BASIC MATHEMATICS

FORM FOUR
NOTES

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 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Equation of a Line
The General Equation of a Straight Line
Derive the general equation of a straight line
COORDINATES OF A POINT

•The coordinates of a points - are the values of x and y enclosed by the brackets which are used
to describe the position of point in a line in the plane.

The plane is called xy-plane and it has two axis.

1. horizontal axis known as axis and

2. vertical axis known as axis

Consider the xy-plane below

The coordinates of points A, B, C ,D and E are A(2, 3), B(4, 4), C(-3, -1), D(2, -4) and E(1, 0).

Definition

Example 1
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Find the gradient of the lines joining

Example 2

(a) The line joining (2, -3) and (k, 5) has a gradient -2. Find k

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Exercise 1

1. Find the gradientof the line which passes through the following points ;

a. (3,6) and (-2,8)

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b. (0,6) and (99,-12)

c. (4,5)and (5,4)

2. A line passes through (3, a) and (4, -2), what is the value of a if the slope of the line is 4?

3. The gradient of the linewhich goes through (4,3) and (-5,k) is 2. Find the value of k.

FINDING THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

The equation of a straight line can be determined if one of the following is given:-

Example 3

Find the equation of the line with the following

a. Gradient 2 and intercept

b. Gradient and passing through the point

c. Passing through the points and

Solution

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EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE IN DIFFERENT FORMS

The equation of a line can be expressed in two forms

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Example 4

Find the gradient of the following lines

INTERCEPTS

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Therefore

Example 5

Find the y-intercept of the following lines

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Example 6

Find the x and y-intercept of the following lines

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Exercise 2

Attempt the following Questions.

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1. Find the y-intercept of the line 3x+2y = 18 .

2. What is the x-intercept of the line passing through (3,3) and (-4,9)?

3. Calculate the slope of the line given by the equation x-3y= 9

4. Find the equation of the straight line with a slope -4 and passing through the point (0,0).

5. Find the equation of the straight line with y-intercept 5 and passing through the point (-
4,8).

GRAPHS OF STRAIGHT LINES

The graph of straight line can be drawn by using the following methods;

a. By using intercepts

b. By using the table of values

Example 7

Sketch the graph of Y = 2X - 1

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SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION BY GRAPHICAL METHOD

 Use the intercepts to plot the straight lines of the simultaneous equations
 The point where the two lines cross each other is the solution to the simultaneous
equations

Example 8

Solve the following simultaneous equations by graphical method

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Exercise 3

1. Draw the line 4x-2y=7 and 3x+y=7 on the same axis and hence determine their intersection
point

2. Find the solutionfor each pair the following simultaneous equations by graphical method;

a. y-x = 3 and 2x+y = 9

b. 3x- 4y=-1 and x+y = 2

c. x = 8 and 2x-3y = 10

Midpoint of a Line Segment

The Coordinates of the Midpoint of a Line Segment
Determine the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment
Let S be a point with coordinates (x1,y1), T with coordinates (x2,y2) and M with coordinates (x,y)
where M is the mid-point of ST. Consider the figure below:

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Considering the angles of the triangles SMC and TMD, the triangles SMC and TMD are similar
since their equiangular

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Example 9

Find the coordinates of the mid-point joining the points (-2,8) and (-4,-2)
Solution

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Therefore the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining the points (-2,8) and (-4, -2) is (-
3,3).

Distance Between Two Points on a Plane

The Distance Between Two Points on a Plane
Calculate the distance between two points on a plane
Consider two points, A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) as shown in the figure below:

The distance between A and B in terms of x1, y1,x2, and y2can be found as follows:Join AB and
draw doted lines as shown in the figure above.

Then, AC = x2– x1and BC = y2– y1

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Since the triangle ABC is a right angled, then by applying Pythagoras theorem to the triangle
ABC we obtain

Therefore the distance is 13 units.

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Gradients in order to Determine the Conditions for any Two Lines to be
Parallel
Compute gradients in order to determine the conditions for any two lines to be parallel

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The two lines which never meet when produced infinitely are called parallel lines. See figure
below:

The two parallel lines must have the same slope. That is, if M1is the slope for L1and M2is the
slope for L2thenM1= M2

Gradients in order to Determine the Conditions for any Two Lines to be

Perpendicular
Compute gradients in order to determine the conditions for any two lines to be perpendicular
When two straight lines intersect at right angle, we say that the lines are perpendicular lines. See
an illustration below.

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Consider the points P1(x1,y1), P2(x2,y2), P3(x3,y3), R(x1,y2) and Q(x3,y2) and the
anglesα,β,γ(alpha, beta and gamma respectively).

 α+β = 90 (complementary angles)

 α+γ= 90 (complementary angles)

 β = γ (alternate interior angles)

Therefore the triangle P2QP3is similar to triangle P1RP2.

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Generally two perpendicular lines L1and L2with slopes M1and M2respectively the product of
their slopes is equal to negative one. That is M1M2= -1.

Example 10

Show that A(-3,1), B(1,2), C(0,-1) and D(-4,-2) are vertices of a parallelogram.
Solution

Let us find the slope of the lines AB, DC, AD and BC

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We see that each two opposite sides of the parallelogram have equal slope. This means that the
two opposite sides are parallel to each other, which is the distinctive feature of the parallelogram.
Therefore the given vertices are the vertices of a parallelogram.

Problems on Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Solve problems on parallel and perpendicular lines
Example 11

Show that A(-3,2), B(5,6) and C(7,2) are vertices of a right angled triangle.
Solution

Right angled triangle has two sides that are perpendicular, they form 90°.We know that the slope
of the line is given by: slope = change in y/change in x

Now,

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Since the slope of AB and BC are negative reciprocals, then the triangle ABC is a right angled
triangle at B.

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 AREA AND PERIMETER

Area of any Triangle

The Formula for the Area of any Triangle
Derive the formula for the area of any triangle
Area of triangle is given by½bh, whereby b is the base of the triangle and h is the height of the
given triangle. Consider the illustrations below:

From the figure above, we see where the base and height are located.

Applying the Formula to find the Area of any Triangle

Apply the formula to find the area of any triangle
Example 1

The base of a triangle is 12cm long. If the corresponding height is 7cm, find the area of the
triangle.
Solution

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Consider the figure below:

The area of a triangle is given by½bh.

Area =½×12cm×7cm

Area = 42cm2

Therefore area of a triangle is 42cm2

Example 2

The lengths of two sides of a triangle are 6cm and 8cm. Find the area of a triangle if the included
is
Solution:

Consider the triangle below, name it triangle ABC.

The area of a triangle above is given by½b×h

So, Area = ½× 8cm× 6cm × sin 45°

=24cm2× sin45°

= 16.97cm2

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Therefore the area of ABC = 16.97cm2

Area of a Rhombus
The Formula for Finding the Area of Rhombi in Terms of the Diagonals
Derive the formula for finding the area of rhombi in terms of the diagonals.
The area of a rhombus is the same as the area of a parallelogram because rhombus is a special
kind of parallelogram. Rhombus is a parallelogram with equal sides. Consider the figure below
of a rhombus with base b and height h.

So, Area of rhombus = bh

Another formula for finding the area of rhombus can be obtained by using the diagonals.
Consider the rhombus below:

Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles (means the diagonal lines are half
equally), so the area of a rhombus ABCD can be found as follows:

Area of a triangle ABC = area of a triangle ADC

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Since the triangles are equal, the area of ABCD:

Therefore, the area of a rhombus is equal to half the product of the length of the diagonals.

The Formula to Find the Areas of Quadrilaterals

Apply the formula to find the areas of quadrilaterals

Area of a Trapezium

Consider the trapezium with constructed lines as shown in the figure below:

In order to find the area of a trapezium, first let us find the area of the triangles ABD and BDF
with the same height h.

The base of the triangle ABD is b1

The base of the triangle BDF is b2

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The area of the triangle ABD = ½b1h

The area of the triangle ABE = ½b1h

Area of ABDF =½b1h +½b2h

Area of ABDF=½ (b1 + b2)h

Generally, the area of the trapezium is given by½ (b1+ b2)hor is the product of half the sum of
the parallel sides (bases) and the perpendicular distance between them (height)

Example 3

Find the height of the trapezium with area 90 square units and bases of 6 units and 14 units
Solution:

Consider the trapezium below:

Therefore the height of the trapezium is 9 units.

Area of a Parallelogram

Consider parallelogram below with constructed lines as shown in the figure.

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The area of the parallelogram can be formed from the formula for the area of the trapezium. The
important thing to note is that the bases for a parallelogram are equal.

Now, the area of the parallelogram ABCD=½ (AB+DC)hsquare units.Since AB = DC

Then, the area of parallelogram ABCD =½ × 2AB × h = AB× h

If AB =b, then Area of the parallelogram ABCD = bh, where b is the base and h is the height of a
parallelogram.

Therefore; the area of a parallelogram is equal to the product of the base and the perpendicular
height.

Area of a Rectangle

Consider the rectangle below:

The rectangle ABCD is divided into two congruent triangles, which are triangle ABD and
triangle ACD by the diagonal AD.

The area of ABCD = area of triangle ABD + area of triangle ACD

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Since the triangles are equal, the area of ABCD is equals to double the area of one of the
triangles.The area of ABCD

If CD is the length 'l'of the Rectangle and AC is the width 'w' of the Rectangle, then, the area of
ABCD = l×w or lw

Therefore, the area of the Rectangle is the product of the length and width.

Area of a Square

A Square is a special rectangle with equal sides. Therefore the area of the square is the product
of its lengths. i.e. Area of a square = l × l=l2.

We can also find the area of a square by using the length of the diagonals. Consider the square
below with diagonals AC and DB:

Each of the diagonals of a square bisect at a right angle.Area of a triangle ABC = Area of ADC

But the area of ABCD

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Since the length of the diagonals are equal, then AC = BD.So, the area of ABCD = ½ (AC)2

Therefore the area of a Square is equals to the half of the product of the lengths of the diagonals.

