Contents

Behavioral Perspective....................................................................................................................4
Classical Conditioning.................................................................................................................4
Operant Conditioning..................................................................................................................6
Modeling......................................................................................................................................7
Behavioral Therapies/ Techniques..................................................................................................8
Extinction.....................................................................................................................................8
Contingency Management...........................................................................................................9
Shaping......................................................................................................................................10
Time Out....................................................................................................................................11
Modeling....................................................................................................................................12
Token Economy.........................................................................................................................13
Systematic Desensitization........................................................................................................14
Flooding.....................................................................................................................................16
Social Skill Training..................................................................................................................16
Aversion Therapy......................................................................................................................17
References......................................................................................................................................19
 Behavioral Perspective

John B. Watson, an American psychologist was a major figure in establishing behaviorism which
focuses on observable behavior rather than consciousness or mental functioning (Kendall &
Hammen, 1995).

Three types of learning that influenced the behaviorist approach are as follows:-

Classical Conditioning

According to Kring, Johnson, Davison and Neale (2010) classical conditioning (or respondent
conditioning) is:

‘A basic form of learning sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning, in which a neutral

stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus (called the unconditional stimulus UCS) that
naturally elicits a certain desired response (called the unconditioned response). After repeated
trials, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and evokes the same or similar
response, now called the conditioned response (CR)’ (p.22).

Original reflex UCS  UR

CS associated with US CS + UCS  UR
CS presented alone CS  CR
Legacee Management Systems Inc, 2010

Examples:

4
 eat meat of Eid-ul- Azha. I experiance nausea and feel queasy on sight of it.
experianced wierd smell. I had to eat it as I was on dining table. This resulted in nausea. Since now, I can't
UCS NS / CS UR / CR
Disliking for Mutton (Eid-ul- Azha's meat). Once I was eating mutton leg on Eid and as I took leg bone, I
Smell Mutton Nausea

(some dead person holding legs of the heroine when she dropped it down the bed or going upstairs)
'Aahat' in my childhood with my cousins in a dark room at night where such scenes were repeatedly shown
UCS NS /CS UR / CR
Fear that someone will hold my legs if I put themdown from the bed at night in darkness. I used to watch
Watching Horrer drama in a dark Darkness and bed Fear and anxiety
room

I had a car accident in 2007 , I was taken to hospital in 1122 ambulance service. Last year my Aunty died
in an car accident, her dead body was taken to hospital in 1122 ambulance . When I heard the news of her
death i was listening to the Annie's Song of John Denver and it was one of favourite songs of my aunty.
UCS
Now, whenever I hear 1122 siren and NSthis
/ CSsong, I experiance the very emotions
UR / CRthat I experianced in that
Accident incidents.
1122 ambulance siren Anxiety and sadness
Death of a close family member Annie's Song of John Denver

Operant Conditioning

Kring et al (2010) stated operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) as:

5
 6
Given that modeling (or observational/social/ vicarious learning) is:
Modeling
grocery
Negative Punishment
Have been deprived of the previlege of going for
monthly budget.
I am not taken for grocery for the last two months as I used to shop unnecessary items and distrub the
slap form a teacher Positive Punishment
When I was in school, I got slapped from a teacher in assembley because I was not in proper line and was
talikng to a friend. Since then, I try to take special care of discipline in assemblies and in front of teachers.
No more travelling on college bus Negative Reinforecement
My study habits improved and college absentees ended when my father started giving me pick and drop on
car and I had not to go on college bus anymore
Parents and close friends liking Positive Reinforcement
Talking in a childlike way in good mood as my parents and few friends like it
Mother's praise on cleanliness Positive Reinforcement
Washing my feet and brushing teeth befor going to bed, otherwise I cannot sleep. I learned this behavior
because my mother has followed it (modeling) and I have always being praised on doing this
Examples:
reinforcement and punishment’ (p. 23).
‘The acquisition or elimination of a response as a function of environmental contingencies of
7
Model My mother
Washing my feet and brushing teeth befor going to bed because my mother has followed it
My friends Model
It was very painful thought for me to get facial hair thread or waxed. I agreed for threading and
waxing as my friends used to do this
News casters Model
I had an habit of talikng very fast and my words used to jumble up, then I practied to talk slowly ,
imitating news casters
Road safety sign boards
Model
My Uncle who came from abroad
I strated wearing seat bealt in car when my uncle from abroad visited us. Altough I had an ghastly car
accident before his visit but I learned to wear seat belt because of him
Examples:
providing opportunities for imitation’ (Kring et al., 2010. p. 23).
‘Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others, or teaching by demonstrating and
 Behavioral Therapies/Techniques

