Plant body i. Chloroplasts- green plastid 2. Bodered pits: Bodered, a Araceae,Musa sp.

, Carica
1.Plant body consists of with chlorophyll, essential in round pit with a thickened papaya, Hevea brasiliensis
organs ie: shoot, leaf, flower, phosynthesis margin. The width of the pit d. Essential Oil
stem, roots ii. Chromoplasts- coloured is narrower than the original Usually occurs in oil glands,
2.Vegetative organs: stem, plastids that store pigment pit field. volatile and very odoriferous
roots, leaves molecules ERGASTIC SUBSTANCES: eg: Eucalyptus oil, orange
3.Reproductive organs: iii. Leucoplasts: white or Chemical substances occur in peel oil,jasmine,rose etc.
flower, fruit, seeds colourless plastids plant body (inclusion in the e. Gums
4.Each organ is made up of Non living cells cytoplasm, vacuoles, cell Exuded out from the stem of
tissues Cell walls wall) as products of many plant (eg: in Acacia sp.)
5.Tissue consist of many cells 1.Gives rigidity, form and metabolism or as by f. Resin
(group of cells which are protection to the cell products. Found in resin ducts of
different in structure or 2.Persistent, being Classified as follows: various conifers.(eg:
function or both) preserverd well during -Food products Turpentine from pine tree,
6.Arrangement of tissues in specimens preperation or -Secretory products (mounting fluid, canada
the plant and in its major death. -Waste product balsam from Abies alsamea)
organs reveals a definate 3.Wood & bark is composed A.Food Product-Products g. Organic acid
structural and functional only of cell walls-protoplast manufactured by protoplasm (eg: malic acid in the fruit of
organization died & degenerate. of cells from the simple apple, citric acid in citrus)
7.eg: vascular tissue- 4.Functions: inorganic substances like ii.Nitrogenous waste
transportation along the root i. Physical support to the cell carbondioxide & water and product: Alkaloids -
to shoot, found in most plant ii. Give shape to the cell stored in cells as food Thought to be end products
organs iii. Protect cell from osmotic materials: of nitrogen metabolism and
Plant Organs expansion 1. Carbohydrates: starch, of great importance of their
1.Plant organs are groups of 5.4 major components: Inulin, hemicellulose, poisonous and medicnal
tissues that act together to cellulose, hemicelluloses, cellulose, sugars properties eg: atropine,
run specific functions for the protein and pectic 2. Nitrogenous products: cocaine, morphine, nicotine,
whole plant substances proteins and amino quinine, strychnine, etc.
2.Leaf, stem, root, fruit, 6.Cellulose: polymer compounds) Type of crystal:
flower composed purely of glucose 3. Fat and Fatty Oil: stearin, Calcium carbonate
Roots: anchorage (to the molecules linked to each palmitin, olein, inolein crystals( cystoliths) : is
ground) water and mineral other by β-1,4 bonds: flat, B.Secretory Product celullose extension of the cell
absorption, storage, ribbon-like & in aggregates= Products secreted by wall in which the calsium
conduction microfibril protoplasm which are not carbonate is diposited in the
3.Stem: Support the leaves 7.Other substances: cutin, nutritional product but may form of fine
and fruits and suberin, lignin and waxes help or accelerate various granulescystoliths, occur in in
whole,plant,Conduction of 8.Cutin in the epidermis, reactions in the cells. the epidermal cells of leaves
water and food (sugar),Other suberin in the secondary 1.Enzymes (eg. Diastase of many flowering plants.
morphological adaptations tissue, waxes at the converts starch to sugar, Calcium oxalate crystals:
(as storage) surface(cuticle) lipase breaks up fats to the leaves and other organs
4.Leaves: 9.Cuticle: the layer of cutin glycerine & fatty acids) of many plant contain crystal
photosynthesis,transpiration, covering the outer wall of the 2.Colour in cells of calcium oxalate in very
other morphological epidermis (chlorophyll, anthocyanins, diverse forms: Raphides,
adaptations 10.Middle lamella – an carotenoid) drusses, sand crystals, etc.
