] Bohr, meanwhile, was dismayed by none of the elements that
Bohr–Einstein debates 97

troubled Einstein. He made his own peace with the contradictions by proposing a Principle of Complementarity that
emphasized the role of the observer over the observed.[3]

Post-Revolution: First stage

As mentioned above, Einstein's position underwent significant modifications over the course of the years. In the first
stage, Einstein refused to accept quantum indeterminism and sought to demonstrate that the principle of
indeterminacy could be violated, suggesting ingenious thought experiments which should permit the accurate
determination of incompatible variables, such as position and velocity, or to explicitly reveal simultaneously the
wave and the particle aspects of the same process.
The first serious attack by Einstein on the "orthodox" conception took place during the Fifth Conference of Physics
at the Solvay Institute in 1927. Einstein pointed out how it was possible to take advantage of the (universally
accepted) laws of conservation of energy and of impulse (momentum) in order to obtain information on the state of a
particle in a process of interference which, according to the principle of indeterminacy or that of complementarity,
should not be accessible.
In order to follow his argumentation and to
evaluate Bohr's response, it is convenient to
refer to the experimental apparatus
illustrated in figure A. A beam of light
perpendicular to the X axis which
propagates in the direction z encounters a
screen S1 which presents a narrow (with
respect to the wavelength of the ray) slit.
After having passed through the slit, the
wave function diffracts with an angular
opening that causes it to encounter a second
screen S2 which presents two slits. The
successive propagation of the wave results
in the formation of the interference figure on
Figure A. A monochromatic beam (one for which all the particles have the same
the final screen F. impulse) encounters a first screen, diffracts, and the diffracted wave encounters a
second screen with two slits resulting in the formation of an interference figure on
At the passage through the two slits of the the background F. As always, it is assumed that only one particle at a time is able
second screen S2, the wave aspects of the to pass the entire mechanism. From the measure of the recoil of the screen S1,
process become essential. In fact, it is according to Einstein, one can deduce from which slit the particle has passed
without destroying the wave aspects of the process.
precisely the interference between the two
terms of the quantum superposition
corresponding to states in which the particle is localized in one of the two slits which implies that the particle is
"guided" preferably into the zones of constructive interference and cannot end up in a point in the zones of
destructive interference (in which the wave function is nullified). It is also important to note that any experiment
designed to evidence the "corpuscular" aspects of the process at the passage of the screen S2 (which, in this case,
reduces to the determination of which slit the particle has passed through) inevitably destroys the wave aspects,
implies the disappearance of the interference figure and the emergence of two concentrated spots of diffraction
which confirm our knowledge of the trajectory followed by the particle.

At this point Einstein brings into play the first screen as well and argues as follows: since the incident particles have
velocities (practically) perpendicular to the screen S1, and since it is only the interaction with this screen that can
cause a deflection from the original direction of propagation, by the law of conservation of impulse which implies
that the sum of the impulses of two systems which interact is conserved, if the incident particle is deviated toward
Bohr–Einstein debates 98

the top, the screen will recoil toward the bottom and vice-versa. In realistic conditions the mass of the screen is so
heavy that it will remain stationary, but, in principle, it is possible to measure even an infinitesimal recoil. If we
imagine taking the measurement of the impulse of the screen in the direction X after every single particle has passed,
we can know, from the fact that the screen will be found recoiled toward the top (bottom), if the particle in question
has been deviated toward the bottom (top) and therefore we can know from which slit in S2 the particle has passed.
But since the determination of the direction of the recoil of the screen after the particle has passed cannot influence
the successive development of the process, we will still have an interference figure on the screen F. The interference
takes place precisely because the state of the system is the superposition of two states whose wave functions are
non-zero only near one of the two slits. On the other hand, if every particle passes through only the slit b or the slit c,
then the set of systems is the statistical mixture of the two states, which means that interference is not possible. If
Einstein is correct, then there is a violation of the principle of indeterminacy.
Bohr's response was to illustrate Einstein's idea more clearly via the diagrams in
Figures B and C. Bohr observes that extremely precise knowledge of any
(potential) vertical motion of the screen is an essential presupposition in Einstein's
argument. In fact, if its velocity in the direction X before the passage of the particle
is not known with a precision substantially greater than that induced by the recoil
(that is, if it were already moving vertically with an unknown and greater velocity Figure B. Bohr's representation of
than that which it derives as a consequence of the contact with the particle), then Einstein's thought experiment
the determination of its motion after the passage of the particle would not give the described above. The mobile
window is evidenced in order to
information we seek. However, Bohr continues, an extremely precise determination
underscore the fact that the
of the velocity of the screen, when one applies the principle of indeterminacy, attempt to know which slit a
implies an inevitable imprecision of its position in the direction X. Before the particle passes through destroys
process even begins, the screen would therefore occupy an indeterminate position the interference pattern.

at least to a certain extent (defined by the formalism). Now consider, for example,
the point d in figure A, where there is destructive interference. It's obvious that any displacement of the first screen
would make the lengths of the two paths, a-b-d and a-c-d, different from those indicated in the figure. If the
difference between the two paths varies by half a wavelength, at point d there will be constructive rather than
destructive interference. The ideal experiment must average over all the possible positions of the screen S1, and, for
every position, there corresponds, for a certain fixed point F, a different type of interference, from the perfectly
destructive to the perfectly constructive. The effect of this averaging is that the pattern of interference on the screen
F will be uniformly grey. Once more, our attempt to evidence the corpuscular aspects in S2 has destroyed the
possibility of interference in F which depends crucially on the wave aspects.
Bohr–Einstein debates 99

It should be noted that, as Bohr recognized, for the understanding of this

phenomenon "it is decisive that, contrary to genuine instruments of
measurement, these bodies along with the particles would constitute, in the
case under examination, the system to which the quantum-mechanical
formalism must apply. With respect to the precision of the conditions under
which one can correctly apply the formalism, it is essential to include the
entire experimental apparatus. In fact, the introduction of any new apparatus,
such as a mirror, in the path of a particle could introduce new effects of
interference which influence essentially the predictions about the results
which will be registered at the end." Further along, Bohr attempts to resolve
this ambiguity concerning which parts of the system should be considered
macroscopic and which not:
In particular, it must be very clear that...the unambiguous use of
spatiotemporal concepts in the description of atomic phenomena must Figure C. In order to realize Einstein's
be limited to the registration of observations which refer to images on a proposal, it is necessary to replace the
photographic lens or to analogous practically irreversible effects of first screen in Figure A (S1) with a
movable diaphragm which can move
amplification such as the formation of a drop of water around an ion in
vertically such as this proposed by Bohr.
a dark room.
Bohr's argument about the impossibility of using the apparatus proposed by Einstein to violate the principle of
indeterminacy depends crucially on the fact that a macroscopic system (the screen S1) obeys quantum laws. On the
other hand, Bohr consistently asserted that, in order to illustrate the microscopic aspects of reality it is necessary to
set off a process of amplification which involves macroscopic apparatuses, whose fundamental characteristic is that
of obeying classical laws and which can be described in classical terms. This ambiguity would later come back in the
form of what is still called today the measurement problem.

The principle of indeterminacy applied to time and energy

In many textbook examples and popular discussions of quantum
mechanics, the principle of indeterminacy is explained by
reference to the pair of variables position and velocity (or
momentum). It is important to note that the wave nature of
physical processes implies that there must exist another relation of
indeterminacy: that between time and energy. In order to
comprehend this relation, it is convenient to refer to the
experiment illustrated in Figure D, which results in the
propagation of a wave which is limited in spatial extension.
Assume that, as illustrated in the figure, a ray which is extremely
Figure D. A wave extended longitudinally passes
extended longitudinally is propagated toward a screen with a slit through a slit which remains open only for a brief
furnished with a shutter which remains open only for a very brief interval of time. Beyond the slit, there is a spatially
interval of time . Beyond the slit, there will be a wave of limited wave in the direction of propagation.

limited spatial extension which continues to propagate toward the

right.

A perfectly monochromatic wave (such as a musical note which cannot be divided into harmonics) has infinite
spatial extent. In order to have a wave which is limited in spatial extension (which is technically called a wave
packet), several waves of different frequencies must be superimposed and distributed continuously within a certain
interval of frequencies around an average value, such as . It then happens that at a certain instant, there exists a
Bohr–Einstein debates 100

spatial region (which moves over time) in which the contributions of the various fields of the superposition add up
constructively. Nonetheless, according to a precise mathematical theorem, as we move far away from this region, the
phases of the various fields, at any specified point, are distributed causally and destructive interference is produced.
The region in which the wave has non-zero amplitude is therefore spatially limited. It is easy to demonstrate that, if
the wave has a spatial extension equal to (which means, in our example, that the shutter has remained open for a time
where v is the velocity of the wave), then the wave contains (or is a superposition of) various monochromatic waves
whose frequencies cover an interval which satisfies the relation:

Remembering that in the universal relation of Planck, frequency and energy are proportional:

it follows immediately from the preceding inequality that the particle associated with the wave should possess an
energy which is not perfectly defined (since different frequencies are involved in the superposition) and
consequently there is indeterminacy in energy:

From this it follows immediately that:

which is the relation of indeterminacy between time and energy.

Einstein's second criticism

At the sixth Congress of Solvay in 1930, the indeterminacy
relation just discussed was Einstein's target of criticism. His idea
contemplates the existence of an experimental apparatus which
was subsequently designed by Bohr in such a way as to emphasize
the essential elements and the key points which he would use in
his response.

Einstein's thought experiment of 1930 as designed by

Bohr. Einstein's box was supposed to prove the
violation of the indeterminacy relation between time
and energy.

Einstein considers a box (called Einstein's box; see figure) containing electromagnetic radiation and a clock which
controls the opening of a shutter which covers a hole made in one of the walls of the box. The shutter uncovers the
hole for a time which can be chosen arbitrarily. During the opening, we are to suppose that a photon, from
among those inside the box, escapes through the hole. In this way a wave of limited spatial extension has been
created, following the explanation given above. In order to challenge the indeterminacy relation between time and
Bohr–Einstein debates 101

energy, it is necessary to find a way to determine with adequate precision the energy that the photon has brought
with it. At this point, Einstein turns to his celebrated relation between mass and energy of special relativity: . From
this it follows that knowledge of the mass of an object provides a precise indication about its energy. The argument
is therefore very simple: if one weighs the box before and after the opening of the shutter and if a certain amount of
energy has escaped from the box, the box will be lighter. The variation in mass multiplied by will provide precise
knowledge of the energy emitted. Moreover, the clock will indicate the precise time at which the event of the
particle’s emission took place. Since, in principle, the mass of the box can be determined to an arbitrary degree of
accuracy, the energy emitted can be determined with a precision as accurate as one desires. Therefore, the product
can be rendered less than what is implied by the principle of indeterminacy.
The idea is particularly acute and the argument seemed
unassailable. It's important to consider the impact of all of these
exchanges on the people involved at the time. Leon Rosenfeld, a
scientist who had participated in the Congress, described the event
several years later:
It was a real shock for Bohr...who, at first, could not think of
a solution. For the entire evening he was extremely agitated,
and he continued passing from one scientist to another,
seeking to persuade them that it could not be the case, that it
would have been the end of physics if Einstein were right; George Gamow's make-believe experimental apparatus
but he couldn't come up with any way to resolve the for validating the thought experiment at the Niels Bohr
paradox. I will never forget the image of the two antagonists Institute in Copenhagen.

as they left the club: Einstein, with his tall and commanding
figure, who walked tranquilly, with a mildly ironic smile, and Bohr who trotted along beside him, full of
excitement...The morning after saw the triumph of Bohr.
The "triumph of Bohr" consisted in his demonstrating, once again, that Einstein's subtle argument was not
conclusive, but even more so in the way that he arrived at this conclusion by appealing precisely to one of the great
ideas of Einstein: the principle of equivalence between gravitational mass and inertial mass. Bohr showed that, in
order for Einstein's experiment to function, the box would have to be suspended on a spring in the middle of a
gravitational field. In order to obtain a measurement of weight, a pointer would have to be attached to the box which
corresponded with the index on a scale. After the release of a photon, weights could be added to the box to restore it
to its original position and this would allow us to determine the weight. But in order to return the box to its original
position, the box itself would have to be measured. The inevitable uncertainty of the position of the box translates
into an uncertainty in the position of the pointer and of the determination of weight and therefore of energy. On the
other hand, since the system is immersed in a gravitational field which varies with the position, according to the
principle of equivalence the uncertainty in the position of the clock implies an uncertainty with respect to its
measurement of time and therefore of the value of the interval . A precise evaluation of this effect leads to the
conclusion that the relation cannot be violated.

Post-Revolution: Second stage

The second phase of Einstein's "debate" with Bohr and the orthodox interpretation is characterized by an acceptance
of the fact that it is, as a practical matter, impossible to simultaneously determine the values of certain incompatible
quantities, but the rejection that this implies that these quantities do not actually have precise values. He rejects the
probabilistic interpretation of Born and insists that quantum probabilities are epistemic and not ontological in nature.
As a consequence, the theory must be incomplete in some way. He recognizes the great value of the theory, but
suggests that it "does not tell the whole story," and, while providing an appropriate description at a certain level, it
gives no information on the more fundamental underlying level:
Bohr–Einstein debates 102

I have the greatest consideration for the goals which are pursued by the physicists of the latest generation
which go under the name of quantum mechanics, and I believe that this theory represents a profound level of
truth, but I also believe that the restriction to laws of a statistical nature will turn out to be
transitory....Without doubt quantum mechanics has grasped an important fragment of the truth and will be a
paragon for all future fundamental theories, for the fact that it must be deducible as a limiting case from such
foundations, just as electrostatics is deducible from Maxwell's equations of the electromagnetic field or as
thermodynamics is deducible from statistical mechanics.
These thoughts of Einstein’s would set off a line of research into so-called hidden variable theories, such as the
Bohm interpretation, in an attempt to complete the edifice of quantum theory. If quantum mechanics can be made
complete in Einstein's sense, it cannot be done locally; this fact was demonstrated by John Stewart Bell with the
formulation of Bell's inequality in 1964; however, should we live in a superdeterminist universe, that demonstration
would not be valid, as admitted by Bell himself.

Post-Revolution: Third stage

The argument of EPR

In 1935 Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen developed an
argument, published in the magazine Physical Review with the
title Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be
Considered Complete?, based on an entangled state of two
systems. Before coming to this argument, it is necessary to
formulate another hypothesis that comes out of Einstein's work in
relativity: the idea of locality. The elements of physical reality
Title sections of historical papers on EPR.
which are objectively possessed cannot be influenced
instantaneously at a distance.

The argument of EPR was in 1957 picked up by David Bohm and Yakir Aharonov in a paper published in Physical
Review with the title Discussion of Experimental Proof for the Paradox of Einstein, Rosen, and Podolsky. The
authors re-formulated the argument in terms of an entangled state of two particles, which can be summarized as
follows:
1) Consider a system of two photons which at time t are located, respectively, in the spatially distant regions A and B
and which are also in the entangled state of polarization described above:

2) At time t the photon in region A is tested for vertical polarization. Suppose that the result of the measurement is
that the photon passes through the filter. According to the reduction of the wave packet, the result is that, at time
t+dt, the system becomes:

3) At this point, the observer in A who carried out the first measurement on photon 1, without doing anything else
that could disturb the system or the other photon ("assumption (R)," below), can predict with certainty that photon 2
will pass a test of vertical polarization. It follows that photon 2 possesses an element of physical reality: that of
having a vertical polarization.
4) According to the assumption of locality, it cannot have been the action carried out in A which created this element
of reality for photon 2. Therefore, we must conclude that the photon possessed the property of being able to pass the
vertical polarization test before and independently of the measurement of photon 1.
5) At time t, the observer in A could have decided to carry out a test of polarization at 45°, obtaining a certain result,
for example, that the photon passes the test. In that case, he could have concluded that photon 2 turned out to be
Bohr–Einstein debates 103

polarized at 45°. Alternatively, if the photon did not pass the test, he could have concluded that photon 2 turned out
to be polarized at 135°. Combining one of these alternatives with the conclusion reached in 4, it seems that photon 2,
before the measurement took place, possessed both the property of being able to pass with certainty a test of vertical
polarization and the property of being able to pass with certainty a test of polarization at either 45° or 135°. These
properties are incompatible according to the formalism.
6) Since natural and obvious requirements have forced the conclusion that photon 2 simultaneously possesses
incompatible properties, this means that, even if it is not possible to determine these properties simultaneously and
with arbitrary precision, they are nevertheless possessed objectively by the system. But quantum mechanics denies
this possibility and it is therefore an incomplete theory.

Bohr's response
Bohr's response to this fascinating and elegant argument was published, five months later than the original
publication of EPR, in the same magazine Physical Review and with the exact same title as the original. The crucial
point of Bohr's answer is distilled in a passage which he later had republished in Paul Arthur Schilpp's book Albert
Einstein, scientist-philosopher in honor of the seventieth birthday of Einstein. Bohr attacks assumption (R) of EPR
by stating:
the statement of the criterion in question is ambiguous with regard to the expression "without disturbing the
system in any way". Naturally, in this case no mechanical disturbance of the system under examination can
take place in the crucial stage of the process of measurement. But even in this stage there arises the essential
problem of an influence on the precise conditions which define the possible types of prediction which regard
the subsequent behaviour of the system...their arguments do not justify their conclusion that the quantum
description turns out to be essentially incomplete...This description can be characterized as a rational use of
the possibilities of an unambiguous interpretation of the process of measurement compatible with the finite
and uncontrollable interaction between the object and the instrument of measurement in the context of
quantum theory.
As John Bell later pointed out, this passage is almost unintelligible. What does Bohr mean, Bell asks, by the
specification "mechanical" that is used to refer to the "disturbances" that Bohr maintains should not be taken into
consideration? What is meant by the expression "an influence on the precise conditions" if not that different
measurements in A provide different information on the system in B? This fact is not only admitted but is an
essential part of the argument of EPR. Lastly, what could Bohr have meant by the expression "uncontrollable
interaction between the object and the measuring apparatus", considering that the central point of the argument of
EPR is the hypothesis that, if one accepts locality, only the part of the system in A can be disturbed by the process of
measurement and that, notwithstanding this fact, this process provides precise information on the part of the system
in B? Is Bohr already contemplating the possibility of "spooky action at a distance?" If so, why not declare it
explicitly? If one abandons the assumption of locality, the argument of EPR obviously collapses immediately.
The debates represent one of the highest points of scientific research in the first half of the twentieth century because
it called attention to an element of quantum theory, quantum non-locality, which is absolutely central to our modern
understanding of the physical world.

Post-Revolution: Fourth stage

In his last writing on the topic, Einstein further refined his position, making it completely clear that what really
disturbed him about the quantum theory was the problem of the total renunciation of all minimal standards of
realism, even at the microscopic level, that the acceptance of the completeness of the theory implied. Although the
majority of experts in the field seem to accept the Copenhagen interpretation, there are critics who, like Einstein,
believe that it has failed to provide a sensible and acceptable representation of reality (see Interpretation of quantum
mechanics).
Bohr–Einstein debates 104

See also
• Afshar's experiment
• Complementarity
• Copenhagen interpretation
• Double-slit experiment
• EPR paradox
• Quantum eraser
• Schrödinger's cat
• Uncertainty principle
• Wheeler's delayed choice experiment

References
• Boniolo, G., (1997) Filosofia della Fisica, Mondadori, Milan.
• Bolles, Edmund Blair (2004) Einstein Defiant, Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C.
• Born, M. (1973) The Born Einstein Letters, Walker and Company, New York, 1971.
• Ghirardi, Giancarlo, (1997) Un'Occhiata alle Carte di Dio, Il Saggiatore, Milan.
• Pais, A., (1986) Subtle is the Lord... The Science and Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1982.
• Shilpp, P.A., (1958) Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Northwestern University and Southern Illinois
University, Open Court, 1951.
[1] Bohr N. "Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics" (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/
philosophy/ works/ dk/ bohr. htm). The Value of Knowledge: A Miniature Library of Philosophy (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/
subject/ philosophy/ index. htm). Marxists Internet Archive. . Retrieved 2010-08-30. From Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), publ.
Cambridge University Press, 1949. Niels Bohr's report of conversations with Einstein.
[2] González AM. "Albert Einstein" (http:/ / dipc. ehu. es/ digitalak/ orriak/ english/ quantumdilema. html). Donostia International Physics
Center. . Retrieved 2010-08-30.
[3] Pais
[4] Bolles
 105

Politics

Manhattan Project
Manhattan Engineer District (MED)

The Manhattan Project created the first nuclear bombs. The first human-engineered nuclear detonation, the Trinity test, is shown.
Active 1942–1945

Allegiance United States, United Kingdom, Canada

Branch U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Nickname Manhattan Project

Commanders

Notable General Leslie Groves

commanders

The Manhattan Project was the codename for a project conducted during World War II to develop the first atomic
bombs for wartime use. The project was led by the United States, and included participation from the United
Kingdom and Canada. Formally designated as the Manhattan Engineer District (MED) (sometimes referred to as
the Manhattan District) it refers specifically to the period of the project from 1942–1946 under the control of the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and General Leslie R. Groves. The scientific research was directed by American
physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer.[1]
The project's roots began in 1939 when, at the urging of Leó Szilárd, Albert Einstein signed a letter to President
Roosevelt expressing his concerns that Nazi Germany may be trying to develop nuclear weapons. The American
atomic effort began as a small research program into the feasibility of using nuclear fission for wartime purposes, but
would expand to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US$2 billion ($22 billion in present day value)
by August 1945. It resulted in the creation of several research and production sites whose construction and
operations were secret.[2]
Project research took place at more than 30 sites, including universities across the United States, Canada, and the
United Kingdom. The three primary research and production sites of the project were the plutonium-production
facility at what is now the Hanford Site in eastern Washington state; the uranium-enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge,
Tennessee; and the weapons research and design laboratory now known as Los Alamos National Laboratory. The
MED maintained control over U.S. atomic weapons production until the formation of the Atomic Energy
Commission in January 1947.
Manhattan Project 106

Naming the Project

It is widely believed that the Manhattan Project's name was a code name.[3] In fact, the project was named after
Manhattan island of New York City, as that was the location where many of its early operations were conducted.
According to historian Robert S. Norris, at least ten sites operated in Manhattan. The island was an ideal location
because of its port facilities, the military presence, a large available work force, a population of expatriate European
physicists, and Columbia University, a center of early nuclear research.

Uranium Committee (1939–1941)

In 1939, President Franklin Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head "The
Uranium Committee" to undertake nuclear research, as a result of the Einstein–Szilárd letter. Even though Roosevelt
had sanctioned the project, progress was slow and was not directed exclusively towards military applications.
Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls
made a breakthrough by discovering the fissile properties of
uranium-235.[4] A British committee, the MAUD Committee,
concluded that:
(i) The committee considers that the scheme for a uranium
bomb is practicable and likely to lead to decisive results in
the war
(ii) It recommends that this work continue on the highest
The opening paragraph of the Frisch–Peierls
priority and on the increasing scale necessary to obtain the memorandum in which the amount of Uranium
weapon in the shortest possible time estimated to be needed to produce a bomb was
(iii) That the present collaboration with America should be revised downwards to that where a working
device became practicable
continued and extended especially in the region of
experimental work[5]

Their reports were sent to Briggs at the National Bureau of Standards, but he ignored them. One of the members of
the MAUD Committee, Mark Oliphant, flew to the United States in late August 1941 to find out why the U.S. was
ignoring the MAUD Committee's findings. He reported, "[T]his inarticulate and unimpressive man (Briggs) had put
the reports in his safe and had not shown them to members of his committee."[6] Oliphant then met with the whole
Uranium Committee and other physicists to galvanize the USA into action. As a result, in December 1941 Vannevar
Bush created the larger and more powerful Office of Scientific Research and Development and became its director.
The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research.
Manhattan Project 107

Acceleration of the Project

With the bomb project under the OSRD, the project leaders began to
accelerate the work. Arthur Compton organized the University of
Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory in early 1942 to study plutonium
and fission piles (primitive nuclear reactors). He asked theoretical
physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California,
Berkeley to take over research on fast neutron calculations—key to
calculations about critical mass and weapon detonation—from Gregory
Breit, who had quit because of concerns over lax operational
security.[7] John Manley, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory,
was assigned to help Oppenheimer find answers by coordinating and
contacting several experimental physics groups scattered across the
country.

During the spring of 1942, Oppenheimer and Robert Serber of the

University of Illinois worked on the problems of neutron diffusion
(how neutrons moved in the chain reaction) and hydrodynamics (how
the explosion produced by the chain reaction might behave). To review A few months after he was put in charge of fast
neutron research, Berkeley physicist J. Robert
this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer
Oppenheimer convened a conference on the topic
convened a summer study at the University of California, Berkeley, in of nuclear weapon design.
June 1942.[8] Theorists Hans Bethe, John Van Vleck, Edward Teller,
Felix Bloch, Emil Konopinski, Robert Serber, Stanley S. Frankel, and Eldred C. Nelson (the latter three all former
students of Oppenheimer) quickly confirmed that a fission bomb was feasible.

There were still many unknown factors in the development of a nuclear bomb, however, although it was considered
theoretically possible. The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown, as were the properties of
plutonium, a new element which had only been discovered in February 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and his team.
Plutonium was the product of uranium-238 absorbing a neutron which had been emitted from a fissioning
uranium-235 atom, and was thus able to be created in a nuclear reactor. But at this point no reactor had yet been
built, so while plutonium was being pursued as an additional fissile substance, it was not yet to be relied upon.[9]
Only microgram quantities of plutonium existed at the time (produced from neutrons derived from reaction started in
a cyclotron).
Manhattan Project 108

The scientists at the Berkeley conference determined that there were

many possible ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical
mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of
"active material" with a "tamper"—dense material that would focus
neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its
efficiency (this model "avoids fancy shapes", Serber would later
write).[10] They also explored designs involving spheroids, a primitive
form of "implosion" (suggested by Richard C. Tolman), and explored
the possibility of "autocatalytic methods" which would increase the
efficiency of the bomb as it exploded.

Considering the idea of the fission bomb theoretically settled—at least

until more experimental data was available—the conference then
turned in a different direction. Hungarian physicist Edward "Ede"
Teller pushed for discussion on a more powerful bomb: the "Super",
which would use the explosive force of a detonating fission bomb to
ignite a fusion reaction in deuterium and tritium.[11] Such a bomb, they
calculated, would have an explosive yield of 10 megatons, hundreds of
times more powerful than the atomic bomb.[12] The concept was based
on studies of energy production in stars made by Hans Bethe before the
war. Enrico Fermi suggested it as a possibility to Teller not long before
the conference. When the detonation wave from the fission bomb
moved through the mixture of deuterium and tritium nuclei, these
would fuse together to produce much more energy than fission could. A number of the different fission bomb assembly
But Bethe was skeptical. As Teller pushed hard for his methods explored during the June 1942
conference, later reproduced as drawings in The
"superbomb"—now usually referred to as a "hydrogen
Los Alamos Primer. In the end, only the "gun"
bomb"—proposing scheme after scheme, Bethe refused each one. The method (at top) and a more complicated variation
fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs. of the "implosion" design would be used. At the
bottom are "autocatalytic method" designs.
Teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might
"ignite" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei.[13] Bethe calculated that it could
not happen.[14] However, a report co-authored by Teller showed that ignition of the atmosphere was not impossible,
just unlikely.[15] In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned it to Arthur Compton, who "didn't have enough sense
to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington" which led to the question being "never
laid to rest".[16]

The conferences in June 1942 provided the detailed theoretical basis for the design of the atomic bomb.
Oppenheimer was convinced of the benefits of having a single centralized laboratory to manage the research for the
bomb project, rather than having specialists spread out at different sites across the United States.

Project sites
Though it involved over thirty different research and production sites, the Manhattan Project was largely carried out
at four secret laboratories which the national governments established by power of eminent domain in four cities:
Los Alamos, New Mexico; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Richland, Washington; Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. The
Tennessee site was chosen because of the vast quantities of cheap hydroelectric power already available (from the
Tennessee Valley Authority) to power uranium enrichment processes. The Hanford Site near Richland, Washington,
was chosen for its location near the Columbia River, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors which
would produce the plutonium. The Canadian site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing of
Manhattan Project 109

Ontario and Quebec, and access to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, Camp Petawawa. Further, located on
the Ottawa River it had access to abundant water. All the sites were suitably far from coastlines and therefore less
vulnerable to possible enemy attack from Germany or Japan.
The Los Alamos National Laboratory was built on a mesa that previously hosted the Los Alamos Ranch School, a
private school for teenage boys. The site was chosen primarily because it was remote and relatively unpopulated.
Oppenheimer had known of it from his horse-riding near his ranch in New Mexico. He showed it as a possible site to
the government representatives, who promptly bought it for $440,000. In addition to being the main "think-tank",
Los Alamos was responsible for final assembly of the bombs, mainly from materials and components produced by
other sites. Manufacturing at Los Alamos included casings, explosive lenses, and fabrication of fissile materials into
bomb cores.
Oak Ridge facilities covered more than 60000 acres (240 km2) of several former farm communities in the Tennessee
Valley area. Some Tennessee families were given two weeks' notice to vacate family farms that had been their
homes for generations.[17] So secret was the site during World War II that the state governor was unaware that Oak
Ridge (which was to become the fifth largest city in the state) was being built. At one point Oak Ridge plants were
consuming 1/6th of the electrical power produced in the U.S., more than New York City. Oak Ridge mainly
produced uranium-235.
The Chalk River site was established to house the allied effort that was going on at McGill University in Montreal.
Since the site was 120 miles west of Ottawa, a new community was built at Deep River, Ontario to provide
residences and facilities for the project team members. Both were established in 1944, with scientists, engineers,
trades from Canada, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, France, Norway, etc. providing their contribution
to the war effort.
The Hanford Site, which grew to almost 1,000 square miles (2,600 km²), took over irrigated farm land, fruit
orchards, a railroad, and two farming communities, Hanford and White Bluffs. This was a relatively highly
populated area where three cities converge. The Tri Cities are Kennewick, Pasco, and Richland, adjacent to the
Columbia River. Hanford built nuclear reactors cooled by the river and was the plutonium production center.
The operations were kept secret until the announcement of the Hiroshima bombing and nuclear explosion. The
locations of Los Alamos, Oak Ridge, Richland, and Chalk River were held secret until after the end of WWII.
The project originally was headquartered at 270 Broadway in Manhattan. Other offices were scattered throughout the
city,[18] including the New York Friars' Club building.[19] The Broadway headquarters lasted little more than a year
before it was moved in 1943, although many of the other offices in Manhattan remained.[20]
Manhattan Project 110

A selection of U.S. sites important to the Manhattan Project.

