Computer Hardware and Networking

MODULE II MOTHERBOARD ORGANISATION

2.1.1 State different motherboard form factors

Motherboard Form factors :

Motherboard Form factors Determines general layout, size and feature

placement on the motherboard. Form factors such as physical size, shape,
component placement, power supply connectors etc. Various form factors of
motherboards are AT, Baby AT, ATX, Mini-ATX, Micro-ATX, Flex ATX, LPX and Mini
LPX and NLX.

1. AT (Advanced Technology):
o Oldest and biggest form factor and popular until Baby AT. Capable of
using 386 processor. 12' inch size and was difficult to install, service
and upgrade.
2. Baby AT:
o Standard in computer industries and still being used in Pentium class
products. CPU socket is placed in such a way that it can interfere with
longer bus cards. Limitation over peripheral card installation. I/O
ports are connected to pin-outs near the floppy drive which results in
jumbling of ribbon cables.
3. ATX (Advanced Technology Extended):
o Improvement done in easy to use, support for current and future I/O,
and also to current and future technology. New mounting
configuration for power supply. Processor relocated away from
 expansion slots to allow full length add-in cards. Provides air-flow
through chassis and across the processor.
4. Mini ATX:
o Commonly same as ATX. Just change in size from ATX= 12" x 9.6" to
Mini ATX= 11.2" x 8.2".
5. Micro ATX:
o Supports current and new processor technologies. AGP (Accelerated
graphics port) to have high performance graphics. Smaller in size and
less power supply.
6. Flex ATX:
o A subset of micro ATX. Gives chance to system developers to create
new personal computer design. Enhanced flexibility to allow custom
case and board design to be manufactured. Small motherboard size
and supports current processor technology.
7. LPX (Low Profile Extension) and Mini LPX:
o Based on design by western digital. Usually found in desktop pc's.
Case are slim-line, low profile case with riser card arrangement for
expansion cards. Riser card arrangement means expansion boards
are parallel rather than perpendicular. This make smaller case but
limits number of expansion slots to two or three. High quality
product at low cost but makes difficult to upgrade and repair.
8. NLX (New Low Profile Extended):
o Supports current and future processor technologies. Also supports
new AGP and tall memory technology. Installing and upgrading the
system is easy.
2.1.0 Understand motherboard organisation
 ATX Motherboard Organisation - Block Diagram (BOTH ARE SAME BLOCK
DIAGRAM OF ATX MOTHERBOARD, SECOND DIAGRAM IS A DETAILED
ONE)

The two most important chips on the motherboard provide the system's
core logic, and known as the northbridge (also referred to as the memory
controller hub) and the southbridge (otherwise known as the I/O
Controller Hub), which take their respective names from their relative
positions on the motherboard.

Between them, these two chips encompass many of the most important
communications and control functions provided by the motherboard

the term "chipset" is often taken to refer specifically to just these

components.
Generic block diagram below shows the main features and layout of a
typical modern motherboard.

9.

Generic layout of a typical modern motherboard

The northbridge (also known as the memory controller hub) is connected

directly to the processor via the front-side bus, to system memory via the
memory bus, and to the south bridge via an internal bus.

It is also typically connected to a high speed graphics card slot via either an
accelerated graphics port (AGP) bus or a PCI Express (PCI-E) bus, depending
on the type of slot provided.
The communication handled via the northbridge (i.e. between the CPU,
memory and video card) requires the use of high-speed buses. The CPU gains
fast access to memory via a memory controller built in to the northbridge.
The speed with which the processor can retrieve data from memory is one of
the most important factors in determining how fast in can execute programs,
and the sheer volume of data required for modern graphic-intensive
applications make the availability of a high-speed dedicated AGP or PCI-E bus
essential.

Those parts of the system requiring (relatively) low-speed communications

are connected to the northbridge via the southbridge (also known as the I/O
controller hub).

The buses connecting the south bridge with the motherboard's expansion
slots and integrated peripherals such as an on-board graphics adapter are
typically PCI buses.

low pin count (LPC) bus connects the southbridge to BIOS, and to the Super
I/O chip which provides a control interface for low-bandwidth devices such
as the keyboard and mouse, as well as devices that connect via a serial or
parallel port.