5.Flowers, Fruit and Seed: extremely thin layer, act as 3.Nectar (secreted by Plant tissue system:
Reproductive organs an intercellular glue to bind special glands or organs of Generally there are 3 types
Living Cells the walls between adjacent the flowers =nectaries). of tissues:
CYTOPLASM –the cells. Occur on flowers (floral i.Dermal tissue (epidermis)
protoplasmic matrix Intercellular connections: nectaries), on vegetatif ii.Ground tissue
surrounding the nucleus. Plasmodesmata: parts(extrafloral nectaries) (parenchyma, collenchyma &
NUCLEUS- embedded in 1.Cytoplasmic channels lined 4. Osmophors (the sclerenchyma)
protoplasmic body usually in with plasma membrane, fragrance of the flowers iii.Vascular tissue (xylem &
spherical or oval in shape, connect the protoplast of secretes from special gland = phloem)
surrounded by envelope, adjacent cells across the wall. osmophors) 1.Simple Tissues:
condense than cytoplasm, 2.Allows intrercellular C.Waste Product parenchyma, collenchyma &
control the whole cell movement of water, nutrien Product resulting from sclerenchyma
activities.fn: store genes on and other molecules. metabolic 2.Complex Tissues:
chromosomes, cell division, 3.Located in the narrow areas activities of protoplasm, and epidermis, xylem & phloem
produce ribosomes in of cell walls called primary pit usually are stored in the dead Parenchyma
nucleolus etc. field. cells =metabolic waste of 1.Main representative of the
Divided into 3 functional Intercellular connections:PITS plant. ground tissue system, found
compartments: 1.Depressed or narrow part 2 Types: non-nitrogenous & ii in all plant organs: cortex and
Nucleus of cell wall = pit nitrogenous pith of stems, leaves, seeds
membrane/envelope,Nucleop 2.In primary wall – primary 1. Non-nitrogenous waste: and flowers.
lasm ,Nucleolus pit/primary pit- a.Tannins: 2.Variable in their
MITOCONDRIA field/primordial pit derivatives of phenol & morphology and carry on a
1.Produce energy for the cell 3.Primary pit is a thin place in related to glucosides, found veriety of functions in
(mitocondriaconvert glucose the wall penetrated by in cell walls, dead cells, in the relation to their position in
into ATP through cellular plasmodesmata heart wood and in the bark the plant.
respiration) 4.Secondary wall developed, eg: in family Theaceae) 3.Consist of isodiametric,
2.Pocess DNA and ribosomes the plasmodesmata remain in b. Mineral Crystals: thin-walled and equally
but their genetic capability is the pit membrane as may occur in cell cavity or expanded cells sometimes
limited. connection between the cell walls with vary of size polyhedral
3.that store starch granules, cytoplasmic mass filling, the and shapes (drusses, Types of parenchyma:
protein or lipids. pit cavities in secondary wall, raphides, ioblast,rhombic, a. Meristematic parenchyma
PLASTID continuous to thicken the prismatic & sand crystals) -Meristematic cells are
1. Organelle with a double cavities become canals usually consist of calcium parenchyma cells
membrane envelope and a Type of pits: carbonate, calcium oxalate -Consist of a group of cells
complex of internal 1.Simple pits: Not bodered, or silica. which remain in continuous
membrane. may be round or slit-shape. c.Latex state of division or they
2.Contains DNA and can Pit field diameter determine Milkyor watery juice juice retain their power of division.
replicate autonomously the width of the entire pit. found in long branching -composed of immature cells
3.3 types of plastids: tubes=latex tubes. Eg: -no intracellular spaces
 -abundant cytoplasm with Cells that have one or several generally do not retain living Very much elongated, hair-
one or more nuclei walls that are highly protoplast at maturity like form and sometimes
-vacuoles are small or modified, having many folds, 2.Main function as supporting branched.
