NAGA COLLEGE FOUNDATION, INC.

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

MODULE

IRS 2

Enhancing
Skills in
English
by

Ms. Jamaica Tinguha

 MODULE 1

The International Phonetic Alphabet

Intended Learning Outcomes

• Recognized vowel’s phonetic symbols and identified their equivalent sounds.

• Transcribed words from their original form to IPA symbols.
• Practiced reading words written in IPA symbols.

Discussion

For many learners of English, one of the hardest things to grasp about the
language is its pronunciation. Not only are there many accents to get accustomed to
– American, British, Australian, among others – but there are many fundamental
sounds within the language that can be difficult to produce.

To make things even worse, English’s spelling system is horrendous and

seldom a reliable indication – even for native speakers – of how to pronounce most
word.

Because of this, it’s useful to try to depict the pronunciation of the English language
through a set of symbols besides the Latin alphabet – namely, the International
Phonetic Alphabet. Known as the IPA for short, this phonetic system might be familiar
to you, and in my experience, it’s a useful tool for learning any language.

The great thing about the IPA is that its symbols are meant to be universal.
This means that if you learn the set of symbols used for English sounds, you can
apply them to most other languages you might want to learn, from French to Arabic
to Japanese.
 It is not a perfect system, since its details can only be so fine, and nuances
like tone and stress are often overlooked in IPA transcription, which can be a bit of a
problem with tonal languages like Mandarin and Vietnamese.

However, for our purposes with English, these phonetic symbols can definitely
come in handy if you’re looking to improve your pronunciation.

CONSONANTS

The first set of symbols presented here represents consonant sounds. Most are
fundamental to English pronunciation regardless of accent. Since you might be
unfamiliar with some of the terms used to describe the sounds, here are some
definitions you might find useful:

Voiced: a voiced sound is a sound where the vocal cords vibrate, thus producing
some sort of pitch. This is the kind of sound most people associate with regular talking
or singing.

Voiceless / unvoiced: a voiceless or unvoiced sound is one where the vocal cords
do not vibrate, thus making the sound very whispery and without a pitch. It can tend
to make a letter sound harsher when pronounced.

Stop: a consonant sound where the airflow is stopped completely by the mouth and
then sharply released. Think of sounds like “p,” “k,” and “t.” All languages contain
stops.

Fricative: a consonant sound where the airflow becomes noisy and turbulent
because it only has a very small space to travel through in the mouth. Think of sounds
like “f,” “s,” and “sh.” Most languages have fricatives, but not all.
Nasal: a consonant sound where the airflow passes exclusively through the nose
instead of the mouth. Think of sounds like “m,” “n,” or “ng.” Almost all languages
have nasals.

Affricate: a consonant sound that begins like a stop but then releases like a fricative,
thus making it a sort of combination sound. Think of sounds like “ch” and “j.”
Affricates are common, especially in English.

Alveolar ridge: a ridge found on the roof of the mouth between the upper teeth and
the hard palate, which is used in conjunction with the tip of the tongue to make many
sounds

Soft palate: the soft tissue in the back of the roof of your mouth, which is used in
conjunction with the back of the tongue to make many sounds.

Glottis: the part of the larynx (air passage) that contains the vocal cords and the
opening between them

/p/

Voiceless stop made with both lips

Found in words like: pen, spin, tip, happy
Letters that usually represent it: “p”

/b/

Voiced stop made with both lips

Found in words like: but, web, baby
Letters that usually represent it: “b”

As you may have noticed, the only difference between producing /p/ and /b/ is the
voicing, while all other factors remain the same.
It’s common, including in English, to have pairs of words that are essentially the
same, except one is voiced and the other is unvoiced. If you’re having trouble
pronouncing certain sounds, try to identify a corresponding sound with a different
voicing as a reference.