Higher-speed interfaces such as IDE, SATA and USB have their own buses.
The internal bus connecting the southbridge to the northbridge is usually a
PCI bus, although the inherent bandwidth limitations in this approach have
led to the use of a higher-speed (sometimes proprietary) internal bus in
order to improve overall system performance.
Microprocessors and Coprocessors - Types - Speed, Address and Data lines,
Address space

Introduction

The microprocessor forms the brain of the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Microprocessor is an engine which can compute various operations
fabricated on a single chip. The internal architecture of microprocessor
determines what operations can be performed on a microprocessor and how
it can be performed. Let us take a look at a brief history of the
microprocessor and discuss how the microprocessors have evolved over the
past years.

Evolution of Microprocessor

The first microprocessor was introduced in the year 1971. It was introduced
by Intel and was named Intel 4004. Intel 4004 is a 4 bit microprocessor and it
was not a powerful microprocessor. It can perform addition and subtraction
operation on 4 bits at a time.

However it was Intel’s 8080 was the first microprocessor to make it to Home
computers. It was introduced during the year 1974 and it can perform 8 bit
operations. Then during the year 1976, Intel introduced 8085 processors
which is nothing but an update of 8080 processors.8080 processors are
updated by adding two Enable/Disable Instructions, Three added interrupt
pins and serial I/O pins. Intel introduced 8086 pins during the year 1976. The
major difference between 8085 and 8086 processor is that 8085 is an 8 bit
processor, but 8086 processor is a 16 bit processor. The greatest advantage
of the above processors are that it do not contain Floating point instructions.
Here floating point refers to the radix point or decimal point.
For example: 123.456 is a floating point representation. Processors such as
8085 and 8086 do not support such representations and instructions.

8086 Microprocessor Trainer Kit Model

Intel later introduced 8087 processor which was the first math co-processor
and later the 8088 processor which was incorporated into IBM personal
computers.

As the years progressed lots of processors from

8088,80286,80386,80486,Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV and now
Core2Duo,Dual Core and Quad core processors are the latest in the market.

COPROCESSORS

A coprocessor is a chip that works side-by-side with the computer's

main processor ( CPU). The coprocessor handles some of the more
specialized tasks, such as doing math calculations or displaying graphics on
the screen

The coprocessor performs specialized tasks according to its type. It performs

arithmetic operations, graphics processing, cryptography, signal processing,
string processing and many more. 

The coprocessor shares the same memory, IO system, bus, control logic and
clock generator.

The 8086 and 8088 can perform most of the operations but their instruction
set is not able to perform complex mathematical operations, so in these
cases the microprocessor requires the math coprocessor like Intel 8087 math
coprocessor, which can easily perform these operations very quickly.

Block Diagram of Coprocessor Configuration

Advantages

Having more than one processor results in increased efficiency.

Each of the processors have their own local bus to access the local memory
or I/O devices. This makes it easy to achieve parallel processing.
 The system structure is flexible, i.e. the failure of one module doesn’t affect
the whole system failure; faulty module can be replaced later.

Difference between processor and coprocessor 

The main difference between processor and coprocessor is that

the processor is the main processing unit of the computer that performs
arithmetic, logic and control operations according to the instructions while
the coprocessor is a specialized processor that supports the main processor

Memory

RAM

RAM(Random Access Memory) is a part of computer’s Main Memory which

is directly accessible by CPU.

RAM used to store and access data in any order (i.e. in random order), so the
name Random Access Memory

RAM is used to store the data that is currently processed by the CPU

It stores data temporarily. RAM is volatile in nature, it means if the power

goes off, the stored information is lost.

Data stored in this memory can be altered or changed.

 RAM is significantly faster than a hard disk .Access time in RAM is
independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory
can access in same amount of time as data accessed randomly

it is very expensive.