absent. ridges and papillae in their tissue that withstands various vi. Lagenosclereids
b. Branched inner face to increase strains resulting from Similar to osteosclereid with
parenchyma(Structural absorption or secretion stretching & bending, which broader base to form
parenchyma) surface. makes the plant ‘elastic’ ‘conical-flask’ Shape. Found
-Hydrophytes (aquatic) The wall=transfer wall 3.2 categories/groups: in seed testa of nuts.
plants, the parenchyma cell Collenchyma i. Fibers Xylem:
in the cortex posses well 1.Collenchyma consists of ii.Sclerids 1.Xylem is the water
developed air spaces thick-walled cells, usually Fibers conducting tissue in plant
(intercellular spaces) with axially elongated, unevenly 1.Elongated, slender and from the root to the leaves,
arms = aerenchyma. thickened and is regarding as tapering sclerenchyma cell usually associated with the
Fn: the aerenchyma keep the a supporting tissue and with more or less thick phloem (the food conducting
buoyancy of the plants and frequently found immediately secondary wall tissue)
physical support Air spaces beneath the epidermis 2.Can be septated where Functions:
also facilitate exchange of 2.Mainly composed of water thin partitions developed = i.Conduction of water and
gases. and pectin. septate fibres solutes/minerals
c. Storage parenchyma Typically have a glistering or 3.Also pitted: simple pit or ii. Mechanical support
Specialized large, greatly gleaming appearance half bordered iii. Storage of water and
expanded vacuole, because of the large amount 4.May be so thick that the nutrien
chlorpphyll-free, thin-walled of water lumen can be too narrow or 2.Composed of diverse types
and water turgid cells as 3.Closely related to almost or entirely closed of cells, that have become
‘water storage tissue’ in parenchyma: have complete (occluded) specialized in structure and
many sacculent and protoplast, capable of 5.Particularly common in function to perform various
xerophytic plants. Eg: in Aloe, resuming meristematic phloem = phloem fibers, transport activities which:
Agave. activity, in primary wall and xilem = xilem/wood fibers i. Tracheids
-Store food in potato tuber, not lignified (or very rarely 6.Found in many of plant ii. Fibers and fibre-tracheids
grain, cassava: parenchyma lignified). The differences are organs: cortex, midrib, iii.Vessels elements
act as special storage tissue thicker wall and elongated in petiole etc. iv. Wood fibers
to store food material in the collenchyma 7.Libriform fiber v. Wood parenchyma
form of starch grains, protein, 4.Differs from other Sclerids 3.Principal conductive cells
fats,lipid and oils. supporting tissues 1.Sclerids also known as types of the xylem are:
Cells are usually of an sclerenchyma, as ‘spicular cells’ or ‘stone Tracheid and vessel
intermediate size, vacuole is collenchyma has nonlignified cells’are varied in form, elements, collectively =
almost completely absent, primary wall, not uniformly typically more isodiametric tracheary elements
organelles are obscured and thickened than fibres. 4.Tarcheary elements,
filled with storage product. Types of Collenchyma: 2.Commonly found in cortex generally elongated/selender
Eg: Arachis hypogea a.Angular collenchymas and pith of Gymnosperms cells and characterized by
-Parenchyma with thick 1.The most common type and dicotyledons, also having rigid, lignified, often
primary walls deposited by 2.The cell corners are common in fruit and seed extensively pitted secondary
hemicelluloses (commonly differentially thickened or the (aundant in seed coat) cell and elimation of
parenchyma cells have thin deposition may be restricted 3.Arranged in singly or in protoplasmic content at
walls). Later, hemicelluloses to the corner groups maturity
are digested out of the walls, 3. Cells are compactly 4.Secondary walls of sclerids 5.Distinctive feature of
resulting sugars aqre used y arranged & no intercellular typically lignified & vary ion tracheary elements is the
the plant à the wall become spaces thickness presence of bodered pits in
quite thin. 4.Seen in herbaceous stems Types of sclerids: their lateral walls to facilitate
Eg. In the endosperm of and petiole. Eg: Begonia, i.Brachysclereids=stone lateral conduction and
Phoenix dactylifera, Cannabis, Ficus and Vitis cells support.