Behavioral therapy emerged in 1950s. In its initial from therapy applied procedures based on
classical and operant conditioning to alter clinical problems. It was an attempt to modify
behavior, thoughts and feelings by applying in a clinical context the methods used and the
discoveries by experimental psychologists (Kring et al., 2010).

Extinction

The elimination of a classically conditioned response by the omission of the unconditioned

stimulus is known as extinction. Extinction in operant conditioning is the elimination of the
conditioned response by the omission of reinforcement (Kring et al, p. 22).

Example: Making a domestic pet change its place for littering and toileting, purging the use of
pacifiers in a child, abolishing childish behaviors in grown up child

1. If a domestic pet is required to change its habit of littering things to a specific corner and
toileting in backyard instead of in front ground, the behavior can be extinguished by not
reinforcing it when it litter things to a specific corner or toilet in ground.
2. A child, who uses pacifiers, can be made to extinguish this behavior by naot fiving
pacifiers after feeding. That is, feeder is UCS and in response to it child sucks. If pacifier is
not followed after feeding, the child may not become habitual of sucking the pacifier as
nothing would come out of it that child may suck, and in result, the child would not suck
the pacifier.
3. Similarly, a grown up child, who show childish behaviors such as mimicry and lisping
because he/she gets praise and liking on such behaviors can be extinguished using
extinction therapy in order to avoid such childish behaviors, by not reinforcing it in any
case.

Example Technique
Pacifier Pacifier is not followed after feeding
UCS (feeder/Nipple) is not paired with CS ( Pacifier)
Changing place for littering No Reinforcement (No prompts or rewards)
and toileting of pet

Childish behaviors of a child Ignore behavior

8
 No Reinforcement ( Any praise or liking)

Contingency Management

Contingency management (CM) is the systematic reinforcement of desired behaviors and the
withholding of reinforcement or punishment of undesired behaviors (Higgins, n.d.). Contingency
management is a technique of behavioral therapy in which therapist and family members ignore
behavior that is symptomatic of the disorder being treated and actively reward the behaviors that
are incompatible with the disorder (Colman, 2001, p. 163).

Example: Teacher; managing class room behavior, Parent training; teaching a child table
manners, Medication compliance and treatment regimen

1. Teacher; managing class room behavior

Address the students about behaviors resulting in rewards or punishment.

Behavior Getting Rewards Behavior Resulting In Punishment

1. Punctuality 1. Lying
2. Speaking truth 2. Unexcused absences
3. Showing good manners 3. Bringing banned items (cameras, mobiles etc)
4. Respecting teacher and fellow 4. Being unprepared for class
students 5. Making inappropriate noises and laughing at
5. Staying active inappropriate times
6. Granting permission etc 6. Cheating and stealing etc

Rewards Punishment
1. Praise 1. Scolding
2. Verbal recognition 2. Time out
3. Token economy 3. Negative marking
4. Positive notes or phone calls home 4. Loss of grades on discipline etc

9
 5. Making group leaders etc

2. Parent training; teaching child table manners

Rewards Punishment
1. Praise 4. Scolding
2. Prompts 5. Serving the child alone
3. Giving sweets etc 6. Removing from the table when not
following instructions etc

3. CM may increase marked adherence to Medication compliance and treatment regimen if

contracts are made with the therapist or doctors.