/t/

Voiceless stop made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: two, sting
Letters that usually represent it: “t”

/d/

Voiced stop made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: do, daddy, odd
Letters that usually represent it: “d”

/k/
Voiceless stop made with the back of the tongue on the soft palate
Found in words like: cat, kill, skin, queen, unique, thick, chaos
Letters that usually represent it: “k,” “c,” “q,” “que,” “ck,” sometimes “ch”

/g/

Voiced stop made with the back of the tongue on the soft palate
Found in words like: go, get, beg, bigger
Letters that usually represent it: “g”
/f/

Voiceless fricative made by putting your upper front teeth on your lower lip
Found in words like: fool, enough, leaf, off, photo, glyph
Letters that usually represent it: “f,” “ph,” sometimes “gh”

/v/

Voiced fricative made by putting your upper front teeth on your lower lip
Found in words like: voice, have, of, over
Letters that usually represent it: “v,” sometimes “f”

/θ/

Voiceless fricative made by putting your tongue between your teeth

Found in words like: thing, teeth, Athens
Letters that usually represent it: “th”

If you’re curious about this symbol, it comes from the Greek letter “theta,” which
makes the same sound in Greek.

/ð/

Voiced fricative made by putting your tongue between your teeth

Found in words like: this, breathe, father
Letters that usually represent it: “th”

You might have noticed that both /θ/ and /ð/ are represented by “th” in English.
Although sometimes there are rules as to when a letter or letter cluster makes
different sounds, there really is no rule for “th.”
Sometimes it’s voiced, and sometimes it’s unvoiced, and you’ll just have to memorize
the difference as you come across each word with a “th” in it. This letter seems to be
based off of the Greek letter “delta,” which makes the same sound in Greek.

/s/

Voiceless fricative made by putting the tip the tongue nearly on the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: see, city, pass, lesson
Letters that usually represent it: “s,” sometimes “c”

/z/

Voiced fricative made by putting the tip the tongue nearly on the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: zoo, rose, clothes, asthma
Letters that usually represent it: “z,” sometimes “s,” rarely “th”

/ʃ/
Voiceless fricative made by putting the tip the tongue a little bit past the alveolar
ridge
Found in words like: she, sure, session, emotion, leash
Letters that usually represent it: “sh,” “si,” “ti,” sometimes “s,”

/Ʒ/

Voiced fricative made by putting the tip the tongue a little bit past the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: genre, pleasure, beige, equation, seizure, vision
Letters that usually represent it: “g,” “si,” “ti,” “z,” sometimes “s”
/ tʃ /

Voiceless affricate made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: chair, nature, teach
Letters that usually represent it: “ch,” sometimes “t”

This is one of the two affricates in English, the other being /dʒ/. As stated in the
definitions above, an affricate is a combination of a stop and a fricative, so the “ch”
sound is actually represented by two IPA symbols. The same goes for the “j” sound.

/dʒ/

Voiced affricate made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: gin, joy, edge, did you, judgment
Letters that usually represent it: “j,” sometimes “g,” “dg,” sometimes “d”

/h/

Voiceless fricative made by a forced breath through the glottis

Found in words like: genre, pleasure, beige, equation, seizure, vision
Letters that usually represent it: “g,” “si,” “ti,” “z,” sometimes “s”

/ʔ/

Glottal stop made by shutting and releasing airflow through the glottis
Found in words like: uh–oh, kitten, Manhattan, bet, important (American)
Letters that usually represent it: “t,” “-,” the beginnings of vowels

You might be a little confused by this backwards-question-mark-looking symbol, but

the best way to hear and feel it is to say the word “uh-oh.” You’ll feel your vocal cords
close for just a moment in order to block your airflow, which is what linguists call a
“glottal stop.”

You can also feel this stop happen every time you begin to pronounce a vowel without
a consonant before it. The glottal stop is common in some British accents, but it’s
especially common in American accents, where the letter “t” is often replaced by this
sound in the middle and ends of words. Yes, it’s true.

Most Americans don’t pronounce “kitten” with such a strong, harsh /t/ in the middle,
but rather with a /ʔ/ instead.

/m/

Nasal sound formed while the lips are shut

Found in words like: man, them, hammer
Letters that usually represent it: “m”

/n/

Nasal sound formed while the tip of the tongue is on the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: no, tin, winner
Letters that usually represent it: “n”

/ŋ/

Nasal sound formed while the back of the tongue is on the soft palate
Found in words like: ringer, sing, finger, drink
Letters that usually represent it: “ng,” sometimes part of “ng,” part of “nk”
The letters “ng” can be problematic because the /ŋ/ sound is sometimes followed by
a /g/ sound, but sometimes it isn’t. Note the difference between “singer” and “finger,”
where “finger” has that extra /g/ sound, but “singer” doesn’t.