Major Manhattan Project sites and subdivisions included:

• Site W (Hanford, Washington): a plutonium production facility (now Hanford Site)
• Site X (Oak Ridge, Tennessee): enriched uranium production and plutonium production research (now Oak Ridge
National Laboratory) Site X also included:
• X-10 Graphite Reactor: graphite reactor research pilot plant (on the site of what is now Oak Ridge National
Laboratory)
• Y-12: electromagnetic separation uranium enrichment plant
• K-25: gaseous diffusion uranium enrichment plant
• S-50: thermal diffusion uranium enrichment plant
• Site Y (Los Alamos, New Mexico): a bomb research laboratory (now Los Alamos National Laboratory)
• Metallurgical Laboratory (Chicago, Illinois): reactor development (now Argonne National Laboratory)
• Project Alberta (Wendover, Utah and Tinian): preparations for the combat delivery of the bombs
• Project Ames (Ames, Iowa): production of raw uranium metal (now Ames Laboratory)
• Dayton Project (Dayton, Ohio): research and development of polonium refinement and industrial production of
polonium for atomic bomb triggers
• Project Camel (Inyokern, California): high explosives research and non-nuclear engineering for the Fat Man
bomb
• Project Trinity (Alamogordo, New Mexico): preparations for the testing of the first atomic bomb
• Radiation Laboratory (Berkeley, California): electromagnetic separation enrichment research (now Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory)
• Project '9' (Trail, British Columbia): heavy water (deuterium) production.[21]
• Health Project (Rochester, NY): "to investigate heretofore unexplored fields in medical research on the effects of
radiation and other problems related to the development and production of the atomic bomb." [22] [23] [24]
Manhattan Project 111

Need for coordination

The measurements of the interactions of fast neutrons with the materials in a bomb were essential. The scientists
needed to know the number of neutrons produced in the fission of uranium and plutonium. The substance
surrounding the nuclear material needed the ability to reflect, or scatter, neutrons back into the chain reaction before
it was blown apart, in order to increase the energy produced. Therefore, researchers had to measure the neutron
scattering properties of materials to find the best reflectors.
Estimating the explosive power required knowledge of many other nuclear properties, including the cross section (a
measure of the probability of an encounter between particles that result in a specified effect) for nuclear processes of
neutrons in uranium and other elements. Fast neutrons could only be produced in particle accelerators, which were
still relatively uncommon instruments in 1942. The need for better coordination was clear. By September 1942, the
difficulties in conducting studies on nuclear weapons at universities scattered throughout the country indicated the
need for a laboratory dedicated solely to that purpose. A greater need was the construction of industrial plants to
produce uranium-235 and plutonium—the fissionable materials to be used in the weapons.
Vannevar Bush, the head of the civilian Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), asked President
Roosevelt to assign the operations connected with the growing nuclear weapons project to the military. Roosevelt
chose the Army to work with the OSRD in building production plants. The Army Corps of Engineers selected Col.
James Marshall to oversee the construction of factories to separate uranium isotopes and manufacture plutonium for
the bomb.
Marshall and his deputy, Col. Kenneth Nichols, struggled to understand the proposed processes and the scientists
with whom they had to work. Thrust into the new field of nuclear physics, they felt unable to distinguish between
technical and personal preferences. Although they decided that a site near Knoxville, Tennessee, would be suitable
for the first production plant, they did not know how large the site needed to be, and thus delayed its acquisition.
Because of its experimental nature, the nuclear weapons work could not compete for priority with the Army's more
urgent tasks. The scientists' construction of the work and production plants were often delayed by Marshall's
inability to obtain critical materials such as steel, which were needed in other military projects.
With the need for secrecy in the midst of war, selecting a name for the project was difficult. The title chosen by Gen.
Brehon B. Somervell, "Development of Substitute Materials," was objectionable because it seemed to reveal too
much.
Manhattan Project 112

Manhattan Engineer District

Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Col. James Marshall's failure to get the
project moving forward expeditiously and told Secretary of War Stimson and
Army Chief of Staff George Marshall. Marshall directed General Somervell to
replace Col. Marshall with a more energetic officer as director. In the summer of
1942, Col. Leslie Groves was deputy to the chief of construction for the Army
Corps of Engineers. He had directed the very rapid construction of the Pentagon,
the world's largest office building. He was widely respected as an intelligent,
hard driving, though brusque officer who got things done in a hurry.

Hoping for an overseas command, Groves vigorously objected when Somervell

appointed him to the weapons project. His objections were overruled. Groves
resigned himself to leading a project he thought had little chance of success.
General Leslie Groves (left) was
Groves appointed Oppenheimer as the project's scientific director, to the surprise
appointed the military head of the
of many. (Oppenheimer's radical political views were thought to pose security Manhattan Project, while Robert
problems). However, Groves was convinced Oppenheimer was a genius who Oppenheimer (right) was the
could talk about and understand nearly anything, and he was convinced such a scientific director.

man was needed for a project such as the one being proposed.
Groves renamed the project The Manhattan Engineer District. The name evolved from the Corps of Engineers
practice of naming districts after its headquarters' city (Marshall's headquarters were at 270 Broadway in New York
City). At that time, Groves was promoted to brigadier general, giving him the rank necessary to deal with senior
people whose cooperation was required, or whose own projects were hampered by Groves' top-priority project.
Within a week of his appointment, Groves had solved the Manhattan Project's most urgent problems. His forceful
and effective manner was soon to become all too familiar to the atomic scientists.

The first major scientific hurdle of the project was solved on December 2, 1942, beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field
at the University of Chicago, where a team led by Enrico Fermi, for whom Fermilab is named, initiated the first
artificial[25] self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental nuclear reactor named Chicago Pile-1.
Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, DC by a coded call, saying, "The Italian navigator [referring
to Fermi] has landed in the new world, the natives are friendly."

Uranium bomb
The Hiroshima bomb was made from uranium-235. It is a rare isotope
of uranium that has to be physically separated from the more plentiful
uranium-238 isotope, which is not suitable for use in an explosive
device. Since U-235 makes up only 0.7% of raw uranium and is
chemically identical to the 99.3% of U-238, various physical methods
were considered for separation. Most of the uranium enrichment work
was performed at Oak Ridge.

A gun-type nuclear bomb.

Manhattan Project 113

One method of separating uranium 235 from raw uranium ore was devised by
Franz Simon and Nicholas Kurti, at Oxford University. Their method using
gaseous diffusion was scaled up in a large separation plant at Oak Ridge, using
uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas as the process fluid. During the war this method
was important primarily for producing partly enriched material to feed the
electromagnetic separation process undertaken in calutrons (see below).

Another method—electromagnetic isotope separation—was developed by Ernest

Operators at their calutron control
Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory at the University
panels at the Y-12 Plant in Oak
Ridge, Tennessee. of California, Berkeley. This method was implemented in Oak Ridge at the Y-12
Plant, employing devices known as calutrons, which were effectively mass
spectrometers. Copper was originally intended for electromagnet coils, but there was an insufficient amount
available due to war shortages. The project engineers were forced to borrow silver from the U.S. Treasury. A total of
70,000,000 pounds of silver from the U.S. Treasury reserves was used for coils, and was returned after the project
ended. Initially the method seemed promising for large scale production but was expensive and produced insufficient
material and was later abandoned after the war.

Other techniques were also tried, such as thermal diffusion and the use of high-speed centrifuges. Thermal diffusion
was not used to produce highly-enriched uranium, but was used during the war in the S-50 facility to begin
enrichment of the uranium, and its product was passed as the feed into the other facilities.
The uranium bomb was a gun-type fission weapon. One mass of U-235, the "bullet," is fired down a more or less
conventional gun barrel into another mass of U-235, rapidly creating the critical mass of U-235, resulting in an
explosion. The method was so certain to work that no test was carried out before the bomb was dropped over
Hiroshima, though extensive laboratory testing was undertaken to make sure the fundamental assumptions were
correct. Also, the bomb that was dropped used all the existing extremely highly purified U-235 (and even most of the
less highly purified material) so there was no U-235 available for such a test anyway. The bomb's design was known
to be inefficient and prone to accidental discharge.

Plutonium bomb
The bombs used in the first test at Trinity Site on July 16, 1945, in
New Mexico (the gadget of the Trinity test), and in the Nagasaki
bomb, Fat Man, were made primarily of plutonium-239, a synthetic
element.
Although uranium-238 is useless as a fissile isotope for an atomic
bomb, it is key in producing plutonium.[26] The fission of U-235
releases neutrons, which are absorbed by U-238, which creates
The basic concept of an implosion-style nuclear
uranium-239. U-239 rapidly decays to neptunium-239 (U-239 has a weapon. Actual pictures and details of the bomb's
half-life of 23.45 minutes). Neptunium-239 (with a half-life of inner workings remain classified.
2.35 days) then decays into plutonium-239. The production and
purification of plutonium used techniques developed in part by Glenn Seaborg while working at Berkeley and
Chicago. Beginning in 1943, huge plants were built to produce plutonium at the Hanford Site.
Manhattan Project 114

In 1943–1944, development efforts were directed to a gun-type fission

weapon with plutonium, called "Thin Man". Once this was achieved,
the scientists thought the uranium version, "Little Boy," would require
a relatively simple adaptation.
Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using
cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure, but
could only be created in very small amounts. On April 5, 1944, Emilio
Segrè at Los Alamos received the first sample of Hanford-produced
A mock-up of the plutonium bomb, Fat Man
plutonium. Within ten days, he discovered a problem: reactor-bred
plutonium was far less isotopically pure than cyclotron-produced
[27]
plutonium. A higher concentration of Pu-240, formed from Pu-239 by capture of an additional neutron, gave it a
much higher spontaneous fission rate than U-235. Pu-240 was even harder to separate from Pu-239 than U-235 was
to separate from U-238, so no purification was attempted. This made the Hanford plutonium unsuitable for use in a
gun-type weapon.

The gun-type bomb worked by mechanically assembling the critical mass from two subcritical masses: a "bullet" and
a target. The chain reaction resulting from collision of the "bullet" with the target released tremendous energy,
producing an explosion, but also blew apart the critical mass and ended the chain reaction. The configuration of the
critical mass determined how much of the fissile material reacted in the interval between assembly and dispersal, and
therefore the explosive yield of the bomb. Even a 1% fission of the material would result in a workable bomb, equal
to thousands of tons of high explosive. A poor configuration, or slow assembly, would release enough energy to
disperse the critical mass quickly, and the yield would be greatly reduced, equivalent to only a few tons of high
explosive.
The chain reaction of U-235 was slow enough that gun-type assembly would work, but in a gun-type bomb made
with the Hanford plutonium, "early" neutrons from spontaneously fissioning Pu-240 would start the chain reaction
more quickly during detonation. This would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass with only a minimal
amount of plutonium reacted, reducing the resulting yield of the weapon.
In July 1944, based on the measurements of spontaneous fission for Hanford plutonium, the decision was made to
cease work on a gun-type assembly for plutonium.[27] There would be no "Thin Man."
Ideas for alternative detonation schemes had existed for some time at Los Alamos. One of the more innovative was
the idea of "implosion". Using chemical explosives, a sub-critical sphere of fissile material could be squeezed into a
smaller and denser form. When the fissile atoms were packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture would
increase, and the mass would become a critical mass. The metal needed to travel only very short distances, so the
critical mass would be assembled in much less time than it would take to assemble a mass by a bullet impacting a
target. Initially, implosion had been entertained as a possible, though unlikely, method.
The gun method was further developed for uranium only, while most efforts were then directed towards rapidly
developing an implosion system. Oppenheimer chose to pursue a design based on the April 1944 suggestion by
James L. Tuck to use explosive lenses to create spherical, converging implosion waves.
Manhattan Project 115

By the end of July 1944, the entire Manhattan Project had been
reorganized around building the implosion-type bomb.[27]
The required implosion was achieved by using shaped charges with
many explosive lenses to produce the perfectly spherical explosive
wave which compressed the plutonium sphere.
Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was
decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, an initial test would In July 1944 the Los Alamos laboratory
be required. The first nuclear test took place on July 16, 1945, near abandoned the plutonium gun-type bomb ("Thin
Alamogordo, New Mexico, under the supervision of Groves's deputy Man", shown above) and focused almost entirely
on the problem of implosion. (The Fat Man
Brig. Gen. Thomas Farrell. Oppenheimer gave the test the code name
casing is also visible in the photo background.)
"Trinity".

Cost of Manhattan Project

The project expenditure to 1 October 1945 was $1.845 billion, and was $2.191 billion when the AEC assumed
control on 1 January 1947. Total allocation was $2.4 billion, an amount equal to $23.4 billion in current value. Over
90% of the cost was for building plants and producing the fissionable materials, and less than 10% for development
and production of the weapons. The first allocation in June 1942 for fiscal 1943, as recommended in a 13 June report
by Bush and Conant and approved by FDR on 17 June, was for only $90 million. This was a small start compared to
the scale of a single TNT plant built in Pennsylvania which cost $128 million.[28]
The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was set up by the Atomic Energy Act in 1946 to take over the functions and
assets of the Manhattan Project. It established civilian control over atomic development, and separated the
development, production and control of atomic weapons from the military.

Similar efforts
A similar effort was undertaken in the USSR in September 1941 headed by Igor Kurchatov (with some of
Kurchatov's World War II knowledge coming secondhand from Manhattan Project countries, thanks to spies,
including at least two on the scientific team at Los Alamos, Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall, unknown to each other).
After the MAUD Committee's report, the British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but initially did not
pool their efforts. A British project, code-named Tube Alloys[29] , was started but did not have United States
resources. Consequently the British bargaining position worsened, and their motives were mistrusted by the
Americans. Collaboration therefore lessened markedly until the Quebec Agreement of August 1943, when a large
team of British, Canadian and Australian scientists joined the Manhattan Project at McGill University in Montreal
and at a new project site located at Chalk River, Ontario, with living facilities for those working in the newly created
community of Deep River, Ontario.
Manhattan Project 116

The question of Axis efforts on the bomb has been a contentious issue
for historians. It is believed that efforts undertaken in Germany, headed
by Werner Heisenberg, and in Japan, were also undertaken during the
war with little progress. It was initially feared that Hitler was very
close to developing his own bomb. Many German scientists in fact
expressed surprise to their Allied captors when the bombs were
detonated in Japan. They were convinced that talk of atomic weapons
was merely propaganda. However, Werner Heisenberg (by then
imprisoned in Britain at Farm Hall with several other nuclear project
The German experimental nuclear pile at physicists) almost immediately figured out what the Allies had done,
Haigerloch
explaining it to his fellow scientists (and hidden microphones) within
days. The Nazi reactor effort had been severely handicapped by
Heisenberg's belief that heavy water was necessary as a neutron moderator (slowing preparation material) for such a
device. The Germans were short of heavy water throughout the war because of Allied efforts such as Operation
Gunnerside to prevent Germany from obtaining it, and the Germans never did stumble on the secret of purified
graphite for making nuclear reactors from natural uranium.

Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and Enrico Fermi were all colleagues who were key figures in developing the
quantum theory together with Wolfgang Pauli, prior to the war. They had known each other well in Europe and were
friends. Niels Bohr and Heisenberg even discussed the possibility of the atomic bomb prior to and during the war,
before the United States became involved. Bohr recalled that Heisenberg was unaware that the supercritical mass
could be achieved with U-235, and both men gave differing accounts of their conversations at this sensitive time.
Bohr at the time did not trust Heisenberg, and never quite forgave him for his decision not to flee Germany before
the war when given the chance. Heisenberg, for his part, seems to have thought he was proposing to Bohr a mutual
agreement between the two sides not to pursue nuclear technology for destructive purposes. If so, Heisenberg's
message did not get through. Heisenberg, to the end of his life, maintained that the partly-built German heavy-water
nuclear reactor found after the war's end in his lab was for research purposes only, and a full bomb project had not
been contemplated (there is no evidence to contradict this, but by this time late in the war, Germany was far from
having the resources for a Hanford-style plutonium bomb, even if its scientists had decided to pursue one and had
known how to do it).

Controversy
Harold Hodge was chosen to head the United States Atomic Energy Commission's (AEC) Division of Pharmacology
and Toxicology for the Manhattan Project, where he studied on the effects of the inhalation of uranium and
beryllium through the "Rochester Chamber". This project and others similar led to civilian oversight after World
War II.[30]
Details of this Division came out in Eileen Welsome's book The Plutonium Files, for which she won a Pulitzer Prize.
It documented human experiments in which the subjects did not know they were being tested to find the safety limits
of uranium and plutonium. Hodge attended a meeting where the experiments were planned in 1945, and an AEC
memo thanks Hodge for his planning and suggestions in the experiment. The US government settled with the
victims' families, paying $400,000 per family. Seven victims were injected with material smuggled into a hospital
secretly through a tunnel. One unmarried, white 24-year old woman was injected with 584 micrograms of uranium;
another 61-year old man was injected with 71 micrograms of uranium per kilogram body mass.[31] :93 Hodge also
arranged for Dr. Sweet to inject 11 terminally-ill patients with uranium for their brain tumors; however, these
subjects may have known they were being tested.[32]
Manhattan Project 117

See also
• Timeline of the Manhattan Project
• Human experimentation in the United States
• Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
• Quebec Agreement
• August 1945
• Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• Smyth Report
• Related locations
• Hanford Site (plutonium production)
• B Reactor
• Ames Laboratory (uranium production from ores)
• Los Alamos National Laboratory (secret weapons lab)
• Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (second weapons lab, created in 1950s)
• Metallurgical Laboratory (first controlled nuclear chain reaction)
• Oak Ridge, Tennessee
• Oak Ridge National Laboratory (site of graphite reactor and pilot facilities for plutonium production)
• Y-12 National Security Complex (uranium enrichment)
• K-25 (uranium enrichment)
• Trinity site (first nuclear test)
• Trail, British Columbia (Project 9, heavy water plant)
• Nuclear weapons
• History of nuclear weapons
• Nuclear arms race
• Nuclear weapon
• Nuclear weapon design
• Isotope separation (necessary for uranium enrichment)
• List of countries with nuclear weapons
• The United States and nuclear weapons
• People
• Category:Manhattan Project people (lists articles about people involved in the project)
• List of Cornell Manhattan Project people, a large number of Cornell University physicists were associated with
the project
• Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, discoverers of fission
• David Bohm, did work that was immediately classified, that he then wasn't allowed to read
• Other projects
• Operation Downfall, the planned Allied invasion of the Japanese homeland; cancelled due to the success of the
Manhattan Project.
• German nuclear energy project
• Japanese atomic program
• Operation Alsos, post-war assessment of the German nuclear project
• Soviet atomic bomb project
• The Plutonium Files
• Tube Alloys (British WWII atomic program)
• Project-706
Manhattan Project 118

• Movies (in chronological order)

• Above and Beyond (1952), a film related to the project, centered on Col Paul Tibbets, pilot of the plane which
dropped the Hiroshima bomb
• The Day After Trinity (1981), a documentary about the project
• The Manhattan Project (film) (1986), a-bomb as a science fair project
• Day One (1989), a film about the project in a political perspective
• Fat Man and Little Boy (1989), Hollywood drama based on the project starring Paul Newman
• White Light/Black Rain: The Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (2007)

Notes
[1] A comprehensive history of the Manhattan Project is Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon & Schuster, 1986).
[2] Stephen I. Schwartz Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press,
1998. Manhattan Project expenditures (http:/ / www. brookings. edu/ FP/ PROJECTS/ NUCWCOST/ MANHATTN. HTM)
[3] Broad, William J., "Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 30/ science/ 30manh. html), New York
Times, October 30, 2007.
[4] Rhodes, 322–325
[5] Rhodes, 369
[6] Rhodes, 372
[7] Rhodes, 416
[8] Rhodes, 415
[9] Rhodes, 381; 388–389
[10] Serber, Robert. The Los Alamos Primer (Los Alamos Report LA-1, compiled April 1943, declassified 1965): p. 21.
[11] Rhodes, 417
[12] Rhodes, 421
[13] The reaction Teller was most concerned with was N714 + N714 = Mg1224 + He24 (alpha particle) + 17.7 MeV
[14] Rhodes, 419
[15] Konopinski, E. J, C. Marvin; Edward Teller (1946, declassified February 1973). Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs (http:/ /
www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ docs1/ 00329010. pdf). Technical Report Los Alamos National Laboratory LA-602.
[16] In Bethe's account, the possibility of this ultimate catastrophe came up again in 1975 when it appeared in a magazine article by H.C. Dudley,
who got the idea from a report by Pearl Buck of an interview she had with Arthur Compton in 1959. The worry was not entirely extinguished
in some people's minds until the Trinity test.
[17] "Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review, Vol. 25, Nos. 3 and 4, 2002" (http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ info/ ornlreview/ rev25-34/ chapter1.
shtml). ornl.gov. . Retrieved 2010-03-09.
[18] "The Manhattan Project" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ interactive/ 2007/ 10/ 30/ science/ 20071030_MANHATTAN_GRAPHIC. html).
nytimes.com. October 30, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-02.
[19] "(comedian interview)" (http:/ / www. friarsclub. com/ Facilities/ clubhouse_history. htm). (tv show) (CBS). October 5, 2008 (7:47pm
MDT). . Retrieved 2008-10-06
[20] Why They Called It the Manhattan Project (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 30/ science/ 30manh. html?_r=2& ref=science&
oref=slogin& oref=slogin), nytimes.com, accessed November 2, 2007.
[21] Chris Waltham (June 20, 2002) (PDF). An Early History of Heavy Water (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ physics/ 0206076. pdf). Department of
Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia. .
[22] http:/ / www. history. rochester. edu/ urhist/ kurt. htm
[23] Dowdy, Andrew H., "The Rochester Story of the Manhattan Project", Rochester NY, 1945
[24] http:/ / www. hss. energy. gov/ healthsafety/ ohre/ roadmap/ achre/ intro_3. html
[25] Natural self-sustaining nuclear reactions have occurred in the distant past (circa two billion years ago); see Natural nuclear fission reactor
[26] http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ intro/ nuke/ plutonium. htm
[27] The Atomic Heritage Foundation—Atomic History Timeline 1942–1944 (http:/ / www. atomicheritage. org/ index. php?id=288&
option=com_content& task=view)
[28] Nichols, Kenneth (1987) The Road to Trinity by Kenneth D. Nichols, pages 34-35, 174 (1987, Morrow, New York) ISBN 068806910X
[29] Churchill, Winston Spencer (1951). The Second World War: Closing the Ring. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. pp. 643.
[30] Morrow PE et al. (2000). Harold Carpenter Hodge (1904–1990) (http:/ / toxsci. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 53/ 2/ 157).
Toxicological Sciences.
[31] [Christopher Bryson. The Fluoride Deception (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=q3v_JgjZ6fsC& pg=PP1& ots=N33qiJvkHS&
sig=SGTf9EUQV84S8SisMQXmaqlkb8M). Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1583225269, 9781583225264.
[32] RE: Boston Project Uranium Injection Experiments (http:/ / www. gwu. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ radiation/ dir/ mstreet/ commeet/ pm04/ pl4brf/
pl4bre. txt).
Manhattan Project 119

References
Overall, administrative, and diplomatic histories of the Manhattan Project
• DeGroot, Gerard, The Bomb: A History of Hell on Earth, London: Pimlico, 2005. ISBN 0-7126-7748-8
• Feynman, Richard P. "Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!". W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. ISBN
978-0393316049.
• Groves, Leslie. Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York: Harper, 1962. ISBN
0-306-70738-1.
• Herken, Gregg. Brotherhood of the Bomb : The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest
Lawrence, and Edward Teller. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2002. ISBN 0-8050-6588-1.
• Hewlett, Richard G., and Oscar E. Anderson. The New World, 1939–1946. University Park: Pennsylvania State
University Press, 1962.
• Howes, Ruth H. and Herzenberg, Caroline L. Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-56639-719-7.
• Jungk, Robert. Brighter Than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. New York:
Harcourt, Brace, 1956, 1958.
• Nichols, Kenneth The Road to Trinity. New York: Morrow, 1987 ISBN 068806910X
• Norris, Robert S., Racing for the Bomb: General Leslie R. Groves, The Manhattan Project's Indispensable Man.
Vermont: Steerforth Press, First Paperback edition, 2002. ISBN 1-58642-067-4.
• Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. ISBN 0-671-44133-7.
• Rhodes, Richard. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN
0-684-80400-X.
• Kelly, Cynthia. Remembering the Manhattan Project: Perspectives on the Making of the Atomic Bomb and Its
Legacy New Jersey: World Scientific, 2005. ISBN 978-981-256-040-7.
• Kelly, Cynthia. Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project: Insights into J Robert Oppenheimer, “Father of the
Atomic Bomb” New Jersey: World Scientific, 2005. ISBN 978-981-256-418-4.
Technical histories
• Groueff, Stephane. Manhattan Project: The Untold Story of the Making of the Atomic Bomb. Boston: Little,
Brown & Co, 1967.
• Hoddeson, Lillian, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, and Catherine L. Westfall. Critical Assembly: A
Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-44132-3.
• David Hawkins, Edith C. Truslow, and Ralph C. Smith. "Project Y: The Los Alamos Story. Part I: Toward
Trinity. Part II: Beyond Trinity. (History of Modern Physics, 1800-1950, V. 2)." American Inst. of Physics; 1st
edition (September 1, 2000).
• Serber, Robert. The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 0-520-07576-5—Original 1943, Los Alamos Report "LA-1",
declassified in 1965. (Available on Wikimedia Commons).
• Sherwin, Martin J. A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1975. ISBN 0-394-49794-5.
• Smyth, Henry DeWolf. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes; the Official Report on the Development of the
Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1945. See Smyth Report.
• Yenne, William. "The Manhattan Project", Secret Weapons of World War II: The Techno-Military Breakthroughs
That Changed History. New York: Berkley Books, 2003, p. 2–7.
Participant accounts
Manhattan Project 120

• Badash, Lawrence, Joseph O. Hirschfelder, Herbert P. Broida, eds. Reminiscences of Los Alamos, 1943–1945.
Dordrecht, Boston: D. Reidel, 1980. ISBN 90-277-1097-X.
• Bethe, Hans A. The Road from Los Alamos. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. ISBN 0-671-74012-1.
• Nichols, Kenneth David. The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were
Made. New York: William Morrow and Company Inc, 1987. ISBN 0-688-06910-X.
• Serber, Robert. Peace and War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-231-10546-0.
• Ulam, Stanisław. Adventures of a Mathematician. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1983. ISBN
0-520-07154-9.

External links
• Manhattan Project (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Time_Period/Twentieth_Century/
Wars_and_Conflicts/World_War_II/Atomic/Manhattan_Project//) at the Open Directory Project
• Why They Called It the Manhattan Project (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/science/30manh.html/)
• Development of the Atomic Bomb (http://www.3rd1000.com/nuclear/cruc18.htm)
• Annotated bibliography for the Manhattan Project from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues. (http://
alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=warfare/Manhattan+Project)
• Nuclear Files.org (http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/
manhattan-project/) Information on the history of the Manhattan Project
• Interview with Joseph Rotblat who worked on the Manhattan Project and left to work for Pugwash. (http://www.
vega.org.uk/video/programme/22) The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to both Rotblat and Pugwash.
Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust.
• Works by United States Army—Corps of Engineers (Manhattan District) (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/
United_States._Army._Corps_of_Engineers._Manhattan_District) at Project Gutenberg
• The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) (http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.
cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.documents&group_id=511603) for Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks
containing evidence on Soviet atomic espionage
• Historic photos of Oak Ridge, TN during the Manhattan Project (http://www.flickr.com/photos/amse/sets/
72157608279431255/)
 121

Honors

List of things named after Albert Einstein

This is a list of things named after Albert Einstein.