Data stored in this memory can be altered or changed

Types of RAM

SRAM (Static RAM):

The SRAM memories consist of circuits capable of retaining the stored

information as long as the power is applied. Thus this type of memories is
called volatile memories. That means this type of memory requires constant
power. SRAM memories are used to build Cache Memory.

Fast and has less access time. Consists of flip-flop using either transistor or
MOS (Mosfet).

For each bit it requires one flip-flop. Status of each bit remains as it is
unless there is write operation or power is off.

e.g. Cache memory

Advantages

Fast and has less access time

Refreshing circuit is not required.

Disadvantages
 Costly

low package density.

Requires more space.

SRAM Memory Cell: 

Flip-Flops are the basic memory cells in a static RAM. Each flip-flop is based
on either two bipolar transistors or MOSFETS
SRAM is logically the more complex technology – requiring six transistors per
bit – however.

A cell holds a single bit value for as long as there is power. The two

access points to the cell are known as bit lines (BL). The bit lines
comprise of the stored bit value and its complement.

Two access transistors connected to bit lines to enable and disable access
to the stored data for reading and writing operations.

signal that controls the access transistors is referred to as a word ine (WL).

To read the contents of the RAM cell, the word line is set high, allowing the
contents of the cell to be read out to the b line (and its inverse) to the b-- line.

To write the cell, again set the word line high and set the bit line (and its
inverse) to the value we wish to store, forcing the cell into the appropriate
state.

DRAM Memory Cell

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory that uses capacitors to

store the bits. The charging and discharging of the capacitor represents 0 and 1
i.e. the two possible values that can be stored in a bit.

Relatively less expensive RAM is DRAM, due to the use of one transistor and
one

The dynamic term indicates that the charges are continuously leaking even
when power on , consumes more power.
 To retain data for a long time, it needs to be repeatedly refreshed which
requires additional refresh circuitry. Due to leaking charge DRAM loses data
even if power is switched on.

DRAM is available in the higher amount of capacity and is less expensive. It

requires only a single transistor for the single block of memory.

Working of typical DRAM cell:

At the time of reading and writing the address line is activated.

The transistor present in the circuitry behaves as a switch that is closed  if a

voltage is applied to the address line and open  if no voltage is applied to the
address line.

For the write operation, a voltage signal is employed to the bit line where
high voltage shows 1, and low voltage indicates 0. A signal is then used to the
address line which enables transferring of the charge to the capacitor.

When the address line is chosen for executing read operation, the transistor
turns on and the charge stored on the capacitor is supplied out onto a bit
 Fig: DRAM cell

Advantages of DRAM
 Very dense
 Low cost per bit
 Simple memory cell structure

Disadvantages of DRAM

 Complex manufacturing process

 Data requires refreshing

 More complex external circuitry required (read and refresh periodically)

 Volatile memory

 Relatively slow operational speed

Difference between SRAM and DRAM

Types of DRAM
There are mainly 5 types of DRAM:

1. Asynchronous DRAM (ADRAM): 

DRAM described above is the asynchronous type DRAM. The timing of the
memory device is controlled asynchronously. A specialized memory controller
circuit generates the necessary control signals to control the timing.
The CPU must take into account the delay in the response of the memory.
2. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): 
These RAM chips’ access speed is directly synchronized with the CPU’s
clock. For this, the memory chips remain ready for operation when the CPU
expects them to be ready. These memories operate at the CPU-memory
bus without imposing wait states.
3. Double-Data-Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM): 
This faster version of SDRAM performs its operations on both edges of the
clock signal; whereas a standard SDRAM performs its operations on the
rising edge of the clock signal. Since they transfer data on both edges of the
clock, the data transfer rate is doubled. To access the data at high rate, the
 memory cells are organized into two groups. Each group is accessed
separately.
4. Rambus DRAM (RDRAM): The RDRAM provides a very high data transfer
rate over a narrow CPU-memory bus. It uses various speedup mechanisms,
like synchronous memory interface, caching inside the DRAM chips and
very fast signal timing. The Rambus data bus width is 8 or 9 bits.
Rambus works by transferring data on both the leading and trailing
edge of the clock cycle. The clock runs at the high speed of 400MHz.
With two operations per clock cycle, the data is transferred at a speed
of 800MHz.
5. Cache DRAM (CDRAM): This memory is a special type DRAM memory with
an on-chip cache memory (SRAM) that acts as a high-speed buffer for the
main DRAM.
Costly and low package density. Requires more space.