Example 4

Find the area of a parallelogram ABCD if AC = 7cm, AB = 9cm and the angle ZWX =.

Solution

Area of a parallelogram = base×height

Consider the figure below:

Consider the triangle ACE to find h

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Therefore the area of the parallelogram ABCD is 53.427cm2.

Perimeter of a Regular Polygon

The Formula for Finding the Length of a Side of a Regular Polygon
Derive the formula for finding the length of a side of a regular polygon
When we sum up the lengths of the sides of the polygon we obtain what is called perimeter of a
polygon. Therefore, perimeter of a regular polygon is the sum of the lengths of the sides of the
polygon.

How to find the perimeter of a Regular Polygon inscribed in a circle?

An inscribed polygon is the one whose vertices lie on the circle. If the lengths of the sides of the
polygon are the same we say that the polygon is an inscribed Regular Polygon.

A Regular Polygon with number of sides larger than 2 say n sides can be inscribed in a circle as
follows:

For example, if you want to construct an inscribed regular hexagon (6 sides), first draw a circle
and locate the center of the circle. Then draw rays that intersect the circle in six points from the
center of the circle. Each angle at the center will measure 360°/6 = 60°. Connect the points of
intersection on the circle by line segments. The figure formed is an inscribed regular polygon.
See the figure below:

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Now, to obtain the formula of finding the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle
with radius r and center O, let AB be the side of the polygon and OC the perpendicular from O to
AB as shown in the figure below:

The angle AOB = 360°/n, since the polygon has n sides.

The angle AOC = the angle AOB and the angle AOB = angle AOC + BOC

Therefore, the angle AOC = ½(360°/n) = 180°/n

Let the length of the side of the regular polygon ABbe S.

Then,

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Therefore the length of a regular polygon with n sides inscribed in a circle is given by

The Perimeter of a Regular Polygon

The formula to determine the perimeter of a regular polygon
If we let 2r = d

From the concept of perimeter that perimeter of a regular polygon is the sum of the lengths of the
sides of the polygon , if we have n sides each with length ‗S‘ then the sum of the lengths of these
sides will be nS. Therefore, Perimeter P of a regular polygon of n sides each with length S is
given by:

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Example 5

Find the length of one side of eight-sided regular polygon inscribed in a circle with radius 7cm.
Solution

Therefore the length of one side of eight-sided regular polygon with radius of 7cm is 5.358cm

Area of a Regular Polygon

The Formula for Finding the Area of a Regular Polygon
Derive the formula for finding the area of a regular polygon
Consider the regular polygon with n sides inscribed in a circle of radius r and center O as shown
below:

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But since each vertex of the polygon is connected to O, the polygon region is divided into n
triangles which are equal.

Now,

Therefore the area of a polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle of radius r is given by:

The Formula to Calculate the Area of a Regular Polygon

Apply the formula to calculate the area of a regular polygon
Example 6

Find the area of twelve-sided regular polygon inscribed in a circle of radius 14 cm

Solution

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Circumference and area of a circle

Circumference of a circle is the distance around it. Circumference of a circle can be estimated by
using a regular polygon with many sides inscribed in a circle with radius r.

We know perimeter of the regular polygon is given by:

Here we see that, as n increases the value of nsin 180°/napproaches the value ofπ.When n is very
large the perimeter of a regular polygon approaches the circumference of the circle. The value
ofnsin 180°/ncan be replaced byπbecause it approaches the value ofπwhen n is very large.

Therefore, circumference of the circle C, is given by C = 2πr

Area of a Circle

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In similar way we can generate the formula of calculating the area of a circle by considering area
of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle of radius r.

We know that, area of a regular polygon is given by:

Alternatively we can write it as:

Example 7

Find the circumference of a circle of radius 21cm. (takeπ= 3.14).

Solution

Circumference of a circle, C = 2πr

= 2× 3.14 × 21cm = 131.88cm

Area of Similar Polygons

The Ratio of Areas of Similar Polygons
Find the ratio of areas of similar polygons

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Let ABC and A‘ B‘ C‘ be two similar triangles:

If we find the ratio of their sides we get;

Generally, if the ratio of the lengths of the corresponding sides of two similar polygons is k, then
the ratio of their areas is k2.

Problems Related to Ratio for Areas of Similar Polygons

Solve problems related to ratio for areas of similar polygons
Example 8

We are given two triangles which are similar. The length of one side is 8cm and the length of the
corresponding side is 14cm. if the area of a smaller triangle is 24cm2find the area of the other
triangle.
Solution

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Therefore the area of the other triangle is 73.5cm2.

Example 9

The ratio of the areas of two similar polygons is 36:48. The length of a side of the smaller
polygon is 10cm. find the length of the corresponding side of the other polygon.
Solution

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 THREE DIMENSIONAL FIGURES

Three Dimensional Figures

Sometimes before you make any purchases you may want to know for example, how much cloth
you need to make a pillow cover. What about a cover for your mattress or sofa cushion? How
much oil paint do you need to paint your drinking water tank?

What about the amount of cloth for the pocket covers of your radio, curtain, suit, gown, trousers,
set of table clothes, etc.

Answers to such questions and of the kind leads you to think more carefully about the size of the
surfaces (faces) to be covered or coated on the bodies at work. Perhaps you need to take some
measurements on the surfaces.

The knowledge of the surface areas of such bodies will enable you to choose or purchases the
required amount without unnecessary wastage so as to minimize purchases costs too.

Three Dimensional Figures

Classify three dimensional figures
Three‐dimensional objects are the solid shapes you see every day, like boxes, balls, coffee cups,
and cans.

It is called three-dimensional or 3D because there are three dimensions: width,

depth and height.

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-The following table shows examples of some common three dimensional figures

The Characteristics of Each Class

List the characteristics of each class
Here are some helpful vocabulary terms for solids:

Base: Is the bottom surface of a solid object.

Edge: Is the intersection of two faces on a solid object. This is a line.

Face: Is a flat side of a 3‐dimensional object.

Prism: Is a solid object with two congruent and parallel faces.

Pyramid: Is a solid object with a polygon for a base and triangles for sides.

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Construction of Three Dimensional Figures
Three Dimensional Figures
Construct three dimensional figures
When drawing a three dimensional object it is important to show that it is not a drawing of a flat
object. Are usually drawn on a two dimensional plane by making oblique drawings under certain
rules as follows:

1. Paralled lines are drawn parallel.

2. Vertical lines are drawn up and down the page.

3. Hidden edges are drawn dotted.

4. Construction lines to guide the eyes are drawn thinly.

Activity 1

Construct three dimensional figures

Sketching Three Dimensional Figures

Three Dimensional Figures
Sketch three dimensional figures
There are several ways of doing the drawing that corresponds to looking at the cube from
different angles. The figure shows two ways of doing it.

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Properties of Three Dimensional Figures
Identify properties of three dimensional figures
Three dimensional shapes have many attributes such as faces, edges andvertices. The flat
surfaces of the 3D shapes are called the faces. The line segment where two faces meet is called
an edge. Avertexis a point where 3 edges meet.

The Angle Between a Line and a Plane

Find the angle between a line and a plane

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In finding the angle between the line and a plane in a three dimensional geometry, we use the
right angled triangle. Joining the line to define the angle between the line and the plane that
provides the least possible angle. Also, projection of one line to another on the plane is mostly
used.

Example 1

For the pyramid VABCD with VA=VB=VC=VD=5m, and ABCD a square of side 4cm; find the
angle between VA and ABCD.
Solution

Calculated by dropping a perpendicular from V to ABCD. This meets ABCD at X, the centre of
the square.

So the projection of VA on ABCD is AX. AC= square root of (AB2 +BC2) =square of 42+42
=square root of 32. AX =1/2 square root of 32. cos (1/2 square root 32)/5=0.5657, so VAX is
55.6.

The Angle Between Two Planes

Calculate the angle between two planes
There are infinite possible lines that could be drawn on planes, making different angles with each
other. The angle between planes is the angle between lines within those planes, Must be the lines
which are at the middle of the plane for non rectangular planes and any other lines for
rectangular planes. Then Right angled triangles are used to find the angles between those planes.

Example 2

Determine the angle between the following planes:

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Surface Area of Three Dimensional Objects
The Formulae for Calculating the Surface Area of Prisms, Cylinder and
Pyramids and Cone
Derive the formulae for calculating the surface area of prisms, cylinder and pyramids and cone
Surface Area of a Right Circular Cone

A right circular cone is a cone whose vertex is vertically above the centre of the base of the cone.

Area of circular base =Πr2 (it is an area of a circle)

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Therefore the total surface area of a right circular cone =Πr2 +Πrs = Πr (r + s)

Example 3

Find the total surface of right circular cone whose slant light is 10cm and whose base radius is
8cm.Use Πr(r +s)

Example 4

Find the total surface area of a cone with diameter 8m and slant height of 10m. Use Π= 3.14

Surface Area of A Right Cylinder

If you want to know the amount of the covering the surface of a blue band margarine can, then
you are finding the surface area of a right cylinder. Total surface area of the can is the sum of the
areas of the top and bottom. Circular surfaces plus the area of the curved surface,

Now, consider a right cylinder of radius r and height h.

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If the cylinder is opened up, the curved surface flattens out to form a rectangle. The length of the
rectangle is 2Πr(the circumference of the circular base) and the width is h (the height of the
cylinder).

Total surface area of cylinder:

Example 5

Find the total surface area of a cylinder with radius of 3m and height of 10m. Use Π= 3.14

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Surface Area of a Right Pyramid

A right pyramid is one in which the slant edges joining the vertex to the corner of the base are
equal

Example 6

A right rectangular pyramid is such that the rectangle is 12cm by 8cm and each slant edge is
12cm. Find the total surface area of the pyramid.

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Surface Area of a Right Prism

A full brick or concrete block is an example of a right rectangular prism

A right prism is a prism in which each of the vertical edges is perpendicular to the plane of the
base.

The figure above shows a rectangular right prism in which there are 6 faces though only three of
them can be seen easily.

Surface Area = Total or sum of the areas of each face.