Scientific and mathematical concepts

• Higher-dimensional Einstein gravity
• Einstein solid
• Einstein force
• Einstein's constant
• Einstein–de Haas effect
• Einstein relation (kinetic theory)
• Stark–Einstein law
• Einstein–Hilbert action
• Einstein–Cartan theory
• Bose–Einstein condensate
• Bose–Einstein statistics
• Einstein field equations
• Einstein's radius of the universe
• Einstein coefficients
• Einstein synchronisation
• Einstein notation
• Einstein tensor
• Einstein manifold
• Einstein ring
• Einstein Cross
• Einstein radius
• Einstein (unit)
• Einstein refrigerator
• Zebra Puzzle, also known as Einstein's Puzzle or Riddle
• Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox
• Einstein syndrome
List of things named after Albert Einstein 122

Schools
• Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University, New York
• The Albert Einstein Mathematics Institute, Hebrew University, Jerusalem
• Albert Einstein Academy Charter School, San Diego, California
• Albert Einstein High School, Kensington, Maryland
• Albert Einstein Intermediate (later Junior High) School, aka I.S. 131, The Bronx, New York
• Albert Einstein School, a German gymnasium in Bochum, Germany
• Albert Einstein International School of San Pedro Sula, a college preparatory school in San Pedro Sula, Honduras
• A high school named after Albert Einstein in Ben Shemen Youth Village, Israel
• Einstein School in Amsterdam, Netherlands
• Einstein Primary School, Haifa, Israel

Streets
• Einsteinova ulica, a major road in Bratislava, Slovakia
• Einsteinstraße, Munich, Germany [1]
• Albert Einstein Street in Coimbra, Portugal
• Einstein Street, Haifa, Israel

Buildings
• Albert Einstein Hospital in São Paulo, Brazil
• Albert Einstein Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
• Einstein Tower, astrophysical observatory in the Albert Einstein Science Park in Potsdam, Germany
• Albert Einstein House, a National Historic Landmark in Princeton, New Jersey

Arts and entertainment

• Einstein's Dreams, a 1992 novel by Alan Lightman
• Einstein's Monsters, a collection of short stories by Martin Amis
• Little Einsteins, an animated television series
• The Einstein Factor, an Australian TV game show hosted by Peter Berner
• Professor Albert Einstein, a character in the video game Command & Conquer

Other
• Bohr–Einstein debates, a series of epistemological challenges and responses by Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr
• Russell–Einstein Manifesto, issued in 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War
• Einstein–Szilárd letter, a letter sent to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in August 1939
• Albert Einstein Medal, presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland, to people who have
"rendered outstanding services" in connection with Albert Einstein, since 1979
• Einstein Symposium, on the centennial of the "Annus Mirabilis"
• Einsteinium, an element
• Tatung Einstein, an eight-bit home/personal computer
• Rebutia einsteinii, a cactus named after Einstein by its finder, Alberto Vojtěch Frič
• Einstein, a brand of South Korean milk
• Albert Einstein Institution, a non-profit organization studying methods of non-violent resistance
• Albert Einstein German Academic Refugee Initiative Fund, a scholarship fund for refugees
List of things named after Albert Einstein 123

See also
• Albert Einstein in popular culture

References
[1] http:/ / www. google. com/ maps?source=uds& q=einsteinstra%C3%9Fe+ m%C3%BCnchen
 124

Effect on popular culture

Albert Einstein in popular culture

Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many works
of popular culture.
On Einstein's 72nd birthday on March 14, 1951, UPI photographer
Arthur Sasse was trying to persuade him to smile for the camera, but
having smiled for photographers many times that day, Einstein stuck
out his tongue instead.[1] This photograph became one of the most
popular ever taken of Einstein,[2] [3] often used in merchandise
depicting him in a lighthearted sense. On June 19, 2009, the original
photograph was sold at auction for $74,324, a record for an Einstein
picture.[4]

In 1999, leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist

ever".[5] "Einstein" has become a word used to describe someone
extremely intelligent; the name is also applied ironically to someone
who states the obvious or displays a lack of intelligence or insight The famous tongue image
("Way to go, Einstein!").
Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films and plays, such as Yahoo Serious's
intentionally inaccurate biography of Einstein as a Tasmanian in the film Young Einstein, Jean-Claude Carrier's 2005
French novel, Einstein S'il Vous Plaît (Einstein If You Please), Alan Lightman's collection of short stories Einstein's
Dreams, and Steve Martin's comedic play Picasso at the Lapin Agile. He was the subject of Philip Glass's
groundbreaking 1976 opera Einstein on the Beach and his humorous side is the subject of Ed Metzger's one-man
play Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian. An 'Einstein character' also appears in a major role in Nicolas Roeg's
1985 film: Insignificance, based on Terry Johnson's London stage play. Set in New York in 1953, the film includes a
scene in which 'The Professor' (played by Michael Emil) the character evidently representing Albert Einstein,
discusses Relativity with 'The Actress'-a ‘Marilyn Monroe character’ (Theresa Russell). Einstein was portrayed by
Walter Matthau in the 1994 romantic comedy I.Q.. In the film A.I.: Artificial Intelligence, he was portrayed as a
holographic personality called Dr. Know (voiced by Robin Williams). He was also portrayed in the real-time
strategy game Command & Conquer: Red Alert. Most recently, he was the subject (along with Arthur Eddington) of
the BBC Two film Einstein and Eddington, featuring David Tennant as Eddington and Andy Serkis as Einstein, and
detailing Einstein's development of his theories and Eddington's attempts to prove them. A holographic
representation of Einstein, played by Jim Norton appeared in two episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation.

Einstein is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and
distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. The Star Wars character Yoda's eyes were modeled
after Einstein's.[6] Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true."[7]
Albert Einstein is one of the celebrities immortalized on the cover of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club
Band. A verse of James Taylor's song Secret O' Life mentions Einstein and his special theory of relativity. Kerry
Livgren of the progressive rock band Kansas stated that he wrote the song “Portrait (He Knew)” about Einstein.
Mariah Carey's eleventh studio album is entitled E=MC² after Einstein's celebrated equation. Greek singer Giorgos
Lembesis has released a song titled "Einstein" in which he states that he always admired Albert Einstein, but now he
Albert Einstein in popular culture 125

needs his help in his relationship problems.[8]

The scientist was left-handed [9] but several photographs show him using his right hand to hold pens or chalk.[10]
In the movie Back to the Future, the character of Dr. Emmett Brown, portrayed as a brilliant scientist, time traveler
and inventor, has a dog called "Einstein", named after Doc Brown's favorite scientist.

Licensing
Einstein bequeathed his estate, as well as the use of his image (see personality rights), to the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem,[11] which from the mid-1980s has sponsored the Einstein Papers Project with the Princeton University
Press (see the Einstein Page [151] from PUP). Einstein actively supported the university during his life and this
support continues with the royalties received from licensing activities. GreenLight licences the commercial use of
the name "Albert Einstein" and associated imagery and likenesses of Einstein, as agent for the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem. As head licensee the corporation can control commercial usage of Einstein's name and theoretically
ensure compliance with certain standards (e.g., when Einstein's name is used as a trademark, the ™ symbol must be
used).[12]

References
[1] Kupper, Hans-Josef (2000). "Various things about Albert Einstein" (http:/ / www. einstein-website. de/ z_information/ variousthings. html). .
Retrieved 2006-10-04
[2] Ingledew, John (2005). "The world's best known pictures". Photography. Laurence King Publishing. pp. 133. ISBN 1856694321.
[3] Faber, John (1978). "Einstein's Birthday Joke". Great News Photos and the Stories Behind Them. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 108.
ISBN 0486236676.
[4] "Photo Of Einstein Nets $74K At Auction" (http:/ / www. thebostonchannel. com/ news/ 19810075/ detail. html). WCVB-TV. June 20, 2009.
. Retrieved June 20, 2009.
[5] Einstein "greatest physicist ever;" BBC news, Monday, 29 November 1999, http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 541840. stm
[6] "The Making of Yoda (part one)." (http:/ / 1001resources. com/ hosting/ users/ cinesecrets/ pmMakingYoda1. html). . Retrieved 2007-10-03.
[7] Golden, Frederic (January 3, 2000). "Person of the Century: Albert Einstein" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ time100/ poc/ magazine/
albert_einstein5a. html). Time. . Retrieved 2006-02-25
[8] http:/ / www. musiccorner. gr/ nees_kyklof/ 04/ lembesis. html
[9] Some of the many World Wide Web lists of left-handers that include Einstein: (http:/ / www. anythingleft-handed. co. uk/ fam_proff.
html#scientists)"Famous Left-handers — Professions" Web page at "Anything Left handed" Web site, Weaver, Warren, Jr., "Washington
Talk: The Presidential Campaign; Another Issue for '88: Left-Winged Politics", news feature article, November 27, 1987
[10] These photographs show Einstein using his right hand: (http:/ / blogs. chicagotribune. com/ photos/ uncategorized/ einstein. jpg) (satirical
image based on a photograph), , (http:/ / www. astrosurf. com/ luxorion/ Images/ einstein-late. jpg), (http:/ / www. cerebromente. org. br/ n15/
mente/ Einstein. jpg), (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ srpsko_dnf/ slike_za_korisnike_i_sve_ostal/ Einstein-at-blackboard-chalk-in-hand. jpg),
(http:/ / www. soperfi. org. pe/ galerias/ albums/ userpics/ 10001/ einstein violin. jpg). Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kmVlva5w)
2009-10-25.
[11] "" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050830225523/ http:/ / aip. org/ history/ esva/ einuse. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / aip.
org/ history/ esva/ einuse. htm) on August 30, 2005. . Retrieved November 21, 2005.
[12] "ALBRT EINSTEIN BRAND LOGO" (http:/ / www. albert-einstein. net/ styleguide-readonly/ brand. html). . Retrieved November 21,
2005.
 126

Scientific publications

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was a renowned theoretical physicist of
the 20th century who is best known for his theories of special relativity
and general relativity. He also made important contributions to
statistical mechanics, especially his treatment of Brownian motion, his
resolution of the paradox of specific heats, and his connection of
fluctuations and dissipation. Despite his reservations about its
interpretation, Einstein also made seminal contributions to quantum
mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, primarily through his
theoretical studies of the photon.

Einstein's scientific publications are listed below in four tables:

journal articles, book chapters, books and authorized translations. Each
publication is indexed in the first column by its number in the Schilpp
bibliography (Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, pp. 694–730) and
by its article number in Einstein's Collected Papers. Complete
references for these two bibliographies may be found below in the
Bibliography section. The Schilpp numbers are used for
cross-referencing in the Notes (the final column of each table), since First page from Einstein's manuscript explaining
they cover a greater time period of Einstein's life at present. The general relativity.
English translations of titles are generally taken from the published
volumes of the Collected Papers. For some publications, however, such official translations are not available;
unofficial translations are indicated with a § superscript. Although the tables are presented in chronological order by
default, each table can be re-arranged in alphabetical order for any column by clicking on the arrows at the top of
that column. For illustration, to re-order a table by subject—e.g., to group together articles that pertain "General
relativity" or "Specific heats"—one need only click on the arrows in the "Classification and Notes" columns. To print
out the re-sorted table, the page may be printed directly using the web-browser Print option; the "Printable version"
link at the left gives only the default sorting. Collaborative works by Einstein are highlighted in lavender, with the
co-author(s) provided in the final column of the table.

Einstein's many non-scientific works are not included here, to limit both the article's focus and size. The division of
scientific and non-scientific works follows the Schilpp bibliography, which cites over 130 non-scientific works,
often on humanitarian or political topics (pp. 730–746). Five volumes of Einstein's Collected Papers (volumes 1, 5,
8–10) are devoted to his correspondence, much of which is concerned with scientific questions. These letters are
likewise not listed here, since they were not prepared for publication.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 127

Chronology and major themes

The following chronology of Einstein's scientific
discoveries provides a context for the publications
listed below, and clarifies the major themes running
through his work.
• In 1905, Einstein developed the theory of special
relativity, which reconciled the relativity of motion
with the observed constancy of the speed of light (a
paradox of 19th-century physics).[1] Special
relativity is now a core principle of physics. Its
counterintuitive predictions that moving clocks run
more slowly, that moving objects are shortened in
their direction of motion, and that the order of
events is not absolute have been confirmed
experimentally. Its relation E=mc2 suggested that
matter was a form of energy, which was later
verified by the mass defect in atomic nuclei. The
energy released in nuclear reactions—which is
essential for nuclear power and nuclear
weapons—can be estimated from such mass
defects.[2]
Einstein in 1921.
• Likewise in 1905, Einstein developed a theory of
Brownian motion in terms of fluctuations in the number of molecular collisions with an object,[3] providing
further evidence that matter was composed of atoms. A few weeks earlier, he had derived the Einstein relation for
diffusion, which was the first example of the general fluctuation-dissipation theorem and allowed a good estimate
of the Avogadro constant.[4]
• Also in 1905, Einstein proposed the existence of the photon, an elementary particle associated with
electromagnetic radiation (light), which was the foundation of quantum theory.[5] In 1909, Einstein showed that
the photon carries momentum as well as energy and that electromagnetic radiation must have both particle-like
and wave-like properties if Planck's law holds; this was a forerunner of the principle of wave-particle duality.[6]
• In 1907 and again in 1911, Einstein developed the first quantum theory of specific heats by generalizing Planck's
law.[7] His theory resolved a paradox of 19th-century physics that specific heats were often smaller than could be
explained by any classical theory. His work was also the first to show that Planck's quantum mechanical law
E=hν was a fundamental law of physics, and not merely special to blackbody radiation.[8]
• Between 1907 and 1915, Einstein developed the theory of general relativity, a classical field theory of gravitation
that provides the cornerstone for modern astrophysics and cosmology.[9] General relativity is based on the
surprising idea that time and space dynamically interact with matter and energy, and has been checked
experimentally in many ways,[10] confirming its predictions of matter affecting the flow of time,[11] frame
dragging,[12] black holes,[13] and gravitational waves.[14]
• In 1917, Einstein published the idea for the Einstein-Brillouin-Keller method for finding the quantum mechanical
version of a classical system.[15] The famous Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is a simple example, but the EBK
method also gives accurate predictions for more complicated systems, such as the dinuclear cations H2+ and
HeH2+.[16]
• In 1918, Einstein developed a general theory of the process by which atoms emit and absorb electromagnetic
radiation (his A and B coefficients), which is the basis of lasers (stimulated emission) and shaped the development
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 128

of modern quantum electrodynamics, the best-validated physical theory at present.[17]

• In 1924, together with Satyendra Nath Bose, Einstein developed the theory of Bose-Einstein statistics and
Bose-Einstein condensates, which form the basis for superfluidity, superconductivity, and other phenomena.[18]
• In 1935, together with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, Einstein put forward what is now known as the EPR
paradox, and argued that the quantum-mechanical wave function must be an incomplete description of the
physical world.[19]
• In the final thirty years of his life, Einstein explored whether various classical unified field theories could account
for both electromagnetism and gravitation and, possibly, quantum mechanics. However, his efforts were
unsuccessful, since those theories did not match experimental observations.[20]

Journal articles
Most of Einstein's original scientific work appeared as journal articles. Articles on which Einstein collaborated with
other scientists are highlighted in lavender, with the co-author(s) listed in the "Classification and notes" column.

[21] Year [23] [24]

Index Title and English Journal, volume, pages Classification and notes
[22]
translation

Schilpp 1; 1901 Folgerungen aus den [26]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 4, 513–523, Intermolecular forces. The first of two
CP 2, 1 Kapillaritätserscheinungen [25]
link papers in which Einstein proposed the
(incorrect) theory that the interactions between
Conclusions Drawn from
all molecules are a universal function of
the Phenomena of
distance, in analogy with the inverse-square
Capillarity
force of gravity. Once parameterized, his theory
makes reasonably accurate predictions for
heavier hydrophobic molecules, but fails for
lighter molecules.

Schilpp 2; 1902 Thermodynamische Theorie Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 8, 798–814, [28]
Intermolecular forces. Einstein's second
CP 2, 2 der Potentialdifferenz [27]
link paper on a universal molecular energy function,
zwischen Metallen und this time applied to electrolytic solutions. No
vollständig dissoziierten data are available for comparison. Einstein
Lösungen ihrer Salze, und characterizes these two papers as "worthless" in
eine elektrische Methode zur [29]
1907.
Erforschung der
Molekularkräfte

On the Thermodynamic
Theory of the Difference
in Potentials between
Metals and Fully
Dissociated Solutions of
Their Salts and on an
Electrical Method for
Investigating Molecular
Forces
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 129

Schilpp 3; 1902 Kinetische Theorie des [31]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 9, 417–433, Statistical mechanics. Study of the
CP 2, 3 Wärmegleichgewichtes und [30]
link equipartition theorem and the definitions of
des zweiten Hauptsatzes der temperature and entropy.
Thermodynamik

Kinetic Theory of Thermal

Equilibrium and of the
Second Law of
Thermodynamics

Schilpp 4; 1903 Eine Theorie der Grundlagen Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 11, [33]
Statistical mechanics. The problem of
CP 2, 4 der Thermodynamik [32]
170–187, link irreversibility in thermodynamics.

A Theory of the
Foundations of
Thermodynamics

Schilpp 5; 1904 Allgemeine molekulare [35]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 14, Statistical mechanics. Fluctuations and
CP 2, 5 Theorie der Wärme [34]
354–362, link new methods for determining Boltzmann's
constant.
On the General Molecular
Theory of Heat

CP 2, 6 1905 Review of Giuseppe Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.

Belluzzo: "Principi di 29, 78
termodinamica grafica"

Review of Giuseppe
Belluzzo: "Principles of
Graphic Thermodynamics"

CP 2, 7 1905 Review of Albert Fliegner: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
"Über den Clausius'schen 29, 79
Entropiesatz"

Review of Albert Fliegner:

"On Clausius's Law of
Entropy"

CP 2, 8 1905 Review of William Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.

McFadden Orr: "On 29, 79
Clausius' Theorem for
Irreversible Cycles, and on
the Increase of Entropy"

CP 2, 9 1905 Review of George Hartley Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Bryan: "The Law of 29, 80
Degradation of Energy as
the Fundamental Principle of
Thermodynamics"
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 130

CP 2, 10 1905 Review of Nikolay Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.

Nikolayevich Schiller: 29, 81
"Einige Bedenken betreffend
die Theorie der
Entropievermehrung durch
Diffusion der Gase bei
einander gleichen
Anfangsspannungen der
letzteren"

Review of Nikolay
Nikolayevich Schiller:
"Some Concerns
Regarding the Theory of
Entropy Increase Due to
the Diffusion of Gases
Where the Initial Pressures
of the Latter Are Equal"

CP 2, 11 1905 Review of Jakob Johann Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Weyrauch: "Über die 29, 82
spezifischen Wärmen des
überhitzten Wasserdampfes"

Review of Jakob Johann

Weyrauch: "On the
specific Heats of
Superheated Water Vapor"

CP 2, 12 1905 Review of Jacobus Henricus Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
van't Hoff: "Einfluss der 29, 82
Änderung der spezifischen
Wärme auf die
Umwandlungsarbeit"

Review of Jacobus
Henricus van't Hoff: "The
Influence of the Change in
Specific Heat on the Work
of Conversion"

CP 2, 13 1905 Review of Arturo Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.

Giammarco: "Un caso di 29, 84
corrispondenza in
termodinamica"

Review of Arturo
Giammarco: "A Case of
Corresponding States in
Thermodynamics"
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 131

Schilpp 7; 1905 Über einen die Erzeugung [37]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, Photons. Proposal of the photon as a
CP 2, 14 und Verwandlung des [36]
132–148, link quantum of energy, supported by many
Lichtes betreffenden independent arguments.
heuristischen Gesichtspunkt

On a Heuristic Point of
View Concerning the
Production and
Transformation of Light

Schilpp 8; 1905 Über die von der [39]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, Statistical mechanics. Seminal treatment of
CP 2, 16 molekularkinetischen [38]
549–560, link Brownian motion, a type of translational
Theorie der Wärme diffusion.
geforderte Bewegung von in
ruhenden Flüssigkeiten
suspendierten Teilchen

On the Movement of Small

Particles Suspended in
Stationary Liquids
Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory
of Heat

CP 2, 17 1905 Review of Karl Fredrik Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Slotte: "Über die 29, 135
Schmelzwärme"

Review of Karl Fredrik

Slotte: "On the Heat of
Fusion"

CP 2, 18 1905 Review of Karl Fredrik Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Slotte: "Folgerungen aus 29, 135
einer thermodynamischen
Gleichung"

Review of Karl Fredrik

Slotte: "Conclusions
Drawn from a
Thermodynamic Equation"

CP 2, 19 1905 Review of Emile Mathias: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
"La constante a des 29, 136
diamètres rectilignes et les
lois des états
correspondents"

Review of Emile Mathias:

"The Constant a of
Rectilinear Diameters and
the Laws of Corresponding
States"

CP 2, 20 1905 Review of Max Planck: "On Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Clausius' Theorem for 29, 29 (1905) 137
Irreversible Cycles, and on
the Increase of Entropy"
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 132

CP 2, 21 1905 Review of Edgar Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.

Buckingham: "On Certain 29, 137
Difficulties Which Are
Encountered in the Study of
Thermodynamics"

CP 2, 22 1905 Review of Paul Langevin: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
"Sur une formule 29, 138
fondamentale de la théorie
cinétique"

Review of Paul Langevin:

"On a Fundamental
Formula of the Kinetic
Theory"

Schilpp 9; 1905 Elektrodynamik bewegter [41]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, Special relativity. This seminal paper gave
CP 2, 23 Körper [40]
891–921, link , Wikilivres birth to special relativity (SR). In particular, it
stated the two postulates of SR (uniform motion
On the Electrodynamics of
is undetectable, and the speed of light is always
Moving Bodies
constant) and its kinematics.

Schilpp 1905 Ist die Trägheit eines [43]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 18, Special relativity. This paper derived the
10; CP 2, Körpers von seinem [42]
639–641, link conclusion that mass was equivalent to an
24 Energieinhalt abhängig? energy and vice versa, leading to the famous
equation E=mc2.
Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?

CP 2, 25 1905 Review of Heinrich Birven: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Grundzüge der 29, 175
mechanischen Wärmetheorie

Review of Heinrich
Birven: Fundamentals of
the Mechanical Theory of
Heat

CP 2, 26 1905 Review of Auguste Ponsot: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
"Chaleur dans le 29, 175
déplacement de 1'équilibre
d'un système capillaire"

Review of Auguste
Ponsot: "Heat in the
Displacement of the
Equilibrium of a Capillary
System"
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 133

CP 2, 27 1905 Review of Karl Bohlin: "Sur Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
le choc, considéré comme 29, 176
fondement des théories
cinétiques de la pression des
gaz et de la gravitation
universelle"

Review of Karl Bohlin:

"On Impact Considered as
the Basis of Kinetic
Theories of Gas Pressure
and of Universal
Gravitation"

CP 2, 28 1905 Review of Georges Meslin: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
"Sur la constante de la loi de 29, 177
Mariotte et GayLussac"

Review of Georges
Meslin: "On the Constant
in Mariotte and
GayLussac's Law"

CP 2, 29 1905 Review of Albert Fliegner: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
"Das Ausströmen heissen 29, 177
Wassers aus
Gefässmündungen"

Review of Albert Fliegner:

"The Efflux of Hot Water
from Container Orifices

CP 2, 30 1905 Review of Jakob Johann Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Weyrauch: Grundriss der 29, 178
Wärmetheorie. Mit
zahlreichen Beispielen und
Anwendungen

Review of Jakob Johann

Weyrauch: "An Outline of
the Theory of Heat. With
Numerous Examples and
Applications. Part 1

CP 2, 31 1905 Review of Albert Fliegner: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
"Über den Wärmewert 29, 179
chemischer Vorgänge"

Review of Albert Fliegner:

"On the Thermal Value of
Chemical Processes"

Schilpp 1906 Eine neue Bestimmung der [45]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 19, Statistical mechanics. Hydrodynamic
11; CP 2, Moleküldimensionen [44]
289–306, link determination of molecular volumes.
33
A New Determination of
Molecular Dimensions
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 134

Schilpp 1906 Zur Theorie der Brownschen Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 19, [47]
Statistical mechanics. Rotational Brownian
12; CP 2, Bewegung [46]
371–381, link motion, an example of rotational diffusion.
32
On the Theory of
Brownian Motion

Schilpp 1906 Theorie der Lichterzeugung [49]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 20, Photons. Einstein reconciles his and
13; CP 2, und Lichtabsorption [48]
199–206, link Planck's independent derivations of the
34 blackbody formula E=hν. Planck's derivation of
On the Theory of Light
this formula ascribed it to a restriction on the
Production and Light
energy changes possible when radiation is
Absorption
produced or absorbed by matter, which implied
no restriction on the energies of either matter or
radiation. Einstein's 1905 derivation ascribed it
to a restriction on the energy of radiation alone,
but in this paper, he proposes the modern idea
that the energies of both matter and radiation are
quantized, which led to his work on quantum
specific heats, such as reference #16.

Schilpp 1906 Prinzip von der Erhaltung [51]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 20, Special relativity. First statement that the
14; CP 2, der Schwerpunktsbewegung 627–633, link [50] conservation of mass is a special case of the
35 und die Trägheit der Energie conservation of energy.

The Principle of
Conservation of Motion of
the Center of Gravity and
the Inertia of Energy

Schilpp 1906 Eine Methode zur [53]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 21, Special relativity. A French translation
15; CP 2, Bestimmung des [52]
583–586, link appeared in the journal L'Éclairage électrique,
36 Verhältnisses der volume 49, pages 493–494.
transversalen und
longitudinalen Masse des
Elektrons

On a Method for the

Determination of the Ratio
of the Transverse and the
Longitudinal Mass of the
Electron

CP 2, 37 1906 Review of Max Planck: Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Statistical mechanics.
Vorlesungen über die 30, 211
Theorie der Wärmestrahlung

Review of Max Planck:

Lectures on the Theory of
Thermal Radiation
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
Schilpp 1907 Planckshe Theorie der
16; CP 2, Strahlung und die Theorie
38 der Spezifischen Wärme
Planck's Theory of
Radiation and the Theory
of Specific Heat
Schilpp 1907 Gültigkeit des Satzes vom
17; CP 2, thermodynamischen
39 Gleichgewicht und die
Möglichkeit einer neuen
Bestimmung der
Elementarquanta
On the Limit of Validity of
the Law of
Thermodynamic
Equilibrium and on the
Possibility of a New
Determination of the
Elementary Quanta
Schilpp 1907 Möglichkeit einer neuen
18; CP 2, Prüfung des
41 Relativitätsprinzips
On the Possibility of a
New Test of the Relativity
Principle
Schilpp 19 1907 Bemerkung zur Notiz des
Herrn P. Ehrenfest:
Translation deformierbarer
Elektronen und der
Flächensatz
Comments on the Note of
Mr. Paul Ehrenfest: The
Translatory Motion of
Deformable Electrons and
the Area Law
Schilpp 1907 Die vom Relitivätsprinzip
20; CP 2, geforderte Trägheit der
45 Energie
On the Inertia of Energy
Required by the Relativity
Principle
135
[56]
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 22, Specific heats. Seminal work applying
[54]
180–190, 800 link and correction Planck's law to the oscillations of atoms and
[55]
molecules in solids. Resolved the 19th century
paradox of the equipartition theorem in classical
physics, and introduced the Einstein model of
solids, which led to the current Debye model.
Showed that the quantum mechanical law E=hν
was a general law of physics, and not merely
special to blackbody radiation.
[58]
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 22, Statistical mechanics. Applies his theory of
[57]
569–572, link fluctuations to determine Boltzmann's constant
from the voltage fluctuations in a capacitor.
Resulted in a novel low-noise technique for
amplifying voltages, as described in reference
#25.
[60]
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 23, Special relativity. Einstein's discovery of
[59]
197–198, link the transverse Doppler effect, in which the
perceived frequency is shifted even when the
line between the wave source and receiver and
the source's velocity are perpendicular.
[62]
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 23, Special relativity. Discusses the difficulty
[61]
206–208, link of applying Lorentz transformations to rigid
bodies.
[64]
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 23, Special relativity. First statement that the
[63]
371–384, link total energy of a moving particle equals E=mc2.
Derives the transformation of energy and
momentum under the influence of external
forces (relativistic dynamics). Notes again the
difficulty of applying Lorentz transformations to
rigid bodies (see reference #19). Finally,
speculates that Maxwell's equations will prove
to be the limiting case for large numbers of
light-quanta, just as thermodynamics is a
limiting case of statistical mechanics.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 136

CP 2, 46 1907 Review of Jakob Johann Beiblätter zu den Annalen der Physik, Thermodynamics.
Weyrauch: Grundriss der 31, 251
Wärmetheorie. Mit
zahlreichen Beispielen und
Anwendungen

Review of Jakob Johann

Weyrauch: An Outline of
the Theory of Heat. With
Numerous Examples and
Applications. Part 2.

Schilpp 1907 Relativitätsprinzip und die [66]

Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität, 4, Special and general relativity. A
21; CP 2, aus demselben gezogenen [65]
411–462, link correction appeared in volume 5, pp. 98–99,
47 Folgerungen
Berichtigungen. First appearance (page 443) of
2
the equation E=mc . This paper also marks the
On the Relativity Principle
beginning of Einstein's long development of
and the Conclusions
general relativity; here he derives the
Drawn from It
equivalence principle, gravitational redshift, and
the gravitational bending of light. Einstein
returns to these topics in 1911.

Schilpp 1907 Theoretische Bemerkungen Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie und [67]

Statistical mechanics. Brief note on the
22; CP 2, über die Brownsche angewandte physikalische Chemie, 13, technical meaning of "average velocity".
40 Bewegung 41–42

Theoretical Remarks on
Brownian Motion

Schilpp 1908 Elektromagnetische [68]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 26, Special relativity. Co-authored with J.
23; CP 2, Grundgleichungen für [110]
532–540, link Laub. A correction appeared in volume 27,
51 bewegte Körper [69]
p.232, Berichtigungen . See also publication
#27.
On the Fundamental
Electromagnetic Equations
for Moving Bodies

Schilpp 1908 Die im elektromagnetischen [71]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 26, Special relativity. Co-authored with J.
24; CP 2, Felde auf ruhende Körper [70]
541–550, link Laub.
52 ausgeübten
ponderomotorischen Kräfte

On the Ponderomotive
Forces Exerted on Bodies
at Rest in the
Electromagnetic Field

Schilpp 1908 Neue elektrostatische Physikalische Zeitschrift, 9, 216–217 [72]

Electromagnetism. Novel experimental
25; CP 2, Methode zur Messung method for measuring tiny amounts of charge,
48 kleiner Elektrizitätsmengen by first charging a variable capacitor at low
capacitance, then changing it to high
A New Electrostatic
capacitance and discharging it to another
Method for the
capacitor. An apparatus for this amplification
Measurement of Small
was constructed by two brothers, Johann Conrad
Quantities of Electricity
Habicht and Franz Paul Habicht, in
collaboration with Einstein and published in
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 11, 532 (1910).
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 137

Schilpp 1908 Elementare Theorie der Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie, 14, [73]
Statistical mechanics. Semi-popular
26; CP 2, Brownschen Bewegung 235–239 review.
50
Elementary Theory of
Brownian Motion

Schilpp 1909 Bemerkungen zu unserer [68]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 28, Special relativity. Co-authored with J.
27; CP 2, Arbeit: Elektromagnetische [74]
445–447, link Laub.
54 Grundgleichungen für
bewegte Körper

Remarks on Our Paper: On

the Fundamental
Electromagnetic Equations
for Moving Bodies

Schilpp 1909 Bemerkung zur Arbeit von [76]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 28, Special relativity. Notes similarity to
28; CP 2, Mirimanoff: Die [75]
885–888, link Hermann Minkowski's work.
55 Grundgleichungen...

Comment on the Paper of

D. Mirimanoff: On the
Fundamental Equations...

Schilpp 1909 Zum gegenwärtigen Stande Physikalische Zeitschrift, 10, 185–193 [77]
Photons. Review article on electromagnetic
29; CP 2, des Strahlungsproblems radiation, and an important forerunner of
56 publication #30.
On the Present Status of
the Radiation Problem

Schilpp 1909 No title Physikalische Zeitschrift, 10, 323–324 [78]

Photons. Einstein's joint communique with
29b; CP 2, Walther Ritz (first author) on their differing
57 viewpoints of the advanced and retarded
solutions of Maxwell's equations. Einstein
argues that the physical restriction to retarded
solutions is not a law, but probabilistic; Ritz
states that the same restriction is the basis of the
2nd law of thermodynamics.