Shaping

According to Kring et al, (2010), shaping is:

‘In operant conditioning, reinforcing responses that are successively closer approximations to
the desired behavior’ (p.23).

Example: Making a child learn combing his/her hair in steps

10
 Step 1: Touching the comb Step 2: Holding the comb Step 3: Bringing it upto head
Prompt Fading for step 1 Fading for step 1 and 2
Reinforce ( Continuous) Prompting Prompting
Reinforcement (Continuous) Reinforcement (Schedule)

Step 4: Trying to set hair Step 5: Eventually combing Step 6: Placing the comb
with comb Fading for initial steps back in place
Fading for initial steps No prompting Prompting
Prompt Reinforcement ( Variable- Reinforcement (Variable-
Reinforcement (Variable- Interval) ratio)
ratio) Fading

Making a child learn combing his/her hair in steps

Time Out

An operant conditioning procedure in which, after bad behavior, the person is temporarily
removed from the setting where reinforces can be removed and place in a less desirable setting,
for example in a boring room (Kring et al, 2010, p. 45).

Example: Discourage tantrums of a stubborn child

In order to reduce and discourage tantrums of a stubborn child who is never satisfied on getting
anything and show stubbornness, time out technique can employed. Keeping the stubborn child
in a separate place having no reinforces may make him/her stay happy or conceited with what
he/she has. That is, when parents bring a toy for the child and child does not like it. Instead of
bringing the toy of the child’s choice on demand and stubbornness always, remove the child
from the pleasant environment and place in boredom for some time until he is calm and tolerant.

Example
Discouraging tantrums of a stubborn Remove from existing environment to boredom
child

11
 Modeling

Modeling is the process of acquiring new responses by imitating the behavior of another person
(Halgin & Whitbourne, 2007).

Example: Modeling in health enhancing behaviors, changing health destructive behaviors and
to control, reduce and overcome anxiety

1. Health enhancing behaviors can be adopted by imitating models from the environment or
on media such as Television and radio shows, fitness programs, newspapers, magazines,
gyms, and health clubs etc. these behaviors may include
a. Exercise,
b. Wearing seat belts,
c. Breast self examination for cancer prevention,
d. Weight control ,
e. Proper balanced diet etc.
2. Changing health destructive behaviors e.g. smoking, alcoholism and non compliance with
treatment of chronic diseases etc can be accomplished by joining programs in which
individuals have had success in dealing with such problems and imitating them.
3. Modeling can be followed to control, reduce and overcome anxiety by observing a live
fearful model, providing a realistic portrayal of the experience such as injections, ride on
roller coasters, air flying etc.

Examples
Health enhancing behaviors
Changing health destructive behaviors
To control, reduce and overcome anxiety
Modeling
Models from current environment or on electronic,
print and television media etc
Models from Treatment and prevention programs etc
Fearful models

Token Economy

Token economy is a therapeutic approach based on learning (operant conditioning principles) in

which participants earn tokens as rewards for accomplishing specific desirable behaviors. It is

12
sometimes used in institutional settings for inhabitants or severely impaired patients in which
institutionalized population is given scrip rewards, such as poker chips, for socially constructive
behavior. The tokens can be exchanged for desirable activities and items of value to patient
(Kendall & Hemman, 1995., & Kring et al, p. 45).

Example: Training offenders in rehabilitation program or children in an orphanage

The inhabitants would be given a list of desirable or undesirable behaviors resulting in earning
and losing points. Points would later be exchanged for tangible or token rein-forcers such as
food, books, toys, money, award etc. The behaviors can be arranged on the list in ascending or
descending order of the extent of earning and losing points.

The following list of behaviors is arranged in ascending order of the extent of earning or losing
points i.e. 10 points to onwards.