SDRAM (More Detailes)

SDRAM, or Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory

It is a form of DRAM semiconductor memory can run at faster speeds than

conventional DRAM.

SDRAM memory is widely used in computers and other computing related

technology.

The basic idea behind SDRAM has been in existence for many years. The first
ideas appeared as early as the 1970s. With the basic SDRAM established, further
develops took place. A form of SDRAM known as double data rate, DDR SDRAM
appeared in 2000 with JEDEC Release 1 of their standard 79C which was updated
to Release 2 in May 2002 and then Release C in March 2003

After SDRAM was introduced, further generations of double data rate RAM
have entered the mass market – DDR which is also known as DDR1, DDR2, DDR3
and DDR4.

DDR SDRM was followed by the next version named DDR2 SDRAM. It was first
introduced in mid 2003 when two clock rates were available: 200 MHz (referred
to as PC2-3200) and 266 MHz (PC2-4200). The first offerings of DDR2 SDRAM
were inferior to the previous DDR SDRA, but by the end of 2004 its performance
had been improved making its performance exceed that of DDR formats.

Later the next version of SDRAM was launched. Known as DDR3 SDRAM, the
first prototypes were announced in early 2005. However it took until mid-2007
before the first computer motherboards using DDR3 became available.Further
developments include the next phase of SDRAM which will be DDR4 SDRAM.

Traditional forms of memory including DRAM operate in an asynchronous

manner. They react to changes as the control inputs change, and also they are
only able to operate as the requests are presented to them, dealing with one at
a time.

SDRAM is able to operate more efficiently. It is synchronised to the clock of

the processor and hence to the bus .

With SDRAM having a synchronous interface, it has an internal finite state

machine that pipelines incoming instructions. This enables the SDRAM to
operate in a more complex fashion than an asynchronous DRAM.
 This enables it to operate at much higher speeds. As a result of this SDRAM is
capable of keeping two sets of memory addresses open simultaneously. By
transferring data alternately from one set of addresses, and then the other,
SDRAM cuts down on the delays associated with asynchronous RAM, which
must close one address bank before opening the next.

The pipelining is used to describe the process whereby the SDRAM can accept a
new instruction before it has finished processing he previous one. In other words,
it can effectively process two instructions at once.

For writing, one write command can be immediately followed by another without
waiting for the original data to be stored within the SDRAM memory itself.

For reading the requested data appears a fixed number of clock pulses after the
read instruction was presented. It is possible to send additional instructions
during the delay period which is termed the latency of the SDRAM.

DDRAM

Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM: A clock is used to read data from a
DRAM. DDR memory reads data on both the rising and falling edge of the
clock, achieving a faster data rate. Often used in notebook computers
because it also consumes less power.

RDRAM

 Stands for "Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory." It is a type of

RAM made by Rambus and is the fastest type of computer memory
available.
 Rambus works by transferring data on both the leading and
trailing edge of the clock cycle. The clock runs at the high
 speed of 400MHz. With two operations per clock cycle, the data
is transferred at a speed of 800MHz.
 Typical SDRAM can transfer data at speeds up to 133 MHz, while
standard RDRAM can crank it up over 1 GHz.
 Due to high the speed RDRAM is typically used for video memory on
graphics acclerator cards, for cache memory (located on the CPU),
and for system memory in high-performance workstations and
servers.

 An improvement to RDRAM called Direct Rambus (DRDRAM) allows

for even faster data transfer rates. DRDRAM uses a 16-bit bus rather
than the 8-bit bus in DRAM , which means it can handle 8
operations at once and can transfer data at a speeds of 1.6 GHz. Now
that's fast.