Generally for any right prism,

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Example 7

The height of a right prism is 4cm and the perimeter of its base is 30cm. Find the area of its
lateral surface.

Example 8

Find the total surface area of a rectangular prism 12 by 8 by 6 cm high.

The Formulae to Calculate the Surface Area of Spheres

Apply the formulae to calculate the surface area of spheres
Surface Area of a Sphere

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The figure above shows a sphere (ball) with radius ―r‖

The surface area of a sphere is four times the area of circle with the same radius. The area of a
circle is Πr2. Hence, the surface area of sphere is equal to 4Πr2.

Example 9

Find the surface area of a sphere of radius 5cm. (Π= 3.14)

Example 10

Find the surface area of a tennis ball, given that its radius is 3.3cm. UseΠ= 3.14 Express your
answer to the nearest tenth.

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Exercise 1

Do the exercise to check your understanding. Use π= 3.14 throughout the exercise.

1.The altitude of a rectangular prism is 4cm and the width and lengths of its base are 2cm and
3cm respectively calculate the total surface area of the prism.

2. The following diagram shows a cylinder of diameter 20 units and height 9 units. What is its
curved surface area?

3. The diagram below shows a cone of height 24 cm and base diameter 14 cm. what is its total
surface area?

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4. The base of a right pyramid is a rectangle 6cm by 8cm and the slant edges are each 9cm long.
Calculate its lateral surface area.

5. Find the total surface area of a circular cylinder of diameter 8cm and height 6cm.

6. Taking the earth to be a sphere with radius 6400km, find its surface area.

Volume of Three Dimensional Objects

The Formulae for Calculating Volume of Prisms, Cylinders and Pyramids
Derive the formulae for calculating volume of prisms, cylinders and pyramids
VOLUMS OF SOME THREE – DIMENSIONAL FIGURES

We have seen some formulas for calculating the surface areas of some three dimensional figures.

Let us see as well formulas for calculating the volumes of such figures.

-The amount of space that is enclosed by a space figure is called the volume.

The Volume is measured in cubic units, cubic meters (m3), Cubic centimeters (cm3) etc.

When we find (calculate) the volume of a space figure or solid, we are finding the number of

cubic units enclosed by the given spaces figure.

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(a) Volume of a Right Prism

The figure above shows a right rectangular prism. Let h be height, w width and ɭ the length of the
prism.

Then the Volume of the prism is given by: V = Base area x height= ɭ×W×h

Generally, volume of any right prism is equal to the product of the area of the base and the height
V = Base area x height.

(b) Volume of a Right Cylinder

Consider a right circular cylinder with radius‖ r ―and height h as shown below.

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The volume of a right circular cylinder is equal to the product of the area of the base and the
height.

If V is volume, A is area of the base and h is the height,

Then Volume = Area of base x height

(c) Volume of a Pyramid

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Generally, the volume of a pyramid is one – third the product of its altitude (height) and its base
area.

If h is the perpendicular distance from the vertex of the pyramid to its base then,

(d)Volume of a Cone

Consider a cone of radius ―r‖ and altitude h as shown below.

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(e) Volume of a Sphere

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The figure above shows a sphere of radius r, if the sphere can be put inside a cylinder of the
same radius‖ r‖, then the height h = 2r.

The Formulae to Calculate the Volume of Cylinders, Pyramids and Cones

Apply the formulae to calculate the volume of cylinders, pyramids and cones
Example 11

Find the volume of the prism shown below, given that the dimensions are in meters (m)

Example 12

Calculate the volume of a rectangular prism whose base is 8cm by 5cm and whose height is
10cm.

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Example 13

Calculate the radius of a right circular cylinder of volume 1570m3 and height 20m. Use π=3.14

Example 14

A pipe made of metal 1cm thick, has an external (outside) radius of 6cm. Find the volume of
metal used in making 4m of pipe. Use π=3.14

Example 15

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Find the volume of a pyramid with rectangular base with length 6m and width 4m if the height of
the pyramid is 10m.

Example 16

Calculate the volume of a square pyramid whose altitude is 10cm and length of side of base is
6cm.

Example 17

Calculate the volume of a cone having base radius 10cm and altitude 12 cm Use π=3.14

Example 18

Find the volume of a sphere whose radius is 10cm. (Take π= 3.14).

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Example 19

The volume of a spherical tank is 268m3. Calculate the radius of the tank. (π= 3.14)

Example 20

Find the volume of rubber in a hollow spherical ball with inner diameter 14cm and outer
diameter 16cm. (Take π = 3.14)

Exercise 2

Answer the following questions and (use π = 3.14)

1. What is the volume of a right prism whose base is a regular hexagon ( n = 6) with a side of the
base 4cm long and the height of the prism.

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2. Find the volume of a cylinder whose diameter is 28cm and whose height is 12cm.

3. Find the volume of a square pyramid whose height is 24cm and slant edge 25cm each.

4. The slant height of a cone is 20cm and the radius of its base is 12cm. Find its volume in terms
of π.

5. The volume of a sphere is 827cm3. Find its radius.

6. A cylinder and sphere have the same volume. If the radius of the sphere is 5cm and radius of
the cylinder is 3cm, Calculate height of the cylinder.

8.The diagram shows a barn. What is the volume of the barn? (The length of the hypotenuse in
the right triangle is rounded to the nearest foot.)

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9.What is the volume of this prism?

The diagram shows a prism whose cross-section is a right triangle. What is the volume of the
prism?

Summary of the topic

Here are the important formulas you have covered under the section on surface areas
summarized.

Surface area of:

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You can now have a summary of the important formulas for calculating volume of some three
dimensional figures as follows:-

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 PROBABILITY
Normally we are living in the world full of uncertainties.

For example when two equally strong foot ball teams play a match it is not easy to predicate the
outcome of the game. Also for a pregnant woman it is not easy to predict what will be the sex of
the born. Under such uncertainties the theory of probability is applied.

Definition; Probability is a branch of mathematics which deals with and shows how to measure
the occurrence of events in daily life. Or it can simply be defined as a measure of chances.

Probability of an Events
The Probability of an Even Through Experiments
Determine the probability of an event through experiments
Probability set (s)

Definition: Probability set is the set of all outcomes/results from the experiment being
performed.

For example when tossing once a fair coin the expected outcomes are either head(H) or tail(T) to
be shown up.

In this case the probability set is

S = {H, T}

Also if a fair die is tossed once what is expected to show up is only one number among the six
numbers, that is 1,2,3,4,5,6.

Now the probability set is

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

An event (E); An event is a specified outcome from the probability set.

65
For example a head (H) in the experiment of tossing a fair coin is an event and it is a sub set of
the probability set,

Thus, S = {H, T} and E ={H}.

An event may or may not occur. For example if the event that a head occurs in tossing a fair coin
once but a tail occurs instead , then the event did not occur and it is dented by E‘ which is the
complement of E.

So if S = {H, T} and the event E = {H}, then E‘ is the event that H does not occur, hence E‘
={T}.

NB: A probability set is also called a sample space

Example 1

1. A dieis tossed once and the results are recorded. Find

a. The probability set (sample space)

b. The event that an even number occurs.

c. The event that an even number does not occur.

Solution;

a. The sample space S ={1,2,3,4,5,6}

b. The event that an even number occurs is E = {2,4,6}.

c. The event that an even number does not occur is E' ={1,3,5}

Example 2

Give the probability set of the experiment of selecting even numbers less than 20.
Solution

S = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18}.

Example 3

66
Give the probability set of not selecting an even number from a set of counting numbers less than
9.
Solution

S= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

E = {2, 4, 6, 8}

So E' = {1, 3, 5, 7}

where E is the event of selecting an even number and E' is the event of not selecting even
number less than 9.

Exercise 1

1. Write theprobability set of each of the following experiments:

a. A die is tossed and the face showing up is read.

b. A friend is asked for the month of his birth.

c. The sex of a human being is asked.

d. A card is drawn from a box containing five cards bearing the numerals 2,4,6,8 and 10.

2. Write inset notation the elements of the following events:

a. A fair die is rolled and the number obtained is greater or equal to 5.

b. A prime number between 20 and 40 is chosen.

3. Write inset notation the elements of the event of not choosing an even number between 25 and
55

Experimental Results in Relation to Real Life Occurrences

Interpret experimental results in relation to real life occurrences
For example when tossing once a fair coin the expected outcomes are either head(H) or tail(T) to
be shown up.

In this case the probability set is

67
S = {H, T}

Also if a fair die is tossed once what is expected to show up is only one number among the six
numbers, that is 1,2,3,4,5,6.

Now the probability set is

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

The Formula for Finding the Probability of an Event

Write the formula for finding the probability of an event
Probability of an event:

Definition: The probability of an event is the ratio between the number of times the event has
occurred to the total number of experiments that have been done.

If P(E) Is the probability of the event E, then

Also the probability found by experimenting is referred to as experimental probability.

The Formula to Calculate the Probability of an Event

Apply the formula to calculate the probability of an event
Example 4

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A drawing pin was tossed 1000 times. The number of tosses where the pin fell flat was 563.
Calculate the probability that when such a pin is tossed, it will fall flat.

Example 5

5% of torch bulbs manufactured by a certain factory were defective. What is the probability that
when a bulb from that factory is tested it will be defective?
Solution:

P(E) = 5% = 5/100 = 0.05

Note that the probability of an event is defined under the condition that every outcome has an
equal chance of occurring as other outcomes. Here we say the outcomes are equally likely or
equiprobable.

Words like random selection, fair die and a fair coin are used mean that the choice is impartial
(unbiased)

Example 6

A piece of chalk is picked from a box containing 5 identical pieces two of which are red and the
remaining are white. Find the probability that the piece of chalk picked is red

69
Example 7

Find the probability that a ling appears in a drawing a single card from an ordinary deck of 52
cards.

70
Example 8

What is the probability of not getting an even number when a fair die is tossed?

Example 9

What is the probability of selecting a green ball from the box containing red and green balls if
the probability of selecting red ball is 1/4?

71
Example 10

When tossing a die what is the probability of getting a number greater or equal to 1?