Points Earning Behaviors Points Losing Behaviors

1. Cleaning room 1. Disobeying
2. Keeping oneself clean 2. Displaying poor manners
3. Displaying manners in eating 3. Using poor or slang language
4. Following Timetable 4. Staying unclean or unhygienic
5. Reading any good stuff 5. Arguing
6. Reading newspapers ,extra books 6. Lying

Any undesirable behavior would result in withdrawal from the tokens to discourage undesirable
behavior (example influenced by Kendall & Hammen, 1995).

Systematic Desensitization

It is a major behavior therapy procedure that has a fearful person, while deeply relaxed, imagine,
a series of progressively more fearsome situations, such that fear is dispelled as a response
incompatible with relaxation; useful for treating psychological problems in which anxiety is the
principal difficulty (Kring et al., p. 24).

Thus it includes two components

13
 A. Deep muscle relaxation
B. Gradual exposure to list of feared stimulus starting with those that arouse
minimal anxiety and progressing to those that are most frightening (Kring, et al,
2010).

Example:

This would be done in two parts (A and B).

A. PREPARATIONS
1. The person is taught visualization or imagery (so that he/she may visualize anxiety
provoking situations)
2. The person is taught and practice some relaxation technique such as deep breathing and
progressive muscle relaxation
3. Hierarchy of fear (from least to most frightening) is made in the form of list
4. Cards are constructed defining the steps to be followed
5. Combing the first two steps , exposing the person towards fearful stimulus in imagery
followed by relaxation

Hierarchy of fear provoking situations

Target behavior: Overcoming the Fear of height

1. Thinking about going upstairs at home on first floor

2. Standing in front of stairs and looking on first step of stairs
3. Making steps upwards on stairs one by one
4. Reaching on the first floor of home
5. Looking downwards at ground floor
6. Thinking about going upstairs in a multi-storey building on first floor
7. Making steps upwards on stairs
8. Reaching on the first floor of multi-storey tower
9. Looking downwards at ground floor
10. Standing in front of stairs leading to second floor
11. Making steps upwards on stairs one by one

14
 12. Reaching on the second floor of multi-storey tower
13. Looking downwards at second floor
14. Looking downwards at first floor
15. Going upstairs on the respective floors
16. Looking downwards when reached a floor
17. Finally at the top floor
18. Looking downwards on the recessive floors
19. Looking at the ground from the top floor of multi-storey tower
B. FOLLOWING THE PROCEDURE

Cards Instructions
Cards 1 Relax using preferred relaxation technique
Cards 2 Read the least anxiety provoking situation
Cards 3 Imagine yourself in that situation
Cards 4 Stop imagining and rate anxiety on 7 point scale
Cards 5 Re-read and imagine
Cards 6 Determine anxiety level again and rate it. If still experiencing anxiety, go to
card 2. It no anxiety is experiences, move forward to card 7
Cards 7 Take the next item from the hierarchy and follow the same procedure

(Table influenced by Richmond, 2011)

Flooding

It involves prolonged exposure to distressing, trauma-related cues until the patient habituates and
anxiety associated with these cues is extinguished (Sheikh, 2003). In other words, in this therapy
the patient is exposed to the fear or stimulus he/she fear instantly and all at once for an extended
period of time until the anxiety decreases (Harris, 2005). This technique is usually used to treat
post traumatic stress disorder, phobias and other anxiety disorders (Colman, 2001). According to
Bandura, an individual’s self-efficacy increases as experience disconfirms beliefs about what is
feared and about the client’s ability to manage fear. As the client comes to experience and accept
the ability to cope with once feared situation, self-efficacy increases and remains with client
(Kendall & Hammen, 1995).