This difference is random and should be memorized, just like the “th” phenomenon,
but there are a few tricks that can help. For example, if a word ends in “ng,” then
there is never a following /g/ sound. There also is no /g/ sound if the word ends in “-
ing,” which turns verbs into participles or gerunds.

/ɾ/

A momentary stop-like sound called a flap or tap, caused by the tip of the tongue
lightly throwing itself against the alveolar ridge
Found in words like: better, hidden, hater, odor
Letters that usually represent it: “t,” “d”

This is another sound that might confuse you. This is because it’s primarily found in
American accents and is essentially another way that Americans become lazy with
the letter “t.” You saw previously that the glottal stop is a way to replace the /t/
sound in the middle and ends of words.

However, Americans sometimes use the flap instead in the middle of words, though
note that the /ʔ/ and /ɾ/ sounds are mutually exclusive. For example, an American
would pronounce the word “button” with a /ʔ/ in the middle, but not a /ɾ/. Meanwhile,
“better” is pronounced with a /ɾ/ but not a /ʔ/, at least in an American accent.

/ɾ/ is actually the letter “r” in many other languages like Spanish, Korean, and Arabic
(the symbol even looks like some degenerate letter “r”). In terms of sound, consider
it to be a softer version of /d/, which is why the letter “d” is often replaced by it, too.
/x/

Voiceless fricative made by putting the back of your tongue nearly on your soft palate
Found in words like: loch (Scottish), ugh
Letters that usually represent it: “gh”

This is an interesting sound because it is not actually a standard sound in English.

However, it is easy for most English speakers to make, and occasionally shows up in
oddball words like “ugh,” where the /x/ sound is almost an extra marker of
exasperation.
 ALMOST CONSONANTS?

So far, we have seen sounds that are, for the most part, unmistakably consonants.
At this point, you might think we’d move onto vowels. However, there are some
sounds that seem to share characteristics of both consonants and vowels.

Already, you have seen the nasals /m/ and /n/, which almost act like vowels but up
in the nasal cavity. But in the IPA, there is another class of sounds called
“approximants” that lie somewhere between vowels and consonants. Two categories
within these approximants are known as “glides” and “liquids.”

Glides are sounds that are phonetically similar to vowels but function more as
consonants, while liquids are sounds in which the tongue creates a partial closure in
the mouth, resulting in a vowel-like sound.

/l/

Liquid created by keeping the tip of the tongue on the upper teeth
Found in words like: left, bell, table, please
Letters that usually represent it: “l”

Though the /l/ symbol is used for the “l” sound in most European languages, the
sound in English is a little bit different in that the tip of the tongue touches the teeth
rather than other places of the mouth like the alveolar ridge.

This is what gives the “l” that fuller, arguably uglier quality, almost like you’re about
to swallow your tongue. In British English, the tip of the tongue tends to touch the
alveolar ridge instead.
/ɹ/

Liquid created by curling the tongue backward toward the back of the mouth. The tip
of the tongue should not be touching any part of the mouth.
Found in words like: run, very, probably, far, earnest
Letters that usually represent it: “r”

The /ɹ/ sound is arguably one of the most difficult English sounds for foreigners to
grasp. Although it is found in almost all accents of English, it is most common in
American accents.

For example, even though an American would typically pronounce the “r” in “car,”
but a British person wouldn’t, both speakers would usually pronounce the “r” in
“grow.”

Notice that /ɹ/ is actually an upside-down letter “r.” The /r/ can sometimes be used
to replace /ɹ/ when the language is assumed to be English, but the actual /r/ symbol
is a trilled “r,” like in the Spanish word “perr”

/j/

Glide created by bringing the middle of the tongue very close to the roof of the mouth,
and then releasing
Found in words like: yes, neuron, cube
Letters that usually represent it: “y,” sometimes other vowels

Though /j/ seems like it is the vowel /i/ but shorter, the tongue is tenser in this sound
so that it can be brought closer to the roof of the mouth.