Exercise 2

For practice.

1. Find the probability of choosing a number divisible by 2 from a set of numbers between
20 and 45.

2. The total number of red and white pieces of chalk that are contained in a box is 20. How
many pieces of white chalk are in the box if the probability of choosing a red piece of chalk is
2/5, given that the pieces are identical?

3. What is the probability that a month selected at random from the twelve months of the
year will have 31 days?

72
4. A survey conducted at certain maternity ward showed that 60% of children born were
female. What is the probability that Moses‘ child, who was born in that ward is a male?

5. A die was tossed 100 times, the six numbers with their frequency of occurrence were
recorded in the following table:

Combined Events
Experiments of Two Combined Events
Perform experiments of two combined events
If two or more simple events may occur or take place at the same time then the events are
combined events.

For instance when the experiment of tossing two coins at the same time is done, then the event of
interest can‘t simply be determined.

Let E = {Obtaining two heads}

In this case there are two simple events which are obtaining the head on the first coin and
obtaining the head on the second coin.

So E1 = {Obtaining the head on the first coin}

E2 = {Obtaining the head on the second coin}

Drawing a Tree Diagram of Combined Events

Draw a tree diagram of combined events

73
The event E can be found by using what is referred to as a tree diagram.

Therefore, S = {(H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T)} is the sample space.

Example 11

A die and Coin are tossed together. Draw a tree diagram to find the Sample space and hence
determine the probability that a head and a number less than 3 occurs.

74
Example 12

A fraction is written by selecting the numerator from the digits 1, 2, 3 and the denominator from
the digits 6, 8.

a. Draw a tree diagram to find the sample space of this experiment.

b. Find the probability that a the fraction written is less than ½

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Example 13

In a family of 3 children what is the probability that

a. All are girls

b. At least two are boys

76
Example 14

Three coins are tossed simultaneously. Find the probability that

a. 3 heads appear
b. 2 tails and one head appear

77
Exercise 3

1. If two digitsnumeral is written choosing ten‘s digits from the set {1, 2, 3, 4,} and the unit‘s
digit from {5,6} what is the probability that a number greater than 20 will appear?

2. A pair of dice istossed. Find the probability that the sum of the two numbers obtained is

a. At least 8

b. at most 1

c. Exactly 6

3. In a family with two children, what is the probability that:

a. Both are boys

b. At least one is a boy

4. A die and two coins are tossed at the same time find the probability that

a. A number 6 and two heads will appear.

b. A number less than 4, a head and tail will appear.

c. A number multiple of 2 and two tails will appear.

The Probability of Two Combined Events using the Formula

Find the probability of two combined events using the formula

78
Mutually Exclusive Events;

Two or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one event hinders the
occurrence of the other. This means that for mutually exclusive events, only one event may occur
at a time, e.g., it is impossible for two numbers say 1 and 6 on a single die to show up for one
tossing.

Therefore if A and B are two events, then the probability of A or B is given by

Example 15

If in a class there are 34 students instead of 35 and Issa, anna, Eliza and Juma apply for the one
chance remaining what is the probability that either Anna or Juma will be chosen?

Example 16

Find the probability that an even or an odd number which is greater than 1 occurs when a die is
tossed once.

79
Example 17

The following table shows years of experience for plumbers in a builders company.

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Independent Events

Definition: Two or events are said to be independent events if the occurance of one event does
not affect the occurrence of other event(s)

For example when a die and a coin are tossed together, the occurrence of a tail on the coin does
not hinder the occurrence of the number 5 on the die.

Example 18

A die and coin are tossed. Find the probability that a number greater than 4 appears on the die
and a tail appears on the coin:

81
Example 19

A box contains 9 oranges, 7 mangoes and 2 lemons. A fruit is drawn from the box and then
replaced. Another draw is made. What is the probability that both fruits drawn are mangoes.

Example 20

82
The probability that a man and his wife will be alive for 50 years are 3/10 and 1/3
respectively.Find the probability that

Exercise 4

Self test.

1. A coin is tossed and a card is drawn from an ordinary pack of 52cards.Find the
probability that an ace is drawn and a head is obtained on the coin (There 4 aces in a pack of
cards)

2. Two numbers are selected from the integers 1 to 11 inclusively, repeation being allowed.
Find the probability that (a) Both prime (b) Both are powers of 2

3. In the village, the probability that a man selected at random on a Sunday morning is carrying
more than is 0.7. Find the probability that;

a. Two men selected at random on a Sunday morning is carrying more than 30kg

b. Three men selected at random are all carrying more than 30kg

4. A letter is chosenfrom the word ―random‖ What is the probability that it is an n or d?

5. (a) What does itmean by saying that the probability of an event is (i) 0 (ii) 1 (b) Give two
examples of impossible of events.

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The Knowledge of Probability to Determine the Occurrence of Events in Real
Life Situation
Apply the knowledge of probability to determine the occurrence of events in real life situation
Probability is an area of mathematics which we use all the time in daily life – and usually
without thinking about it. While many aspects are very intuitive, probabilities may be different
for different people. I might estimate that the chance of rain is 70%, while a meteorologist with
detailed weather data might say the chance of rain is 64.2%.

Activity 1

Apply the knowledge of probability to determine the occurrence of events in real life situation

84
 TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with relationship (s) between angles and
sides of triangles.

Trigonometric Ratios
The Sine, Cosine and Tangent of an Angle Measured in the Clockwise and
Anticlockwise Directions
Determine the sine, cosine and tangent of an angle measured in the clockwise and anticlockwise
directions
The basic three trigonometrical ratios are sine, cosine and tangent which are written in short as
Sin, Cos, and tan respectively.

Consider the following right angled triangle.

Also we can define the above triangle ratios by using a unit Circle centered at the origin.

85
If θis an obtuse angle (900<θ<180 style="box-sizing: border-box;" sup="">0

) then the trigonometrical ratios are the same as the trigonometrical ratio of 1800-θ

If θis a reflex angle (1800< θ<270 style="box-sizing: border-box;" sup="">0

86
) then the trigonometrical ratios are the same as that of θ- 1800

If θis a reflex angle (2700< θ< 3600), then the trigonometrical ratios are the same as that of 3600 -θ

87
We have seen that trigonometrical ratios are positive or negative depending on the size of the angle and the quadrant
in which it is found.

The result can be summarized by using the following diagram.

88
Trigonometric Ratios to Solve Problems in Daily Life
Apply trigonometric ratios to solve problems in daily life
Example 1

Write the signs of the following ratios

a. Sin 1700
b. Cos 2400
c. Tan 3100
d. sin 300
Solution

a)Sin 1700

Since 1700 is in the second quadrant, then Sin 1700 = Sin (1800-1700) = Sin 100

∴Sin 1700 = Sin 100

b) Cos 2400 = -Cos (2400-1800)= -Cos 600

Therefore Cos 2400= -Cos 600

c) Tan 3100 = -Tan (3600-3100) = - Tan 500

Therefore Tan 3100= -Tan 500

d) Sin 3000= -sin (3600-3000) = -sin 600

Therefore sin 3000= - Sin 600

Relationship between Trigonometrical ratios

89
The above relationship shows that the Sine of angle is equal to the cosine of its complement.

Also from the triangle ABC above

Again using the ΔABC

b2 = a2+c2 (Pythagoras theorem)

And

90
Example 2

Given thatA is an acute angle and Cos A= 0.8, find

a. Sin A

b. tan A.

91
Example 3

If A and B are complementary angles,

Solution

If A and B are complementary angle

Then Sin A = Cos B and Sin B = Cos A

Example 4

Given that θand βare acute angles such that θ+ β= 900 and Sinθ= 0.6, find tanβ

92
Solution

Exercise 1

For practice

93
Sine and Cosine Functions
Sines and Cosines of Angles 0 Such That -720°≤ᶿ≥ 720°
Find sines and cosines of angles 0 such that -720°≤ᶿ≥ 720°
Positive and Negative angles

An angle can be either positive or negative.

Definition:

Positive angle: is an angle measures in anticlockwise direction from the positive X- axis

Negative angle: is an angle measured in clockwise direction from the positive X-axis

94
Facts:

a. From the above figure if is a positive angle then the corresponding negative angle to is (-
3600) or (+ - 3600)

95
b. .If is a negative angle, its corresponding positive angle is (360+)

Example 5

Find thecorresponding negative angle to the angle θif ;

a. θ= 580
b. θ= 2450

Example 6

What is the positive angle corresponding to - 46°?

SPECIAL ANGLES

The angles included in this group are 00, 300, 450, 600, 900, 1800, 2700, and 3600

Because the angle 00, 900, 1800, 2700, and 3600, lie on the axes then theirtrigonometrical ratios
are summarized in the following table.

96
The ∆ ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 2 units

For the angle 450 consider the following triangle

97
The following table summarizes the Cosine, Sine, and tangent of the angle 300 , 450 and 600

98
NB: The following figure is helpful to remember the trigonometrical ratios of special angles
from 0°to 90°

If we need the sines of the above given angles for examples, we only need to take the square root
of the number below the given angle and then the result is divided by 2.

Example 7

Find the sine,cosine and tangents of each of the following angles

a. -1350
b. 1200
c. 3300

99
Example 8

Find the value of θif Cos θ= -½ and θ≤ θ≤ 360°

Solution

Since Cos θis – (ve), then θlies in either the second or third quadrants,

Now - Cos (180 –θ= - Cos (θ+1800) = -½= -Cos600

100
So θ= 1800-600 = 1200 or θ= 1800 + 600 = 2400

θ= 1200 0r θ=2400

Example 9

Consider below

Exercise 2

Solve the Following.

101
The Graphs of Sine and Cosine
Draw the graphs of sine and cosine
Consider the following table of value for y=sinθ where θranges from - 360°to 360°

For cosine consider the following table of values

102
From the graphs for the two functions a reader can notice that sinθand cosθboth lie in the interval
-1 and 1 inclusively, that is -1≤sinθ1 and -1≤cosθ≤1 for all values of θ.