Diospyros sp., Asparagus and b.Lamellar collenchyma Short and more or less Tracheids
Coffea arabica. Which the 1.Very much alike to angular isodimetric. Commonly 1.Fundamental cell type in
wall of the endosperm collenchyma but the cells are distributed in cortex, phloem xylem
become thinner during regularly arranged and pith of stem and in fruit 2.Distinguished from vessel
germination. 2.Thickening occurs at the pulp elements as they are very
d. Palisade parenchyma inner and outer tangential ii. Macrosclereids elongated, having tapering,
When parenchyma are walls More or less rod-like cells rounded or oval ends,
exposed to light they develop 3.This type is found usually in forming palisade-like lignified and imperforate
chloroplast in them, such the petiole of leaves. epidermal layer of many (water pass from cell to cell
tissue = chlorenchyma, Eg: Sambucus, Rhamnus seeds and fruits, frequently via a series of pit membrane
chlorophyll-rich parenchyma found in xerophytic leaves of bodered pit pairs)
for photosynthesis. and stem cortice(cortex). 3.Eliminate protoplast at
The cells touch each other as c.Lacuna collenchyma iii. Osteosclerids maturity-dead cells with large
little as possible to free 1.Thickening around the cell Bone-shaped sclerids. lumen or cavity without
maximum surface for CO2 walls facing the cavity lumen Commonly found in content
asorption. A large central or intracellular spaces hypodermal layers of seeds 4.Posses various kinds of
vacuole press the chloroplast (deposition of hemicellulose and fruits, also in xerophytic thickenings: annular, spiral,
into a uniform layer next to and pectin occurs only along leaves scalariform, reticulate, pitted
the wall to prevent self- the border of intercellular iv. Osteosclerids 5.Xylem of gymnosperm is
shading and placing the spaces) Bone-shaped sclerids. composed of tracheids
chloroplast at the site of CO2 2.In which the cells are either Commonly found in Xylem of Angiosperm
absorption. spherical or oval in shape hypodermal layers of seeds tracheids associated with the
Found in most leaves and and enclose small and fruits, also in xerophytic vessels and other xylary
stems. intercellular spaces. The This leaves elements.
e. Folded parenchyma type of collenchyma is Vessel/vessel elements
Parenchyma cells with usually found in the fruit wall. 1.Sequence of vessel
invaginations or folds around Eg: Malva, Salvia iv. Astrosclereids element development
their edge, which usually a Sclerenchyma Star-shaped sclereids. includes: cell origination, cell
characteristic of some 1.Comprises a collection of Commonly foundin the enlargement, secondary wall
gymnosperm (eg: pine leaf) cell types with uniformly and intercellular spaces of the deposition and lignification,
f. Transport Parenchyma strongly thickened secondary leaves and stem of and end wall and protoplast
Called transfer cells walls that are usually lignified hydrophytes lysis by programmed cell
when fully mature and v. Trichosclereids death.
2.Thickening and pitted. 4.Phloem: Sieve element is 3.It retain its nucleus during
Pitted elements are fundamental differentation therefore sieve
characteristic of the latest 5.2 form of sieve elements: tube elements is apparently
primary xylem and of the sieve cell (more primitive, eg: functionally depedent upon
secondary xylem.(fig. 5.24) gymnosperms, no series of associated nucleate cells
3.Types of secondary wall united cells) and a series of 4.Numerous plasmodesmata
thickening deposited in sieve tube elements. pores connected between the
vessel elements (fig. 2.35): 6.Phloem consists of: sieve tube element and
1. Annular (as rings) a. Sieve elements companion cell.
2. spiral/helix b. Companion cells 5.Retains large nucleus,
3. Scalariform c. Phloem fibers riosome and other organelles
4. Reticulate d. Phloem parenchyma at maturity
5. Pitted 7.In pteridophytes & Phloem fiber & ploem
Lost of the vessel element Gimnosperms: sieve cells and parenchyma
end wall result in formation phloem parenchyma present 1.Also found in phloem of
of pores = perforation and (in some of the gymno, fibers many Angiosperms
where it occur = perforation also present). 2.Not or rarely found in
plate, so water can move In Angiosperms: sieve tubes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms
from cell to cell. companion cells, phloem and some Angiosperms
4.Protoxylem: annular parenchyma, phloem fibers, 3.Only simple pits found,
thickeningà spiral/helix sclereids & secretory cells lignified or non-lignified walls
thickening are present. 4.Sclereids occasionally
5.Metaxylem(vessel member Sieve elements found in the primary phloem.