Schilpp 1909 Entwicklung unserer Physikalische Zeitschrift, 10, 817–825 [79]

Photons. Pivotal address before the 81st
30; CP 2, Anschauungen über das assembly of the Gesellschaft Deutscher
60 Wesen und die Konstitution Naturforscher, held in Salzburg, where Einstein
der Strahlung showed that photons must carry momentum and
should be treated as particles. Notes that
On the Development of
electromagnetic radiation must have a dual
Our Views Concerning the
nature, at once both wave-like and particulate.
Nature and Constitution of
Also published in the journal Deutsche
Radiation
physikalische Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen, 11,
pp. 482–500. An English translation is available
at the English Wikisource.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 138

Schilpp 1910 Über einen Satz der [81]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 33, Photons. Co-authored with L. Hopf. See
31; CP 3, Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung 1096–1104, link [80] also publication #79.
7 und seine Anwendung in der
Strahlungstheorie

On a Theorem of the
Probability Calculus and
Its Application in the
Theory of Radiation

Schilpp 1910 Statistische Untersuchung [83]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 33, Photons. Co-authored with L. Hopf.
32; CP 3, der Bewegung eines [82]
1105–1115, link
8 Resonators in einem
Strahlungsfeld

Statistical Investigation of
a Resonator's Motion in a
Radiation Field

Schilpp 1910 Theorie der Opaleszenz von [85]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 33, Statistical mechanics. Seminal paper on
33; CP 3, homogenen Flüssigkeiten [84]
1275–1298, link critical opalescence.
9 und Flüssigkeitsgemischen
in der Nähe des kritischen
Zustandes

The Theory of the

Opalescence of
Homogeneous Fluids and
Liquid Mixtures near the
Critical State

Schilpp 1910 Principe de relativité et ses Archives des sciences physiques et [86]
Special relativity. Translation by E.
34; CP 3, conséquences dans la naturelles (ser. 4), 29, 5–28, 125-244 Guillaume, but does not correspond to reference
2 physique moderne #21.

The Principle of Relativity

and Its Consequences in
Modern Physics

Schilpp 1910 Théorie des quantités Archives des sciences physiques et Photons.
35; CP 3, lumineuses et la question de naturelles (ser. 4), 29, 525–528
5 la localisation de l'énergie
électromagnetique

On the Theory of Light

Quanta and the Question
of the Localization of
Electromagnetic Energy
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 139

Schilpp 1910 Forces pondéromotrices qui Archives des sciences physiques et [87]
Electromagnetism.
36; CP 3, agissent sur les conducteurs naturelles (ser. 4), 30, 323–324
6 ferromagnétique disposés
dans un champs magnétique
et parcourus par un courant

On the Ponderomotive
Forces Acting on
Ferromagnetic Conductors
Carrying a Current in a
Magnetic Field

Schilpp 1911 Bemerkung zu dem Gesetz Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, Intermolecular forces and fluid
37; CP 3, von Eötvös [88] [89]
165–169, link mechanics.
12
Comment on Eötvös's Law

Schilpp 1911 Beziehung zwischen dem [91]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, Specific heats. Einstein tries to connect a
38; CP 3, elastischen Verhalten und [90]
170–174, link characteristic frequency in his 1907 theory of
13 der Spezifischen Wärme mit specific heats to the elastic properties of the
einatomigem Molekül solid. See also Bemerkung zu meiner Arbeit:
'Eine Beziehung zwischen dem elastischen
A Relationship between [92]
Verhalten ...' ", p. 590.
Elastic Behavior and
Specific Heat in Solids
with a Monatomic
Molecule

Schilpp 1911 Bemerkungen zu den P. [94]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, Statistical mechanics.
39; CP 3, Hertzschen Arbeiten: [93]
175–176, link
10 Mechanische Grundlagen
der Thermodynamik

Comments on P. Hertz's
Papers: On the Mechanical
Foundations of
Thermodynamics

Schilpp 1911 Berichtigung zu meiner [96]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, Statistical mechanics. Correction to
40; CP 3, Arbeit: Eine neue [95]
591–592, link publication #11 that produces an excellent
14 Bestimmung der [97]
estimate of the Avogadro constant.
Moleküldimensionen

Correction to My Paper: A
New Determination of
Molecular Dimensions

Schilpp 1911 Elementare Betrachtungen [99]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 35, Specific heats. Recognizing that his 1907
41; CP 3, über die thermische [98]
679–694, link model of specific heats is incorrect at very low
21 Molekularbewegung in temperatures, Einstein tries to improve it. The
festen Körpern correct answer came a year later with the Debye
model.
Elementary Observations
on Thermal Molecular
Motion in Solids
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 140

Schilpp 1911 Einfluss der Schwerkraft auf Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 35, [101]
General relativity. In this paper, Einstein
42; CP 3, die Ausbreitung des Lichtes 898–908, link [100] resumes his development of general relativity,
23 last discussed in 1907. Here, Einstein realizes
On the Influence of
that a new theory is needed to replace both
Gravitation on the
special relativity and Newton's theory of
Propagation of Light
gravitation. He also realizes that special
relativity and the equivalence principle hold
locally, not globally.

Schilpp 1911 Relativitätstheorie Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, [102]

Special and (possibly) general relativity.
43; CP 3, Vierteljahresschrift, 56, 1–14 An address given at the conference of the Zurich
17 The Theory of Relativity
Society of Scientists.

Schilpp 1911 Zum Ehrenfestschen Physikalische Zeitschrift, 12, 509–510 [103]

Special relativity. Clears up confusion
44; CP 3, Paradoxon about the Lorentz contraction.
22
On the Ehrenfest Paradox

Schilpp 1912 Thermodynamische [105]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 37, Statistical mechanics. See also volume
45; CP 4, Begründung des [104]
832–838, link 38, pp. 881–884, Nachtrag zu meiner Arbeit:
2 and 5 photochemischen 'Thermodynamische Begründung des
Äquivalentgesetzes [106]
photochemischen Äquivalentgesetzes'

Thermodynamic Proof of
the Law of Photochemical
Equivalence

Schilpp 1912 Lichtgeschwindigkeit und [108]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, General relativity. First of two papers
46; CP 4, Statik des Gravitationsfeldes 355–369, link [107] (see next entry for second) in the continuing
3 development of general relativity (see reference
The Speed of Light and the
#42). These two papers are the last in which
Statics of the Gravitational
Einstein allows time to be warped while keeping
Field
space flat (uncurved). In these papers, he
realizes that the Lorentz transformations of
special relativity must be generalized and that
the new theory of gravitation must be
non-linear, since gravitational energy can itself
[109]
gravitate.

Schilpp 1912 Theorie des statischen [111]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, General relativity. Second of two papers
47; CP 4, Gravitationsfeldes [110]
443–458, link (see previous entry for first) in the continuing
4 development of general relativity.
On the Theory of the Static
Gravitational Field

Schilpp 1912 Antwort auf eine Bemerkung Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, 888, link [113]
Photons.
48; CP 4, von J. Stark: Anwendung [112]
6 des Planckschen
Elementargesetzes

Response to a Comment
by J. Stark: 'On an
Application of Planck's
Fundamental Law...
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 141

Schilpp 1912 Relativität und Gravitation: [114]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, General relativity.
49; CP 4, Erwiderung auf eine [111]
1059–1064, link
8 Bemerkung von M.
Abraham

Relativity and Gravitation.

Reply to a Comment by M.
Abraham

Schilpp 1912 Bemerkung zu Abraham's [116]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 39, 704, link General relativity.
50; CP 4, vorangehender [115]
9 Auseinandersetzung:
Nochmals Relativität und
Gravitation

Comment on Abraham's
Preceding Discussion
'Once Again, Relativity
and Gravitation

Schilpp 1912 Gibt es eine Vierteljahrschrift für gerichtliche [117]

General relativity.
52; CP 4, Gravitationswirkung die der Medizin (ser. 3), 44, 37–40
7 elektromagnetischen
Induktionswirkung analog
ist?

Is There a Gravitational
Effect Which Is Analogous
to Electrodynamic
Induction?

Schilpp 1913 Entwurf einer
53; CP 4, verallgemeinerten
13 Relativitätstheorie und eine
Theorie der Gravitation. I.
Physikalischer Teil von A.
Einstein II. Mathematischer
Teil von M. Grossmann
Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of
a Theory of Gravitation. I.
Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical
Part by M. Grossmann
Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik,
62, 225–244, 245–261
[118]
General relativity. A breakthrough paper,
written in collaboration with Marcel
Grossmann, in which the single Newtonian
scalar gravitational field is replaced by ten
fields, which are the components of a
symmetric, four-dimensional metric tensor.
However, the correct equations describing these
fields are not identified. Reviewed critically in
reference #68. See also references #21, 42, 46
and 47.

Schilpp 1913 Einige Argumente für die [120]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 40, Specific heats. Co-authored with O. Stern.
54; CP 4, Annahme einer molekular [119]
551–560, link Einstein and Stern attempt to explain the
11 Agitation beim absoluten specific heats of diatomic gases, such as
Nullpunkt molecular hydrogen, H2. Although qualitatively
[121]
correct, they are quantitatively inaccurate.
Some Arguments for the
Assumption of Molecular
Agitation at Absolute Zero
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 142

Schilpp 1913 Déduction thermodynamique Journal de physique (ser. 5), 3, 277–282 Statistical mechanics.[122] Not a translation of
55; CP 4, de la loi de l'équivalence reference #45, but rather an address before the
12 photochimique Société Française de Physique, held on 27
March 1913.
Thermodynamic
Deduction of the Law of
Photochemical
Equivalence

Schilpp 1913 Physikalische Grundlagen Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, [123]

56; CP 4, einer Gravitationstheorie
16
Physical Foundations of a
Theory of Gravitation
Vierteljahrsschrift, 58, 284–290
General relativity. Address before the
Swiss Society of Scientists on 9 September
1913. A résumé is printed in the Schweizerische
naturforschende Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen,
1913 (part 2), pp. 137–138.

Schilpp 1913 Max Planck als Forscher Naturwissenschaften, 1, 1077–1079 [124]

History of physics.
57; CP 4,
23 Max Planck as Scientist

Schilpp 1913 Zum gegenwärtigen Stande Physikalische Zeitschrift, 14, 1249–1266 [125]
General relativity. Address on 21
58; CP 4, des Gravitationsproblems
September 1913 to the 85th Versammlung
17
Deutscher Naturforscher in Vienna. The
On the Present State of the
discussion following Einstein's address is
Problem of Gravitation
included in this citation. This review was also
published in the Gesellschaft deutscher
Naturforscher und Ärzte, Verhandlungen, 1914,
pp. 3–24. A referat was also published in the
journal Himmel und Erde, 26, pp. 90–93.

Schilpp 1914 Nordströmsche [127]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 44, General relativity. Co-authored with A.
59; CP 4, Gravitationstheorie vom [126]
321–328, link D. Fokker. Shows that the competing field
28 Standpunkt des absoluten
theory of Gunnar Nordström could be recast as a
Differentialkalküls
special case of the Einstein-Grossmann
equations (see reference #53).
Nordstöm's Theory of
Gravitation from the Point
of View of the Absolute
Differential Calculus

Schilpp 60 1914 Archives des sciences physiques et [123]

Bases physiques d'une General relativity. Translated by E.
naturelles (ser. 4), 37, 5–12
théorie de la gravitation Guillaume.

Physical Foundations of a
Theory of Gravitation§

Schilpp 61 1914 [129]

Bemerkung zu P. Harzers
Abhandlung: Die
Mitführung des Lichtes in
Glas und die Aberration
Astronomische Nachrichten, 199, 8–10, Electromagnetism and special relativity.
[128]
link

Observation on P. Harzer's
Article: Dragging of Light
in Glass and Aberration§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 143

Schilpp 62 1914 [129]

Antwort auf eine Replik P. Astronomische Nachrichten, 199, 47–48, Electromagnetism and special relativity.
[130]
Harzers link

Answer to P. Harzer's
Reply§

Schilpp 63 1914 Deutsche Bunsengesellschaft, Specific heats. German edition of reference

Zum gegenwärtigen Stande
Abhandlungen, 7, 330–364 #51; pages 353–364 include the discussion
des Problems der
following Einstein's address.
spezifischen Wärme

On the Present Status of

the Problem of Specific
Heats§

Schilpp 1914 Deutsche physikalische Gesellschaft, [131]

Beiträge zur Quantentheorie Quantum mechanics. Reprinted in
64; CP 6, Berichte, 1914, 820–828 volume 16 of the Verhandlungen of the same
5
Contributions to Quantum society.
Theory§

Schilpp 1914 Zur Theorie der Gravitation Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, [132]
General relativity.
65; CP 4, Vierteljahrsschrift, 59, 4–6
27 On the Theory of
Gravitation

Schilpp 66 1914 Naturwissenschaften, 2, 1018 [133]

Review of H. A. Lorentz: Special and (possibly) general relativity.
Das Relativitätsprinzip

Review of H. A. Lorentz:
The Principle of
Relativity§

Schilpp 1914 Nachträgliche Antwort auf Physikalische Zeitschrift, 15, 108–110 [134]
General relativity. Concerns the mass of
67; CP 4, eine Frage von Reissner a gravitational field itself.
24
Supplementary Response
to a Question by Mr.
Reißner

Schilpp 1914 Principielles zur Physikalische Zeitschrift, 15, 176–180 [135]

General relativity. Reply to Gustav Mie
68; CP 4, verallgemeinerten on the relationship between reference #53 and
25 Relativitätstheorie und Hermann Minkowski's work.
Gravitationstheorie

On the Foundations of the

Generalized Theory of
Relativity and the Theory
of Gravitation

Schilpp 1914 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [136]

Antrittsrede General relativity.
69; CP 6, Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1914 (pt.
3 2), 739–742
Inaugural Address§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 144

Schilpp 1914 Preussische Akademie der [137]

Formale Grundlage de
70; CP 6,
allgemeinen
9 (part 2), 1030–1085
Relativitätstheorie
Formal Foundations of the
General Theory of
Relativity§
General relativity. An important paper in
Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1914
the development of general relativity. Einstein
still has not derived correct field equations, but
he derives the geodesic motion of point
particles, relates gravitational fields to rotation,
and re-derives his 1907 results about the
bending of light and gravitational redshift using
the new metric tensor theory.

Schilpp 1914 Zum Relativitätsproblem Scientia (Bologna), 15, 337–348 [138]

Special and (possibly) general relativity.
71; CP 4,
31 On the Relativity Problem

Schilpp 72 1914
Physikalische Grundlagen
und leitende Gedanken für
eine Gravitationstheorie
Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen General relativity. Listed only by title; same
naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 96 (pt. lecture as publication #56.
2), 146

Physical Foundations and

Suggestive Thoughts for a
Gravitational Theory§

Schilpp 73 1914 Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen [123]

Gravitationstheorie General relativity. For full text, see
naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 96 (pt. reference #56.
2), 136–137
Gravitational Theory§

Schilpp 1914 Relativitätsprinzip Vossische Zeitung, 33–34 [139]

Special and (possibly) general relativity.
74; CP 6, April 26
1 On the Principle of
Relativity

Schilpp 1914 Kovarianzeigenschaften der Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik, [140]
General relativity. Co-authored with M.
75; CP 6, Feldgleichungen der auf die 63, 215–225 Grossmann.
2 verallgemeinerte
Relativitätstheorie
gegründeten
Gravitationstheorie

Covariance Properties of
the Field Equations of the
Theory of Gravitation
Based on the Generalized
Theory of Relativity

Schilpp 78 1915 Proefondervindelijk bewijs Akademie van Wetenschappen, [141]

Einstein-de Haas effect. Co-authored
voor het bestan der Amsterdam, Verslag. (ser. 4), 23, with WJ de Haas.
moleculaire stroomen von 1449–1464
Ampère

Experimental Proof of the

Existence of Ampère's
Molecular Currents
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 145

Schilpp 1915 Antwort auf eine [143]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 47, Photons.
79; CP 6, Abhandlung M. von Laues: 879–885, link [142]
18 Ein Satz der
Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung
und seine Anwendung auf
die Strahlungstheorie

Response to a Paper by M.
von Laue: A Theorem in
Probability Calculus and
Its Application to
Radiation Theory

Schilpp 1915 Experimenteller Nachweis Verhandlungen der Deutschen [144]

Einstein-de Haas effect. Co-authored
80; CP 6, des Ampèreschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 17, with WJ de Haas.
23 Molekularströme 152–170, 203 (Berichtigung), 420

Experimental Proof of
Ampère's Molecular
Currents

Schilpp 81 1915 Experimenteller Nachweis Naturwissenschaften, 3, 237–238 [145]

Einstein-de Haas effect. Co-authored
des Ampèreschen with WJ de Haas.
Molekularströme

Experimental Proof of
Ampère's Molecular
Currents

Schilpp 82 1915 Preussische Akademie der [146]

Grundgedanken der General relativity.
Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915
allgemeinen
(part 1), 315
Relativitätstheorie und
Anwendung dieser Theorie
in der Astronomie

Fundamental Ideas of the

General Theory of
Relativity and the
Application of this Theory
in Astronomy§

Schilpp 1915 Zur allgemeinen Preussische Akademie der [147]

General relativity. Two of Einstein's four
83; CP 6, Relativitätstheorie Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915 papers in November 1915 that led to the final
21 and 22 (part 2), 778–786, 799–801 field equations for general relativity. The first
On the General Theory of
paper corrected a fundamental misconception
Relativity
and allowed Einstein to finish; however, the
[148]
second introduced a serious mistake.

Schilpp 1915 Erklärung der Preussische Akademie der [149]

84; CP 6, Perihelbewegung des
24 Merkur aus der allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie
Explanation of the
Perihelion Motion of
Mercury from the General
Theory of Relativity
General relativity. A pivotal paper in
Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915
which Einstein shows that general relativity
(part 2), 831–839
explains the anomalous precession of the planet
Mercury, which had vexed astronomers since
1859. This paper also introduced the important
calculational method, the post-Newtonian
expansion. Einstein also calculated correctly
(for the first time) the bending of light by
gravity.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 146

Schilpp 1915 Feldgleichungen der Preussische Akademie der [150]

General relativity. This is the defining
85; CP 6, Gravitation Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915 paper of general relativity. At long last, Einstein
25 (part 2), 844–847 had found workable field equations, which
The Field Equations of
served as the basis for subsequent derivations.
Gravitation

Schilpp 1916 Experimental proof of the [152]

Proceedings of the Akademie van Einstein-de Haas effect. Co-authored
88; CP 6, existence of Ampère's Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, 18, with WJ de Haas; English translation of
14 molecular currents [151]
696–711,link reference #80.

Schilpp 1916 Grundlage der allgemeinen [154]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 49, General relativity.
89; CP 6, Relativitätstheorie [153]
769–822, link
30
The Foundation of the
General Theory of
Relativity

Schilpp 1916 Über Fr. Kottlers [156]

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 51, General relativity.
90; CP 6, Abhandlung: Einsteins [155]
639–642, link
40 Äquivalenzhypothese und
die Gravitation

On Friedrich Kottler's
Paper: On Einstein's
Equivalence Hypothesis
and Gravitation

Schilpp 1916 Einfaches Experiment zum Verhandlungen der Deutschen [157]

Einstein-de Haas effect.
91; CP 6, Nachweis der Ampèreschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 18,
28 Molekularströme 173–177

A Simple Experiment to
Demonstrate Ampère's
Molecular Currents

Schilpp 1916 Strahlungs-emission und Verhandlungen der Deutschen [158]

Photons. Seminal paper in which Einstein
92; CP 6, -absorption nach der Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 18, showed that Planck's quantum hypothesis E =
34 Quantentheorie 318–323 hÉÀ could be derived from a kinetic rate
equation. This paper introduced the idea of
Emission and Absorption
stimulated emission (which led to the laser and
of Radiation in Quantum
maser), and Einstein's A and B coefficients
Theory
provided a guide for the development of
quantum electrodynamics, the most accurately
tested theory of physics at present. In this work,
Einstein begins to realize that quantum
mechanics seems to involve probabilities and a
[159]
breakdown of causality.

Schilpp 1916 Quantentheorie der Mitteilungen der Physikalischen [160]

Photons. Following his 1909 address
93; CP 6, Strahlung Gesellschaft, Zürich, 16, 47–62 (reference #30), Einstein shows that photons
38 must carry momentum if Planck's law is to hold.
On the Quantum Theory of
This was confirmed in 1923 by Compton
Radiation
scattering, for which the 1927 Nobel Prize in
Physics was awarded and which led to the
general acceptance to the photon concept.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 147

Schilpp 1916 Review of H. A. Lorentz: Naturwissenschaften, 4, 480–481 [161]

Statistical mechanics.
94; CP 6, Théories statistiques en
36 thermodynamique

Review of H. A. Lorentz:
Statistical Theories in
Thermodynamics: Five
Lectures...

Schilpp 1916 Elementare Theorie der Naturwissenschaften, 4, 509–510 Fluid mechanics.

95; CP 6, Wasserwellen und des
39 Fluges

Elementary Theory of
Water Waves and of Flight

Schilpp 1916 Ernst Mach Physikalische Zeitschrift, 17, 101–104 [162]

History of physics.
96; CP 6,
29

Schilpp 1916 Neue formale Deutung der Preussische Akademie der Electromagnetism.
97; CP 6, Maxwellschen Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916
27 Feldgleichungen der (part 1), 184–187
Elektrodynamik

A New Formal
Interpretation of Maxwell's
Field Equations of
Electrodynamics

Schilpp 98 1916 Preussische Akademie der [163]

Einige anschauliche General relativity. Abstract of a paper
Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916
Überlegungen aus dem (never published) dealing with the behavior of
(part 1), 423
Gebiete der clocks and Foucault pendulums.
Relativitätstheorie

Some Intuitive
Considerations from the
Field of Relativity Theory§

Schilpp 1916 Näherungsweise Integration Preussische Akademie der [164]

General relativity.
99; CP 6, der Feldgleichungen der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916
32 Gravitation (part 1), 688–696

Approximative Integration
of the Field Equations of
Gravitation

Schilpp 1916 Gedächtnisrede auf Karl Preussische Akademie der [165]

History of physics.
100 Schwarzschild Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916
(part 1), 768–770
Memorial Lecture on Karl
Schwarzschild
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 148

Schilpp 1916 Hamiltonsches Prinzip und Preussische Akademie der [166]

General relativity.
101; CP 6, allgemeine Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916
41 Relativitätstheorie (part 2), 1111–1116

Hamilton's Principle and

the General Theory of
Relativity

Schilpp 1917 Zum Quantensatz von Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, [167]

Quantum mechanics. Seminal paper for
103; CP 6, Sommerfeld und Epstein Verhandlungen, 19, 82–92 the Einstein-Brillouin-Keller method, which
45 describes how to convert a classical system into
On the Quantum Theorem
its quantum mechanical analogue.
of Sommerfeld and
Epstein

Schilpp 1917 Review of H. v. Helmholtz: Naturwissenschaften, 5, 675 [168]

History of physics.
104 Zwei Vorträge über Goethe

Review of Hermann von

Helmholtz: Two Lectures
on Goethe

Schilpp 1917 Marian von Smoluchowski Naturwissenschaften, 5, 737–738 [169]

History of physics.
105

Schilpp 1917 Quantentheorie der Physikalische Zeitschrift, 18, 121–128 [170]

Photons.
106 Strahlung

On the Quantum Theory of

Radiation

Schilpp 1917 Kosmologische Preussische Akademie der [171]

General relativity. This seminal paper
107; CP 6, Betrachtungen zur Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1917 marks the beginning of physical cosmology.
43 allgemeinen (part 1), 142–152 Under certain simplifying assumptions, general
Relativitätstheorie relativity describes the birth, the expansion and
the ultimate fate of the Universe.
Cosmological
Considerations in the
General Theory of
Relativity

Schilpp 1917 Eine Ableitung des Preussische Akademie der [172]

Mathematical physics.
108; CP 6, Theorems von Jacobi Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1917
47 (part 2), 606–608
A Derivation of Jacobi's
Theorem

Schilpp 1917 May Die Vossische Zeitung, Morgen [173]

Friedrich Adler als Physiker History of physics.
109 23 Ausgabe, no. 259, 2

Friedrich Adler as a
Physicist§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 149

Schilpp 1918 Prinzipielles zur allgemeinen Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 55, [175]
General relativity.
112; CP 7, Relativitätstheorie [174]
241–244, link
4
On the Foundations of the
General Theory of
Relativity

Schilpp 1918 Lassen sich Verhandlungen der Deutschen Electromagnetism.

113; CP 7, Brechungsexponenten der Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 20, 86–87
6 Körper für Röntgenstrahlen
experimentell ermitteln?

Is It Possible to Determine
Experimentally the X-Ray
Refractive Indices of
Solids?

Schilpp 1918 Bemerkung zu Gehrckes Verhandlungen der Deutschen Special and general relativity.
114; CP 7, Notiz: Über den Äther Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 20, 261
15
Comment on E. Gehrcke's
Note: On the Aether

Schilpp 1918 Review of H. Weyl: Raum, Naturwissenschaften, 6, 373 [176]

Special and general relativity.
115; CP 7, Zeit, Materie
10
Review of Hermann Weyl,
Space-Time-Matter:
Lectures on General
Relativity

Schilpp 1918 Dialog über Einwände gegen Naturwissenschaften, 6, 697–702 [163]

Special and general relativity.
116; CP 7, die Relativitätstheorie
13
Dialogue about Objections
to the Theory of Relativity

Schilpp 1918 Notiz zu Schrödingers Physikalische Zeitschrift, 19, 115–116 [177]

General relativity.
117; CP 7, Arbeit: Energiekomponenten
2 des Gravitationsfeldes

Note on E. Schrödinger's
Paper: The Energy
Components of the
Gravitational Field

Schilpp 1918 Bemerkung zu Schrödingers Physikalische Zeitschrift, 19, 165–166 [177]

General relativity.
118; CP 7, Notiz: Lösungssystem der
3 allgemein kovarianten
Gravitationsgleichungen

Comment on Schrödinger's
Note: On a System of
Solutions for the Generally
Covariant Gravitational
Field Equations
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 150

Schilpp 1918 Gravitationswellen Preussische Akademie der [178]

General relativity. The first prediction of
119; CP 7, Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1918 gravitational waves. Such gravitational radiation
1 On Gravitational Waves (part 1), 154–167 has been observed indirectly, for which the 1993
Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded.

Schilpp 1918 Kritisches zu einer von Hrn. Preussische Akademie der [179]
General relativity.
120; CP 7, de Sitter gegebenen Lösung Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1918
5 der Gravitationsgleichungen (part 1), 270–272

Critical Comment on a
Solution of the
Gravitational Field
Equations Given by Mr.
De Sitter

Schilpp 1918 Der Energiesatz in der Preussische Akademie der [180]

General relativity.
121; CP 7, allgemeinen Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1918
9 Relativitätstheorie (part 1), 448–459

The Law of Energy

Conservation in the
General Theory of
Relativity

Schilpp 1919 Prüfung der allgemeinen Naturwissenschaften, 7, 776 [181]

General relativity.
122 Relativitätstheorie

A Test of the General

Theory of Relativity

Schilpp 1919 Spielen Gravitationsfelder Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [182]

General relativity. Suggests a
123; CP 7, im Aufbau der materiellen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1919 (pt. modification of his field equations to allow for
17 Elementarteilchen eine 1), 349–356 stable elementary particles.
wesentliche Rolle?

Do Gravitational Fields
Play an Essential Role in
the Structure of the
Elementary Particles of
Matter?

Schilpp 1919 Bemerkungen über Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen General relativity.

124; CP 7, periodische Schwankungen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1919 (pt.
18 der Mondlänge, welche 1), 433–436
bisher nach der
Newtonschen Mechanik
nicht erklärbar schienen

Comment about Periodical

Fluctuations of Lunar
Longitude, Which So Far
Appeared to Be
Inexplicable in Newtonian
Mechanics
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 151

Schilpp 1919 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [182]

Feldgleichungen der General relativity.
125 Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1919 (pt.
allgemeinen
1), 463 (Title only)
Relativitätstheorie vom
Standpunkte des
kosmologischen Problems
und des Problems der
Konstitution der Materie

Field Equations of the

General Theory of
Relativity in Respect to the
Cosmological Problem and
the Problem of the
Constitution of Matter§

Schilpp 1919 My theory Times, London, 13 [183]

General relativity. Re-published in 1919
126; CP 7, November as "Time, space and gravitation" in Optician,
26 28 the British optical journal, volume 58, pages
187–188.

Schilpp 1919 Leo Arons als Physiker Sozialistische Monatshefte, 52 [184]

History of physics.
127; CP 7, (Jahrgang 25, pt. 2), 1055–1056
24 Leo Arons as Physicist

Schilpp 1920 Bemerkung zur Abhandlung Kolloidzeitschrift, 27, 137 [185]

Intermolecular forces.
132 von W. R. Hess: Theorie der
Viscosität heterogener
Systeme

Comment on the Paper by

W. R. Hess: Contribution
to the Theory of the
Viscosity of
Heterogeneous Systems

Schilpp 1920 Inwiefern lässt sich die Naturwissenschaften, 8, 1010–1011 [175]

General relativity.
133 moderne Gravitationstheorie
ohne die Relativität
begründen?

To What Extent Can

Modern Gravitational
Theory Be Established
without Relativity?

Schilpp 1920 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [186]

Trägheitsmoment des Intermolecular forces. Abstract of
134 Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1920, 65
Wasserstoffmoleküls never-published paper.

Moment of Inertia of the

Hydrogen Molecule§

Schilpp 1920 Schallausbreitung in Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Intermolecular forces.

135; CP 7, teilweise dissoziierten Gasen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1920,
39 380–385
Propagation of Sound in
Partly Dissociated Gases
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 152

Schilpp 1920 Meine Antwort über die Berliner Tageblatt und Handelszeitung, [187]
Special and general relativity.
136; CP 7, August 27 antirelativitätstheoretische no. 402, 1–2
45 G.m.b.H.