The graph of y= tanθis left for the reader as an exercise

NB: -∞≤ tanθ≤∞the symbol ∞means infinite

Also you can observe that both Sinθnd cosθrepeat themselves at the interval of

360°, which means sinθ= sin(θ+360) = sin(θ+2x3600) etc

and Cosθ=(Cosθ+3600)= Cos(θ+2x3600)

Each of these functions is called a period function with a period 3600

1. Usingtrigonometrical graphs in the interval -3600≤θ≤3600

Find θsuch that

a. Sin= 0.4

b. Cos= 0.9

solution

103
Example 10

Use the graph of sinθto find the value ofθif

4Sinθ= -1.8 and -3600 ≤θ≤3600

Solution

4Sinθ= -1.8

Sinθ= -1.8÷4 = -0.45

Sinθ= -0.45

So θ= -1530, -270, 2070, 3330

The graphs of sine and cosine functions

Interpret the graphs of sine and cosine functions
Example 11

Use thetrigonometrical function graphs for sine and cosine to find the value of
a. Sin (-400)
b. Cos (-400)
Solution

a. Sin (-400)= - 0.64

b. Cos (-400)= 0.76

Sine and Cosine Rules

The Sine and Cosine Rules

104
Derive the sine and cosine rules
Consider the triangle ABC drawn on a coordinate plane

From the figure above the coordinates of A, B and C are (0, 0), (c, 0) and(bCosθ, bSinθ)
respectively.

Now by using the distance formula

105
SINE RULE

Consider the triangle ABC below

From the figure above,

106
Note that this rule can be started as ―In any triangle the side are proportional to the Sines of the
opposite angles‖

The Sine and Cosine Rules in Solving Problems on Triangles

Apply the sine and cosine rules in solving problems on triangles
Example 12

Find the unknown side and angle in a triangle ABC given that
a= 7.5cm

c= 8.6cm and C= 80°

107
Find the unknown sides and angle in a triangle ABC in which a= 22.2cmB= 86°and A= 26°

Solution

By sine rule

Sin A= sin B= Sin C

108
Example 13

Find unknown sides and angles in triangle ABC

Where a=3cm, c= 4cm and B= 30°

Solution

By cosine rule,

109
110
Example 14

Find the unknown angles in the following triangle

111
Exercise 3

1. Given thata=11cm, b=14cm and c=21cm, Find the Largest angle of ΔABC

112
2. If ABCD is a parallelogram whose sides are 12cm and 16cm what is the length of the diagonal
AC if angle B=119°?

3. A and B are two ports on a straight Coast line such that B is 53km east of A. A ship starting
from A sails 40km to a point C in a direction E65°N. Find:

a. The distance a of the ship from B

b. The distance of the ship from the coast line.

4. Find the unknown angles and sides in the following triangle.

5. A rhombus has sides of length 16cm and one of its diagonals is 19cm long. Find the angles of
the rhombus.

Compound Angles
The Compound of Angle Formulae or Sine, Cosine and Tangent in Solving
Trigonometric Problems
Apply the compound of angle formulae or sine, cosine and tangent in solving trigonometric
problems
The aim is to express Sin (α±β) and Cos (α±β) in terms of Sinα, Sinβ, Cosαand Cosβ

Consider the following diagram:

113
From the figure above

From ΔBCD

114
For Cos(α±β) Consider the following unit circle with points P and Q on it such that OP,makes
angleα with positive x-axis and OQ makes angle βwith positive x-axes.

115
From the figure above the distance d is given by

116
In general

Example 15

1. Without using tables find the value of each of the following:

a. Sin 75°

b. Cos 105
Solution:

117
Example 16

Find:

a. Sin150°

b. Cos 15°

118
Exercise 4

1. Withoutusing tables, find:

a. Sin 15°

b. Cos 120°

2. Find Sin 225° from (180°+45°)

3. Verify that

a. Sin 90° = 1 by using the fact that 90°=45°+45°

b. Cos90°=0 by using the fact that 90°=30°+60°

4. Express each of the following in terms of sine, cosine and tangent of acute angles.

a. Sin107°

b. Cos300°

119
5. By using the formula for Sin (A-B), show that Sin (90°-C)=Cos C

120
 VECTORS
Displacement and Positions of Vectors
The Concept of a Vector Quantity
Explain the concept of a vector quantity
A vector - is a physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction.

The Difference Between Displacement and Position Vectors

Distinguish between displacement and position vectors
If an object moves from point A to another point say B, there is a displacement

There are many Vector quantities, some of which are: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, electric field and magnetic field.

Other physical quantities have only magnitude, these quantities are called Scalars.

For example distance, speed, pressure, time and temperature

Naming of Vectors:

121
Normally vectors are named by either two capital letters with an arrow above e.g.

Equivalent Vectors:

Therefore two or more vectors are said to be equivalent if and only if they have same magnitude
and direction.

122
Position Vectors;

In the x —plane all vectors with initial points at the origin and their end points elsewhere are
called position vectors. Position vectors are named by the coordinates of their end points.

Consider the following diagram.

123
Components of position vectors:

Example 1

Write the position vectors of the following points: (a) A (1,-1), (b) B (-4,-3)
(c) C= (u, v) where U and V are any real numbers and give their horizontal and vertically
components

124
Example 2

For each of vectors a and b shown in figure below draw a pair of equivalent vectors

Solution:

The following figure shows the vectors a and b and their respective pairs of equivalent vectors

125
Any Vector into I and J Components
Resolving any vector into I and J components
The unit Vectors i and j.

Definition: A unit vector is a position vector of unit length in the positive direction of x axis or y
axis in the xy—plane.

The letters iand jare used to represent unit vectors in the X axis and y – axis respectively.

Consider the following sketch,

126
Example 3

Write the following vectors in terms of i and j vectors:

Example 4

Write the following vectors as position vectors.

127
Magnitude and Direction of a Vector
The Magnitude and Direction of a Vector
Calculate the magnitude and direction of a vector
Magnitude (Modules) of a Vector

128
Definition: The magnitude / modules of a vector is the size of a vector, it is a scalar quantity that
expresses the size of a vector regardless of its direction.

Finding the magnitude of given vector.

Normally the magnitude of a given vector is calculated by using the distance formula which is
based on Pythagoras theorem.

Using Pythagoras theorem

Example 5

Calculate the magnitude of the position vector v=(- 3 , 4)

129
What is the magnitude of the vector U if U = 4i – 5j?

Unit Vectors:

Definition: A unit of Vector is any vector whose magnitude or modulus is one Unit.

Example 6

Find a Unit Vector in the direction of Vector U = (12, 5)

130
Direction of a vector:

The direction of a Vector may be given by using either bearings or direction Cosines.

(a) By Bearings:

Bearings are angles from a fixed direction in order to locate the interested places on the earth's
surface.

Reading bearings: There are two method used to read bearings, in the first method all angles are
measured with reference from the North direction only where by the North is taken as 000 0, the
east 0900, the South is 1800 and West 2700

131
From the figure above, point P is located at a bearing of 0500, while Q is located at a bearing of
1350.

Commonly the bearing of point B from point A is measured from the north direction at point A
to the line joining AB and that of A from B is measured from the North direction at point B to
the line joining BA.

From the figure above the bearing of B from A, is 0600 while that of A from B is 2400 In the
second method two directions are used as reference directions, these are North and south.

In this method the location of places is found by reading an acute angle from the north eastwards
or westwards and from the south eastwards or westwards.

132
From figure above, the direction of point A from O is N 460 E , that of B is N500W while the
direction from of C is S200E.

Example 7

Mikumi is 140km at a bearing of 0700f from Iringa. Makambako is 160km at bearing of

2150 from Iringa. Sketch the position of these towns relative to each other, hence calculate the
magnitude and direction of the displacement from Makambako to Mikumi.

Sketch

133
Using the cosine rule

The displacement from Makambakoto Mikumiis 12 286kmBy sine rule

134
Alternatively by using the scale AB is approximately 14.3 cm Therefore AB = 14.3x 20 km =
286km and the bearing is obtained a protractor which is about N510E

(b) Direction cosines

Where Cos A and Cos B are the direction cosines of OP

Example 8

135
If a = 6i + 8j find the direction cosine of a and hence find the angle made by a with the positive x
– axis.

Exercise 1

1. Find the magnitude of

136
Sum and Difference of Vectors
The Sum of Two or More Vectors
Find the sum of two or more vectors
Addition of vectors

The sum of any two or more vectors is called the resultant of the given vectors. The sum of
vectors is governed by triangle, parallelogram and polygon laws of vector addition.

(1) Triangle law of vector Addition

Adding two vectors involves joining two vectors such that the initial point of the second vector is
the end point of first vector and the resultant is obtained by completing the triangle with the
vector whose initial point is the initial point of the first vector and whose end points the end point
of the second vector.

137
From the figure above a + b is the resultant of vectors a and b as shown below

(2) The parallelogram law

When two vectors have a common initial point say P, then their resultant is obtained by
completing a parallelogram, where the two vectors are the sides of the diagonal through P and
with initial point at P

Example 9

Find the resultant of vectorsuandvin the following figure.

138
Solution

To get the resultant of vectors u and v, you need to complete the parallelogram as shown in the
following figure

From the figure above, the result of u and v is PR = U + V = U + V

Note that by parallelogram law of vector addition, commutative property is verified.

Polygon law of vector addition:

If you want to add more than two vectors, you join the end point to the initial point of the vectors
one after another and the resultant is the vector joining the initial point of the first vector to the
end point of the last vector

Example 10

139
Find the resultant of vectors a, b, c and d as shown in the figure below.

Solution

In the figure above P is the initial point of a, b has been joined toaat point Q and c is joined
to b at R, while d is joined to c at point S and PT = a + b + c + d which is the resultant of the
four vectors.

Opposite vectors

Two vectors are said to be opposite to each other if they have the same magnitude but different
directions

140
From the figure above a and b have the same magnitude (3m) but opposite direction.

So a and b are opposite vectors.