If pronounced correctly, you should be able to pronounce the word “year” and hear
a distinction between the /j/ sound and the vowel after it. The letter “u” also tends
to be pronounced with the /j/ sound in certain words, such as “cute” or “pure.”
/w/

Glide created by pursing the lips closely together, and then releasing
Found in words like: we, queen, Huang, lower
Letters that usually represent it: “w,” sometimes “u”

VOWELS

Though there are many consonants in English (and in general), much more than can
be individually represented by the 26 letters in the alphabet, vowels can sometimes
be even harder to describe.

While consonants can at least be described with precise terms and actions, vowels
tend to be more of approximations in the IPA. This is because vowels tend to lie more
on a spectrum than consonants, and also because vowels can change subtly from
accent to accent and from language to language.

However, these subtleties can make a noticeable difference to our ears. Because I
personally am an American English speaker, I am most familiar with the standard
American accent (General American) and some of its variations, as well as the
standard British accent (Received Pronunciation).
So, some of the following examples will mostly serve as a way to get you familiar
with some of these IPA symbols. But even the same symbol can represent slightly
different vowels, since, as mentioned before, vowels tend to lie on a spectrum.

Really, it is best to use your ears to listen to how English is spoken by different
people, and then compare that to the IPA symbols.

Three major factors in the production of vowels are the openness, or height, of the
mouth, the position of the tongue, and the roundness of the lips.

• If a vowel is produced while the mouth is almost closed, it would be

considered a close If the vowel is slightly more open, it would be
considered a mid vowel. And if the mouth is open very tall, it would be
considered an open vowel.

• If the tongue is positioned near the front of the mouth, any vowel produced
would be a front If the tongue were set slightly more back in the mouth,
 the vowel would be a central vowel. If the tongue were set in the far back
of the mouth, the vowel would be a back vowel.

• If a vowel is produced while the lips are tense and rounded, it would be
considered a rounded. If the vowel is produced while the lips are relaxed,
it would be considered an unrounded vowel.

In order to better visualize these differences, it’s helpful to look at a chart. Think of
the following chart as a diagram of the mouth facing left sideways, where the position
of the tongue traces along the different points to produce different vowels.

/æ/
Found in words like: cat, lad, bat
Letters that usually represent it: “a”

/Ɑ/
Found in words like: off, loss, cloth (General American)
Letters that usually represent it: “o,” “a”

Notice that this symbol is different from the symbol /a/, which some people
pronounce in the word “father.” However, the symbol has been omitted from this list.

/ɔ/
Found in words like: law, caught, all, talk
Letters that usually represent it: “a,” “aw,” “au,” “al”

At least in the General American accent, this is an interesting sound because it’s
starting to fall out of usage. For example, there used to be a clear geographical
distinction in the United States between people who pronounced the words “cot” and
“caught” the same and those who pronounced with different vowels (/ɑ/ and /ɔ/).
These days, however, there is a much blurrier distinction between these two
pronunciations, and many more Americans are beginning to pronounce both “cot”
and “caught” with the /ɑ/ vowel. This is what linguists call the “cot-caught merger”
and is an example of how certain sounds are currently dying out of English
pronunciations.

/ə/
Found in words like: about, the, spotted, lemon, basil, analysis, acumen
Letters that usually represent it: almost any vowel

This symbol is known as the “schwa” and is often called the neutral vowel.
Technically, it is the “mid central unrounded vowel,” and in English, it is only used
for unstressed vowels. Stressed vowels that make a similar sound are represented
by the /ʊ/ symbol.

What’s interesting about the schwa is that almost any vowel letter in English can
make this sound, probably because it is the neutral vowel, and therefore a logical go-
to for any vowel that becomes weakened from a lack of stress.

/Ɪ/
Found in words like: sit, hidden, amiss
Letters that usually represent it: “i,” “y”

/i/
Found in words like: city, see, meat, theme, fluorine, people
Letters that usually represent it: “ee,” “ea,” “y,” “i”

This is one of the few IPA symbols where its uppercase counterpart is a separate
symbol. Notice the difference between /i/ and /ɪ/.
/ɛ/
Found in words like: bed, instead, friend
Letters that usually represent it: “e,” “ea”

In Australian and other accents, this sound is replaced entirely by the /e/ sound,
which is a more close, front vowel and has a brighter sound.