My Response on the
Anti-Relativity Company

Schilpp 1921 A brief outline of the Nature, 106, 782–784 [188]

History of physics. Translated by R. W.
147; CP 7, development of the theory of Lawson.
53 relativity

Schilpp 1921 Geometrie und Erfahrung Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [189]

General relativity.
148 Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1921 (pt.
Geometry and Experience 1), 123–130

Schilpp 1921 Eine naheliegende Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [190]

General relativity.
149; CP 7, Ergänzung des Fundaments Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1921 (pt.
54 der allgemeinen 1), 261–264
Relativitätstheorie

On a Natural Addition to
the Foundation of the
General Theory of
Relativity

Schilpp 1921 Ein den Elementarprozess Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [191]

Photons.
150; CP 7, der Lichtemission Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1921 (pt.
68 betreffendes Experiment 2), 882–883

On an Experiment
Concerning the
Elementary Process of
Light Emission

Schilpp 1921 Report of a lecture at King's
151 College on the development
and present position of
relativity, with quotations
Nation and Athenaeum, 29, 431–432
Special and general relativity. The German
text is reproduced in Mein Weltbild
(pp. 215–220); a full translation is found in The
world as I see it. It was also reported in Nature
(107, p. 504) and also in the Times (London) on
14 June, p. 8.

Schilpp 1922 [193]

Bemerkung zur Seletyschen Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 69, General relativity.
159 [192]
Arbeit: Beiträge zum 436–438, link
kosmologischen Problem

Observation of the Paper

of Selety: Contributions to
the Cosmological
Problem§

Schilpp 1922 Naturwissenschaften, 10, 184–185 [194]

Review of W. Pauli: Special and general relativity.
160 Relativitätstheorie

Review of W. Pauli:
Relativity Theory§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 153

Schilpp 1922 Naturwissenschaften, 10, 823–828 [195]

Emil Warburg als Forscher History of physics.
161

Emil Warburg as
Researcher§

Schilpp 1922 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [196]

Theorie der
162
Lichtfortpflanzung in
dispergierenden Medien
Electromagnetism.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Phys.-math. Klasse, 1922, 18–22

Theory of the Propagation

of Light in Dispersive
Media§

Schilpp 1922 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen General relativity.

Bemerkung zu der
163 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Abhandlung von E. Trefftz:
Phys.-math. Klasse, 1922, 448–449
Statische Gravitationsfeld
zweier Massenpunkte

Observation on the Work

of E. Trefftz: Static
Gravitational Field of Two
Point Masses§

Schilpp 1922 Zeitschrift für Physik, 11, 31–34 [197]

Quantentheoretische Quantum mechanics. Co-authored with
164 Bemerkungen zum Paul Ehrenfest.
Experiment von Stern und
Gerlach

Quantum Mechanical
Observations on the
Experiment of Stern and
Gerlach§

Schilpp 1922 Zeitschrift für Physik, 11, 326 [198]

Bemerkung zu der Arbeit General relativity. Einstein withdrew this
165 von A. Friedmann: Über die self-criticism in 1922 in the same journal
Krümmung des Raumes Zeitschrift für Physik, volume 16, p. 228.

Observation on the Paper

of A. Friedmann: On the
Curvature of Space§

Schilpp 1923 Bemerkung zu der Notiz von Astronomische Nachrichten, 219, 19 Solar physics.
170 W. Anderson: Neue
Erklärung des
kontinuierlichen
Koronaspektrums

Observation on the Note of

W. Anderson: New
Explanation of the
Continuous Spectrum of
the Corona§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 154

Schilpp 1923 [199]

Experimentelle Bestimmung Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, Fluid mechanics. Co-authored with H.
171 49, 1012–1013
der Kanalweite von Filtern Mühsam.

Experimental
Determination of the Pore
Diameter in Filters§

Schilpp 1923 Jerusalem University, Scripta, 1 (no. 7), [200]

Beweis der Nichtexistenz
172 eines überall regulären
zentrisch symmetrischen
Feldes nach der Feldtheorie
von Kaluza
Classical unified field theories.
1–5 Co-authored with J. Grommer; also given in
Hebrew.

Proof of the
Non-Existence of an
Everywhere-Regular
Centrally Symmetric Field
According to the Field
Theory of Kaluza§

Schilpp 1923 Theory of the affine field Nature, 112, 448–449 [201]
Classical unified field theories.
173 Translated by RW Lawson, but does not
correspond to publication #175. Relatively
non-mathematical.

Schilpp 1923 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [202]

Zur allgemeinen General relativity.
174 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Relativitätstheorie
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1923, 32–38, 76–77
On the General Theory of
Relativity§

Schilpp 1923 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [203]

Zur affinen Feldtheorie
175
On Affine Field Theory§
Classical unified field theories.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1923, 137–140

Schilpp 1923 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [204]

Bietet die Feldtheorie Classical unified field theories.
176 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Möglichkeiten für die
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
Lösung des
1923, 359–364
Quantenproblems?

Does Field Theory Offer

Possibilities for Solving
the Quantum Problem?§

Schilpp 1923 Société française de philosophie, [205]

Théorie de relativité Special and general relativity. Quoted in
177 Bulletin, 22, 97–98, 101, 107, 111–112 full in Nature, 112, p. 253.
Theory of Relativity§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 155

Schilpp 1923 Zeitschrift für Physik, 19, 301–306 [206]

Quantentheorie des Photons. Co-authored with Paul Ehrenfest.
178 Strahlungsgleichgewichts

Quantum Theory of the

Equilibrium of Radiation§

Schilpp 1924 Antwort auf eine Bemerkung Astronomische Nachrichten, 221,

181 329–330
von W. Anderson

Response to an
Observation of W.
Anderson§

Schilpp 1924 Berliner Tageblatt, 1. Beiblatt [207]

Komptonsche Experiment Photons. Experiment showing that
182 April 20 photons could carry momentum; for many
The Compton Experiment§ physicists, this experiment was conclusive proof
that photons were particles.

Schilpp 1924 Naturwissenschaften, 12, 601–602 [208]

Zum hundertjährigen History of physics.
184 Gedenkag von Lord Kelvins
Geburt

On the 100th Anniversary

of Lord Kelvin's Birth§

Schilpp 1924 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [209]

Quantentheorie des Photons and statistical mechanics. First
185 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
einatomigen idealen Gases of two seminal papers (see reference #194), in
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, which Einstein creates the theory of identical
1924, 261–267
Quantum Theory of the particles in quantum mechanics. In 1924,
Monatomic Ideal Gas§ Satyendra Nath Bose derived Planck's law of
black-body radiation from a modification of
[210]
coarse-grained counting of phase space.
Einstein shows that this modification is
equivalent to assuming that photons are
rigorously identical, leading to the concept of
coherent states. Einstein also extends Bose's
formalism to material particles (bosons),
predicting that they condense at sufficiently low
[211]
temperatures, as verified experimentally.

Schilpp 1924 Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen [212]

Über den Äther History of physics. Historical overview.
186 naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 105 (pt.
2), 85–93
On the Aether§

Schilpp 1924 Zeitschrift für Physik, 27, 1–6 Statistical mechanics. Treatment of the physics
Theorie der
187 of radiometers, a science toy.
Radiometerkräfte

Theory of Radiometer
Forces§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 156

Schilpp 1924 [Note appended to a paper Zeitschrift für Physik, 27, 392–392 [213]
Photons.
188 by Bose entitled
"Wärmegleichgewicht im
Strahlungsfeld bei
Anwesenheit von Materie"]

Thermal Equilibrium in
the Radiation Field in the
Presence of Matter

Schilpp 1925 Physica, 5, 330–334 [214]

Elektron und allgemeine General relativity.
193 Reltivitätstheorie

The Electron and The

General Theory of
Relativity§

Schilpp 1925 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [215]

Quantentheorie des
194
einatomigen idealen Gases.
2. Abhandlung
Quantum Theory of the
Monatomic Ideal Gas, Part
II§
Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin),
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1925, 3–14
Photons and statistical mechanics.
Second of two seminal articles on identical
particles, bosons and Bose-Einstein
condensation; see reference #185 for the first.

Schilpp 1925 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [216]

Quantentheorie des idealen Photons and statistical mechanics.
195 Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin),
Gases
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1925, 18–25
Quantum theory of Ideal
Gases§

Schilpp 1925 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [217]

Einheitliche Feldtheorie von Classical unified field theories.
196 Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin),
Gravitation und Elektrizität
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1925, 414–419
Unified Field Theory of
Gravity and Electricity§

Schilpp 1925 Zeitschrift für Physik, 31, 784–785 [218]

Bemerkung zu P. Jordans Photons.
197 Abhandlung: Theorie der
Quantenstrahlung

Observation on P. Jordan's
Work: Theory of Quantum
Radiation§

Schilpp 1926 W. H. Julius, 1860–1925 Astrophysical Journal, 63, 196–198 [219]

History of physics.
199
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 157

Schilpp 1926 [220]

Ursache der Mäanderbildung Naturwissenschaften, 14, 223–224 Earth science. The physics of meandering
200 der Flussläufe und des rivers.
sogenannten Baerschen
Gesetzes

Origin of River-Meanders
and the So-Called Law of
Baer§

Schilpp 1926 Naturwissenschaften, 14, 300–301 [221]

Vorschlag zu einem die Photons.
201 Natur des elementaren
Strahlungs-emissions-prozesses
betreffenden Experiment

Suggestion for an
Experiment Concerning
the Nature of the
Elementary Process of
Emitting Light§

Schilpp 1926 [222]

Interferenzeigenschaften des Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Photons. Supposedly verified
202 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
durch Kanalstrahlen experimentally by Rupp in the paper following
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
emittierten Lichtes it in the journal (pp. 341–351); later, it came out
1926, 334–340 that Rupp was a fraud.
Interference Properties of
Light Emitted by Canal
Rays§

Schilpp 1926 Revista matemática Hispano-americana General relativity.

Geometría no euclídea y
203 (ser. 2), 1, 72–76
fisica

Non-Euclidean Geometry
and Physics§

Schilpp 1927 Forschungen und Fortschritte, 3, 36–37 [223]

Einfluss der Erdbewegung Special relativity.
205 auf die Lichtgeschwindigkeit
relativ zur Erde

Influence of the Earth's

Motion on the Speed of
Light Relative to Earth§

Schilpp 1927 Mathematische Annalen, 97, 99–103 [224]

Formale Beziehung des General relativity.
206 Riemannschen
Krümmungstensors zu den
Feldgleichungen der
Gravitation

Formal Relationship of the

Riemannian Curvature
Tensor to the Field
Equations of Gravity§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 158

Schilpp 1927 Isaac Newton Manchester Guardian Weekly, 16, History of physics. Reprinted in the
207 234–235 Manchester Guardian (19 March 1927);
Observatory, 50, 146–153; Smithsonian
Institution, Report for 1927, 201–207.

Schilpp 1927 Naturwissenschaften, 15, 273–276 [225]

Newtons Mechanik und ihr History of physics.
208 Einfluss auf die Gestaltung
der theoretischen Physik

Newton's Mechanics and

its Influence on the
Formation of Theoretical
Physics§

Schilpp 1927 Nord und Süd, Jahrg. 50, 36–40 History of physics.
Zu Newtons 200. Todestage
209

On the 200th Anniversary

of Newton's Death§

Schilpp 1927 [Letter to the Royal Society Nature, 119, 467 [226]
History of physics. Also published in
210 on the occasion of the Science, 65, 347–348.
Newton bicentennary]

Schilpp 1927 Establishment of an Science, 65, 415–417 [227]

Meteorology.
211 international bureau of
meteorology

Schilpp 1927 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [228]

Kaluzas Theorie des
212
Zusammenhanges von
Gravitation und Elektrizität
Classical unified field theories.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1927, 23–30

Kaluza's Theory of the

Connection between
Gravity and Electricity§

Schilpp 1927 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [229]

Allgemeine General relativity. The first part
213 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Relativitätstheorie und (pp. 2–13) was co-authored with J. Grommer.
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
Bewegungsgesetz
1927, 2–13, 235–245

General Theory of
Relativity and the Law of
Motion§

Schilpp 1927 Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie, 40, [230]

Theoretisches und Photons.
214 546
Experimentelles zur Frage
der Lichtentstehung

Theoretical and
Experimental [Aspects] to
the Question of the
Generation of Light§

Schilpp 1928 H. A. Lorentz Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche [231]

History of physics. Abstract of an address
216 Blätter, 22, 24–25 given at a memorial service at Leiden
University. Reprinted in Mein Weltbild (The
world as I see it), p. 25.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 159

Schilpp 1928 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [232]

Riemanngeometrie mit Classical unified field theories.
217 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Aufrechterhaltung des
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
Begriffes des
1928, 217–221
Fern-Parallelismus

Riemannian Geometry
with Preservation of the
Concept of Distant
Parallelism§

Schilpp 1928 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [233]

Neue Möglichkeit für eine
218
einheitliche Feldtheorie von
Gravitation und Elektrizität
Classical unified field theories.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1928, 224–227

New Possibility for a

Unified Field Theory of
Gravity and Electricity§

Schilpp 1928 Revue philosophique de la France, 105, [234]

À propos de "La déduction Special and general relativity.
219 161–166
relativiste" de M. E.
Meyerson

Concerning "The
Relativistic Deeduction"
by M. E. Meyerson§

Schilpp 1929 Forschungen und Fortschritte, 5, [235]

Ansprache an Prof. Planck History of physics.
222 248–249
[bei Entgegennahme der
Planckmedaille]

Address to Prof. Planck

[upon receiving the Planck
medal]§

Schilpp 1929 [Quotation from an Nature, 123, 175 Classical unified field theories.
223 interview with (London)
Daily Chronicle (26 January
1929) on the unitary field
theory, in advance of
publication #226]

Schilpp 1929 [Note appended to a Naturwissenschaften, 17, 363 [236]

History of physics.
224 reprinting of Arago's
Memorial address on
Thomas Young before the
French Academy]

Schilpp 1929 The new field theory Times (London) Classical unified field theories. Translated by
225 February L. L. Whyte. Reprinted in the Observatory, 52,
4 82–87, 114–118 (1930).

Schilpp 1929 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [237]

Einheitliche Feldtheorie
226
Unified Field Theory§
Classical unified field theories.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1929, 2–7
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 160

Schilpp 1929 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [238]

Einheitliche Feldtheorie und Classical unified field theories.
227 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Hamiltonsches Prinzip
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1929, 156–159
Unified Field Theory and
Hamilton's Principle§

Schilpp 1929 Revue générale de l'électricité, 25, Classical unified field theories. Co-authored
Sur la théorie synthéthique
228 35–39 with Théophile de Donder.
des champs

On the Unified Theory of

Fields§

Schilpp 1929 Appreciation of Simon Science, 69, 249 [239]

History of physics. Translation of a letter
229 Newcomb to Newcomb's daughter dated 15 July 1926.

Schilpp 1929 Sociedad cientifica Argentina, Anales, Special and general relativity. Einstein's
Sesión especial de la
230 107, 337–347 discussions with RG Loyarte on mass-energy
Academia (16 abril 1925)
equivalence and with H Damianovich on the
relevance of relativity for a proposed "chemical
Special Session of the
field".
Scientific Society of
Argentina§

Schilpp 1930 Frankfurter Zeitung, p. 16, col. 3–4 [240]

Über Kepler History of physics. The text is reprinted in
232 November Mein Weltbild and its English translation The
9
On Kepler§ world as I see it (in German and English,
respectively).

Schilpp 1930 World power conference, 2nd, Berlin, Special and general relativity. A widely
Raum-, Feld- und
233 Äther-problem in der Physik 1930. Transactions, 19, 1–5 reported address, e.g., in Dinglers
polytechnisches journal, 345, p. 122.

The Problems of Space,

Fields and Aether in
Physics§

Schilpp 1930 [241]

Raum, Äther und Feld in der Forum Philosophicum, 1, 173–180 Special and general relativity. An English
234 Physik translation by ES Brightman was provided in
the same volume, pp. 180–184. Similar to #233,
Space, Aether and Field in but different from the article "Das Raum-,
Physics§ Äther-, und Feld-problem der Physik" reprinted
in Mein Weltbild (The world as I see it),
pp. 229–248.

Schilpp 1930 Annales de l'Institut H. Poincaré, 1, [242]

Théorie unitaire du champ Classical unified field theories.
235 1–24
physique

Unified theory of the

physical field§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 161

Schilpp 1930 [243]

Auf die Riemann-Metrik und Mathematische Annalen, 102, 685–697 Classical unified field theories.
236 den Fern-Parallelismus
gegründete einheitliche
Feldtheorie

A Unified Field Theory

Based on the Riemannian
Metric and Distant
Parallelism§

Schilpp 1930 Die Koralle, 5, 486–488 [244]

Das Raum-Zeit Problem Special and general relativity.
237

The Space-Time Problem§

Schilpp 1930 Naturwissenschaften, 18, 536 [245]

Review of S. Weinberg: History of physics.
238 Erkenntnistheorie

Review of S. Weinberg:
Theory of Knowledge§

Schilpp 1930 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [246]

Kompatibilität der Classical unified field theories.
239 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Feldgleichungen in der
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
einheitlichen Feldtheorie
1930, 18–23

Consistency of the Field

Equations in the Unified
Field Theory§

Schilpp 1930 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [247]

Zwei strenge statische Classical unified field theories.
240 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Lösungen der Co-authored with W. Mayer.
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
Feldgleichungen der
1930, 110–120
einheitlichen Feldtheorie

Two Strictly Static

Solutions of the Field
Equations of the Unified
Field Theory§

Schilpp 1930 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [248]

Theorie der Räume mit Classical unified field theories.
241 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Riemannmetrik und
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
Fernparallelismus
1930, 401–402

Theory of Spaces with a

Riemannian Metric and
Distant Parallelism§

Schilpp 1930 Address at University of Science, 71, 608–610 [249]

Special and general relativity. A survey
242 Nottingham of relativity theory (special and general) and of
field theory in general. A precis of the talk was
published in Nature, 125, pp. 897–898, under
the title "Concept of space".
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
Schilpp 1930
Über den gegenwärtigen
243 Stand der allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie
On the Present Status of
the General Theory of
Relativity§
Schilpp 1931 Theory of Relativity: Its
247 Formal Content and Its
Present Problems
Schilpp 1931 Knowledge of past and
Physical Review (ser. 2), 37,
248 future in quantum mechanics 780–781,link [251]
Schilpp 1931
Zum kosmologischen
249
Problem der allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie
On the Cosmological
Problem of the General
Theory of Relativity§
Schilpp 1931
Systematische Untersuchung
250
über kompatible
Feldgleichungen welche in
einem Riemannschen Raume
mit Fern-Parallelismus
gesetzt werden können
Systematic Investigation of
Consistent Field Equations
That Can Be Posited in a
Riemannian Space with
Distant Parallelism§
Schilpp 1931
Einheitliche Feldtheorie von
251
Gravitation und Elektrizität
Unified Field Theory of
Gravity and Electricity§
Schilpp 1931 Thomas Alva Edison,
252 1847–1931
Schilpp 1931 Gravitational and electrical
253 fields [Translation of a
preliminary report for the
Josiah Macy, Jr. foundation]
Schilpp 1931 [Reply to congratulatory
254 addresses at a dinner given
by the California Institute of
Technology on 15 January
1931]
162
Yale University Library, Gazette, 6, 3–6 [250]
General relativity. An English translation
by Prof. Leigh Page of Yale University was
provided on pages 7–10. Interestingly, this was
neither a scientific talk nor a typical scientific
paper; rather, a Yale graduate convinced
Einstein to write the summary by longhand; the
manuscript is still housed at Yale.
Nature, 127, 765, 790, 826–827 Special and general relativity. Rhodes lectures
delivered at Oxford University in May 1931.
[252]
Quantum mechanics. Co-authored with
R. C. Tolman and B. Podolosky.
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [253]
General relativity. Proposed a
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
"cosmological constant."
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1931, 235–237
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [254]
Classical unified field theories.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Co-authored with W. Mayer.
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1931, 257–265
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [255]
Classical unified field theories.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Co-authored with W. Mayer.
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1931, 541–557
Science, 74, 404–405 [256]
History of physics.
Science, 74, 438–439 [257]
Classical unified field theories.
Science, 73, 379 [258]
History of physics.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 163

Schilpp 1931 Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie, 44, [259]

Gedenkworte auf Albert A. History of physics.
255 658
Michelson

In Remembrance of Albert
A. Michelson§

Schilpp 1932 On the relation between the Proceedings of the National Academy of [260]
General relativity. Co-authored with
258 expansion and the mean Sciences, 18, 213–214 Willem de Sitter.
density of the universe

Schilpp 1932 [261]

Zu Dr. Berliners siebzigstem Naturwissenschaften, 20, 913 History of physics. Reprinted in Mein
259 Geburtstag Weltbild (The world as I see it), pp. 29–32.

On Dr. Berliner's 70th

Birthday§

Schilpp 1932 Die Quelle (now called Paedogogischer [262]

Gegenwärtiger Stand der General relativity.
260 Führer), 82, 440–442
Relativitätstheorie

Present Status of Relativity

Theory§

Schilpp 1932 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [263]

Einheitliche Feldtheorie von
261
Gravitation und Elektrizität,
2. Abhandlung
Classical unified field theories.
Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Co-authored with W. Mayer.
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1932, 130–137

Unified Field Theory of

Gravity and Electricity,
Part II§

Schilpp 1932 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen [264]

Semi-Vektoren und Mathematics. Co-authored with W.
262 Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Spinoren Mayer.
Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse,
1932, 522–550
Semi-Vectors and Spinors§

Schilpp 1932 Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie, 45, [265]

Unbestimmtheitsrelation Quantum mechanics.
263 23

Uncertainty Relations§

Schilpp 1933 Akademie van wetenschappen [266]

Dirac Gleichungen für Quantum mechanics. Co-authored with
267 (Amsterdam), Proceedings, 36 (pt. 2),
Semi-Vektoren W. Mayer.
497–?

Dirac Equations for

Semi-Vectors§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 164

Schilpp 1933 Akademie van wetenschappen [267]

Spaltung der natürlichsten Quantum mechanics. Co-authored with
268 (Amsterdam), Proceedings, 36 (pt. 2),
Feldgleichungen für W. Mayer.
615–619
Semi-Vektoren in
Spinor-Gleichungen vom
Diracschen Typus

Division of the Most

Natural Field-Equations
for Semi-Vectors in Spinor
Equations of the Dirac
Type§

Schilpp 1934 Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 35, [268]

Darstellung der Mathematics. Co-authored with W.
270 104–110
Semi-Vektoren als Mayer.
gewöhnliche Vektoren von
besonderem Differentiations
Charakter

Representation of
Semi-Vectors as Ordinary
Vectors with Unusual
Differentiation Properties§

Schilpp 1934 Review of R. Tolman: Science, 80, 358 [269]

Special and general relativity.
271 Relativity, thermodynamics
and cosmology

Schilpp 1935 Elementary derivation of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical [271]
Special relativity.
272 equivalence of mass and [270]
Society, 41, 223–230,link
energy

Schilpp 1935 Can quantum-mechanical [273]

Physical Review (ser. 2), 47, Quantum mechanics. Co-authored with
273 description of physical [272]
777–780,link B. Podolsky and N. Rosen.
reality be considered
complete?

Schilpp 1935 The particle problem in the Physical Review (ser. 2), 48, 73–77 [274]
General relativity. Co-authored with N.
274 general theory of relativity Rosen.

Schilpp 1936 Franklin Institute, Journal, 221, [275]

Physik und Realität
275
Physics and Reality§
Quantum mechanics. An English
313–347 translation (by J Picard) is provided on pages
349–382. Also reprinted in Zeitschrift für freie
deutsche Forschung, 1, no. 1, pp. 5–19 and no.
2, pp. 1–14 (1938).

Schilpp 1936 Two-body problem in Physical Review (ser. 2), 49, 404–405 [276]
General relativity. Co-authored with N.
276 general relativity theory Rosen.

Schilpp 1936 Lens-like action of a star by Science, 84, 506–507 [277]

General relativity.
277 deviation of light in the
gravitational field

Schilpp 1937 On gravitational waves Journal of the Franklin Institute, 223, [278]
General relativity. Co-authored with N.
278 43–54 Rosen. This important paper established that
gravitational waves are possible despite the
nonlinear nature of the Einstein field equations.
Interestingly, Einstein and Rosen originally
[279]
reached the opposite conclusion !
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 165

Schilpp 1938 Gravitational equations and Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 39, [280]
General relativity. Co-authored with L.
283 the problems of motion 65–100 Infeld and B. Hoffmann.

Schilpp 1938 Generalization of Kaluza's Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 39, [281]
Classical unified field theories.
284 theory of electricity 683–701 Co-authored with P. Bergmann.

Schilpp 1939 Stationary system with Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 40, [282]
General relativity.
285 spherical symmetry 922–936
consisting of many
gravitating masses

Schilpp 1940 Gravitational equations and Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 41, [283]
General relativity. Co-authored with L.
286 the problems of motion. II 455–464 Infeld.

Schilpp 1940 Considerations concerning Science, 91, 487–492 [284]

History of physics. Partly reprinted in
287 the fundamentals of Nature, 145, 920–924.
theoretical physics

Schilpp 1941 Demonstration of the Tucumán universidad nac., Revista (ser. [285]
General relativity.
290 non-existence of A), 2, 11–16
gravitational fields with a
non-vanishing total mass
free of singularities

Schilpp 1942 The work and personality of Scientific Monthly, 54, 195–196 [286]
History of physics.
292 Walter Nernst

Schilpp 1943 Non-existence of regular Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 44, [287]
General relativity. Co-authored with
293 stationary solutions of 131–137 Wolfgang Pauli.
relativistic field equations

Schilpp 1944 Bivector fields, I Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 45, 1–14 Mathematics.[288] Co-authored with V.
295 Bargmann.

Schilpp 1944 Bivector fields, II Annals of mathematics (ser. 2)296, 45, [289]
Mathematics.
296 15–23

Schilpp 1945 On the cosmological American Scholar, 14, 137–156, 269 General relativity. A pre-printing of the
298 problem (correction) appendix to publication #297.

Schilpp 1945 Generalization of the Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 46, [290]
Classical unified field theories.
299 relativistic theory of 578–584
gravitation

Schilpp 1945 Influence of the expansion Reviews of modern physics, 17, 120–124 General relativity.[291] Co-authored with E.
300 of space on the gravitation G. Straus. Corrections and additions, ibid., 18,
fields surrounding the 148–149 (1946).
individual stars

Schilpp 1946 Generalization of the Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 47, [292]
Classical unified field theories.
301 relativistic theory of 731–741 Co-authored with E. G. Straus.
gravitation, II

Schilpp 1946 Elementary derivation of the Technion Journal, 5, 16–17,link [293] [294]
Special relativity. Novel, simplified
302 equivalence of mass and derivation in the Yearbook of American Society
energy for Advancement of the Hebrew Institute of
Technology in Haifa. Also published in Hebrew
in 1947, in the Scientific Publications of
Hebrew Technical College (Institute of
Technology) in Haifa.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 166

Schilpp 1948 Dialectica, 2, 320–324 [295]

Quantenmechanik und Quantum mechanics.
307 Wirklichkeit

Quantum mechanics and

reality§

Schilpp 1948 Generalized theory of Reviews of modern physics, 20, 35–39 [296]
Classical unified field theories.
308 gravitation

Schilpp 1949 Motion of particles in Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 1, [297]

General relativity. Co-authored with L.
309 general relativity theory 209–241 Infeld.

Schilpp 1949 Angewandte Chimie, 61, U114 History of physics.

Dem Gedächtnis Max
310 Plancks

In memory of Max Planck§

Schilpp 1950 The Bianchi Identities in the Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 2, [298]
Classical unified field theories.
311 Generalized Theory of 120–128
Gravitation

Schilpp 1950 On the General Theory of Scientific American, 182, 13–17 [299]
Classical unified field theories.
313 Gravitation

Schilpp 1951 The Advent of the Quantum Science, 113, 82–84 Quantum mechanics.
314 Theory

Schilpp 1953 A Comment on a Criticism Physical Review, 89, 321 [300]

Classical unified field theories.
316 of Unified Field Theory

Schilpp 1954 Algebraic Properties of the Annals of Mathematics, 59, 230–244 [301]
Classical unified field theories.
317 Field in the Relativistic Co-authored with B. Kaufman.
Theory of the Asymmetric
Field

Schilpp 1955 An Interview with Einstein Scientific American, 193, 69–73 History of physics. Co-authored with I. B.
318 Cohen.

Schilpp 1955 A New Form of the General Annals of Mathematics, 62, 128–138 [302]
Classical unified field theories.
319 Relativistic Field Equations Simplified derivation using an ancillary field
instead of the usual affine connection.
Co-authored with B. Kaufman.

Book chapters
With the exception of publication #288, the following book chapters were written by Einstein; he had no co-authors.
Given that most of the chapters are already in English, the English translations are not given their own columns, but
are provided in parentheses after the original title; this helps the table to fit within the margins of the page.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 167

[21] Book Publisher [24]

Index Chapter title (English Book title (English Classification and notes
Year [22] [22] author/editor (Location)
translation ) translation ), page
numbers

Schilpp 1912 État actuel du problème Unknown Gauthier (Paris) [303]

Rapports du premier Specific heats. The
51 des chaleurs spécifiques Conseil de Physique German text is publication #63.
(1911), Instituts Solvay
Present State of the
Problem of Specific Reports of the 1st Solvay
Heats§) Conference of Physics§

Schilpp 1915 Theoretische Atomistik E. Lecher Teubner (Leipzig) [304]

Die Physik, pp. 251–263 Atomic physics. Part of
76 the series Kultur der Gegenwart
Theoretical Atomic Physics§ (3. Teil, Abt. 3, Band 1).
Science§)

Schilpp 1915 Relativitätstheorie E. Lecher Teubner (Leipzig)

Die Physik Special and general
77 [305]
relativity. Part of the
Relativity Theory§ Physics§ series Kultur der Gegenwart (3.
Teil, Abt. 3, Band 1)

Schilpp 1916 Vorwort Erwin F. Springer (Berlin) General relativity.