 RDRAM came in 16-bit (single channel) and 32-bit (dual channel)

modules with clock rates from 266 to 800 MHz.
Using 16 bit peak transfer rate is 800x2bite or 1600MB/s (1.6GB/s)
 The Direct RDRAM chips used in computers were housed in Rambus
Inline Memory Modules (RIMMs) with metal covers. RIMMs used
different pin settings and were not interchangeable with DIMMs and
SDRAM.
MEMORY REFRESHING

 Memory refresh defines the characteristics of dynamic random access

memory (DRAM)
 It is the process of periodically reading information from an area
of computer memory and immediately rewriting the read information to
the same area without modification, for the purpose of preserving the
information.

 A DRAM cell is composed of an access transistor and a capacitor. Data is

stored in the capacitor as electrical charge, but electrical charge leaks over
time. Therefore, DRAM must be refreshed periodically to preserve the
stored data. DRAM requires an external memory refresh circuit

 . It is a background maintenance process that is necessary for operation of

DRAMs. When in operation, each of the memory cells needs to be
refreshed repeatedly.
 The maximum interval between two refreshes is defined by the
manufacturer of the memory and lies in the millisecond segment.
 Memory read and write operations are not available during the process of
a refresh cycle.
 In modern memory chips the time for overhead is so small that it usually
does not slow down memory operation.

Types of RAM MODULES- DIMM, SIMM AND RIMM

SIMM

 Short for single inline memory module, SIMM is a memory module

developed by Wang laboratories in 1983.
  The SIMM circuit board that holds six to nine memory chips per board, the
ninth chip usually an error checking chip (parity or non parity).
 SIMMs use a 32-bit bus
 The SIMM was used with computers using a 486, early Intel Pentium, and
compatible processors.
 Pentium is 64-bit and a SIMM is only 32-bits wide, they must be installed
two at a time when used with any 64-bit processor
 SIMM modules used a 32-bit data bus and usually had 72-pins.

DIMM

 DIMM Stands for "Dual In-Line Memory Module."

 DIMM is a memory module that contains one or several random access memory
(RAM) chips on a small circuit board with pins that connect it to the computer
motherboard
 It uses a 64-bit bus to the memory, whereas a single in-line memory module
(SIMM) only has a 32-bit path.
 This allows DIMMs to transfer more data at once. Because DIMMs have faster
data transfer capabilities than SIMMs.
 (128-bit for dual, 256-bit for quad).
 It is the current standard used by DDR, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4 SDRAM
 laptops use a smaller variant of DIMM called SO-DIMM
RIMM

 RIMM is commonly stand for "Rambus inline memory module," Kingston

Technology has trademarked "RIMM" and uses only that term.
 A RIMM has a 184-pin connector and an SO-RIMM module has a 160-pin
connector.
 An SO-RIMM is smaller and is used in systems that require smaller form
factors. ,in lap tops

 A RIMM module consists of RDRAM chips that are attached using a thin

layer of solder, a metal alloy that, when melted, fuses metals to each other.
Solder balls on each chip create a metal pathway used to conduct
electricity.
 RIMM that use a 32-bit data bus has a single notch and 232-pins, it supports dual
channel
 Rambus works by transferring data on both the leading and trailing
edge of the clock cycle. The clock runs at the high speed of 400MHz.
With two operations per clock cycle, the data is transferred at a speed
of 800MHz.
 The 16-bit wide Rambus channel (2 bytes wide) lets the data transfer
at a rate of up to 1.6 GB per second.
 Rambus uses transmission line technology, which enables the signal
to enter one side of the module, access the RDRAM, exit the other
side and travel through the next memory connector.
.

CASH MEMORY - CLASSIFICATION

Cache definition : The Cache Memory (Pronounced as "cash") is the volatile

computer memory which is very nearest to the CPU so also called CPU
memory, all the Recent Instructions are Stored into the Cache Memory. It is
the fastest memory that provides high-speed data access to a computer
microprocessor. Cache meaning is that it is used for storing the input which is
given by the user and which is necessary for the computer microprocessor to
Perform a Task. But the Capacity of the Cache Memory is too low in compare
to Memory (random access memory (RAM)) and Hard Disk.