/ɹ̩ / or /ɚ/
Found in words like: burn, herd, earth, bird, worm, amateur, winner (General
American)
Letters that usually represent it: “er,” “ear,” “ir,” “or,” “ur,” “eur”

These two symbols feature diacritics, which are small markings added to IPA symbols
to modify their sounds. The small notch placed beneath the /ɹ/ symbol indicates that
it can constitute its own syllable without the help of a vowel. Meanwhile the little tail
added to the schwa colors it with the /ɹ/ sound.

/Ɜ/
Found in words like: burn, herd, earth, bird, worm (Received Pronunciation)
Letters that usually represent it: “er,” “ear,” “ir,” “or,” “ur,” “eur”

Not to be confused with the /ɛ/ symbol.

/ʌ/
Found in words like: run, won, flood, sudden, alumnus
Letters that usually represent it: “u,” “o,” “oo”
/ʊ/
Found in words like: put, look, would
Letters that usually represent it: “oo,” “oul,” “u”

Remember that this sound is very similar to the schwa sound, but it is typically
reserved for stressed syllables.

/u/
Found in words like: tube, you, choose, through, threw, issue
Letters that usually represent it: “oo,” “u,” “ou,” “ew”

In a broad transcription (general use of the IPA) of English, it is acceptable to simply

use the /u/ symbol alone.

However, it is more accurate to use this symbol for sounds such as the “u” in the
Spanish word “tú” or “luna,” where the vowel is much purer than in English. For a
narrower transcription in English, you can use the symbols /ʊu/ or /əu/, depending
on the accent.

/o/
Found in words like: no, toe, soap, throw, though
Letters that usually represent it: “o,” “oe,” “oa,” “ow”

Similar to /u/’s case, this symbol is acceptable to use in a broad transcription of

English, but it really represents the sound that “o” makes in the Spanish word “hola”
or “gato.”

In English, the “o” is sound is typically more of a diphthong and can be represented
with something like [oʊ]. In Australian English, the sound is more of an [ɔʊ].
 DIPHTHONGS

So far, we have seen mostly symbols for pure vowels, and with these symbols, we
can represent almost any sound made in common accents of English. However,
English is a language known for being full of diphthongs (double vowels) that are
represented by combinations of symbols.

Examples already given for this are [ʊu] and [oʊ], but there are many more. Here
are the most common examples:

/ai/

Found in words like: my, wise, high, Thai, island

Letters that usually represent it: “i,” “y,” “igh,” “ai”

In Received Pronunciation, the diphthong is more of a /ɑi/ sound.

/ei/

Found in words like: date, day, pain, whey, rein, neighbor

Letters that usually represent it: “a,” “ay,” “ai,” “ey,” “ei,” “eigh”

In Received Pronunciation, this diphthong is more of a /ɛi/ sound.

/ɔi/

Found in words like: boy, noise, Euler

Letters that usually represent it: “oy,” “oi”

Oftentimes, this is pronounced as /oj/ instead.

/au/

Found in words like: now, trout, Laos

Letters that usually represent it: “ow,” “ou”

Americans often pronounce this as a /æw/ sound.

/ju/

Found in words like: cute, ewe, use, new (in some accents), you
Letters that usually represent it: “u,” “ew”

Though the /j/ sound can be combined with mostly any vowel, it appears very often
before the /u/ sound, even without the appearance of the letter “y.”
 NARROWER TRANSCRIPTION

The IPA symbols presented here are probably enough to be overwhelming to any
language learner, or a nice review for anyone already familiar with the system.
However, the symbols alone do not cover nearly every facet of English pronunciation.

You’ve already encountered a couple diacritics that slightly change the nuances of
certain sounds, but there are plenty more that can be useful in English. Though I
won’t go too in depth with them, here are a few more IPA features, just to give you
a general idea of what they do.

1. BRACKETS

As transcription becomes narrower, or more precise, it is more common to use

brackets to surround IPA symbols than slashes, which you have noticed already. The
reason for this is a distinction between phonetics and phonemics, but that’s a topic
of linguistics beyond the scope of this article.

2. STRESS

Sometimes, an apostrophe is placed before the syllable that is primarily stressed in

the word. For example, the word “because” would be transcribed as /bəˈkʌz/ with the
apostrophe before the second syllable. If there is a secondary stress in the syllable,
then you would use a symbol that looks somewhat like a comma.