Grundlagen der
87 Freundlich
Einsteinschen
Foreword
Gravitationstheorie

Foundations of
Einstein's Gravitational
Theory§

Schilpp 1918 Motiv des Forschens Unknown Müller (Karlsruhe) Philosophy of physics.[306]
Zu Max Plancks 60.
111 Geburtstag: Ansprachen
Motives for Research
in der deutschen
physikalischen
Gesellschaft, pp. 29–32

Talks in Honor of Max

Planck's 60th Birthday§

Schilpp 1921 Einfache Anwendung des Kaiser Wilhelm Unknown Springer Verlag Gravitation.
146 Newtonschen Gesellschaft zur (Berlin)
Gravitationsgesetzes auf Förderung der
die Kugelförmigen Wissenschaft, Festschrift
Sternhaufen zu ihrem zehnjährigen
Jubiläum, pp. 50–52
Simple Application of
Newton's Law of Celebratory Work for
Gravitation to Spherical the 10th Anniversary of
Collections of Stars§ the Kaiser Wilhelm
Society§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 168

Schilpp 1922 Theoretische Unknown Ijdo (Leiden) Superconductivity.

Leyden. Rijksuniversiteit
158 Bemerkungen zur Naturkundig
Supraleitung der Metalle Laboratorium,
Gedenkboek aangeboden
Theoretical Observations aan H. Kamerlingh
on the Superconductivity Onnes, pp. 429–435
of Metals§
A Book Honoring H.
Kamerlingh Onnes§

Schilpp 1924 Geleitwort Lucretius, De rerum H. Diels Weidmann [307]

History of physics.
180 natura (Berlin)

Preface§

Schilpp 1925 Anhang: Eddingtons AS Eddington Springer Verlag

Relativitätstheorie in Classical unified field
190 (Berlin) [308]
Theorie und mathematischer theories. Written
Hamiltonsches Prinzip Behandlung exclusively for this German
translation of Eddington.
Appendix: Eddington's Relativity Theory,
Theory and Hamilton's Treated Mathematically§
Principle§

Schilpp 1925 Theoretische Atomistik Unknown Teubner (Leipzig) Atomic physics.

Die Physik, 2. Auflage,
191 pp. 281–294
Theoretical Atomic
Science§ Physics, 2nd edition§

Schilpp 1925 Relativitätstheorie Unknown Teubner (Leipzig) Special and general relativity.
Die Physik, 2. Auflage,
192 pp. 783–797
Relativity theory§
Physics, 2nd edition§

Schilpp 1927 Introduction T. Shalit privately printed Special relativity. Both

Di spetsyele
204 (Berlin) Yiddish and German versions
relativitets-teorye
are provided.

The Special Theory of

Relativity§

Schilpp 1929 Space-time Encyclopædia Britannica, Franklin Henry Encyclopædia Special and general relativity.
220 14th ed., vol. 21, Hooper Britannica Inc.
pp. 105–108 (Chicago)

Schilpp 1929 Über den gegenwärtigen Unknown Füssli (Zürich) [309]

Festschrift Prof. Dr. A. General relativity. Less
221 Stand der Feldtheorie Studola Überreicht, technical and more historical
pp. 126ff. than (journal) publication #235.
On the Present Status of
Field Theory§ Celebratory Work for
Dr. A. Studola§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 169

Schilpp 1929 Begleitwort D. Reichinstein Barth (Leipzig) History of physics.

Grenzflächenvorgänge in
231 der unbelebten und
Foreword§ belebten Natur

Boundary Surface
Processes in Biological
and Inorganic Nature§

Schilpp 1931 Foreword Newton, the man, p. v R. de Villamil Knox (London) History of physics.
244

Schilpp 1931 Maxwell's influence on the James Clerk Maxwell: A Unknown Cambridge [310]
History of physics. The
245 development of the Commemoration Volume, University Press German text is found in Mein
conception of physical pp. 66–73 (Cambridge) Weltbild (The world as I see it).
reality

Schilpp 1931 Foreword Opticks, 4th edition Isaac Newton McGraw (New [311]
History of physics.
246 (London 1730), pp. York)
vii–viii

Schilpp 1932 Prologue Where is science going?, Max Planck Norton (New [312]
Philosophy of physics.
256 pp. 7–12 York)

Schilpp 1932 Epilogue: a socratic Where is science going?, Max Planck Norton (New [312]
Philosophy of physics.
257 dialogue, interlocutors, pp. 201–213 York)
Einstein and Murphy

Schilpp 1934 Introduction The World in Modern Leopold Infeld V. Gollancz [313]
Philosophy of physics.
269 Science, pp. 5–6 (London) The German original is on
p. 275.

Schilpp 1941 Five-dimensional Theodore von Karman California Institute Classical unified field
288 representation of Anniversary Volume, of Technology [314]
theories. Co-authored
gravitation and electricity pp. 212–225 (Pasadena) with Bargmann V and
Bergmann PG.

Schilpp 1941 Science and religion 1st Conference on Unknown Unknown Philosophy. Reported in the
289 Science, Philosophy and New York Times (11 September
Religion 1940, p. 30, col. 2) and also in
Nature, 146, 605–607.

Schilpp 1942 Foreword Introduction to the theory Peter G. Prentice-Hall Special and general
291 of relativity, p. v Bergmann (New York) [315]
relativity.

Schilpp 1944 Remarks on Bertrand The philosophy of Paul A. Schilpp Northwestern [316]
Philosophy. Volume 5 of
294 Russell's theory of Bertrand Russell, University the Library of Living
knowledge pp. 277–291 Evanston) Philosophers.

Schilpp 1947 The problem of space, Man and the universe, Saxe, Random House Special and general relativity.
303 ether and the field in pp. 82–100 Commins, and (New York) Reprinted from The world as I
physics RN Linscott see it.

Schilpp 1948 Einstein's theory of Grolier Encyclopedia, vol. Unknown Grolier Society Special and general relativity.
305 relativity 9, p. 19 (New York) Although dated as 1947, the
actual issue occurred in 1948.

Schilpp 1948 Relativity: essence of the American Peoples Unknown Spencer Press Special and general relativity.
306 theory of relativity Encyclopedia, vol. 16, col. (Chicago)
604–608
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 170

Schilpp 1950 Appendix II: Generalized The Meaning of Relativity, Albert Einstein Princeton Classical unified field
312 theory of gravitation 3rd edition University theories. Appendix II added to
(Princeton) the third edition of the Meaning
of Relativity (publication #297).

Schilpp 1951 Reply to Criticisms: Albert Einstein: Paul Arthur Harper and History of science and
315 Remarks Concerning the Philosopher-Scientist, Schilpp, editor Brothers [317]
philosophy of physics.
Essays Brought Together Volume II, pp. 665–688 Publishers, Harper Biographical notes and a
in this Co-operative Torchbook edition summary of Einstein's scientific
Volume (New York) thinking in his later years.

Schilpp 1955 Appendix II: Generalized The Meaning of Relativity, Albert Einstein Princeton Classical unified field
320 theory of gravitation 5th edition University [318]
theories. Completely
(Princeton) revised Appendix II for the fifth
and final edition of the Meaning
of Relativity (publications #297
and #312).

Books
With the exception of publication #278, the following books were written by Einstein; he had no co-authors.

[21] Publisher [24]

Index Book title and English Classification and notes
Year [22] (Location)
translation

Schilpp 6 1906 Eine neue Bestimmung Buchdruckerei K. J. [319]

Statistical mechanics. Inaugural-dissertation from Zürich Universität.
der Moleküldimensionen Wyss (Bern) Same as (journal) publication #11.

A New Determination
of Molecular
Dimensions

Schilpp 1916 Die Grundlage der Barth (Leipzig) [320]

General relativity.
86 allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie

Foundations of the
General Theory of
Relativity§

Schilpp 1917 Über die spezielle und Vieweg [321]

Special and general relativity. This is volume 38 (Heft 38) in the series
102 die allgemeine (Braunschweig) Sammlung Vieweg. Other editions and translations are found in publications
Relativitätstheorie, #110, 129, 130, 137–141, 154, 169 and 215.
gemeinverständlich

On the Special and

General Theory of
Relativity (A Popular
Account)
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 171

Schilpp 1918 Über die spezielle und Vieweg Special and general relativity. Other editions and translations are found in
110 die allgemeine (Braunschweig) publication #102 and 129, 130, 137–141, 154, 169 and 215.
Relativitätstheorie,
gemeinverständlich, 3rd
edition

On the Special and

General Theory of
Relativity (A Popular
Account)

Schilpp 1920 Über die spezielle und Vieweg Special and general relativity. The first edition of this book is listed as
129 die allgemeine (Braunschweig) publication #102. Editions of this work were published until 1922 (the 14th
Relativitätstheorie, edition). Editions 10-14 contained an additional section ("Rotverschiebung
gemeinverständlich, der Spectrallinien" (Redshift of spectral lines) in the appendix.
10th edition

On the Special and

General Theory of
Relativity (A Popular
Account)

Schilpp 1920 Äther und Springer Verlag [322]

Special and general relativity. The French, English, and Italian
131 (Berlin)
Relativitätstheorie: translations are listed as publications #145, 152, and 153, respectively. An
Rede gehalten am 5. undated Polish translation by L. Freundenheim, Eter a teorja wzglednosci,
Mai 1920 an der was published in Lviv.
Reichs-Universität zu
Leiden

Aether and Relativity

Theory: A Talk Given
on 5 May 1920 at the
University of Leiden§

Schilpp 1921 Geometrie und Springer Verlag [323]

General relativity. The original paper is found as (journal) publication
143 Erfahrung, Erweiterte (Berlin) #148. French, English and Italian translations are listed as publications #144,
Fassung des 152, and 153. An undated Polish translation, Geometrja a doswiadczenie, was
Festvortrages gehalten published in Lviv.
an der Preussischen
Akademie

Geometry and
Experience: Expanded
Edition of the
Celebratory Lecture
Given at the Prussian
Academy§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 172

Schilpp 1922 Vier Vorlesungen über Vieweg Special and general relativity. German text of publication #143. A second
156 (Braunschweig) printing by Vieweg is dated 1923.
Relativitätstheorie,
gehalten im Mai 1921,
an der Universität
Princeton

Four Lectures on
Relativity Theory,
Given in May 1921 at
Princeton University§

Schilpp 1922 Untersuchungen über Akademische Statistical mechanics. A re-issue of publications #8, 11, 12, 22, and 26 with
157 Verlagsgesellschaft notes and derivations from the editor, R. Fürth. Released as Nr. 199 of
die Theorie der
(Leipzig) Oswalds Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften. An English translation
Brownschen
appeared as publication #198.
Bewegungen

Investigations of
Brownian Motion§

Schilpp 1923 Grundgedanken und Imprimerie royale [324]

Special and general relativity. Nobel prize lecture, delivered before the
168 (Stockholm)
Probleme der Nordische Naturforscherversammlung in Göteborg. Reprinted in
Relativitätstheorie Nobelstiftelsen, Les prix Nobel en 1921-22.

Fundamental Ideas
and Problems of
Relativity Theory§

Schilpp 1933 On the Method of Clarendon Press [325]

Philosophy of physics. The Herbert Spenser lecture at Oxford
264 Theoretical Physics (Oxford) University, delivered on 10 June 1933.

Schilpp 1933 Origins of the General Jackson (Glasgow) [326]

General relativity. Lecture at the University of Glasgow, delivered 20
265 Theory of Relativity June 1933.

Schilpp 1933 Les fondements de la Hermann (Paris) General relativity. French translations of publications #89 and 251 by
266 Maurice Solovine, together with a new essay by Einstein, "Sur la structure
théorie de la relativité
cosmologique de l'espace", which discusses the cosmological implications of
générale
general relativity, together with its historical antecedents.

Foundations of the
General Theory of
Relativity§

Schilpp 1938 The Evolution of Simon and Schuster History of physics. Co-authored with Infeld L.
278 Physics: The Growth of (New York)
Ideas from Early
Concepts to Relativity
and Quanta

Schilpp 1938 Die Physik als Sijthoff (Leiden) Philosophy of physics.

279 Abenteuer der
Erkenntnis

Physics as an
Adventure of the
Mind§
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 173

Schilpp 1945 The Meaning of Princeton University [327]

Special and general relativity. Second edition of publication #142, with
297 Relativity (Princeton) a long appendix covering various topics such as the cosmological implications
of general relativity. The appendix was translated by Ernst G. Straus. A "third
edition" was published in 1946 by Methuen (London), but it is identical
except for a change in pagination. The true third, fourth and fifth editions
appeared in 1950, 1953 and 1956, respectively. In the 3rd, Einstein added
Appendix II on a generalized theory of gravitation, which was substantially
revised for the fifth and final edition.

Authorized translations
The following translations of his work were authorized by Einstein.

[21] Book title Translator Publisher [24]

Index Classification and notes
Year (Location)

Schilpp 1920 The Principle of MN Saha University of [328]

Special and general relativity. Includes English
128 Relativity: Original and SN Calcutta (Kolkata) translations of (journal) publications #9 and 89, with a
Papers Bose historical introduction by PC Mahalanobis. The work of
Hermann Minkowski is also included.

Schilpp 1920 Relativity, the Special
130 and the General Theory:
A Popular Exposition
Robert W Methuen (London) Special and general relativity. Authorized translation of the
Lawson 5th German edition of Ueber die spezielle und die allgemeine
Relativitaetstheorie, gemeinverstaendlich (cf. publications
#102, 110, 129). The text also includes Dr. Lawson's
biographical sketch of Albert Einstein, a short bibliography on
relativity theory and an appendix written for this edition
entitled "Experimental confirmation of the general theory of
relativity". Up to 10 editions were published by Methuen, the
last in 1931.

Schilpp 1921 Relativity, the Special RW Lawson Holt (New York) Special and general relativity. Effectively the same as
137 and the General Theory: publication #130. Later imprints were Smith (New York,
A Popular Exposition 1931) and Hartsdale House, Inc. (New York, 1947).

Schilpp 1921 Teoria de la relatividad F. Lorente Peláez (Toledo) Special and general relativity. Spanish translation of
138 especial y general de Nó publication #129. Two later editions were Ruiz de Lara
(Cuenca, 1923) and Medina (Toledo, 1925).

Schilpp 1921 Sulla teoria speciale e G. L. Zanichelli (Bologna) Special and general relativity. Italian translation of
139 generale della relatività: Calisse publication #129.
Volgarizzione

Schilpp 1921 Teoriia Otnositel'nosti: G. B. Slowo (Berlin) Special and general relativity. Russian translation of
140 Obshchedostypnoe Itel'son publication #129. Re-published in 1922 with the same imprint.
Izlozhenie

Schilpp 1921 La théorie de la relativité Mlle. J. Gauthier (Paris) Special and general relativity. French translation of
141 restreinte et géneralisée Rouviere publication #129.

Schilpp 1921 The Meaning of Edwin P. Princeton University [329]

142 Relativity: Four Lectures
Delivered at Princeton
University
Special and general relativity. Reprinted in 1922 and
Adams Press (Princeton) 1923. Also released in 1922 and 1924 under the imprint
Methuen (London). Translations are found in publications
#166, 167, and 179, whereas the German text is listed as
publication #156. A second edition was also released; see
publication #297.

Schilpp 1921 La géometrie et Maurice Gauthier (Paris) General relativity. French translation of publication #143. A
144 l'expérience Solovine second edition was also published by Gauthier in 1934.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 174

Schilpp 1921 L'éther et la théorie de la Maurice Gauthier (Paris) Special and general relativity. French translation of
145 relativité Solovine publication #131. Reprinted in 1925.

Schilpp 1922 Sidelights on Relativity: I. GB Jeffrey Methuen (London) Special and general relativity. Translation of publications
152 Ether and Relativity. II. and W #131 and 143. Republished in 1923 by Dutton (New York)
Geometry and Experience Perrett imprint. The second part, Geometry and Experience, was
published separately in 1947 as chapter 8 of Methods of the
sciences from the Chicago University.

Schilpp 1922 Prospettive Relativistiche R. Cantù Andare (Milano) Special and general relativity. Italian translation of
153 dell'Etere e della and T. publications #131 and 143.
Geometria Bembo

Schilpp 1922 A Különleges és az Unknown Patheon irodalmi Special and general relativity. Hungarian translation of
154 Általános Relativitás, (Budapest) publication #129.
Elmélete

Schilpp 1922 O Fizicheskoi Prirodie GB Itel'son Slowo (Berlin) Special and general relativity. Russian translation of
155 Prostranstva publications #131 and #143 under the title "Physical nature of
space".

Schilpp 1923 Cztery odczyty o teorji A Gottfryda Renaissance-Verlag Special and general relativity. Polish translation of
166 Wzglednosci wygloszone (Vienna) publication #142.
w 1921 na Uniwersytecie
w Princeton

Schilpp 1923 Matematicheskija Osnovy GB Itel'son Slowo (Berlin) Special and general relativity. Russian translation of
167 Teorii Otnositel'nosti publication #142.

Schilpp 1923 [A Popular Exposition of Unknown Gitlina (Warsaw) Special and general relativity. Yiddish translation (in
169 the Special and General Hebrew characters) of publication #129.
Theories of Relativity]

Schilpp 1924 Quatre conférences sur la Maurice Gauthier (Paris) Special and general relativity. French translation of
179 théorie de la relativité, Solovine publication #142. A second printing was dated 1925.
faîtes à l'université de
Princeton

Schilpp 1925 Sur l'électrodynamique Maurice Gauthier (Paris) Special relativity. French translation of publications #9 and
189 des corps en mouvement Solovine 10, part of the series Maîtres de la pensée scientifique.

Schilpp 1926 Investigations on the AD Cowper Methuen (London) Statistical mechanics. English translation of publication
198 Theory of the Brownian #157. Also published under the Dutton imprint in New York.
Movement (R. Fürth, ed.)

Schilpp 1928 Al Torath Ha-Yahasiuth Jacob Dvir (Tel Aviv) Special and general relativity. Hebrew translation of
215 Ha-Peratith Greenberg publication #129.
Weha-Kelalith (Harzaah
Popularith)

Schilpp 1938 Drie Eeuwen Physica van MC Centen (Amsterdam) History of physics. Dutch translation of publication #279.
280 Galilei tot Geerling
Relativiteitstheorie en
Quantumtheorie

Schilpp 1938 L'évolution des idées en Maurice Flammarion (Paris) History of physics. French translation of publication #279.
281 physique des premiers Solovine
concepts aux théories de
la relativité et des quanta

Schilpp 1948 El Significado de la Dr. Carlos Espasa-Calpe Special and general relativity. Spanish translation of
304 Relatividad E. Prelat (Buenos Aires) publication #297.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 175

See also
• Einstein Papers Project
• History of special relativity
• History of general relativity
• History of the Big Bang theory
• History of quantum mechanics
• History of thermodynamics

Footnotes
[1] Pais, pp. 111–174.
[2] Pais A (1988). Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 232–234.
ISBN 978-0198519973.
[3] Pais, pp. 93–100.
[4] Pais, pp. 90–92.
[5] Pais, pp. 364–388, 402–422.
[6] Pais, pp. 402–415.
[7] Pais, pp. 389–401.
[8] Pais, p. 394.
[9] Pais, pp. 177–324.
[10] Weinberg, S (1972). Gravitation and Cosmology. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 175–210. ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5.
[11] R.V. Pound and G.A. Rebka, Jr. "Gravitational Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance" Phys. Rev. Lett. 3 439-441 (1959)
[12] Muhlfelder, B., Mac Keiser, G., and Turneaure, J., Gravity Probe B Experiment Error, poster L1.00027 presented at the American Physical
Society (APS) meeting in Jacksonville, Florida, on 14–17 April 2007, 2007.
[13] Gerssen, Joris, et al.; van der Marel, Roeland P.; Gebhardt, Karl; Guhathakurta, Puragra; Peterson, Ruth C.; Pryor, Carlton (December
2002). "Hubble Space Telescope Evidence for an Intermediate-Mass Black Hole in the Globular Cluster M15. II. Kinematic Analysis and
Dynamical Modeling" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0209315). The Astronomical Journal 124 (6): 3270–3288. doi:10.1086/344584. .
"Hubble Discovers Black Holes in Unexpected Places" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ archive/ releases/ cosmology/ 2002/ 18/ text/ ).
HubbelSite. September 17, 2002. . Retrieved 2007-10-31.
[14] J. M. Weisberg and J. H. Taylor, Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16: Thirty Years of Observations and Analysis (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/
astro-ph/ 0407149), July 2004.
[15] Pais, p. 412.
[16] Knudson SK (2006). "The Old Quantum Theory for H2+: Some Chemical Implications". Journal of Chemical Education 83: 464–472.
doi:10.1021/ed083p464.
Strand MP, Reinhardt WP (1979). "Semiclassical quantization of the low lying electronic states of H2+". Journal of Chemical Physics 70:
3812–3827. doi:10.1063/1.437932.
[17] Pais, pp. 405–407.
[18] Pais, pp. 423–439.
[19] Pais, pp. 440–459.
[20] Pais, pp. 325–354.
[21] These Index numbers are taken from the Schilpp reference cited in the Bibliography, pp. 694–730, and from the Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein published by Princeton University Press. The latter are indicated by a CP in italic type, the volume number in boldface type, and by
the article number within that volume.
[22] The translations of article titles are generally taken from the published volumes of Einstein's collected papers. For some articles, however,
such official translations are not available; unofficial translations are indicated with a § superscript.
[23] The volume number is given in boldface type. Terms such as "ser. 4" in the journal name refer to the series of the journal, which is a
grouping of volumes. For example, a journal may appear in yearly volumes for 60 years (volumes 1–60), then start its volume numbering
anew in a second series.
[24] The subject classification of Einstein's articles are the first item, and are indicated in boldface type. Any co-authors are always indicated by
the second item.
[25] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1901_4_513-523. pdf
[26] Pais, Chap. 3, ref. E13; Chap. 4, ref. E5.
[27] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1902_8_798-814. pdf
[28] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E6.
[29] Pais, Chap. 4, p. 57.
[30] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1902_9_417-433. pdf
[31] Pais, Chap. 3, ref. E21; Chap. 4, ref. E10.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 176

[32] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1903_11_170-187. pdf
[33] Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E11 and E49.
[34] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1904_14_354-362. pdf
[35] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E12; Chap. 5, ref. E17; Chap. 19, ref. E7.
[36] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_132-148. pdf
[37] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E13; Chap. 7, ref. E7; Chap. 19, ref. E5; Chap. 23, ref. E2.
[38] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_549-560. pdf
[39] Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E4 and E17; Chap. 5, ref. E2.
[40] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_891-921. pdf
[41] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E5; Chap. 7, ref. E1; Chap. 11, ref. E10; Chap. 26, ref. E13.
[42] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_18_639-641. pdf
[43] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E9; Chap. 26, ref. E14.
[44] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_19_289-306. pdf
[45] Pais, Chap. 5, ref. E5.
[46] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_19_371-381. pdf
[47] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E18; Chap. 5, ref. E8.
[48] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_20_199-206. pdf
[49] Pais, Chap. 19, ref. E8.
[50] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_20_627-633. pdf
[51] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E10; Chap. 8, ref. E6.
[52] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_21_583-586. pdf
[53] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E21.
[54] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_22_180-190. pdf
[55] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_22_800. pdf
[56] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E21; Chap. 20, refs. E1 and E2.
[57] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_22_569-572. pdf
[58] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E22; Chap. 5, ref. E9; Chap. 29, ref. E3.
[59] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_23_197-198. pdf
[60] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E5.
[61] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_23_206-208. pdf
[62] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E22.
[63] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_23_371-384. pdf
[64] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E23; Chap. 8, ref. E5.
[65] http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ E-1907. pdf
[66] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E23; Chap. 6, ref. E7; Chap. 7, refs. E3, E11, and E15; Chap. 8, refs. E1 and E4; Chap. 9, ref. E3; Chap. 11, ref. E9.
[67] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E19; Chap. 5, ref. E11.
[68] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E18; Chap. 29, ref. E1.
[69] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1908_27_232. pdf
[70] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1908_26_541-550. pdf
[71] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E19; Chap. 29, ref. E2.
[72] Pais, Chap. 10, ref. E4; Chap. 29, ref. E5.
[73] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E20; Chap. 5, ref. E12.
[74] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1909_28_445-447. pdf
[75] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1909_28_885-888. pdf
[76] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E25.
[77] Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E24 and E47; Chap. 10, ref. E2; Chap. 21, ref. E2.
[78] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. R1.
[79] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E25; Chap. 7, ref. E27; Chap. 10, ref. E3; Chap. 12, ref. E25; Chap. 19, ref. E11; Chap. 21, ref. E3; Chap. 26, ref. E15.
[80] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1910_33_1096-1104. pdf
[81] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E26; Chap. 29, ref. E10.
[82] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1910_33_1105-1115. pdf
[83] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E27; Chap. 21, ref. E12; Chap. 29, ref. E11.
[84] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1910_33_1275-1298. pdf
[85] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E29; Chap. 5, E10.
[86] Pais, Chap. 7, refs. E16 and E28; Chap. 10, ref. E8.
[87] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E26.
[88] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_165-169. pdf
[89] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E9.
[90] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_170-174. pdf
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 177

[91] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E30; Chap. 20, ref. E3.

[92] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_590. pdf
[93] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_175-176. pdf
[94] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E2.
[95] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_591-592. pdf
[96] Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E15 and E30; Chap. 5, ref. E7.
[97] Pais, p. 92.
[98] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_35_679-694. pdf
[99] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E31; Chap. 20, ref. E4.
[100] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_35_898-908. pdf
[101] Pais, Chap. 11, ref. E8; Chap. 13, ref. E4.
[102] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E29.
[103] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E4.
[104] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_37_832-838. pdf
[105] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E32; Chap. 19, ref. E10.
[106] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_881-884. pdf
[107] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_355-369. pdf
[108] Pais, Chap. 9, refs. E6 and E7; Chap. 11, ref. E16; Chap. 13, refs. E2 and E5.
[109] Pais, pp. 201–206.
[110] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_443-458. pdf
[111] Pais, Chap. 11, ref. E17; Chap. 12, refs. E10 and E33; Chap. 13, ref. E2.
[112] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_888. pdf
[113] Pais, Chap. 19, ref. E10.
[114] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E17; Chap. 13, ref. E6.
[115] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_39_704. pdf
[116] Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E7.
[117] Pais, Chap. 11, ref. E19; Chap. 12, ref. E24; Chap. 15, ref. E36.
[118] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E29; Chap. 13, ref. E1; Chap. 14, ref. E23; Chap. 15, ref. E37.
[119] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1913_40_551-560. pdf
[120] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E34; Chap. 14, ref. E36; Chap. 20, ref. E6; Chap. 29, ref. E13.
[121] Pais, p. 397.
[122] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E33.
[123] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E36.
[124] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E53; Chap. 19, refs. E2 and E6.
[125] Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E11; Chap. 15, ref. E39.
[126] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1914_44_321-328. pdf
[127] Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E18; Chap. 29, ref. E15.
[128] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1914AN. . . . 199. . . . 8E
[129] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E5a.
[130] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1914AN. . . . 199. . . 47E
[131] Pais, Chap. 20, ref. E8.
[132] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E6; Chap. 15, ref. E37.
[133] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E35; Chap. 16, ref. E53a.
[134] Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E11.
[135] Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E13.
[136] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E12.
[137] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E30; Chap. 14, ref. E16; Chap. 15, ref. E13.
[138] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E30; Chap. 13, ref. E12.
[139] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E34; Chap. 14, ref. E10; Chap. 16, ref. E38.
[140] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E37.
[141] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E34.
[142] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1915_47_879-885. pdf
[143] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E28; Chap. 14, ref. E30.
[144] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E33.
[145] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E32.
[146] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E28.
[147] Pais, Chap. 14, refs. E44, E45 and E46; Chap. 15, ref. E14
[148] Pais, pp. 250–253.
[149] Pais, Chap. 14, refs. E48 and E50; Chap. 15, ref. E1; Chap. 16, ref. E30.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 178

[150] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E1; Chap. 15, ref. E15.
[151] http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ EM/ einstein_knawp_181_696_15. pdf
[152] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E35.
[153] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1916_49_769-822. pdf
[154] Pais, Chap. 12, refs. E27 and E31; Chap. 15, ref. E6.
[155] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1916_51_639-642. pdf
[156] Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E3a.
[157] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E37.
[158] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E35; Chap. 15, ref. E21; Chap. 21, ref. E9.
[159] Pais, pp. 410–412.
[160] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E36; Chap. 15, ref. E21; Chap. 21, ref. E10.
[161] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E54.
[162] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E26.
[163] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E6.
[164] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E20.
[165] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E51.
[166] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E55; Chap. 15, ref. E16.
[167] Pais, Chap. 21, ref. E17.
[168] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E55.
[169] Pais, Chap. 5, ref. E16.
[170] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E37; Chap. 21, ref. E11; Chap. 26, ref. E16.
[171] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E40; Chap. 29, ref. E17.
[172] Pais, Chap. 21, ref. E18.
[173] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E1.
[174] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1918_55_241-244. pdf
[175] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E42.
[176] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E56.
[177] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E19a.
[178] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E22.
[179] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E42b.
[180] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E19b; Chap. 17, ref. E33.
[181] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E28.
[182] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E43; Chap. 17, ref. E17.
[183] Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E2.
[184] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E2.
[185] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E16; Chap. 5, ref. E14.
[186] Pais, Chap. 20, ref. E7.
[187] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E44.
[188] Pais, Chap. 9, ref. E1.
[189] Pais, Chap. 8, ref. E7; Chap. 12, ref. E22.
[190] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E34.
[191] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E6; Chap. 21, ref. E19.
[192] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1922_69_436-438. pdf
[193] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E42a.
[194] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E36; Chap. 29, ref. E68.
[195] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E60.
[196] Pais, Chap. 21, ref. E20.
[197] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E7; Chap. 21, ref. E22; Chap. 29, ref. E23.
[198] Pais, Chap. 15, refs. E45 and E46.
[199] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E11; Chap. 29, ref. E26.
[200] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E8; Chap. 29, ref. E18.
[201] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E38.
[202] Pais, Chap. 17, refs. E35 and E36.
[203] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E37.
[204] Pais, Chap. 26, ref. E20; Chap. 29, ref. E19.
[205] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E7; Chap. 15, ref. E35; Chap. 16, ref. E72.
[206] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E10; Chap. 21, ref. E23; Chap. 29, ref. E24.
[207] Pais, Chap. 21, ref. E24.
[208] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E59.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 179

[209] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E39; Chap. 23, ref. E8.