The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity. Earlier
cache memories were available separately but the microprocessors contain
the cache memory on the chip itself.

Cache Memory

The cache memory stores the program (or its part) currently being executed
or which may be executed within a short period of time. The cache memory
also stores temporary data that the CPU may frequently require for
manipulation.
The cache memory works according to various algorithms, which decide
what information it has to store. These algorithms work out the probability
to decide which data would be most frequently needed. This probability is
worked out on the basis of past observations.

It acts as a high speed buffer between CPU and main memory and is used to
temporary store very active data and action during processing since the
cache memory is faster then main memory, the processing speed is increased
by making the data and instructions needed in current processing available in
cache. The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity.

Type of Cache Memory

Level 1 (L1) cache or Primary Cache

L1 is the primary type cache memory. The Size of the L1 cache very small
comparison to others that is between 2KB to 64KB, it depent on computer
processor. It is a embedded register in the computer
microprocessor(CPU).The Instructions that are required by the CPU that are
firstly searched in L1 Cache. Example of registers are accumulator, address
register,, Program counter etc.

Level 2 (L2) cache or Secondary Cache

L2 is seconday type cache memory. The Size of the L2 cache is more

capacious than L1 that is between 256KB to 512KB.L2 cache is Located on
computer microprocessor.

After searching the Instructions in L1 Cache,if not found then it searched into
L2 cache by computer microprocessor. The high-speed system bus
interconnecting the cache to the microprocessor.
Level 3 (L3) cache or Main Memory

The L3 cache is larger in size but also slower in speed than L1 and L2,it's size
is between 1MB to 8MB.In Multicore processors, each core may have
seperate L1 and L2,but all core share a common L3 cache. L3 cache double
speed than the RAM.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

CHIPSET AND SUPPORT CHIP CMOS CHIP CMOS SETUP BIOS

POST MECHANISM

POST, short for Power On Self Test, is the initial set of diagnostic tests
performed by the computer right after it's powered on, with the intent to
check for any hardware related issues. Computers aren't the only devices
that run a POST. Some appliances, medical equipment, and other devices
also run very similar self-tests after being powered on.

A Power On Self Test is the first step of the boot sequence. It doesn't matter
if you've just restarted your computer or if you've just powered it on for the
first time in days; the POST is going to run, regardless.

POST doesn't rely on any specific operating system. In fact, there doesn't
even need to be an OS installed on a hard drive for the POST to run. This
is because the test is handled by the system's BIOS, not any installed
software.

A Power On Self Test checks that basic system devices are present and
working properly, like the keyboard and other peripheral devices, and other
hardware elements like the processor, storage devices, and memory.

The computer will continue to boot after the POST but only if it was
successful. Problems can certainly appear after the POST, like Windows
hanging during startup, but most of the time those can be attributed to an
operating system or software problem, not a hardware one.

If the POST finds something wrong during its test, you'll usually get an
error of some kind, and hopefully, one clear enough to help jump-start
the troubleshooting process.

Problems During the POST

Remember that the Power On Self Test is just that: a self-test. Just about
anything that might prevent the computer from continuing to start will
prompt some kind of error.
Errors might come in the form of flashing LEDs, audible beeps, or error
messages on the monitor, all of which are technically referred to as POST
codes, beep codes, and on-screen POST error messages, respectively.

If some part of the POST fails, you'll know very soon after powering on your
computer, but how you find out depends on the type, and severity, of the
problem.

For example, if the problem lies with the video card, and therefore you can't
see anything on the monitor, then looking for an error message wouldn't be
as helpful as listening for a beep code or reading a POST code with a POST
test card.

VARIOUS EXPANSION CARDS- I/O,GRAPHICS,NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS,

MODEM

I/O CARD

Alternatively referred to as an IO device, an input/output device is any

hardware used by a human operator or other systems to communicate with
a computer. As the name suggests, input/output devices are capable of
sending data (output) to a computer and receiving data from a computer
(input).