For example, “pronunciation” would be written as /prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃən/. It is typical to

transcribe IPA using stress markers, though it is not always required.
3. LENGTH

You might have heard of long vowels and short vowels as a feature of languages such
as Finnish, Japanese, or Ancient Greek. However, English also features length in its
vowels, though in a subtler way.

Think of the difference in vowel length between “city” and “clean.” To mark a vowel
as long, linguists use a colon-like symbol. For example, “clean” would be written as
[kliːn], while “city” would remain [ˈsɪti] (or [ˈsɪɾi], if you’re American).

Note, though, that this is characteristic of a narrower transcription of English and

therefore seldom required. Though in other languages, vowel length can affect the
meaning of certain words, in English, it does not.

4. SYLLABIC CONSONANTS

A syllabic consonant is a consonant that can act as a syllable without the help of a
vowel, and is indicated by a small notch below the IPA symbol.

You’ve already seen this with /ɹ̩ /, but /l/, which is also a liquid, as well as nasals like
/m/ and /n/ can become syllabic. For example, the word “table” features a syllabic
consonant and is therefore written as /ˈtejbl̩/. Similarly, the word “hidden” can be
written as /ˈhɪɾn̩/.

However, an alternative to this convention is to use the schwa, since it serves as a

neutral vowel. Thus, “hidden” can be transcribed as both /ˈhɪɾn̩/ and /ˈhɪɾən/.

5. NASALIZATION

In some accents, especially American accents, the /æ/ vowel is not always completely
pure. When it comes directly before a nasal consonant, it becomes a bit distorted, or
“nasalized,” as if it is anticipating the consonant that comes after it.
For example, though a British person would say the word “man” with a clean /æ/, an
American would nasalize the /æ/, making it sound almost like an [eə] sound. To
indicate nasalization, you can put a tilde above the vowel, so /mæn/ would become
[mæ̃n].

6. ASPIRATION

Aspiration is the breathiness given to a consonant, typically a voiceless stop, making

it sound harsher. If you hold your hand up to your face and pronounce the word
“pan,” you might feel a burst of air come from your mouth.

Now, pronounce the word “span,” and notice that some of that breathiness might go
away. This is the phenomenon of aspiration, and it makes a huge difference in the
meaning of Korean words, for example.

However, it is not such a big deal in English, which is why the indication of aspiration
in IPA is considered part of a narrower transcription. It is indicated by a small “h”
next to the IPA symbol, so a sound like /t/ would become [th] in most cases.

8. UNRELEASED STOPS

It is also typical for stop sounds to not have a release when they occur at the ends
of words. For example, even though /p/ is typically aspirated as [ph], when it comes
at the end of a word like “stop,” the sound has no audible release and there is no
sound of aspiration.

To represent this, we would write /p/ as [p ̚]. With the /t/ sound in American English,
it becomes so extreme that it is replaced entirely by a glottal stop.
Assessment

Activity 1
Translate the following phonetic sentences:

1.

_____________________________________________________

2.

_____________________________________________________

3.

______________________________________________________

Activity 2
Transcribe the following words into IPA.

1. beautiful –

2. kite –

3. crying –

4. about –

5. amazing –

6. jealous –

7. flower –

8. English –
9. difficult –

10. passed –

Activity 3
Rewrite the following paragraph into its original form.

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________________________________

Outputs
1. Answers in Activity 1-3

2. Self-introduction written in IPA symbols

 MODULE 2
Grammatical Correctness

Intended Learning Outcomes

• Familiarized the common grammar errors and how to correct them.

• Rewritten a sentence by correcting the grammatical errors.

Discussion

Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as
complete sentences) are connected improperly.
Example: I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the time.
There are two complete sentences in the above example:
Sentence 1: I love to write papers.

Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.

One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs
when two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.
Example of a comma splice: Participants could leave the study at any time, they
needed to indicate their preference.
Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.

Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.

Some comma splices occur when a writer attempts to use a transitional expression
in the middle of a sentence.
Example of a comma splice: The results of the study were
inconclusive, therefore more research needs to be done on the topic.
Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive

Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore

Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic

To fix this type of comma splice, use a semicolon before the transitional expression
and add a comma after it. See more examples of this on the semicolon page.
Revision: The results of the study were inconclusive; therefore, more research
needs to be done on the topic.