Example: A person is afraid of the dark

15
A person who is afraid of the dark is exposed to the darkness. He or she is made to enter in the
dark room ,captured in the room alone and is not permitted avoidance until he or she realizes that
there is no harm in darkness and acquired the sense of mastery over prior phobic fear. The person
would get anxious, may yell or scream, but gradually he/she would gain the ability to cope with
once feared situation.

Behavioral Problem Technique

Fear of darkness Flooding (Capturing in dark room)

Social Skills Training

Social skills training is a behavioral therapy that works to improve social skills of people,
helping in interaction with people so they can become socially competent (Sharf, 2009).

Examples: It can be employed in teaching people specially children; table manners, granting
permissions in classroom/ or in other setting, how to sit in gathering, curtsey responses etc
through live models, role playing and operant conditioning techniques.

Dealing with individuals who have developed poor health habits in response to social anxiety

Most people in response to social anxiety develop unhealthy behaviors in order to give an
impression of maturity and sense of security. Such behaviors can be molded by first inducing the
feelings of self-confidence and self-efficacy in such individuals and then giving them social
training to deal with people.

Unhealthy habits Planning the training program

A. Smoking 1. Help them identify problem and reduce anxiety that occur in social
B. Nail biting context
2. Introduce new skills for dealing with problem
3. Provide alternate habits (Gochman,1988)
Teaching new skills and alternate behavior Technique
A. Modeling
Deep breathing (for reducing anxiety), standing at appropriate Role playing

16
 distance, maintaining eye-contact , listening , initiating Contingency management
conversations, talking with immediate family and friends, Contract development
speaking in appropriate volume, express emotions and Exposure etc (Kearney,2005)
opinions.
B.
Taking nicotine gum, bubble gum and other coping strategies
as behaviors

Aversion Therapy

It involves pairing an undesirable behavior with an unpleasant or painful stimulus over repeated
trials until the behavior becomes associated with discomfort and the person begin to avoid the
behavior . It may not require repeated pairing but can just occur with one trial as in taste-aversive
learning where paring of food occur with nausea (Harris, 2005). Aversive techniques have been
employed to reduce smoking, drug use and socially inappropriate attractions (Kendall &
Hammen, 1995).

Example: Reduction and cessation of smoking through drugs or detested tasted cigarette and
nail biting through imaginary aversion or images of aversive stimulus

Example Unpleasant stimulus

Smoking 1. Association of smoking with nausea through pairing smoking with drugs
that produces nausea or vomiting
2. Letting the smoker smoke a cigarette without filters
3. By inducing and making a smoker smoke cigarette of a certain flavor that
is detested or not liked by the smoker.
Nail biting 1. The person is made to imagine that while nail biting, he or she is taking
dead and dirty material (feces or germs etc)
2. Paring of nail biting with the image of resulting ugly hands

17
 References

Gochman, S.D. (1988). Health behavior: emerging research perspectives. USA: Plenum
Publishing Cooperation.

Halgin, R.R., & Whitbourne,S,K. ( 2007). Abonormal psychology: Clinical perspective on

psychological disorders. (5th ed.). USA: McGraw Hill Company, INC

Harris, A.L. (2005). Psychology: an American bookwork cooperation project. USA: Wiley
Publishing, Inc.

Kearney, A.C. (2005). Social anxiety and social phobia in youth: Characteristics, assessment
and psychological treatment. USA: Springer Science and Business Media, Inc.

Kendall, C.P., & Hammen, C. (1995). Abnormal psychology. USA : Houghton Mifflin Company

Kring, M.A., Johnson, L.S., Davison, C.G., & Neale, M.J. (2010). Abnormal psychology. (11th
ed.) . Asia: John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Richmond, L. R. (2011). Systematic desensitization. Retrieved from

http://www.guidetopsychology.com/sysden.htm

18
Sharf, Richard S. (2009).Psychotherapy. Microsoft Encarta 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA:
Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

Sheikh, A. A. (2003).Healing images: The role of imagination in health. New York: Baywood
Publishing company, Inc.

19