Examples of input/output devices: CD-R/RW, DVD, and Blu-ray drive, Digital

camera

Floppy diskette drive,Hard drives,Modem, Network adapter, SD Card, Touch

screen, USB thumb drives

The Graphics Card

The Graphics Card is responsible for rendering an image to your monitor, it
does this by converting data into a signal your monitor can understand. Te
better your graphics card the better, and smoother an image can be
produced. This is naturally very important for gamers and video editors.

A Graphics Card is a piece of computer hardware that produces the image

you see on a monitor.The Graphics Card is responsible for rendering an
image to your monitor, it does this by converting data into a signal your
monitor can understand.The better your graphics card the better, and
smoother an image can be produced. This is naturally very important for
gamers and video editors.

TYPES OF GRAPHICS CARDS

Integrated – Graphics built into the motherboard where no add-in card is

used. You’ll find these built into most ‘standard’ laptops and computers, they
are a cost-effective model but cannot be easily upgraded.

Discrete – An add-in graphics card that is installed on to the motherboard as

an extra component. Ideal for those wanting to modify their system by
upgrading the graphics cards.

NIC: Short for network interface card, the NIC is also referred to as an
Ethernet card and network adapter. A NIC is a computer expansion card for
connecting to a network (e.g., home network or Internet) using an Ethernet
cable with an RJ-45 connector.

Wireless network card

Due to the popularity and low cost of the Ethernet standard, nearly all
new computers have a network interface build directly into the
 motherboard. The top image shows the SMC EZ Card 10/100 PCI network
card, one of the more common examples.

Network cards can communicate with each other over the same network
using a network switch, or if two computers are directly connected. When
computers need to connect to a different network (e.g., the Internet), they
must be use a router to route the network packets to the correct network.

In a desktop computer, the network card is most often located near the USB
ports on the back if it is an onboard version. If it is a separate network card
(not onboard), it usually is located at the back of the computer, near the
bottom, taking up a PCI slot.

In a laptop, the network card is integrated into the motherboard. The

network port where you plug in a network cable is often located on the
side on the laptop, or it may be located on the back. If you cannot find a
network port on your laptop, it may only have a wireless network. You
can purchase a network card for laptops, which is installed into a PC card
slot on the side of the laptop, if available.

ROM, PROM, EPROM, UVEPROM, EAPROM

ROM stands for Read-only Memory. It is a type of memory that does not lose
its contents when the power is turned off. For this reason, ROM is also called

non-volatile memory. Because ROMs are deployed in such a wide variety of

applications, there are different types of ROMs suited to different
applications across the industry.

10.Different Types of ROM

 11.

o PRO
M

(programmable ROM) and OTP

PROM refers to the kind of ROM that the user can burn information into. In
other words, PROM is a user-programmable memory. For every bit of the
PROM, there exists a fuse. PROM is programmed by blowing the fuses. If the
information burned into PROM is wrong, that PROM must be discarded since
its internal fuses are blown permanently. For this reason, PROM is also
referred to as OTP (One Time Programmable). Programming ROM, also called
burning ROM, requires special equipment called a ROM burner or ROM
programmer.

o EPROM (erasable programmable ROM) and UV-EPROM

EPROM was invented to allow making changes in the contents of PROM after
it is burned. In EPROM, one can program the memory chip and erase it
thousands of times. This is especially necessary during the development of
the prototype of a microprocessor-based project. A widely used EPROM is
called UV-EPROM, where UV stands for ultraviolet. The only problem with
UV-EPROM is that erasing its contents can take up to 20 minutes.
All UV-EPROM chips have a window through which the programmer can
shine ultraviolet (UV) radiation to erase the chip’s contents. For this reason,
EPROM is also referred to as UV-erasable EPROM or simply UV-EPROM.