You can correct a run-on sentence by connecting or separating its parts correctly.
There are several easy ways to connect independent clauses.

Correcting Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence can be fixed by connecting its parts correctly. There are several
ways to connect independent clauses.

1. Use a period. The easiest way to fix a run-on is to split the sentence into
smaller sentences using a period. This revision works especially well with
longer sentences. Check, however, to make sure that this solution does not
result in short, choppy sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers. I would write one every

day if I had the time.

2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses

creates a grammatically correct sentence. Using a semicolon is a stylistic
choice that establishes a close relationship between the two sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers; I would write one every

day if I had the time.

3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A comma, paired with a

coordinating conjunction (such as and, but, or or), corrects a run-on
sentence. This method emphasizes the relationship between the two clauses.

Revision example: I love to write papers, and I would write one

every day if I had the time.
 4. Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses
into a dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction (such
as because, unless, and although) connects two clauses to create a complex
sentence. This option works to cement the relationship between the two
parts of the sentence and may improve the flow of the clauses.

Example: Because I love to write papers, I would write one every

day if I had the time.

However you decide to revise for run-on sentences, remember that

maintaining sentence variety helps to keep the writing clear and interesting for your
readers.

Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a string of words that does not form a complete sentence;
there is a necessary component of a complete sentence missing. This missing
component may be a subject (usually a noun) or a predicate (verb or verb phrase)
and/or when the sentence does not express a complete idea.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing subject.
Example of a fragment: Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
The sentence above is a fragment since there is no subject (Who shows no
improvement?). Fragments can be corrected by identifying the missing element and
including it.
Revision: The patient shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:
Example of a fragment: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research
articles that contributed to the body of knowledge in their fields, which was
obstetrics.
Notice here that although the sentence is quite long, it still contains no action
(What are the doctors doing?). Once identified, the sentence can be corrected
easily.
Revision: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that
contributed to the body of knowledge in their field, improved their knowledge
of obstetrics.

Note: If you want to understand the topic more. visit this link for further
explanations -
https://youtu.be/SV7vMtPGVbk?list=PLM7NbPzilFBdIMVTvb1CJ7AYLDq3Ie4gv
Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from

the word it modifies / describes.

Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward,
ridiculous, or confusing. Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.

Several kinds of misplaced modifiers:

Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and
almost always distort the intended meaning.

Placement of adverbs can also change meaning in sentences.

Misplaced phrases may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a
meaning that does not make sense.

Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a
meaning that does not make sense.
Assessment

Activity 1

Rewrite the following sentences by correcting the grammatical errors. Follow the
rules explained above.

1. She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.

2. They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.

3. The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.

4. We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour.

5. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.

6. The mysterious woman walked toward the car holding an umbrella.

7. I heard that there was a robbery on the evening news.

8. We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn’t
drink or smoke and owns a car.

9. I ate nothing but a cold bowl of noodles for dinner.

10.She washed the younger sister with her dishes.

Activity 2

Rewrite the following sentences and correct the misplaced modifiers in each
sentence.

1. That man over there whose wife left him last year is very depressed.

2. The English who are generally quite reserved don't always say what they think.

3. People that like dogs often don't like cats.

4. Dinosaurs which became extinct millions of years ago still fascinate us today.

5. I told him he was an idiot which is probably why he hit me.

Outputs
1. Answers in Activity 1 and 2.

References
• https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-chart
• http://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/runons.htm
• https://www.myenglishteacher.eu/blog/phonetics-consonants-vowels-diphthongs-ipa-
chart/
Reminders:

- Starting May 25, 2020, I will be online during MWF 9-12pm and TTH 1-
4pm to answer your questions.
- If you have the internet and data, you may join to my virtual classes
via Zoom App to explain the lessons further. Links will be sent through
your respective groupchats.
- Answer the activities in your printed materials or if not, use Microsoft
word.
- Wait for my further announcement regarding the submission of the
output.
- If there are questions/clarifications, make use of the groupchat, not
personal message.
- Stay safe, that is the most important reminder. Pray!