Opposite vectors have zero resultant that is if a and b are opposite vectors, then

Example 11

Find the vector p opposite to the vector r = 6i – 2j

The Difference of Vectors

Find the difference of vectors
Normally when subtracting one vector from another the result obtained is the same as that of
addition but to the opposite of the other vector.

141
Therefore the different of two vector is also the resultant vector

Consider the following figure

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

A Vector by a Scalar
Multiply a vector by a scalar
If a vector U has a magnitude m units and makes an angleθwith a positive x axis, then doubling
the magnitude of U gives a vector with magnitude 2m.

142
Generally if U = (u1, u2) and t is any non zero real number while (u1, u2) are also real numbers,
then

Example 12

If a = 3i + 3j and b = 5i + 4j
Find – 5a + 3b

143
Example 13

Given that p = (8, 6) and q = (7, 9). Find 9p – 8q

Application of Vectors
Vectors in Solving Simple Problems on Velocities, Displacements and Forces
Apply vectors in solving simple problems on velocities, displacements and forces
Vector knowledge is applicable in solving many practical problems as in the following examples.

A student walks 40 m in the direction S 450 E from the dormitory to the parade ground and then
he walks 100m due east to his classroom. Find his displacement from dormitory to the
classroom.

Solution

Consider the following figure describing the displacement which joins the dormitory D. parade
ground P and Classroom C.

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From the figure above the resultant is DC. By cosine rule

Example 14

Three forces F1 = (3,4), F2 = (5,-2) and F3 = (4,3) measured in Newtons act at point O (0,0)

a. Determine the magnitude and direction of their resultant.

145
b. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the opposite of the resultant force.

(b) Let the force opposite to F be Fo, then Fo = -F = - (12, 5) = (-12, -5)

Fo= 13N and its bearing is (67.40+1800) = 247.40

So the magnitude and direction of the force opposite to the resultant force is 13N and S67.4 0W
respectively..

Exercise 2

1. Given that U = (3, -4), V= (-4, 3) and W = (1, 1), calculate.

a. The resultant of U + V + W

b. The magnitude and direction of the resultant calculated in part (a) above.

2. A boat moves with a velocity of 10km/h upstream against a downstream current of 10km/h.
Calculate the velocity of the boat when moving down steam.

3. Two forces acting at a point O makes angles of 300 and 1350 with their resultant having
magnitude 20N as shown in the diagram below.

146
4. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the velocities V1=5i + 9j,V2 = 4i + 6j
and V3 = 4i – 3j where i and j are unit vectors of magnitude 1m/s in the positive directions of the
x and y axis respectively.

 READ TOPIC 7: Matrices And Transformations

147
 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS

Operations on Matrices
The Concept of a Matrix
Explain the concept of a matrix
Definition:

A matrix is an array or an Orderly arrangement of objects in rows and columns.

Each object in the matrix is called an element (entity).

Consider the following table showing the number of students in each stream in each form.

Form I II III IV

Stream A 38 35 40 28

Stream B 36 40 34 39

Stream C 40 37 36 35

From the above table, if we enclose the numbers in brackets without changing their arrangement,
then a matrix is farmed, this can be done by removing the headings and the bracket enclosing the
numbers (elements) and given a name (normally a capital letter).

Nowthe above information can be presented in a matrix form as

Any matrix has rows and columns but sometimes you may find a matrix with only row without
Colum or only column without row.

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In the matrix A above, the numbers 38, 36 an 40 form the first column and 38, 35, 40 and 28
form the first row.

Matrix A above has three (3) rows and four (4) columns.

In the matrix A, 34 is the element (entity) in the second row and third column while 28 lies in the
first row and fourth column. The plural form of matrix is matrices.

Normallymatrices are named by capital letters and their elements by small letters which
represent real numbers.

Order of a matrix (size of matrix)

The order of a matrix or size of a matrix is given by the number of its rows and the number of its
columns.

So if A has m rows and n columns, then the order of matrix is m x n.

It is important to note that the order of any matrix is given by stating the number of its rows first
and then the number of its columns.

Types of matrices:

149
The following are the common types of matrices:-

Matrices of order up to 2 X 2
Add matrices of order up to 2 X 2
When adding or subtracting one matrix from another, the corresponding elements (entities) are
/added or subtracted respectively.

150
This being the case, we can only perform addition and subtraction of matrices with the same
orders.

Example 1

Given that

Matrices of order up to 2 X 2
Subtract matrices of order up to 2 X 2
Example 2

Given that

Example 3

Solve for x, y and z in the following matrix equation;

151
Exercise 1

Determine the order of each of the following matrices;

2. Given that

3. Given that

152
4. A house wife makes the following purchases during one week: Monday 2kg of meat and loaf
of bread Wednesday, 1kg of meat and Saturday, 1kg of meat and one loaf of bread. The prices
are 6000/= per kg of meat and 500/= per loaf of bread on each purchasing day

a. Write a 3x2 matrix of the quantities of items purchased over the three days .

b. Write a 2x1 column matrix of the unit prices of meat and bread.

5. Solve for x, y and z in the equation

Additive identity matrix.

If M is any square matrix, that is a matrix with order mxm or nxn and Z is another matrix with
the same order as m such that

M+ Z= Z+M = M then Z is the additive identity matrix.

The additive inverse of a matrix.

If A and B are any matrices with the same order such that A+B = Z, then it means that either A is
an additive inverse of B or B is an additive inverse of A that is B=-A or A= -B

Example 4

153
Find the additive inverse of A,

Example 5

Find the additive identity of B if B is a 3×3 matrix.

A Matrix of Order 2 X 2 by a Scalar

Multiply a matrix of order 2 X 2 by a scalar
A matrix can be multiplied by a constant number (scalar) or by another matrix.

Scalar multiplication of matrices:

Rule: If A is a matrix with elements say a, b, c and d, or

Example 6

Given that

154
Solution;

155
Example 7

Given,

Solution;

Two Matrices of order up to 2 X 2

Multiply two matrices of order up to 2 X 2
Multiplication of Matrix by another matrix:

AB is the product of matrices A and B while BA is the product of matrix B and A.

156
In AB, matrix A is called a pre-multiplier because it comes first while matrix B is called the post
multiplier because it comes after matrix A.

Rules of finding the product of matrices;

1. The pre –multiplier matrix is divided row wise, that is it is divided according to its rows.

2. The post multiplier is divided according to its columns.

3. Multiplication is done by taking an element from the row and multiplied by an element
from the column.

4. In rule (iii) above, the left most element of the row is multiplied by the top most element
of the column and the right most element from the row is multiplied by the bottom most element
of the column and their sums are taken:

Therefore it can be concluded that matrix by matrix multiplication is only possible if the number
of columns in the pre-multiplier is equal to the number of rows in the post multiplier.

Example 8

157
Given That;

158
From the above example it can be noted that AB≠BA, therefore matrix by matrix multiplication
does not obey commutative property except when the multiplication involves and identity matrix
i.e. AI=IA=A

Example 9

Let,

Example 10

Find C×D if

159
Product of a matrix and an identity matrix:

If A is any square matrix and I is an identity matrix with the same order as A, then AI=IA=A

Example 11

Given;

160
Exercise 2

1. Given that A= (3 4) and

2. If,

3.Using the matrices

161
4.Find the values of x and y if

Inverse of a Matrix
The Determinant of a 2 X 2 Matrix
Calculate the determinant of a 2 X 2 matrix
Determinant of a matrix

Now the determinant of matrix A is then defined as the difference of the product of elements in
the leading diagonal and the product of the elements in the main diagonal.

162
Example 12

Find

Example 13

Considering

Example 14

Find the value of x

163
Singular and non singular matrices:

Definition:

Asingular matrix is a matrix whose determinant is zero, while non – singular matrix is the one
with a non zero determinant.

Example 15

Find the value of y

164
The Inverse of a 2 X 2 Matrix
Find the inverse of a 2 X 2 matrix
Inverse of matrices

Definition: If A is a square matrix and B is another matrix with the same order as A, then B is
the inverse of A if AB=BA=I where I is the identity matrix.

Thus AB=BA=I means either A is the inverse of B or B is the inverse of A.

165
Where B=A-1, that is B is the inverse of matrix A

Since we need the unknown matrix B, we can solve for p and q by using equations (i) and (iii)
and we solve for r and s using equations (ii) and (iv)

To get p proceed as follows

166
Alsoto get r and s, the same procedure must be followed:

And

167
168
Note that, if |A|= 0, Then

Example 16

Given that,

169
Solution:

Example 17

170
Which of the following matrices have inverses?

Exercise 3

1. Find the determinant of each of the following matrices.

2. Which of the following matrices are singular matrices?

171
3. Findinverse of each of the following matrices.

2 X 2 Matrix to Solve Simultaneous Equations

Apply 2 X 2 matrix to solve simultaneous equations
Solving simultaneous equations by matrix method:

Now by equating the corresponding elements, the following simultaneous equations are
obtained.

172
Then B= A-1×C

Example 18

By matrix method solve the following simultaneous equations:

173
Multiplying A-1 an each side of the equation, gives,

174
Example 19

Solve

175
Multiplying A-1 on each side of the equation gives,

176
Example 20

By using matrix method solve the following simultaneous equations:

Multiplying A-1 on each side of the equation gives,

177
Cramer‘s Rule

So

178
Example 21

Find

Example 22

By using Cramer‘s rule

179
Example 23

Byusing Cramer‘s rule,

Exercise 4

1. Use the matrix method to solve the following systems of simultaneous equations.

180
Use Cramer‘s rule to solve the following simultaneous equation

3. Whythe system of simultaneous equations

Matrices and Transformations

Definition: A transformation in a plane is a mapping which moves an object from one position to
another within the plane. Figures on the plane can also be shifted from one position by a
transformation.

A new position after a transformation on is called the image.

Examples of transformations are (i) Reflection (ii) Rotation (iii) Enlargement (iv) Translation.