Programming a UV-EPROM

To program a UV-EPROM chip, the following steps must be taken:

Its contents must be erased. To erase a chip, remove it from its socket on the
system board and place it in EPROM erasure equipment to expose it to UV
radiation for 5—20 minutes. Program the chip. To program a UV-EPROM
chip, place it in the ROM burner (programmer). To burn code or data into
EPROM, the ROM burner uses 12.5 volts or higher, depending on the EPROM
type. This voltage is referred to as Vpp in the UV-EPROM data sheet. Place
the chip back into its socket on the system board. As can be seen from the
above steps, not only is there an EPROM programmer (burner), but there is
also separate EPROM erasure equipment.

o EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM)

EEPROM has several advantages over EPROM, such as the fact that its
method of erasure is electrical and therefore instant. as opposed to the 20-
minute erasure time required for UV-EPROM. In addition, in EEPROM one
can select which byte to be erased, in contrast to UV-EPROM, in which the
entire contents of ROM are erased. However, the main advantage of
EEPROM is that one can program and erase its contents while it is still in the
system board. it does not require physical removal of the memory chip from
its socket. In other words, unlike UV-EPROM, EEPROM does not require an
external erasure and programming device. To utilize EEPROM fully, the
designer must incorporate the circuitry to program the EEPROM into the
system board. In general, the cost per bit for EEPROM is much higher than
for UV-EPROM.

o Flash memory EPROM

Since the early 1990s, Flash EPROM has become a popular user-
programmable memory chip. and for good reasons. First, the erasure of the
entire contents takes less than a second, or one might say in a flash, hence its
name, Flash memory. In addition, the erasure method is electrical, and for
this reason, it is sometimes referred to as Flash EEPROM. To avoid confusion,
it is commonly called Flash memory. The major difference between EEPROM
and Flash memory is that when Flash memory’s contents are erased, the
entire device is erased, in contrast to EEPROM, where one can erase a
desired byte. Although in many Flash memories recently made available the
contents are divided into blocks and the erasure can be done block by block,
unlike EEPROM, Flash memory has no byte erasure option. Because Flash
memory can be programmed while it is in its socket on the system board, it is
widely used to upgrade the BIOS ROM of the PC. Some designers believe that
Flash memory will replace the hard disk as a mass storage medium. This
would increase the performance of the computer tremendously since Flash
memory is semiconductor memory with access time in the range of 100 ns
compared with disk access time in the range of tens of milliseconds. For this
to happen, Flash memory’s program/erase cycles must become infinite, just
like hard disks. Program/erase cycle refers to the number of times that a chip
can be erased and reprogrammed before it becomes unusable. At this time,
the program/erase cycle is 100,000 for Flash and EEPROM, 1000 for UV-
EPROM, and infinite for RAM and disks.

o Mask ROM
Mask ROM refers to a kind of ROM in which the contents are programmed by
the IC manufacturer. In other words, it is not a user-programmable ROM. The
term mask is used in IC fabrication. Since the process is costly, mask ROM is
used when the needed volume is high (hundreds of thousands) and it is
absolutely certain that the contents will not change. It is common practice to
use UV-EPROM or Flash for the development phase of a project, and only
afier the code/data have been finalized is the mask version of the product
ordered. The main advantage of mask ROM is its cost, since it is significantly
cheaper than other kinds of ROM, but if an error is found in the data/code,
the entire batch must be thrown away. It must be noted that all ROM
memories have 8 bits for data pins; therefore, the organization is x8.

FIRMWARE

Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a

hardware device. It provides the necessary instructions for how the device
communicates with the other computer hardware. But how can software be
programmed onto hardware? Good question. Firmware is typically stored in
the flash ROM of a hardware device. While ROM is "read-only memory,"
flash ROM can be erased and rewritten because it is actually a type of flash
memory.

Firmware can be thought of as "semi-permanent" since it remains the same

unless it is updated by a firmware updater. You may need to update the
firmware of certain devices, such as hard drives and video cards in order for
them to work with a new operating system. CD and DVD drive manufacturers
often make firmware updates available that allow the drives to read faster
media. Sometimes manufacturers release firmware updates that simply
make their devices work more efficiently.
You can usually find firmware updates by going to the "Support" or
"Downloads" area of a manufacturer's website. Keeping your firmware up-
to-date is often not necessary, but it is still a good idea. Just make sure that
once you start a firmware updater, you let the update finish, because most
devices will not function if their firmware is not recognized.