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Outline
Bernoulli Equation • Review forces on submerged surfaces
• Streamlines
Larry Caretto • Bernoulli equation derivation
Mechanical Engineering 390 • Constant density flows
Fluid Mechanics • Bernoulli equation for ideal gas flows
• Continuity equation
February 12–19, 2008 • Cavitation
• Flow measurement
2
∫
= γy sin θdA
Bruce Munson, Donald
Young, and Theodore
Okiishi Copyright © Ix = Ixc + AyC2 (in
2005 by John Wiley & A
Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved.
diagram Ixc = ba3/12
and A = ab ystart
x
5 Figure 2.18(a), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, 6
Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. All rights reserved.
• FB = γfluidVb
• Passes through the • This analysis ignores the weight of the
centroid of the top layer of fluid assumed to be air
submerged body – Can consider buoyancy of an object be-
tween two fluid layers with different densities
Figure 2.24(b,c), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, 7 Figure 2.24(d), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, 8
Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. All rights reserved. Inc. All rights reserved.
δsδnδy and
Okiishi Copyright ©
2005 by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved. substitute V for ds/dt
let size go to
zero
− γ sin θ −
dp
=ρ
dV ds
=ρ
dV 1 d V2
V= ρ
( )
ds ds dt ds 2 ds
δz dz
sin θ = =
δs ds 12
− γ sin θ −
dp dz dp 1 d V 2
= −γ − = ρ
( ) • Restriction to steady flow comes from
assumption that velocity changes in
ds ds ds 2 ds space, but not with time (∂V/∂t = 0)
ρgdz dp 1
ρ
+ + d V 2 = gdz +
ρ 2
dp 1
( )
+ d V2 =0
ρ 2
( ) • Have to know ρ-p equation to integrate
– Simplest relation is constant density
g (z 2 − z1 ) +
p 2 − p1
+
(V
2
2
)
− V12
=0
Figure 3.5, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce ρ 2
Munson, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 15 16
2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
g (z 2 − z1 ) +
p 2 − p1
+
(V
2
2
− V12 )
=0 z+
p V2
+ = Constant along a streamline
ρ 2 γ 2g
• This is equivalent to saying that p + – z is elevation head
ρV2/2 + γz is constant along a – p/γ is pressure head
streamline – divide by g (recall γ = ρg) – V2/2g is velocity head
p V2
z+ + = Constant along a streamline
γ 2g
19 20
23 24
Relative Error
4 Compressible 1.E-05
Incompressible number is less than 0.3
Relative error
3 1.E-07 – Ma = 0.3 gives relative error of 0.13% for
computation of stagnation pressure
2 1.E-09
• Results less accurate for Ma > 0.3
1 1.E-11
• Catastrophic errors for Ma > 1
0 1.E-13 – 1145% relative error for Ma = 4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Mach Number
– Shock wave for Ma > 1 changes equation
31 32
Figure 3.15 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald Figure 3.15 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald
Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
33 Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
34
rights reserved. rights reserved.
Cavitation Cavitation II
• Change from small to large velocity (V1 • Large flow
<< V2 will cause large pressure needs need
decrease: p2 = p1 + ρ(V12 – V22)/2 very high
• Could reduce pressure to vapor velocity for
pressure of liquid smaller area
• This causes vapor bubbles to form and • Will decrease
burst exerting pressure on surfaces p, but cannot
• Cavitation can, over time, damage decrease p
surfaces and must be avoided below pv
Figure 3.16 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
37 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald38 Young, and
Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 3.17
Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics,
5/E by Bruce
Munson, Donald • Venturi meter shown here is example of
Young, and
Theodore Okiishi
Copyright © 2005
flow meter
by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. All
rights reserved.
– Measure velocity (and flow rate) by
measuring pressure difference p1 – p2
Figure 3.18 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson,
39 Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley &
40
Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
[ ] 1000 kg ⎡ ⎛ π π ⎤ V1 = =
2
ρ 1 − ( A2 A1 )2 (0.1 m )2 ⎞⎟
⎢1 − ⎜ (0.05 m )
[ ]
2
0.00238 slug ⎡ ⎛ π
⎥ 2⎤
m 3 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ρ 1 − ( A2 A1 )2 ⎢1 − ⎜ (4 in )
2 π
(2 in )2 ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
3 4
ft
0 .2 m
V1 = 20 ft 2 1
⎛ 0.05 m ⎞
4 s • V1 = 0.462 m/s V1 = • V1 = 94.7 ft/s
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 0.00238 s 2 ⎛ 4 in ⎞
4
⎝ 0 .1 m ⎠ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 in ⎠
• Problem: Find V1 for D1 = 4 in, D2 = 2 in,
p1 – p2 = 10 psf, air (ρ = 0.00238 • A given Δp means a larger V with air as
slugs/ft3) compared to water
45 46
100
A2/A1 = 0.60 and ρ in
Both less ideal A2/A1 = 0.10
slugs/ft3, V
is in ft/s
than Venturi 50
0
Nozzle 1 10
Δp 100 1000
47 48
Energy/Hydraulic Grade
• Natural definition of lines in a flow from
Bernoulli equations
– Energy line = z + p/ρ + V2/2g = H = total
head, a constant for an inviscid steady flow
• A series of pitot tube measurements will always
Figure 3.21 Fundamentals
produce the energy line of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by
Bruce Munson, Donald
– Hydraulic Grade Line = z + p/ρ = energy Young, and Theodore
Okiishi Copyright © 2005