Any Point P(X, Y) into P¹(X¹,Y¹) by Pre-Multiplying (ᵡᵧ) with a

Transformation Matrix T
Transform any point P(X, Y) into P¹(X¹,Y¹) by pre-multiplying (ᵡᵧ) with a transformation matrix T
- Suppose a point P(x,y) in the x-y plane moves to a point P¢ (x¢,y¢) by a transformation T,

181
A transformation in which the size of the image is equal that of the object is called an
ISOMETRIC MAPPING.

The Matrix to Reflect a Point P(X, Y ) in the X-Axis

Apply the matrix to reflect a point P(X, Y ) in the x-axis
Reflection;

When you look at yourself in a mirror you seem to see your body behind the mirror. Your body
is in front of the mirror as your image is behind it.

An object is reflected in the mirror to form an image which is;

182
a. The same size as the object

b. The same distance from the mirror as the object

So reflection is an example of ISOMETRIC MAPPING.

The mirror is the line of symmetry between the object and the image.

Example 24

Find the image of the point A (2,3) after reflection in the x – axes.
Solution;

Plot point A and its image A¢ such that AA¢ crosses the x – axis at B and also perpendicular to
it.

For reflection AB should be the same as BA¢ i.e. AB = BA¢

From the figure, the coordinates of A ¢ are A¢ (2,-3). So the image of A (2,3) under reflection in
the x-axis is A¢ (2,-3)

Normally the letter M is used to denote reflection and thus Mx means reflection in the x – axis.

So Mx(2,3) =- (2,-3).

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Where Mx means reflection in the x – axis and My means reflection in the y-axis.

The Matrix to Reflect a Point P(X, Y) in the Y-Axis

Apply the matrix to reflect a point P(X, Y) in the Y-Axis
Example 25

Find the image of B(3,4) under reflection in the y- axis.

Solution:

From My (x.y)= (-x,y)

My (3 ,4 ) =( -3,4)

Therefore the image of B(3,4) is B'(-3,4) .

Reflection in the line y = x.

The line y=x makes an angle 450 with x and y axes. It is the line of symmetry for the angle YOX
formed by two axis. By using isosceles triangle properties, reflection of the point (1,0) in the line
y=x will be ( 0,1) while the reflection of (0,2) in the line y=x will be ( 2, 0) it can be noticed that
the coordinates are exchanging positions. Hence the reflection of the point (x,y) in the line y=x is
( y,x).

184
Where My =xmeans reflection in the line y=x.

Example 26

Find the image of the point A(1,2) after reflection in the line y = x . Draw a sketch.

185
Reflection in the line y = -x

The reflection of the point B(x,y) in the line y = -x is B'(-y,-x).

Example 27

Find the image of B (3,4) after reflection in the line y=-x followed by another reflection in the
line y=0.Draw a sketch.
Solution;

Reflection of B in the line y=-x is B'(-4,-3). The line y=0 is the x – axis. So reflection (-4,-3) in
the x-axis is (-4,3)

186
Therefore the image of B (3,4) is B¢(-4,3).

The image of a point P(x,y) when reflected in the line making an angleαwith positive x-axis
and passing through the origin.

If the line passes through the origin and makes an angle a with x – axis in the positive direction,
then its equation is y= xtanα where tanαis the slope of the line.

Consider the following diagram.

187
But OPQ is a right angled triangle.

So x = OP Cosβ and y = OPSinβ .

Again OP¢R is a right angled triangle and the angle P¢QR = a -β + a- β+ β, this is due to the fact
that reflection is an isometric mapping.

Now the angle P¢OR = 2 a-β, then

It follows therefore that if M is a reflection in the line inclined at a, then

188
Example 28

Find the image of the point A (1, 2) after a reflection in the line y = x.

189
Example 29

Find the image of B (3,4) after reflection in the line y = -x followed by another reflection in the
line y = 0.

190
But the line y = 0 has 0 slope because it is the x – axis,

Example 30

Find the equation of the line y = 2x + 5 after being reflected in the line y = x,
Solution:

The line y = x has a slope 1

So tan a = 1 which means a = 450

To find the image of the line y = 2x + 5, we choose at least two points on it and find their
images, then we use the image points to find the equation of the image line.

191
Now y = 2x + 5

The points (0,5) and (1,7) lie on the line

So the image line is the line passing through (5,0) and (7,1) and it is obtained as follows;

192
Exercise 5

Self Practice.

1. Find the image of the point D (4,2) under reflection in the x – axis

2. Point Q (-4,3) is reflected in the y – axis. Find its image coordinates.

3. Reflect the point (5,4) in the line y = x

4. Find the image of the point (1,2) after a reflection in the line y = x followed by another
reflection in the line y = -x.

5. Find the equation of the line y = 3x -1 after being reflected in the line x + y = 0.

A Matrix Operator to Rotate any Point P( X, Y ) Through 90° 180°, 270° and
360° about the Origin
Use a matrix operator to rotate any point P( X, Y ) through 90° 180°, 270° and 360° about the
Origin
Rotation:

Definition; A rotation is a transformation which moves a point through a given angle about a
fixed point.

Rotation is an isometric mapping and it is usually denoted by R.

Therefore Rθ means rotation of an object through an angleθ.

193
In the xy plane, whenθismeasured in the clockwise direction it is negative and when it is
measured in the anticlockwise direction it is positive.

Example 31

Find the image of the point P(1,0) after a rotation through 900 about the origin in the anti
clockwise direction.

P is on the x – axis, so after rotation through 900 about the origin it will be on the y – axis. Since
P is 1unit from O, P¢ is also 1 unit from O, the coordinates of P¢ (0,1) are P¢ (0,1). Therefore
R 900(1,0) = (0,1).

Example 32

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Find the image of the point B (4,2) after a rotation through 900 about the origin in the
anticlockwise direction.
Solution;

Consider the following figure,

Exercise 6

Find the matrix of rotation through

a. 900 about the origin

b. 450 about the origin
c. 2700 about the origin

Find the image of the point (1,2) under rotation through 1800 ant –clockwise about the origin.

195
Find the image of the point (-2,1) under rotation through 2700 clockwise about the origin

Find the image of (1,2) after rotation of -900.

Find the image of the line passing through points a (-2,3) and B(2,8) after rotation through
900 clockwise about the origin

General formula for rotation

Consider the following sketch,

196
Example 33

Find the image of the point (1,2) under a rotation through 1800 anticlockwise

Therefore the image of (1, 2) after rotation through 1800 anticlockwise is (-1,-2).

Example 34

Find the image of the point (5,2) under rotation of 900 followed by another rotation of
1800anticlockwise.

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Solution:

Therefore the image of (5,2) under rotation of 900 followed by another rotation of
1800anticlockwise is (2,-5) .

Translation

Definition: A translation is a mapping of a point P (x, y) into P' (x', y') by the Vector (a, b) such
that (x', y') = (x, y) + (a, b), translation is denoted by the letter T. So T maps a point (x, y) into x',
y')

Where (x', y') = (x, y) + (a, b)

198
Consider the triangle OPQ whose vertices are (0,0), (3,1) and (3,0) respectively which is mapped
into triangle O¢P¢Q¢ by moving it 2 units in the positive x direction and 3 units in the positive y
direction

Example 35

If T is a translation by the vector (4,3), find the image of (1, 2) under this translation.

199
Example 36

A translation T maps the point (-3, 2) into (4, 3). Find where (a) T maps the origin (b) T maps the
point (7, 4).

Example 37

Find the translation vector which maps the point (6,-6) into (7,16).
Solution

Given that (x, y) = (6,-6) and (x¢, y¢) = (7,16), (a, b) =?

From T (x, y) = (x, y) + (a, b) = (x', y'),

then (7,16) = (6,-6)+(a,b) which means a=7-6 = 1 and b=16+6 = 22. Therefore translation
vector (a,b) = (1,22).

The Enlargement Matrix E in Enlarging Figures

Use the enlargement matrix E in enlarging figures
Definition: Enlargement is the transformation which magnifies an object such that its image is
proportionally increases on decreased in size by some factor k. The general matrix of
enlargement

200
Example 38

Find the image of the square with vertices O(0,0), A (1,0), B (1,1) and C (0,1) under the

201
Example 39

Find the image of (6, 9) under enlargement by the matrix

Example 40

Draw the image of a unit circle with center O (0,0) under

202
Now the images of these points are (0,3), (3,0), (0,-3), (-3,0) and other points respectively, where
the centre remains (0,0) and the radius becomes 3 units.

I n the figure above, the circle with radius 1 unit and its image with radius 3 units C 1 and
C2respectively are shown.

Linear Transformation:

Definition:

For any transformation T, any two vectors U and V and any real number t, T is said to be a linear
transformation if and only if

203
T(t U) = tT(U) and T (U+V) = T(U) + T(V)

Example 41

Show that the rotation by 900about O(0,0) is a linear trans formation

Solution

Let U=(U1,U2) and V =(V1 , V2) be any two vectors in the plane and t be any real number

To show that R900 is the linear transformation we must show that

R900 (tU)= t R900 (U) and

R900 (U + V) = R900 (U) + R900 (V)

204
Therefore, since R900 (U) + R900 (V) = R900 (U+V) and R900 (tU)= t R900 (U), then R900 is a
linear trans formation.

Example 42

Suppose that T is a linear transformation such that

T(U) = (1,-2), T(V) = (-3,-1) for any vectors U and V, find

(a) T(U+ V) (b) T(8U) (c) T(3U -2V)

Solution

(a)Since T is a linear Transformation then

T( U+ V) = T(U) + T(V)

Exercise 7

1. If

2. Is the matrix of reflection in a line inclined at angle a, U=(6,1) , V=(-1,4) and a13500, find (a)
m(U+V) (b) m(2V)

205
If U =(2,-7) and V=(2,-3), find the matrix of linear transformation T such that T(2U)=(-4,14) and
T(3V) = (6,9)

4. What is the image of (1,2) under the transformation

5. Given that I is the identify transformation such that I(U) =U for any Vector U, prove that I is a
linear transformation.

 READ TOPIC 8: Linear Programming

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 LINEAR PROGRAMMING

Simultaneous Equations
Simultaneous Equation from Word Problems
Form simultaneous equation from word problems
LINEAR PROGRAMMING.