or tracheid) à more complex: 1.Conducting tisu for 5.Phloem parenchyma
scalariform, reticulate, pitted photosynthesis product concern with many activities
thickenings (sugar) from leaves to other such as storage of fat &
6.Annular & spiral thickening parts of plant starch & other organic
in primary growth allow cell 2.The conducting elements of substances, also tannin and
growth and elongation also phloem are the sieve cells resins.
for support. and sieve tube elements, 6.Numerous pit fields found
7.After elongation, complex collectively = sieve elements on phloem parenchyma cell
thickening: scalariform, 3.The sieve elements are 7.Parenchyma fibers are not
reticulate and pitted seen in cylindrical and continuously found in most
late protoxylem and joined end to end at the monocotyledons.
metaxylem cells. ‘sieve plate’ to form tube Dermal tissues (epidermis)
8.During development of 4.Sieve cells commonly long 1.Epidermal cells form a
secondary wall/thickening- and selender & with continuous layer on the
simple pit will not be covered tappering ends. They overlap surface of the plant body in
by the secondary wall, each other & sieve area are the primary state. Usually in
secondary wall incurved to numerous at the end. one layer (Begoniaceae,
form pit cavity with narrow 5.Sieve tube elements are Bombaceae, Malvaceae &
opening (bordered pit). highly specialized with sieve many monocots seen with
9.Bordered pits occur in plates at the end walls. multiple epidermis)
vessel members & tracheids 6.Sieve element is attached 2.Vary in shape, often tubular
and not in fibers by companion cell, which with no intercellular spaces
9.Bordered pit found only in both sieve element & 3.Show various special
vessel cell and tracheid not in companion cells are intiated characteristic & chemical
fibers. from the same procamium composition related to their
10.Pits are usually arranged cell but companion cell is superficial position as
oppositely or alternately and smaller and condensed with protective layers
scalariform in bigger vessels. cytoplasm & organelles. 4.Including guard cells of
Fibers and fibers- 7.End wall = seive plate with stomata, trichomes & roots
tracheids tiny perforations where hairs.
1.Thickness of the wall protoplast of adjacent sieve 5.Principal distinctive
increases and the diameter elements are connected by features of the aerial parts of
or lumen decreases during connecting strands and the plant are cuticle on the
the development of fiber. At encased or lined by ‘callose’ outer walls.
this stage there will be very (carohydrate with β-1,3 6.Encompasses a veriety of
little conduction of water or glucan) cell types including ordinary
no conduction at all àtypical 8.Sieve areas are wall areas epidermal cells, guard cells,
fibers are form with pores through which the subsidiary cells, trichomes or
2.Transitional stages of this protoplast of vertically or emergence and various
wood fiber = fibre-tracheids. laterally adjoining sieve idioblast
Wood parenchyma elements are interconnected
1.Parenchyma which 9.Sieve area with larger
fequently occur in the xylem pores occur on the end walls
of most plants. (sieve plate) and smaller
2.Xylem parenchyma cells for pores occur on the side walls
food storage (starch and fat) 10.Sieve plate with single
Tannins, crystals and other sieve area= simple sieve
sustances also occur in xylem plate, with one ore more
parenchyma cells. sieve area (clusters of pores)
Phloem = compound sieve plate.
1.Xylem & phloem have Companion cells
evolved along more or less 1.Small parenchymatous cell,
similar densely cytoplamic cell next
2.In Xylem a series tracheids, to sieve tube element,
structurally & functionally derived from the same initial
united à become a vessel: In cell
phloem a series of cells 2.Distinctive feature of the
united à sieve tube. sieve tube element of
3.Xylem: tracheid is flowering plants
fundamental cell