[210] Bose, SN (1924). "Plancks Gesetz und Lichtquantenhypothese". Zeitschrift für Physik 26: 178–181. doi:10.1007/BF01327326.
(German)
[211] Anderson, MH; Ensher JR, Matthews MR, Wieman CE, and Cornell EA (1995). "Observation of Bose–Einstein Condensation in a Dilute
Atomic Vapor" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0036-8075(19950714)3:269:5221<198:OOBCIA>2. 0. CO;2-G). Science 269 (5221):
198–201. doi:10.1126/science.269.5221.198. PMID 17789847. .
[212] Pais, Chap. 23, ref. E6.
[213] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E38.
[214] Pais, Chap. 26, ref. E33.
[215] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E40; Chap. 23, ref. E7; Chap. 24, ref. E2.
[216] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E41; Chap. 23, ref. E11.
[217] Pais, Chap. 17, refs. E15 and E44; Chap. 29, ref. E20.
[218] Pais, Chap. 23, ref. E9.
[219] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E2; Chap. 16, ref. E63.
[220] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E12.
[221] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E13.
[222] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E14.
[223] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E2a.
[224] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E44; Chap. 17, ref. E48.
[225] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E9; Chap. 26, ref. E1.
[226] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E12.
[227] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E52.
[228] Pais, Chap. 17, refs. E19 and E20.
[229] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E52b; Chap. 15, ref. E56; Chap. 26, refs. E28 and E29; Chap. 29, ref. E21.
[230] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E12.
[231] Pais, Chap. 8, ref. E11.
[232] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E50.
[233] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E51a.
[234] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E76.
[235] Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E4; Chap. 19, ref. E1; Chap. 26, ref. E23.
[236] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E67.
[237] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E52; Chap. 29, ref. E22.
[238] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E54; Chap. 29, refs. E31 and E33.
[239] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E49a; Chap. 16, ref. E68.
[240] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E57.
[241] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E10; Chap. 17, ref. E60.
[242] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E58.
[243] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E51.
[244] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E59.
[245] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E70.
[246] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E55.
[247] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E66; Chap. 29, ref. E34.
[248] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E67.
[249] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E57; Chap. 26, ref. E30.
[250] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E11; Chap. 17, ref. E61.
[251] http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ QM/ einstein_pr_37_780_31. pdf
[252] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E15; Chap. 29, ref. E47.
[253] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E48.
[254] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E68.
[255] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E24; Chap. 29, ref. E36.
[256] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E64.
[257] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E26; Chap 26, ref. E31.
[258] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E10.
[259] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E11; Chap. 16, ref. E65.
[260] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E49; Chap. 29, ref. E48.
[261] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E69.
[262] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E62.
[263] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E27; Chap. 29, ref. E37.
[264] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E23; Chap. 29, ref. E38.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 180

[265] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E16.

[266] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E21; Chap. 29, ref. E40.
[267] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E22; Chap. 29, ref. E41.
[268] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E45.
[269] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E24.
[270] http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ mechanics/ einstein_bams_37_39_35. pdf
[271] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E12.
[272] http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ QM/ einstein_pr_47_777_35. pdf
[273] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E27; Chap. 29, ref. E49.
[274] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E53a; Chap. 26, ref. E32; Chap. 29, ref. E50.
[275] Pais, Chap. 26, ref. E2.
[276] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E51.
[277] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E12b.
[278] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E23; Chap. 29, ref. E52; Chap. 29, ref. E61.
[279] http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/ vol_58/ iss_9/ 43_1. shtml
[280] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E59; Chap. 29, refs. E58 and E63.
[281] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E29.
[282] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E53.
[283] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E60; Chap. 29, ref. E59.
[284] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E80; Chap. 26, ref. E34.
[285] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E70.
[286] Pais, Chap. 20, ref. E10.
[287] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E69.
[288] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E8; Chap. 17, ref. E71; Chap. 29, ref. E66.
[289] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E72; Chap. 29, ref. E67.
[290] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E73.
[291] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E72
[292] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E77; Chap. 29, ref. E73.
[293] http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ EM/ einstein_tj_5_16_46. pdf
[294] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E13.
[295] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E28; Chap. 27, ref. E2.
[296] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E74.
[297] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E60.
[298] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E75.
[299] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E83.
[300] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E76; Chap. 29, ref. E54.
[301] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E78; Chap. 29, ref. E75.
[302] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E79; Chap. 29, ref. E76.
[303] Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E42, E44 and E53; Chap. 19, ref. E12; Chap. 22, ref. E11.
[304] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E43; Chap. 5, ref. E6.
[305] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E8; Chap. 7, refs. E31 and E32; Chap. 14, refs. E11 and E29.
[306] Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E1.
[307] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E74.
[308] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E43.
[309] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E56.
[310] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E55; Chap. 16, ref. E58; Chap. 25, ref. E6; Chap. 26, ref. E19.
[311] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E8.
[312] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E77.
[313] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E57.
[314] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E64.
[315] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E65.
[316] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E75.
[317] Pais, Chap. 1, refs. E6 and E11; Chap. 4, ref. E1; Chap. 6, ref. E6; Chap. 10, ref. E22; Chap. 15, ref. E27; Chap. 22, ref. E2; Chap. 26, ref.
E3; Chap. 27, ref. E3.
[318] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E81.
[319] Pais, Chap. 3, ref. E25; Chap. 4, ref. E14; Chap. 5, ref. E3.
[320] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E20; Chap. 12, ref. E21; Chap. 15, ref. E7.
[321] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E8a.
[322] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E39.
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein 181

[323] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E22.

[324] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E4.
[325] Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E7; Chap. 8, ref. E20; Chap. 17, ref. E70; Chap. 25, ref. E17; Chap. 26, ref. E4.
[326] Pais, Chap. 10, ref. E21; Chap. 14, ref. E52a; Chap. 15, ref. E2; Chap. 25, ref. E20.
[327] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E9; Chap. 7, ref. E33; Chap. 15, refs. E50 and E54.
[328] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E8.
[329] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E1.

References
The following references are drawn from Abraham Pais' biography of Albert Einstein, Subtle is the Lord; see the
Bibliography for a complete reference.

Bibliography
• Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II. New York: Harper and
Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition).
• Einstein A (1989). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 2: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900-1909
(English translation supplement; translated by Anna Beck, with Peter Havas, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691085494.
• Einstein A (1994). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 3: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1909-1911
(English translation supplement; translated by Anna Beck, with Don Howard, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691102504.
• Einstein A (1996). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 4: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1912-1914
(English translation supplement; translated by Anna Beck, with Don Howard, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691026107.
• Einstein A (1997). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 6: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1914-1917
(English translation supplement; translated by Alfred Engel, with Engelbert Schucking, consultant ed.). Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691017341.
• Einstein A (2002). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 7: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918-1921
(English translation supplement; translated by Alfred Engel, with Engelbert Schucking, consultant ed.). Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691057187.
• Abraham Pais (1982). Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0195204384.

External links
• (German) List of Scientific Publications of Albert Einstein from 1901–1922 (http://www.einstein-website.de/
z_physics/wisspub-e.html) from the Einstein website
• Einstein Papers Project (http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/) at the California Institute of Technology
• Einstein Archives Online (http://www.alberteinstein.info/) at Hebrew University
• Einstein's publications on BibNetWiki (http://bibnetwiki.org/wiki/Category:Albert_Einstein_Paper)
Article Sources and Contributors 182

Article Sources and Contributors

Introduction  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391357701  Contributors: RichardF, Tomdo08, X!

Albert Einstein  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395473035  Contributors: (aeropagitica), -Paradox-, -jmac-, 01ianeo1, 100110100, 10FingerJoe, 1337u83r, 152.163.195.xxx,
19chris95, 613kpiggy, 67688Q, 84user, 8thRSM, A Kit, A Man In Black, A Quest For Knowledge, A. B., A. di M., A.S. Brown, A333, ABCD, ACM2, ADM, ASA-IRULE, AZDub, Aaron
Schulz, Aaronjhill, AbJ32, Abdull, Abdullais4u, Abelster, Abrookins2000, Absecon 49, Academic Challenger, Acdun, Aces lead, Acetic Acid, Adam Carr, Adam1213, AdamRetchless,
AdamantlyMike, Adambro, Adamwang, Adashiel, Adjam, Adopp, Adorno Horkheymer, Adraeus, Adrecaled, Adrian, Aenid, After Midnight, AgRince, AgadaUrbanit, Agamemnon2,
Ahoerstemeier, Ahop16, Aipeursson, Aiphistory, Aitias, Aixem40, Ajarosik, Ajitflora, Ajmint, Ajnem, Akamad, Akira625, Aksi great, Al Capwned, Alabs56, Alansohn, AlasdairBain, Albert
Einsteins pipe, Albo 95, Alderbourne, Alecmconroy, Alex Bakharev, Alex43223, Alexandre linhares, Alexf, Alexhakimi, Alexisrael, Alfio, Algebraist, Ali1986, Alison, Alkivar, Allen Jesus,
Allen234, AlphaEta, Altadena, Altenmann, Alvestrand, Amberrock, Ambrosia274, AmericaSings, AmiDaniel, Amire80, Amitch, Amitkasher, AmosY, Amplitude101, AnOddName, Anastrophe,
Ancheta Wis, Ancient Apparition, Andie142105, Andonic, Andre Engels, AndreasBWagner, Andrew Maiman, Andrew tyrrell, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andries, Andris, Andronico, Andy
Marchbanks, Andy120290, Andy5, Andycjp, AngChenrui, Angela, Anger22, Ani1, Ankitbhatt, Ankitsingh83, Annatt 01, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous44, Ans202121, Antandrus, Anthony,
Anthony Krupp, Anthonynow12, AntiVan, AntiVanMan, Antonrojo, Anty, Arabani, Aranel, Aranherunar, Archaeogenetics, Archaeopteryx, Ardonik, Aris Katsaris, Arjun01, Armaced, Arniep,
Arnon Chaffin, Arpinder, Art LaPella, Artandphysics, Arthur Rubin, Arthursimms, Arvindn, Arwel Parry, Asf3, Ashleybenoit, Assaq, Asterion, Astralusenet, Asyndeton, Atallcostsky, Athaenara,
Athkalani, Atlant, Atropos, Aude, Aunt Entropy, Auntieruth55, Auntof6, Austy351, Autonova, Avaya1, Average Earthman, Avraham, Awaiting, Awostrack, AxG, AxelBoldt, Axt, Aycono,
Azndomination853, B. Fairbairn, B3X11, BD2412, BGangsta416, Babelfisch, BabyStabber, Bachrach44, Backslash Forwardslash, Bact, Bagatelle, Bakilas, Balaraat, Balloonguy, BalowStar,
Bamkin, Banes, Bantosh, Banus, BanyanTree, Barbara Shack, Barraki, Bart133, Baruchespinoza, Bastin, Batswalla, Bayonetblaha, BazookaJoe, Bbatsell, Bbsrock, Bcrowell, Bedsandbellies,
Beeflog, Beezhive, Beganlocal, BehnamFarid, Belbo Casaubon, Belsazar, Ben Hateva, Ben Kidwell, Ben Lee, Ben-Zin, Benbread, Benchik, Bender235, Benw, Berks105, Berman619,
Betacommand, Bevo, Bhadani, BhangraGirl, Bigbencavshotmailcom, Bigntall08, Bigweeboy, Bilalarif, Billare, Billy king, Binary TSO, Bioscribe, Biruitorul, Bishonen, Bitemehardxo, Biŋhai,
Bjarturgerdidetta, Bkell, Black Falcon, Black85ball, Blackrx, Blackvault, Blackwhitedog, Blah1blahblah2, BlahbydyBlah, Blainster, Blake-, Bletchley, Blobglob, Blueboar, Bluemask, Bluewind,
Bmicomp, Bnwwf91, Boarders0, Bob101, Bob98133, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobert300, Bobet, Bobijin, Bobo192, Bobthebuilderfixitup, Bodnotbod, Bookalign, Bookofjude, Boomboom75,
Bored461, BorgHunter, BorgQueen, Borisblue, Borislutskovsky, Born2cycle, Bostonian Mike, Bowsy, Bozman007, BradBeattie, Bradeos Graphon, Braindog, Brandon97, Bratsche, Breakdown
beau, Breeze450, Brenny91, Brian Honne, Brian0918, BrianHansen, Briancane94, Brianhass, Brichcja, Brighterorange, Brisbanite, Britishlocalhistory, BrokenSegue, Brooklyned, Brother993,
Brubakerj, Brumski, Brutannica, Bubzyz, Bucketsofg, Bucs, Budmen, Bumm13, Bunnyhop11, Bunzil, Buridan, Bus stop, Butros, Bwhack, Bwolper, C S, C.jeynes, C20k, C4PO, CART fan,
CBM, CIreland, CL, CSWarren, CWesling, CYD, Cactus.man, Cafe Nervosa, Calaka, CambridgeBayWeather, Cameronc20, CamperStrike, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian-Bacon,
Canaduh, Candent shlimazel, Canderson7, Candyhyperalert, Canjth, Canley, Cantaire87, Captain Ref Desk, CardinalDan, Cardinality, Carlobus, Carlog3, Carlosp420, Caroline Sanford,
Carolmooredc, Carre, Carrotsxyum, Cash flow the game, Casiraghitrio, CatholicW, Cathy alonge, CattleGirl, Causa sui, Ccarlini, Cdc, Celestianpower, Centrx, CesarB, Cexycy, ChXu, Chaffers,
ChainZzz, Chairman S., Chalklit73, Chamal N, Character.assassin, Charles Matthews, CharlesM, CharlotteWebb, Chavando, Cherubino, Cherylyoung, ChessPlayer, ChicXulub, Chicgurl,
Chicheley, Chick Bowen, Chickenofbristol, Chocolateboy, Choster, Chowells, Chris 73, ChrisDHDR, Chrisd87, Chrisdempsey, Chrislk02, Christian Günther, Christopher Parham,
ChristopherWillis, Chronicler, Chryed, Chu333222, CieloEstrellado, Cillas001, Cirt, Clarityfiend, Clayoquot, Cleared as filed, Clearhistory, Clemwang, ClockworkSoul, Closeapple, Clubjuggle,
Cnilep, Codetiger, Codex Sinaiticus, Colbain, College Watch, CommonsDelinker, Complexica, Comrade Che 1, Conti, Conversion script, Cookiemobster4, Cool3, CoolKid1993, Coolgyingman,
Cordless Larry, Corevette, Corpx, Corti, Couki, Cousinroth, Coyets, Cpl Syx, CrazyChemGuy, Crazycomputers, Crazylupin, Crea, Cream147, Crito2161, Cronholm144, CryptoDerk, Csernica,
Ctivh07, Culnacreann, Curps, Curtis wagner ball, Cyan, Cyclekid1500, Cyktsui, CynicalMe, Cypriot stud, D-Rock, D.H, D6, DAGwyn, DCEdwards1966, DCGeist, DGJM, DHN, DIREKTOR,
DJ Clayworth, DJ20005992, DJGB, DLBY, DO'Neil, DOHC Holiday, DOSGuy, DVD R W, DVdm, Daa89563, Dabbijo, Dabomb87, DadaNeem, Dan Austin, Dan Gan, Dan100, DanKeshet,
DancingPenguin, Dancter, Daniel, Daniel 123, Daniel Collins, Daniel5127, DanielCD, Danijobi, Danny lost, Dannyno, Dantadd, Daphne A, Dark Wolf1, Darry2385, Darth Livers, Darth Sidious,
Dave00327, DaveApter, Daven200520, Davewild, Davey9678, David Underdown, David Wallace Croft, David.Mestel, DavidWBrooks, Davidizer13, Davshul, Dawn Bard, Dazacman,
Db099221, Dbmerge, Dbtfz, Dcflyer, Dddstone, De kludde, Deadcorpse, Debresser, Decltype, Deepak, Deerstop, Defender of torch, Delldot, Deltabeignet, Demmy, Denni, Deputydog23,
Deputyduck, DerHexer, Derek.cashman, Derfman24, Derwig, Desdinova, Dewan357, Deyyaz, Dezzo, Dfrg.msc, Dgroseth, Dhemm, Dhodges, Diberri, Dicklyon, Diego pmc, Digidestine,
Digitalme, Dimadick, Dinotitan, Disavian, Discospinster, Dismas, Dispenser, Divine Corsair, Divius, Djehowell, Djmutex, Djnjwd, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmackey2, Dman5555414n52, Dmcq,
Dmk, Dmn, Dmoon1, Dmv74, Dncarley, Doc glasgow, DocRocks1, Doctorpete, Domitori, DonSiano, Donatus, Donfbreed, Donreed, Doomed Rasher, Dorftrottel, Doubtfulsound, Dp074,
Dp462090, Dpbsmith, Dpotop, Dr who1975, Dr. Chaos, Dr. Submillimeter, Dr.K., DrKiernan, DragonflySixtyseven, Dramedy Tonight, Drawme!park, Drbogdan, Drbreznjev, Dreftymac,
Drhundertwasser, Drinksquare, Drizzd, Drunken Pirate, Dryazan, Dswim279, Dtgm, Dtgriscom, Duagloth, Ducker, Dudzcom, Dugwiki, Duncharris, Dune jumpr99, Dusti, Dwslassls, Dyslexic
agnostic, E-lord, E4mmacro, EEPROM Eagle, ERcheck, ESkog, EZ, Eaglesm20, EarthBoundX5, Earthlyreason, East718, Ed Brey, Ed g2s, EdJohnston, Edcolins, Eddiesgirl1121, Eddy23,
Edgar181, Edinborgarstefan, Edivorce, Edsmilde, Edton, Edwy, Eean, EfAston, Eirik (usurped), Ekem, El C, ElKevbo, ElTyrant, Eladeira, Eldaran, Eleuther, Elias Enoc, ElinorD, Eljim,
Ellisonch, Eloquence, Elwaystalker007, Emax, Emc2, Emerson7, Emijrp, EmilJ, Emops, Emperor Azure, Ems57fcva, Enchanter, Enigmaman, Ent, Epbr123, Eppyie, Epsiloner, Epson291,
EronMain, Erudecorp, EscapingLife, Esolbiz, Esprit15d, Essjay, EstebanF, Esterson, Et9871, Ethan Mitchell, Eubulides, EugeneZelenko, EvanBlom, Evankordimosh, Evenfiel, Everyking, Evil
Monkey, Evolauxia, Exeunt, FF2010, FOTEMEH, Facembanorth, Fair Deal, Fanatix, Fang Aili, Fantasy, Farbish, Farooqmo, Farosdaughter, Fastfission, Favonian, FayssalF, Fconaway,
FeanorStar7, Feezo, Feitclub, Feketekave, Fennec, Fernando S. Aldado, FestivalOfSouls, Feureau, Fgjkdfjkd, Fgoal13, Filliam, Finn-Zoltan, Firefly322, Fireonice kol, Fizark, Flauto Dolce,
Flcelloguy, Flegelpuss, Flib, Flipping Mackerel, Flobbertthechicken, Flockmeal, Flubbit, Flyers5757, Foilfreeskier, Fonespiders, Forklift dense, Former user, Formeruser-81, Francs2000, Frap,
Frazzydee, Freakofnurture, Frecklefoot, Fred J, Fredrik, Fredwerner, Fredzz22, FreedomByDesign, Freffs, FreplySpang, Freqsh0, Freyr35, Fsotrain09, Ftld, Ftord1960, Fudoreaper,
FunnyYetTasty, Furry Aligator, Furrykef, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Fuzheado, Fvw, Fxer, Fyyer, G Clark, G.A.S, GHe, GOER, GSharpShot, GTBacchus, GTubio, GV39, Gabrielleitao, Gadfium,
Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Gaj2329, Galoubet, Games5522, GangofOne, GardenQuad, Garion96, Garrison Savannah, Gary King, GateKeeper, Gatos, GattoVerde, Gchriss, Gdm, Gdo01, Geeman,
General Wesc, Generalstudent, Geni, George, George2001hi, GeorgeMoney, Georinia2, Ghe, Ghepeu, Ghjhy78, Giftlite, Gilisa, Gilliam, Gimmemoretime, GinaDana, Giordano Giordani,
Gjd001, Gkalbasov, Globaleducator, Glovek77, Gm95, Gman124, Gmaxwell, Gnevin, Go229, Goataraju, Goethean, Gogafax, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, Goldface, Gonzo fan2007, Good Olfactory,
Goplat, Gordonf238, Goudzovski, Gr8quizzer, GraemeL, Graham87, Grandpafootsoldier, Gravityguy, Grazon, Green caterpillar, Green0eggs, GregAsche, Gregarchy, Gregarwolf, Gregbard,
GregorB, Grendelkhan, GringoInChile, Grm wnr, Grokmoo, GrouchyDan, Ground, Growl60, Grstain, Grubber, Grunt, Guanaco, Guandalug, Guettarda, Gulmammad, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Guy
Peters, Guy1423, Guysmiley2345, Gwernol, Gyzmr, Gzornenplatz, H.a.mott, H6jyhygi, HATERS, HPN, Hadal, Haeleth, Haemo, Haha169, Hairy Dude, Haldraper, Halfman13, Hall Monitor,
Hamsterlopithecus, Hanseichbaum, Happenstance, Happy-melon, HappyFrodo, Harachte, Harald88, Harbourcoat, Harlempiff, Harp, Harriseldon, Harry (usurped), Harryboyles, Hashman28,
Hawkestone, Hawkstein, Hbackman, Hdt83, Headbomb, HeartofaDog, Heartylunch, Heimstern, Hekerui, HelloWorldToday, Hemlock Martinis, Hemmingsen, Hengartn, Hephaestos,
Here2fixCategorizations, HereToHelp, Herespenguin, HerkusMonte, Hermit crabs 101, Heron, Hibsch, Hillbrand, Hillman, Hires an editor, Historian932, Historymike, Hmains, Hmonroe,
Hmrox, Homagetocatalonia, Horselover Frost, Horvat Den, Hottentot, Howcheng, Hu, Hu12, HugoLoris, HumphreyW, Humus sapiens, Hurricane111, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hve, Hxclauren, Hyad,
Hydrargyrum, Hydriotaphia, Hydrogen Iodide, Hyperboreer, I love wikipedia :), I-hunter, IBoy2G, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IL-Kuma, IZAK, Iamunknown, Ian Pitchford, Ianbecerro, Icairns,
IceUnshattered, Icemuon, Icot, Idontknow610, Igor, Igorivanov, Ikh, Ilyanep, Imaglang, Imoeng, Imusade, Inchoate, Independentdependent, Infinity0, Inkypaws, Integralolrivative, Inter,
Intranetusa, InvisibleK, Inwind, Ioverka, Irdepesca572, Irishguy, Ironboy11, Isam, IsarSteve, Isis07, Island, Isnow, Isomorphic, IsultRose, It's-is-not-a-genitive, Itobo, Ivan Biaggio,
Iw1sh1couldf1y, Ixfd64, J Di, J JMesserly, J Lorraine, J.J., J.Steinbock, J.delanoy, JBK405, JDBalgores, JFreeman, JHP, JMMuller, JNeal, JQF, JRM, JRSpriggs, JStarStar, JYi, JYolkowski,
JaGa, Jaakobou, Jaapkroe, Jacek Kendysz, Jack B108, Jack O'Lantern, JackRodwell101, Jackguy8, Jadorno, Jadseanderson, Jakefoss, Jalamen2, Jalnet2, James086, Jameseavesjo, Jamesnakanda,
Jamib0y, Jamie63, Jan.Smolik, JanCeuleers, Janejellyroll, Jaoswald, Jappaji, Jaredroberts, Jaredwf, Jasperdoomen, Java13690, Jaxl, Jay, Jay Gatsby, Jayden54, Jayjg, Jc5202, Jcobb, JdH,
Jdforrester, Jedidan747, Jeejee, Jeff Relf, Jefferson St. Charles, Jeffmcneill, Jeffsan, Jengod, Jennica, Jens Liebenau, Jermor, Jerry, JesseHogan, Jfpierce, Jgeeky, Jhinman, Jhobson1, Jibbajabba,
Jibran1, Jiddisch, Jim Douglas, JimWae, Jimbo Donal Wales, Jimmyeatskids, Jitse Niesen, Jizef, Jkelly, Jkyrala, Jlang, Jlmlax99, Jnb, Jni, JoanneB, Joaoantunes, JoeBlogsDord, JoeSmack,
Joelr31, Joeyadams, John, John Nevard, John Vandenberg, John of Lancaster, John254, JohnBlackburne, JohnDoe0007, JohnWittle, Johnbarry3434, Johnbrownsbody, Johnian144, Johnleemk,
Johnnywl, Johnstone, Joke137, Jon186, Jonathunder, Jonhays0, JonnyLightning, Jooeysh, Jooler, Jorvik, Jose77, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joshbuddy, JoshuaZ, Jossi, Joy, Joyous!, Joyson Noel,
Jpbowen, Jpgordon, Jrkagan, Jrosdahl, Jsd, Jtbelliott, Ju66l3r, JukeJohn, Julian Diamond, Junglecat, Justin Eiler, Jwissick, K, K1, KAMiKAZOW, KBi, KTC, Kaal, Kablammo, Kabuto Yakushi,
Kadambarid, Kafka1251, Kaihsu, Kaisershatner, Kakofonous, Kaldari, Kane Franklin, Kane5187, Kappa, Karafias, Karen Spain, Karl Dickman, KarlFrei, Karol Langner, Karppinen, Kasaalan,
Kasparov, Katalaveno, Katimawan2005, Katzmik, Kaunascooliojr., Kawdyr, Kazuba, Kazvorpal, Kbdank71, Kbh3rd, Kbi911, Kbk, Keelm, Keith-264, KeithB, Kenj0418, KerryO77, Kesla,
Kestrel 1, Ketsuekigata, Kevin B12, Kevinm4435, Kevmc, Kgf0, Khaosworks, Khin2718, Khoikhoi, Khukri, Khushwantsingh987, Kigali1, King brosby, King of Hearts, KingRantheMan,
Kingboyk, Kingfor1day94, Kinneyboy90, KiwiJeff, Kiwiboy471, Kjetil r, Kkm010, Klenod, Knarf-bz, Kneale, Kneiphof, KnightRider, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kntrabssi, Knucmo2, Knutux, Koavf,
KokotheDog, Komponisto, Konstable, Koolaids555, Koreankimchi, Kotjze, Kotzker, Kowzstak, Kozuch, KrakatoaKatie, Kramden4700, Krator, Krellis, Krich, Kriegman, Kriptyk, Krisos, Kross,
Krylonblue83, Ksnow, Kubigula, Kukini, Kumioko, Kums, Kungfuadam, KurtRaschke, Kuru, Kurykh, Kv kreddy, Kwamikagami, Kwantus, Kwekubo, Kyle sb, LOKI 88, LTGioiorasaool,
Labas321123, Lacrimosus, LadyofShalott, Lamberson, Lan360, Lancevance101, Lanoitarus, Lantios, Lapaz, Larry Rosenfeld, LaszloWalrus, Laudaka, Laug, Laurascudder, Laurence hurrell,
Laurinavicius, Lawe, LeadSongDog, Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, Leftynm, Legokid, Lemeza Kosugi, Lemons..., Lensovet, Leon7, LeonardoRob0t, Leopold Stotch, Leranedo, Leroyinc,
Lesbianpigeon, Lesgles, Lestrade, LethargicParasite, Levi93, Levineps, Lexi Marie, Lfgnyc, Lga2103, Licorne, LifeStar, Liftarn, Lifung, Lighdramon, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Ligulem,
Likebox, Likethesky, Lilchub, Liltibs, Lindmere, Ling.Nut, Lionmane726, Lionosmom, Liontamer, LittleDan, LittleHow, Lividore, Llywrch, Lobo, Localhost00, Localzuk, Lockesdonkey,
Loganruckmanman, Logicus, Lokifer, Lolcally, Loodog, Lookingforgroup, Lord Emsworth, Lord JoNil, Loren36, Lostandfound21, Love vigilante, Lowellian, Lquilter, Lschulz, Ltascon,
Lucidish, Lucius1976, Luckyherb, Luigi30, LuigiManiac, Luk, Luke Farrelly-Spain, Lulu965, Lumidek, Lumos3, Luna Santin, Lupin, Lupo, Lykantrop, Lynxara, M C Y 1008, MAG1, MBlume,
MC MasterChef, MC10, MER-C, MONGO, MPerel, MZMcBride, Ma.rkus.nl, Mababata, Mac Davis, Mace, Macintoshlulz, Macrakis, Mactographer, MadGeographer, Madcat87, Maddog125,
Madhava 1947, Magioladitis, Magister Mathematicae, Magmalex, Magnitude Zero, Magnus Manske, Majorly, Makafaat, Makemi, Makron1n, Mal4mac, Malarky, Malkinann, Malo,
Article Sources and Contributors 183

