UNIVERSITY OF DUHOK

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY AND TESTING

By:
Youkhanna Z. Dinkha
M.Sc. Construction Materials
youkhanna.zayia@uod.ac

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 CHAPTER SIX
IRON TYPES & APPLICATIONS

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 Ferrous Metals
Metals are extensively used in construction of buildings. Ferrous is an adjective used to
indicate the presence of iron. The word is derived from the Latin word ferrum ("iron").
Example of ferrous metals is cast iron and steel.
The term non-ferrous is used to indicate metals other than iron and alloys that do not contain
an appreciable amount of iron (Like Aluminium and Copper) .

Metals exist in nature as compounds like oxides, carbonates, sulphides and phosphates and
are known as ores. Metals are derived from ores by removing impurities.

1- Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe .

Hard and brittle with fusion temperature of 1200oC and melt easily, its compressive strength
is high but weak in tension and shear.
Uses : Iron is most suitable for making columns, base plate, door brackets, etc…..

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2- Cast iron is iron which has been heated until it liquefies, and is then poured into a mould
to solidify. It differs from steel in the sense that it contains more than 1.5% carbon.
Cast iron is hard and brittle. It can neither be riveted nor welded. It is strong in compression
and weak in tension and shear. It has low melting point (1200 oC) and is affected by sea
water.
Uses : making ornamental castings such as wall brackets, lamp posts, manhole cover, and
sanitary fittings

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3- Wrought iron
Wrought iron considered to be pure iron, is produced by removing the impurities of cast iron.
The total impurities are limited to 0.5% with maximum percentage of carbon as 0.15 %,
Wrought iron is ductile, malleable, tough, and moderately elastic. The melting points of
wrought iron is 1500oC. It can be forged and melted. Wrought iron effectively resists
corrosion. It is tough and withstands shocks.
Uses:
Roof covering, rivets, chains, ornamental iron works such as gates, etc….

4- Steel is iron containing less than 1.5% carbon.

Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due to a wide
range and combination of physical and mechanical properties that steel can have. By
controlling the carbon content, alloying elements and heat treatment, a desired
combination of hardness, ductility and strength can be obtained in steel.

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On the basis of carbon content , steel may be classified as :

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Properties and Uses :
A- Mild Steel :
Also known as low carbon or soft steel. It is ductile, malleable, tougher and more elastic than
wrought iron. Mild steel can be forged and welded, difficult to temper. It rust quickly and can be
permanent magnetized.
Mild steel is used in the form of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof covering and sheet piles and in
railway tracks.

B- Medium carbon steel:

It is also known as high strength steel. The ultimate tensile strength is of the order of 2000 N/mm2
and is used in pre-stressed concrete construction.

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C- High Carbon Steel :
Carbon content varies from 0.55 to 1.5%. Its also known as hard steel. It is tougher than mild steel. It
can be forged and welded with difficulty. Its tensile strength are 1350 to 2000 N/mm2.
High carbon steel is used for reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete members. It can takes
shocks and vibrations and used for making tools and machine parts.

Properties of Steel:
The presence of carbon in steel gives high degree of hardness and strength. The addition of carbon to
iron decrease the malleability and ductility of the metal, and reduce its permeability to magnetic
force.
The tensile strength of steel increase directly with the carbon content. The ratio of shear strength to
tensile strength is 0.8 for medium and low carbon steels and 0.6 for high carbon steels. The modulus
of elasticity is nearly same for tension and compression and is practically independent of the carbon
content.
The ductility of steel decrease markedly as the carbon content increases. The resistance of steel to
heavy shocks or blows decrease with increase of carbon content.

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 Steel Alloys :
• Alloy metals can be used to alter the
characteristics of steel. Alloys agent
are added to improve one or more of
the following properties:
1.Harden ability.
2.Corrosion resistance.
3.Machinability.
4.Strength.
5.Ductility.

By altering the carbon and alloy content

and by using different heat treatment,
steel can be produced with a wide
variety of characteristics.
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Steel used in construction can be classified mainly as :
1. Structural steel.
2. Reinforcing steel.

1. Structural Steel : Structural steel is basically hot-rolled structural shapes, plates, and bars.
Structural steel is used for various types of structural members such as columns, beams, bracings,
frames, trusses, bridges girders, …

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2. Reinforcing Steel
Since concrete has negligible tensile strength, structural concrete member subjected to
tensile and flexural stresses must be reinforced either with the conventional method
or with pre-stressing, depending on the design situation.

Reinforced steel Bars is manufactured in two forms, plain bars, and deformed bars.
Plain are round without surface deformations. Deformed bars have deformations at the
surface, they ensure a good bond between the bar and the concrete. The deformed
surface of the bar prevents slipping, allowing the concrete and steel to work as one unit.

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Mechanical Testing of Steel:
Many laboratory tests are available to evaluate the mechanical properties of steel:
a. Tension Test b. Torsion Test. c. Impact Test.
b. Bending Test. e. Hardness Test. f. Welding Test.
Tension Test (see Test#10) :
The tension test ( ASTM E8) on steel is performed to determine yield strength, yield point, ultimate
(tensile) strength, elongation, and reduction of area. Typically, the test is performed at temp. between
10 and 35 oC.

Different carbon content steel have different stress-strain relations. Increasing the carbon content in the
steel increase the yield stress and reduce the ductility. Increasing the carbon content of the hot rolled bars
increase the yield stress. Also this increase in carbon content decrease the fracture strain. Note that the
increase in carbon content does not change the modulus of elasticity.

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Steel Corrosion :
Usually formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or
air moisture.
The corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires the
simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen. Essentially, the iron in the steel
is oxidized to produce rust. The rate at which the corrosion process progresses
depends on the 'micro-climate' surrounding the structure.

Corrosion Protection:
The atmosphere corrosion resistance of steel structure can be enhanced in
several ways using coatings of paint, aluminum and zinc.

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 Steel Production
The overall process of steel production is shown in Figure 3.3. This process consists
of the following three phases:
1. reducing iron ore to pig iron
2. refining pig iron (and scrap steel from recycling) to steel
3. forming the steel into products

The materials used to produce pig iron are coal, limestone, and iron ore. The coal, after
transformation to coke, supplies carbon used to reduce iron oxides in the ore. Limestone is
used to help remove impurities. Prior to reduction, the concentration of iron in the ore is
increased by crushing and soaking the ore. The iron is magnetically extracted from the waste,
and the extracted material is formed into pellets and fired. The processed ore contains about
65% iron.
Reduction of the ore to pig iron is accomplished in a blast furnace. The ore is heated in the
presence of carbon. Oxygen in the ore reacts with carbon to form gases. A flux is used to help
remove impurities. The molten iron, with an excess of carbon in solution, collects at the
bottom of the furnace. The impurities, slag, float on top of the molten pig iron. 15
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