Linear programming - is a branch of mathematics which deals with either minimizing the cost or
maximizing the profit.

 It gives the best way of utilizing the scarce resources available.

 It is so called because it only involves equations and inequalities which are linear.

Simultaneous Equation.

One of the methods used in solving linear simultaneous equations is a graphical method. Two
linear simultaneous equations in two unknowns can be graphically solved by passing through the
following procedures.

a. Draw the two lines which represent the two equations on the xy – plane this is done by
deter mining at least two points through which each line passes, the intercept are commonly used

b. Determine the point of intersection of the two lines. This point of intersection is the
solution to the system of equations.

FACT:

 If two straight lines are not parallel then they meet at only one point:

 In case the lines do not meet, there is no solution to the corresponding system of
simultaneous equations.

Example 1

Graphically solve the following system of simultaneous equations.

207
Example 2

Find the solution to the following system of simultaneous equations by graphical method.

208
Solving Simultaneous Equations Graphically
209
Solve simultaneous equations graphically
Example 3

Solve the following simultaneous equations graphically and check your solution by a non-
graphical method:

210
Example 4

Find the solution to the following system of simultaneous equations by graphical method.

211
Exercise 1

212
Find the solution to the following systems of simultaneous equations graphically.

Try: Ali paid 34 shillings for 10 oranges and 35 mangoes. Moshi went to the same market and
paid 24 shillings for 16 oranges and 18 mangoes. What was the price for a mango and for an
orange?

Inequalities
Forming Linear Inequalities in Two Unknowns from Word Problems
Form linear inequalities in two unknowns from word problems
Linear inequalities

 Normally any straight line drawn on xy – plane separates it into two disjoint sets. These
sets are called half – planes

 Consider the equation y = 5 drawn on the xy plane as shown below.

213
From the figure above, all points above the line, that is all points in the half plane A which is
above the line satisfy the relation y>5 and those lying in the half plane B which is below the
given line, satisfy the relation y< 5.

Shading of Regions

214
 In linear programming usually the region of interest is left clear that is we shade
unwanted region(s).

NB:

When shading the half planes we consider the inequalities as the equations but dotted lines are
used for the relations with > or < signs and normal lines are used for those with ≥ or ≤ signs.

Consider the inequalities x>0, y>0 and 2x + 3y >12 represented on the xy-plane In this case we
draw the line x=0, y= 0 and 2x+3y=12 but the point about the inequality signs for each equation
must be considered.

From the figure above, the clear region satisfy all the inequalitiesx>0, y>0 and 2x + 3y >12,
these three lines are the boundaries of the region.

The Solution Set of Simultaneous Linear Inequalities Graphically

Find the solution set of simultaneous linear inequalities graphically
Example 5

Draw and show the half plane represented by 8x + 2y ≥16

215
Feasible Region

Definition: In the xy plane the region that satisfies all the given inequalities is called the feasible
region (F.R)

Example 6

Indicate the feasible region for the inequalities 2x+3y ≥ 12 and y-x ≤ 2.

216
Determine the solution set of the simultaneous inequalities y + x ≥3 and x-2y ≤ 9.

217
Example 7

Fatuma was given 30 shillings to buy oranges and mangoes. An orange costs 2shillings while a
mango costs 3 shillings. If the number of oranges bought is at least twice the number of
mangoes, show graphically the feasible region representing the number of ranges and mangoes
she bought, assuming that no fraction of oranges and mangoes are sold at the market.
Solution:-

Le x be the number of oranges she bought and y the number of mangoes she bought. Now the
cost of x and y together is 2x + 3y shillings which must not exceed 30 shillings. Inequalities:

2x + 3y ≤30 ……… (i) and x≥2y …………….. (ii),

Also because there is no negative oranges or mangoes that can be bought,

218
then x≥ and y≥0 ……….. (iii)

Now the line 2x + 3y ≤30 is the line passing through (0, 10) and (15,0) and the line x≥2y or x –
2y ≥ 0 is the line which passes through (0,0) and (2,1).

Exercise 2

For practice.

1. Draw the graph of the equation 2x – y = 7 and show which half plane is represented by
2x – y >7 and the one represented by 2x – y <7 li="">

2. On the same coordinate axes draw the graphs of the following inequalities: x + 2y ≤ 2, y-
x ≤ 1 and y ≥ 0.

3. Draw the graphs of y < 2x -1 and y > 3 – x on the same axes and indicate the feasible
region.

4. A post office has to transport 870 parcels using a lorry, which takes 150 parcels at a time
and a van which can take 60 at a time. The cost of each journey is 350 shillings by lorry and 280
shillings by van. The van makes more trips than the lorry and the total cost should not exceed

219
3080 shillings. Show graphically the feasible region representing the number of trips that a lorry
and a van can make.

The Objective Function

An Objective Function from Word Problems
Form an objective function from word problems
Linear programming components

Any linear programming problem has the following:

a. Objective

b. Alternative course (s) of action which will achieve the objective.

c. The available resources which are in limited supply.

d. The objective and its limitations should be able to be expressed as either linear
mathematical equations or linear inequalities. Therefore linear programming aims at finding the
best use of the available resources.

Programmingis the use of mathematical techniques in order to get the best possible solution to
the problem

Steps to be followed in solving linear programming problems;

a. Read carefully the problem, if possible do it several times.

b. Use the variables like x and y to represent the resources of interest.

c. Summarize the problem by putting it in mathematical form using the variables let in step
(b) above. In this step you need to formulate the objective function and inequalities or
constraints.

d. Plot the constraints on a graph

e. From your graph, identify the corner points.

220
f. Use the objective function to test each corner point to find out which one gives the
optimum solution.

g. Make conclusion after finding or identifying the optimum point among the corner points.

Maximum and Minimum Values

Corner Points on the Feasible Region
Locate corner points on the feasible region
Example 8

A student has 1200 shillings to spend on exercise books. At the school shop an exercise book
costs 80shillings, and at a stationery store it costs 120 shillings. The school shop has only 6
exercise books left and the student wants to obtain the greatest number of exercise books
possible using the money he has. How many exercise books will the student buy from each site?

221
Therefore the student will buy 6 exercise books from each site.

Example 9

A nutritionist prescribes a special diet for patients containing the following number of Units of
vitamins A and B per kg, of two types of food f1 and f2

If the daily minimum in take required is 120 Units of A and 70 units of B, what is the least total
mass of food a patient must have so as to have enough of these vitamins?

Solution:

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Let x be the number of kg(s) of F1 that patient gets daily and y be the number of kg(s) of F2 to be
taken by the patient daily.

Objective function: F (x, y) = (x + y) minimum

f (C) = 10 + 0 = 10

So f (B) = 6.8 is the minimum

Therefore the least total mass of food the patient must have is 6.8 kilograms

The Minimum and Maximum Values using the Objective Functio

Find the minimum and maximum values using the objective function
Example 10

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A farmer wants to plant coffee and potatoes. Coffee needs 3 men per hectare while potatoes need
also 3 men per hectare. He has 48 hired laborers available. To maintain a hectare of coffee he
needs 250 shillings while a hectare of potatoes costs him 100 shillings. .
Find the greatest possible land he can sow if he is prepared to use 25,000 shillings.

Solution:

Let x be the number of hectares of coffee to be planted and y be the number of hectares of
potatoes to be planted.

Objective function: f (x, y) = (x, + y) maximum

3x + 3y ≤ 48 or x + y ≤16 ………….(i)

250x + 100y≤ 25,000 Or 5x + 2y ≤ 500………(ii)

x ≥ 0 …………………...(iii)

y≥ 0 …………………...(iv)

Using the objective function f (x, y) = (x + y) maximum,

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f (A) = (0 + 250) = 250

f (B) = (0+16) = 16

f (C) = (16+0) = 16

f(D) = (100+0)= 100 (maximum)

Therefore the greatest possible area to be planted is 250 hectors of potatoes.

NB: In most cases L.P problems must involve non-negativity constraints (inequalities) that are x
≥ 0 and y ≥ 0. This is due to the fact that in daily practice there is no use of negative quantities.

Example 11

A technical school is planning to buy two types of machines. A lather machine needs 3m2 of
floor space and a drill machine needs 2m2 of floor space. The total space available is 30m2. The
cost of one lather machine is 25,000 shillings and that of drill machine is 30,000 shillings. The
school can spend not more than 300,000 shillings, what is the greatest number of machines the
school can buy?
Solution:

Let x be the number of Lather machines and y be the number of drill machines to be bought

Objective function: f(x, y) = (x + y) max

Inequalities:

3x + 2y ≤ 30.. ………………….(i)

25,000x + 30,000y ≤300,000

Or 5x + 6y ≤ 60……………………..(ii)

x ≥ 0 ……………………………….(iii)

y ≥ 0…………………… ………….(iv)

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Since the incomplete machine can‘t work, then B = (8, 3) or (7, 4).That is approximating values
of x and y to the possible integers without affecting the given inequalities or conditions.

Now by using the objective function,

f (A) = 0 + 10 = 10

f(B) = 7 + 4 0r f (B) = 8 + 3 = 11

f (C) = 10 + 0 = 10

f (D) = 0 + ) = 0

So f (B) gives the maximum number of machines which is 11.

Therefore the greatest number of machines that can be bought by the school is 11 machines.

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Exercise 3

1. Show on a graph the feasible region for which the restrictions are:

y ≤ 2x, x≥ 6, y≥2 and 2x + 3y ≤30

From the graph at which point does:

a. y – x take a maximum value?

b. x + y take a maximum value?

c. y – x take a maximum value?

2. With only 20,000 shillings to spend on fish, John had the choice of buying two types of fish.
The price of a single fish type 1 was 2,500shillings and each fish of type 2 was sold at 2,000
shillings. He wanted to buy at least four of type 1. What is the greatest number of fish did John
buy? How many of each type could he buy?

3. How many corner points does the feasible region restricted by the inequalities?

x≥0, y ≥ 0, 3x + 2y ≤ 18 and 2x + 4y ≤16 have?

Which corner point maximizes the objective function f (x, y) = 2x + 5y?

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