Malteseclock, Malyctenar, Mandarax, Manikraina, Mann2, MarSch, Marc Mongenet, Marc-André Aßbrock, MarcelB612, Marcika, Mariordo, MarkSutton, MarkSweep, Markco1, Markus
Krötzsch, Markus Poessel, Marqus, Martinp23, Martyman, Marwan123, Mary Read, Marysunshine, Masako Kawasaki, Mashst24, Master of Puppets, MasterLycidas, Masterpiece2000,
MathKnight, Mathemaxi, Matt00055, Mattbrundage, Mattcontinental, Matthead, Matthew Fennell, Mattieo9123, Mattybaby, Maury Markowitz, Mav, Max rspct, Max-hu, Maxamegalon2000,
Maximus Rex, Maxinator555, Mayumashu, Mb1000, Mbyrer, McCart42, McDutchie, McGeddon, Mchavez, Mdd, Mdotley, Mdwh, Me rock93, Meaningful Username, Melchoir, Melsaran,
Menchi, Meno25, Mentifisto, Mer adsomvilay, Merovingian, MessinaRagazza, Metropolitan90, Mets501, Meursault2004, Mewizkuit, MiPe, Mic, Michael C Price, Michael David, Michael
Hardy, Michael Jones jnr, Michael L. Kaufman, Michael Slone, Michael Zimmermann, Michael2, Michaelbusch, Michaelkulov, Miguel, MihaS, Mike Peel, Mike Rosoft, Mike holloweezy, Mike
wiens, MikeVitale, Mikesteam31, MikeyTMNT, Milanov, Mindmatrix, Minesweeper, Mintguy, MisfitToys, Missmarple, Mistress Selina Kyle, Mitaphane, Mmernex, Mmoneypenny, Modemac,
Modernist, Modernrock2, Modster, Moe Epsilon, Molloy, Moncrief, Monegasque, Moni3, Monito, Monkeybum1, Montrealais, Moondyne, Moonlightchest, Moralis, Moreschi, Moriori,
Mormegil, Mosaffa, MovGP0, Moxon, Mr Adequate, Mr Mulliner, Mr Tan, Mr. Yooper, Mr.adamg, Mr.grantevans2, MrDarcy, MrFish, MrMarmite, MrOllie, Mrmdog, Mrmet31, Ms2ger,
Mstroeck, Muchness, Mufka, Mushroom, Musical Linguist, Mvoltron, Mwanner, Mwelch, Mx3, Myrvin, Mysdaao, Möchtegern, N-true, N46, NBeale, NSR, NYScholar, Nacanacoo2, Nadavspi,
Naddy, Nakon, Nameneko, Nanobug, Napoleon Dynamite42, Natalie Erin, Nathan8225, NathanHawking, Natl1, Naturalistic, Nauticashades, NawlinWiki, Nbauman, Ndenison, Neckro,
Nectarflowed, Neddyseagoon, Nedvedfan12, Neelix, Neilbeach, Neilc, Netoholic, Netscott, Neurino, Neutrality, Nev1, NewEnglandYankee, Newport, Nicholas Tan, Nick, Nick Graves, Nicop
(Usurp), Night Gyr, Nightbolt, Nihil novi, Nihiltres, Nikodemos, Nincb123, Ninjagecko, Nishkid64, Niso987, Niteowlneils, Nitrogen16, Nitya Dharma, Nivix, Nixeagle, Nlu, Nndnbd, No Guru,
Noebse, Nolanus, Nolanus (usurped), Noodleboy111, Noon, Norm mit, Nova77, Nrbelex, NuclearWarfare, Nuggetboy, Nurg, Nv8200p, OakMt, Oatmeal batman, Oberiko, ObsessiveMathsFreak,
Ocolon, Ohad Asor, Ohconfucius, Ohnoitsjamie, Olathe, Old Moonraker, Oldag07, OldakQuill, Oldlaptop321, Oldstylecharm, Oleg Alexandrov, Olessi, Olibroman, Olivemountain, Oliver
Pereira, Olivier, Olleicua, Ollycity, Omfgthxkkbye, Omicronpersei8, Onairdaprime, Onetwo1, Onorem, Oobopshark, Opelio, Optokinetics, Orion11M87, Ornil, Oroso, OsamaK, Oscarthecat,
Ospalh, Otterpops, Ouishoebean, OuroborosCobra, Overlord, OwenX, Oxnard27, P.M. Dahl, P4k, PFHLai, PIL1987, PJM, PKnight, PM Poon, Paine Ellsworth, PalestineRemembered,
Pallab1234, Pallen, Palma234@sympatico.ca, Pan Dan, Panser Born, Paranoid, Paranoid Eyes, Park70, Parrah, Pascal.Tesson, Patchouli, Pathoschild, Patstuart, Paul A, Paul August, Paul venter,
Paulleake, Paxsimius, Pb30, Pbech, Pde, Pdelong, Pearle, PedEye1, Pedro, PeepP, Penmachine, Peoplesunionpro, Pepsidrinka, Percy Snoodle, Perelaar, PerryTachett, Persian Poet Gal,
Peruvianllama, Peter, Peter Ellis, Peter bertok, PeterCanthropus, PeterStJohn, Petersec, Peteryoung144, Pethr, Petrus Steyn, Pevarnj, Pewwer42, Pfalstad, Pfortuny, Pgan002, Pgk, Pgosta,
Phelix06, Phenylalanine, Phil Boswell, PhilHibbs, Philip Trueman, Philthecow, Phoenix707, PhySusie, Physicists, Picaroon, Pictureuploader, Pietdesomere, Pigsonthewing, Pikiwedia, Pilotguy,
PinchasC, Ping, Piotrus, Pir, Pizza Puzzle, Pjacobi, Pjmpjm, Pk3r72owns, Planetpjs, Platypus222, Plautus satire, PleaseStand, Plmnbvcx, Plucas58, Pluemaster, Pluvialis, Pmanderson, Poindexter
Propellerhead, Pol098, Pol85, Politicaljunkie23, Pollinator, Pratyeka, Prep111, Presidentman, Presspiratehunter, Prichardson, Prithviraju 114, Prodego, Profes001, Professor slats,
Progressivepantheist, Prolog, Przepla, PseudoOne, PseudoSudo, Pstevenson, Psy guy, PsyMar, Psycosonik2741, Punarbhava, Pyroclastic, Pyrospirit, Q0, QmunkE, Quadell, Quaon, Quasihuman,
Quattrop, QueenAdelaide, Quibik, Quiddity, Quintote, QuizzicalBee, Qwerty7855, Qxz, R Lowry, R3m0t, R9tgokunks, RC-0722, RDBury, REdDoOr92, RFerreira, RG2, RJHall, RJII, RNAi,
RS1900, RaCha'ar, Rab V, Rabin, RachelBrown, Rad Racer, Radiantenergy, RadicalBender, Radiotrucker1983, Radius, Radzewicz, Raelus, Ragesoss, Rai31, Raj89er, Rajah, Ral315, RandomP,
Randomblue, Randy Johnston, Ratel, Raubsaurier, Raul654, Rave by the name, Raven in Orbit, Raven4x4x, Rayis, Raymond7vh, Rbb l181, Rbrunner, Rcwaters, Rdos, Rdsmith4, Realkyhick,
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Reyk, Reywas92, Rhoadrunner, Rhwentworth, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Allen, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), RichardF, Richerman, RickK, Ricky59, Rifzter, Ringomassa, Rj, Rjanag, Rje,
Rjwilmsi, Rklawton, Rlong19, Rmashate, Roadrunner, Robchurch, Robert K S, RobertG, Robeteinstein, Robma, Robobobatron, Robomaeyhem, Robsteadman, Robth, RobyWayne, Rodasmith,
Roentgenium111, Roger Anderton, Roger Hui, Rogerb67, Romanm, Rona2, Ronabop, RonaldFrits, Ronhjones, Rory096, Rosarinagazo, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rrjanbiah, Rsabbatini, Rsage,
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Sadi Carnot, Sahodaran, Sai2020, Saikiri, Sakaoats, SallyForth123, Saluyot, Sam Hocevar, Sam Spade, Sam Vimes, SamH, Samian, Samsara, Samuelsen, Sandahl, Sandstein, SandyGeorgia,
Sango123, Sankalpdravid, Santanielloa, Saotomi5102, Sarah, Saraneth, Saravan p, Sardanaphalus, Saruha, Satori Son, Saturday, Savager, Savant13, Save-Me-Oprah, Scarfacemz, Scarian, Scepia,
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Sean.hoyland, Seansheep, Seattle Jörg, Seattle Skier, SebastianHelm, Secretlondon, Seglea, Selket, Separa, Septuagent, Seraphimblade, Setohovo, Sfahey, Shadowlord, Shakehandsman,
ShakingSpirit, Shanel, Shanes, Shannon bohle, Shawdow, ShawnMilo, Shawnc, SheikYerBooty, Shenme, Shinomustdie, Shirulashem, Shoaler, Shoefly, Shortis14, Shoshonna, Shrike, Shummie,
Shunpiker, Sicjedi, Sidik iz PTU, Sigmundur, Silence, Silentcow, Silly rabbit, Silsor, SimonP, Sinblox, Singularity, Sir Richardson, SirFozzie, Sircus, Siryendor, Sjakkalle, SkerHawx, Skew-t,
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Steveholt243, Steven Luo, Stevenj, Stevenmitchell, Stevertigo, Stickzman, Stifle, Stilo, Stone, Stor stark7, StradivariusTV, Strategist333, Stuckdan, Stuhacking, Sturgeonz1, Suhalbansal,
Suicidalhamster, Sulmues, Sum182oftheyear, Sun King, Sundar, Sunray, Supadawg, SuperGirl, Supergeo, Supersexyspacemonkey, Supertouch, SureFire, Surinderjeet Singh, Suruena, Susurrus,
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Texture, The Anome, The Brain, The Encyclopedist, The Haunted Angel, The High Magus, The JPS, The Mooner, The Photon, The Thing That Should Not Be, The monkeyhate, The stuart, The
wub, TheAlphaWolf, TheCoffee, TheCustomOfLife, TheKMan, TheTruthiness, Thebigone45, Thebossofallandwhatsoever, Thedude999, Thefascistregime, Thegraham, Themetalgod, Theodolite,
Theoneandonlydedwinhedon, Theresa knott, Thincat, Thingg, Thomas H. Larsen, ThomasK, Thoric, Threeafterthree, Throwaway85, Thryduulf, Thumperward, Thundera m117, Thunderboltz,
Thunderbrand, Tide rolls, Tifego, Tiger Trek, TigerShark, Tiggerchen, Tim1965, TimVickers, Timclare, Timeineurope, Timir Saxa, Timmeh, Timwi, Tippett, Tiptoety, Tiramisoo, Tirdun,
Titan124, Titoxd, Tjlafave, Tjmayerinsf, Tjmullozz, Tkalayci, Tktktk, Tkuvho, Tkynerd, Tlogmer, Tnxman307, ToastyKen, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom Wake, Tom harrison, TomyDuby, Tone,
Tony Sidaway, TonySt, Tootooguy, Topsynergy, TorontoFever, Torricelli01, Tpbradbury, Trebor, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Treisijs, Trelvis, Tresckow, Trever, Trevor MacInnis, Treyt021, Triona,
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sasha, Ugur Basak, Ukabia, Ulipohippo, Ultratomio, Untifler, Upi, Urashimataro, Urban2803, Urgent01, Urhixidur, Uris, Urlpa5, Utternutter, Vahid83, Val42, ValenShephard, Valentinian,
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Rosenzweig, Vilepluume, Vinhtantran, Vinie007, Viridae, Viriditas, Viscious81, Vitanova, Vojvodaen, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Vulturell, WBardwin, WGee, WREverdell, WadeSimMiser,
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Where, Whiner01, White&nerdyqq1, Whitehat, Whkoh, Whyzeee, WickerGuy, Wideeyedraven, Wiki Raja, Wiki alf, WikiPedant, Wikianon, Wikibob, Wikichanger333, Wikid77, Wikiklrsc,
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Wilt, Winhunter, Winkin, Wissam24, Witbyt, Wknight94, Wlod, Wmahan, Woland1234, Wonko.The.Sane, Woohookitty, Wookipedian, Wowko, Wrightbros, Wser, Wtmitchell, Wulf Isebrand,
WurmWoode, Ww2censor, Wyllium, XJamRastafire, XSBDX, Xaosflux, Xboxfreak9613, Xeno, Xezbeth, Xxpor, Y, Yabti, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yann, Yayman306, Ybbor,
Yelleagle, YellowMonkey, YeshivaResearch2, Yezhanquan, Yid613, Yiplop stick stop, Yonatan, Yossiea, Ysyoon, Yuckfoo, Yummifruitbat, Zadcat, Zagnut15, Zamphuor, Zanimum, Zaslav,
Zavandi, Zazouloustique, Zeamays, Zeppelin4life, ZeroOne, Zgod, Zigzig, Zikzak23, Zimzypoo, Ziusudra, Zman555, Zobront21, Zocky, Zoicon5, Zootsuits, Zorbid, Zoz, Zpb52, Zscout370,
Zsinj, Ztobor, Zucchinidreams, Zundark, Zureks, Zwikki, Zzuuzz, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, គីមស៊្រុន, 达伟, 4251 anonymous edits

Annus Mirabilis papers  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391688619  Contributors: 4giron, 7ladybug15, Adambiswanger1, Alan Parmenter, Ancheta Wis, Anger22, Angus
Lepper, Arabani, ArnoldReinhold, Bender235, BillFlis, Biopreparat, Bjf, Blainster, Boobtimelive, Brian0918, CALR, CalJW, Carcharoth, Cardinality, Causa sui, Cedders, Cmprince, Crazy Boris
with a red beard, Crispmuncher, Crusio, Cygnis insignis, D.H, DVdm, Damicatz, Danny lost, David.Monniaux, Dawz, Db099221, Dennis Estenson II, Denveron, Djdaedalus, Doradus, Dreaded
Walrus, Dreadstar, E4mmacro, ElTchanggo, Ems57fcva, Ericoides, Fastfission, Finell, Flegelpuss, Fvasconcellos, GeorgeMoney, Geremia, Grafen, Gregbard, Headbomb, Herbee, Hiding,
Hugo999, IGeMiNix, IceKarma, Imaninjapirate, InvictaHOG, Jaganath, Jaraalbe, Josh Parris, Kbk, Keilana, Kompas, Korte, La goutte de pluie, Lilac Soul, LotR, Lradrama, Lumpy27, Malo,
Marcika, Mbell, MediaMangler, Michael Hardy, Michaelbusch, Milos Stevanovic, Mini-Geek, Molinari, Mpatel, Nwbeeson, Ospalh, PFHLai, PJtP, ParadoxTom, Paul August, Paul Koning, Paul
venter, PavelCurtis, Pb30, Pde, Pizza1512, Porqin, PrometheusDesmotes, Quadalpha, RadRafe, Radagast83, Ragesoss, Reddi, Rich Farmbrough, Robert K S, Rumping, Russavia, Schlafly,
Shotwell, SimonP, Simongar, SlapAyoda, Souravc83, Special-T, Supersexyspacemonkey, SveinHarris, Taxman, Terry0051, Tianxiaozhang, Tim Shuba, Timc, Tiny.ian, Tverbeek, Venny85,
Wackymacs, Wdfarmer, Wikid77, Wikiklrsc, William M. Connolley, William R. Buckley, Wmahan, Xiong Chiamiov, Yann, Zzyzx11, 240 anonymous edits

History of special relativity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395786802  Contributors: 2over0, Agnon5, Allen McC., Alphachimp, Alvestrand, Arabani, Bender235,
Bethnim, Blighcapn, Blue bear sd, Bob Denny, CES1596, CWesling, Carcharoth, Cardinality, Charles Matthews, Charvest, CommonsDelinker, CosmiCarl, D.H, DVdm, Daniel Case,
Dawnseeker2000, Delaszk, DickBrook, Diego pmc, Drbreznjev, Drdonzi, Dvavasour, Earthandmoon, Eluchil404, Email4mobile, Ems57fcva, ErkDemon, Flegelpuss, Fortdj33, Gaius Cornelius,
Giftlite, Grant.Alpaugh, Haham hanuka, Harald88, Harmanjitsingh, Headbomb, Hillman, Ignoranteconomist, Igodard, Infinity0, Iphegenia, Iridescent, JCSantos, JoJan, Joshb2, Ketiltrout,
Lantonov, Leonard Dickens, Leszek Jańczuk, Likebox, Lowellian, Marcika, Martin Hogbin, Mauricewa, MediaMangler, Meegs, Michael C Price, Mwse87, Nxavar, OlEnglish, Paradoctor,
Pip2andahalf, Pjacobi, Punkvijay, RAmesbury, Reade, Relativa, Rgdboer, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Robert K S, Roibeird, Schlafly, Shadow demon, Shadowjams, Spirals31, Squigish, Tedder,
Teorth, Tim Shuba, Tony1, Vanwhistler, Vapour, William M. Connolley, Wolfkeeper, ZoneW, 83 anonymous edits

History of general relativity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395832708  Contributors: Addshore, Alvestrand, Bcrowell, Capecodeph, Carcharoth, Charles Matthews, Chris
the speller, Christopher Thomas, D.H, DAGwyn, DVdm, E4mmacro, Earthandmoon, Edgar181, Ems57fcva, Fropuff, Fuhghettaboutit, GeorgeMoney, Hbackman, Hillman, Hqb, JRSpriggs,
Joke137, KSmrq, Karol Langner, Kipton, Lantonov, Ligulem, Linas, Malcolm Farmer, Mike Peel, Mollwollfumble, Mpatel, Pgr94, Rgdboer, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, SkinnyPrude,
SockPuppetForTomruen, Steve Quinn, Tcisco, Tedder, ThomasK, Tonyle, Vanwhistler, William Ackerman, 41 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 184

Relativity priority dispute  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390524197  Contributors: A. Parrot, Acebulf, Ajnem, Alvestrand, Anonywiki, Anthony Bradbury, Baruch1677,
Bender235, Bloodshedder, Bo Jacoby, Boltzmann1, Bubba73, Charles Matthews, Christian Spitzlay, Christopher Thomas, Clarityfiend, Cmdrjameson, D.H, DS1000, DVdm, Dante Alighieri,
David Eppstein, De kludde, Deor, Dionyseus, E4mmacro, Fastfission, Flegelpuss, Fumitol, Giftlite, GregVolk, Harald88, Hillman, JRSpriggs, Jibal, Jokes Free4Me, Jwy, JzG, KSmrq, Lacatosias,
Lantonov, Lexi Marie, Licorne, Likebox, LilHelpa, MagneticFlux, Mathieugp, Mboverload, Memming, Myrvin, Namelessnobody, Omcnew, Overlord, Paul August, Philippschaumann, Pjacobi,
Pjrich, Prosfilaes, R'n'B, Relativity Priority Disputation, Rgdboer, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rl, Robert K S, Rodasmith, Schlafly, Spellmaster, Srleffler, Stearson1, TEB728, Tony Sidaway,
Urgent01, Vyznev Xnebara, Wafulz, Wereon, XDanielx, Yann, 172 anonymous edits

Classical unified field theories  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390632772  Contributors: Alison, Bathambaba, Big Bird, Brockert, Catgut, Charles Matthews, DAGwyn,
Daniel Arteaga, Diberri, Duncan.france, Gaius Cornelius, Giftlite, Harald88, Headbomb, Hillman, Hmains, Lambiam, Lethe, Linas, Mandarax, Michael Hardy, Mpatel, Neparis, Nikopopl,
Oxymoron83, Pearle, Petri Krohn, RHB, RainbowCrane, Reddi, Rich Farmbrough, Roger Anderton, SJRubenstein, Salsb, Sfahey, Shanel, Sjoerd visscher, Truthnlove, UserDoe, William M.
Connolley, Yuckfoo, 99 anonymous edits

Bohr–Einstein debates  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392460972  Contributors: 84user, A3r0, ASA-IRULE, Acegikmo1, Adamfinmo, Afshar, Anarchia, AshPseud,
Batmanand, BernardH, Bluemin, Bob K31416, Brian Fenton, Charles Matthews, CommonsDelinker, Corridorg, Debivort, Debresser, DinDraithou, EPadmirateur, Eliyak, Fcy, Fresheneesz,
Furrykef, GeeJo, Genericme, Giftlite, Goldencako, GregorB, Gtcostello, Harryboyles, Headbomb, IP Singh, Inwind, JdH, Joshuag, Karol Langner, Kevinkor2, Khullah, Korte, Kripkenstein,
Lacatosias, Likebox, Linas, Mako098765, Malveril, Maurice Carbonaro, Michael Hardy, Mr Maxim, Phys, Pjvpjv, Pokipsy76, Protonk, RJFJR, Sam Hocevar, Samboy, Schneelocke,
Scottyferguson, SimonP, Spontini, Stannered, Ste1n, Tesseran, Tide rolls, Tim!, Traxs7, Trevor MacInnis, Wikiliki, WikipedianMarlith, Woohookitty, 57 anonymous edits

Manhattan Project  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395259602  Contributors: 128.59.58.xxx, 129.186.1.xxx, 13916053k, 21KINGKONG12, 4twenty42o, 5 albert square, A
Nobody, AI, AJR, Abqwildcat, Accurizer, Achmelvic, AcroX, Adam Carr, Adambro, Adashiel, Age Happens, Ageekgal, Ahoerstemeier, Ainekeane, AirBa, Alansohn, Aldis90, Alexf,
AlexiusHoratius, Alkivar, Allstarecho, Alsandro, Altzinn, Amadib, Americasroof, Anand Karia, Anatoly.bourov, AndreNatas, Andrei Stroe, Andrew Miller, AndrewHowse, Andy M. Wang,
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Jni, JoeBlogsDord, John, John254, Johnfos, Johnleemk, Johnny Pez, Jojhutton, Jonabbey, Joshdboz, Jossi, Jpbowen, Jrcrin001, Jrt989, Jrtayloriv, Jumbuck, Jusdafax, JustAGal, Justmeherenow,
Jwissick, Jwolley, K1Bond007, Kartano, Kaszeta, Katieh5584, Kbdank71, Kdales, Keilana, Khaosworks, Kigali1, Kirkfx, Kjoonlee, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Kornfan71, Krg, Krich, Kukini,
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Onevalefan, Onorem, Opelio, Orlady, OwenX, Oxymoron83, PGWG, PJM, PS2pcGAMER, Parakkum, Parhamr, ParisianBlade, Parkwells, Patbreen, Patrick, Paxsimius, Pazuzu413, Pdcook,
Pequeniosaltamontes, Petter Strandmark, Peyna, Pgk, PhilKnight, Philip Cross, Philip Trueman, Philippe, Philthecow, PhilthyBear, Phoenix2, PhySusie, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Piperh,
Pjm4474, Plasma Twa 2, Plrk, Pollinator, Polly, PranksterTurtle, Prashanthns, Prisonblues, Prmacn, Prolog, Pshermamm, PuzzletChung, QmunkE, QuantumEleven, RTC, Radon210,
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Norton (1958- ), Rickythakrar, Rifleman 82, Rjwilmsi, Rmosler2100, Roadwolf, Rob Hooft, Robert Merkel, RockMFR, Ronhjones, Rotundo, RoyBoy, Royli57, Rrburke, Rrostrom, Rsnetto74, S
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TORR, Tabimpulse, Takeel, Tannin, Taqi Haider, Tassedethe, Tata1711, Taward, Tdadamemd, Techman224, Tedernst, Terryn3, Teveten, Tex, Th1rt3en, The Anome, The Lizard Wizard, The
Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, TheNeutroniumAlchemist, TheRawNerve, Theiggyvanzandt, Thejadefalcon, Themfromspace, ThunderBird, Tide rolls, Tim
Q. Wells, Timwi, Titatitatita, Titoxd, Tmbyrd, Toby Douglass, Toddst1, Tolivero, Tom Randolph, Tom harrison, Tomdobb, Tommy2010, Tony1, TotientDragooned, Trelvis, Trevor MacInnis,
Trialsanderrors, Trivialist, Troy 07, Twang, Twinsday, TwoOneTwo, Tyrone123321, Tytans brother, Uberross, Ulflarsen, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Uncle Dick, Unomano, Urbanette, Uskill, Van
helsing, Vgy7ujm, Vianello, Vishnava, Vladsinger, Vorkagen, Vsmith, Vulture19, WFinch, WVhybrid, Wafulz, Warpflyght, Wavelength, Wes52353, West.andrew.g, Whiner01, Wikidudeman,
Wikiklrsc, WikipedianMarlith, Willking1979, Wombatcat, Wonder al, Woofmaster, Ww, Wwoods, X-Fi6, Xhaoz, Xhurtful, Xoepicfailxo, Xosé, Xtreambar, Xxjubilee18, Yamaguchi先生,
Yankees76, Yanksox, Ydinfuusio, Yorn, Zaarons, ZekeMacNeil, Zimbabweed, Zurkog, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Милан Јелисавчић, 大司马大将军, 1898 anonymous edits

List of things named after Albert Einstein  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391317677  Contributors: Binksternet, Boobtimelive, Chryed, Clarityfiend, CommonsDelinker,
Daren1997, Deor, Dhartung, Eric Yurken, ErkDemon, Headbomb, Keecheril, Legokid, MaxVT, Mwalcoff, Ndickson, Peterdjones, Phil1988, Pokoleo, Quiddity, RadioFan, RobinK, Shanes,
Skrilmps, SureFire, Tim!, Tmonzenet, Vegaswikian, Zondor, 41 anonymous edits

Albert Einstein in popular culture  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393678930  Contributors: A.Ou, Abu badali, AlphaEta, Ameki, Angie Y., Athaenara, Chowbok,
Clarityfiend, D6, DRosenbach, DVdm, DavidFarmbrough, Edward, Ekwos, Gimmemoretime, Hammersfan, Headbomb, Howcheng, Johnathon john, LeaW, Lizlawton, Martarius, McGeddon,
Mkrupnic, Noroton, Ou tis, Philip Trueman, Presspiratehunter, Quiddity, RDBury, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Shlishke, TEB728, Tonyfaull, Turtleboy267, Xasz, 48 anonymous
edits

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394925107  Contributors: Apparition11, Athaenara, Awadewit, Baldrick90, Belsazar,
BillDeanCarter, Chaser, Chery, Circeus, Crowsnest, D.H, DAGwyn, Docu, Good Olfactory, GregVolk, Headbomb, Indopug, Istcol, JMD, Jdgilbey, Kaldari, Koavf, Lantonov, Littlealien182,
M-le-mot-dit, Markus Poessel, Marrio, Mentifisto, Nneonneo, Orlady, Paradoctor, R'n'B, Res2216firestar, Rjwilmsi, Scartol, Soc8675309, Steve Quinn, Suiseiseki, The Anome, The Man in
Question, WillowW, 老陳, 27 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 185

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ferdinand
Schmutzer (1870-1928)
File:Albert Einstein signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Epson291, User:Pbroks13
File:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits
File:Einst 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einst_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown; Credit Apic/Getty Images, Hulton Archive (see )
File:Albert Einstein as a child.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_as_a_child.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Kenosis
at en.wikipedia
File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Adnghiem501, Bcrowell, Fadookie, Fschoenm, Infrogmation, Rimshot, 3 anonymous edits
File:einsteinhaus4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinhaus4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Doctorpete
File:Einstein in UK.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_in_UK.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 84user, Wikiwatcher1
File:Einstein citizen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_citizen.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Wikiwatcher1
File:Einstein and ben gurion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_and_ben_gurion.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Life magazine
file:Death headline.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Death_headline.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Wikiwatcher1
File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lucien Chavan
UNIQ-ref-0-67a65ec1a8591561-QINU (1868 - 1942), a friend of Einstein's when he was living in Berne.
File:Einstein 1911 Solvay.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_1911_Solvay.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 84user, Fadookie, Fastfission, Frank C.
Müller, JdH, Juiced lemon, Verdlanco
File:1919 eclipse positive.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1919_eclipse_positive.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ComputerHotline, EugeneZelenko,
Fastfission, Infrogmation, Quasipalm, Quibik, 3 anonymous edits
File:Albert Einstein photo 1920.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_photo_1920.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown photographer.
Scientific Monthly doesn't give photographer credit; the caption reads just "Professor Albert Einstein, University of Berlin"
File:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niels_Bohr_Albert_Einstein_by_Ehrenfest.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Paul Ehrenfest Original uploader was Graf at de.wikipedia
File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aviados, Epson291
Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lucien Chavan
UNIQ-ref-0-67a65ec1a8591561-QINU (1868 - 1942), a friend of Einstein's when he was living in Berne.
Image:Albert Abraham Michelson.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Abraham_Michelson.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ilario, Ixitixel,
Limojoe, Lukius, Pieter Kuiper, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, in 1916 geschilderd door Menso Kamelingh Onnes.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hendrik_Antoon_Lorentz,_in_1916_geschilderd_door_Menso_Kamelingh_Onnes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Deadstar, JdH, 1
anonymous edits
Image:Poincare.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poincare.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bohème, Luis Fernández García, Mu, Oxxo, Ske, 1 anonymous
edits
Image:Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ferdinand
Schmutzer (1870-1928)
Image:Max planck.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Max_planck.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Divna Jaksic, Factumquintus, Limojoe, Lzur, Mstislavl,
NicolasDelerue, Pieter Kuiper, Yelm, 1 anonymous edits
File:De Raum zeit Minkowski Bild.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:De_Raum_zeit_Minkowski_Bild.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hermann
Minkowski
Image:Max von Laue.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Max_von_Laue.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 555, Kilom691, TPM, Yann
Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niels_Bohr_Albert_Einstein_by_Ehrenfest.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Paul Ehrenfest Original uploader was Graf at de.wikipedia
Image:Ebohr1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr1.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Stannered
Image:Ebohr2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Lacatosias at
en.wikipedia
Image:Ebohr stationary.GIF  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr_stationary.GIF  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Acepectif
Image:Energy-time.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Energy-time.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Kripkenstein, Lacatosias
Image:Ebohr4.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr4.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Lacatosias
Image:Einsteinbox.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinbox.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Korte
Image:Eprheaders.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eprheaders.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Physical Review
Image:Trinity shot color.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trinity_shot_color.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Avron, Dbenbenn, Fastfission, Henning
Blatt, Rdsmith4, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Frisch-Peierls Memorandum - Opening Paragraph.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frisch-Peierls_Memorandum_-_Opening_Paragraph.png  License:
unknown  Contributors: Ian Dunster, Sfan00 IMG
Image:JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Department of Energy,
Office of Public Affairs
Image:Los Alamos Primer assembly methods.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Fastfission, WikipediaMaster, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Manhattan Project US Map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manhattan_Project_US_Map.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Fastfission
Image:Groves Oppenheimer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Groves_Oppenheimer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eusebius, Fastfission, Pieter Kuiper,
W.wolny
Image:Gun-type fission weapon en-labels thin lines.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gun-type_fission_weapon_en-labels_thin_lines.svg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: User:Dake, User:Mfield, User:Papa Lima Whiskey
Image:Y12 Calutron Operators.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ed Westcott / US Army /
Manhattan Engineering District
Image:Implosion Nuclear weapon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Implosion_Nuclear_weapon.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Ausis, User:Fastfission
Image:Fat man.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fat_man.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Avron, Davepape, Fastfission, HowardMorland, Oldie, Patricka,
Superm401, Tiptoety, Twinsday, Vonvon, 7 anonymous edits
Image:Thin Man plutonium gun bomb casings.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Fastfission, 3 anonymous edits
Image:German Experimental Pile - Haigerloch - April 1945.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg  License:
unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Ian Dunster at en.wikipedia
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 186

Image:Einstein tongue.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_tongue.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Agamemnon2, Conti, FranksValli, Howcheng,
Konstable, Melsaran, Moe Epsilon, Quiddity, Qxz, Sasquatch, Shanes, Yamamoto Ichiro, 6 anonymous edits
Image:GeneralRelativityTheoryManuscript.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeneralRelativityTheoryManuscript.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Albert
Einstein
Image:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Calliopejen1,
Frank C. Müller, Hemulen, Lobo, Quibik, Андрей Романенко
License 187

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/