Unit -1

Introducon
• A Computer network is a group of two or more
computer systems linked
systems linked together

• In Computer Network all the linked

linked device
exchange data
data..
• Network computer devices that send, route and

receive the data are called network nodes

Node

• Nodes can be as servers 

servers  and personal computers,
computers,

as well as networking hardware.

hardware.

• Two devices are said to be networked when a

device is able to exchange informaon with another

device.
• The connecons (network
(network links)
links) between nodes
are established using either cable media or
media or
wireless media
• The best-known example of computer network is
the Internet
Internet..
 Need and use of computer network
• The following are the important Need and use of
use of
a computer network.
• File sharing: Networking of computers helps the
users to share data les.

Shared File
 Need and use of computer network
• Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such
as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, hard
drives etc.

Shared Printer
• Applicaton sharing: Applicaons can be shared
over the network, and this allows to implement
client/server applicaons

Server

Client
Client
• User communicaton:
communicaton: Networks allow users to
communicate
communicate using e-mail, newsgroups, and
video conferencing etc.

Server

video conferencing
Nework gaming: A lot of network games are
available, which allow mul-users to play from
dierent locaons.

Server
 Advantages of CN
• High Speed:- In Network les are transfer form one
computer to another with high speed.
• Reduce cost:- Computer network allow the user to
Share devices such as printers which saves money.
• Easy to backup:-Data is easy to backup as all the data
is stored on the le server.
• Easy to communicate:- users are easily
communicate each other using e-mail and video
conferencing.
• Internet Access Sharing : Small computer networks
allow mulple users to share a single Internet
connecon.
 Types of Computer Networks
Computer network is divided into three networks
1. Local area Networks (LAN).
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
3. Wide Area Networks(WAN).
 Local area Networks (LAN)
• A local area nework (LAN) is a
computer network  in which all the networking
devices are interconnects in a limited area such
as a home, school, computer laboratory, or
oce building.
• LANs are typically controlled and managed by a
single person or organizaon.
• Twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most
common technologies currently used to build
LANs.
• LAN Uses dierent networking devices like hub,
switch, router etc.
• LAN Uses dierent network topology such as
bus, star, ring mesh etc.
• LANs have a high data transfer rate(100mbps).
• LAN Covers 90 to 150 meters distance.
• One LAN can be connected to other LANs over
any distance via telephone lines and radio
waves.
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• Metropolitan  Area N etwork, is a data network
that is designed for a town or city. In terms of
geographic breadth, MANs are larger than
local-area networks (LANs), but smaller than
wide-area networks (WANs).
• The larger city, the bigger the MAN, the smaller a metro city,

smaller the MAN.

• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km

diameter.

• A MAN is not generally owned by a single organizaon.

• MANs are extremely ecient and provide fast communicaon via

high-speed carriers, such as ber opc cables.

• WAN (Wide Area Nework) :-
• Wide Area Nework, WAN   is a collecon of
computers and network resources that covers a
large geographic area, such as a state, country
and world .
•  WANs oen connect mulple smaller networks,
such as local area networks (LANs) or metro area
networks (MANs).
• Computers connected to a wide-area network
are oen connected through public networks,
such as the telephone system. They can also be
connected through leased lines or satellites.
• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.
• Business and government sector ulize WANs to
relay data among employees, clients, buyers,
and suppliers from various geographical
locaons.
• WANs have a lower data transfer rate(10mbps-
20mbps).
• In WAN Low bandwidth available for
transmission.
• A network architecture in which each computer in the network

is either a client  or a server  or both.

• This network architecture  uses centralized  and decentralized

architecture

• In this architecture , if the data is transfer between the peers

then there is no need of server.

• In this architecture , if the data is transfer between the peers and

clients then only there is need of server.

• In this architecture server is not overloaded.

•
• Intranet network architecture
• Intranet as an organizaon's private, secured computer network

system that uses the same concepts, technologies and protocols

(standards) as The Internet, but   operates on a Local Area

computer Network (LAN).

• An intranet is a corporate networked internal web site with other

features like internal e-mail, news group and chat facilies

• The intranet is formed in such a way that all the informaon,

applicaons and other resources the organizaon’s employees

need are accessible via the intranet.

• intranet provides access to informaon and other services

quickly and easily.

• In many organizaons, intranets are protected from unauthorized

external access by means of a network gateway and rewall.
• Internet architecture
• In this architecture a network is connected to the internet.

• All the public informaon are accessible to the network.n

• In this architecture forms the wide area network.

• The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks

that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve several

billion users worldwide.

• It is a network o networks that consists of millions of private, public,

academic, business, and government networks.

• The Internet carries an large range of informaon, resources and

services, such as the inter-linked hypertext  documents of the

World Wide Web  (WWW), the infrastructure  to support email, and

peer-to-peer networks.
• Extranet architecture

• An exrane is a computer network that allows controlled access

from the outside, for specic business or educaonal purposes.

• An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology

and the public telecommunicaon system to securely share part

of a business's informaon or operaons .

• An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include

rewall ,use of digital cercates ,user authencaonand the use

of virtual private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public

network.
• You can access an extranet only if you have a valid username and

password, and your identy

• If access to or from the Internet or another locaon such as a

wide area network (WAN –a organizaons private computer

network spread across dierent geographical locaons) is

provided to a intranet, it will be through a rewall gateway that

will require a username and password. In this case the intranet

becomes an extranet. In other words, an extranet is the

extension of an intranet to include public access or access from

other locaons such as in a WAN.

• Network topology

• Network topology   is the arrangement of the various elements like links,

nodes, etc. of a computer network.

• Network topology can be physically or logically.

• Physical   topology refers to the placement of the network's various

components, including device locaon and cable installaon, while logical 

 topology shows how data ows within a network.

• The methods used by systems to communicate on a network are referred to

as the network architecture. The manner in which the physical
infrastructure is deployed to connect a network is referred to as the
network topology. A topology describes the physical means for transporng
data; an architecture describes the technology used to manage and
manipulate data.
Dierent Network topologies are as follows
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Tree
• Mesh

• Hybrid
Dierent Network topologies are as follows
1. Bus topology
• Bus topology uses a common backbone cable to connect all
devices.
• A single backbone cable is a shared communicaon medium.
• All the devices aach to backbone cable with an interface

connector.

• A device wanng to communicate with another device on the

network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other

devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.

• A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to absorb the

signals.
• Token passing :-Token contains a piece of informaon which along
with data is sent by the source computer.

• This token then passes to next node, which checks if the signal is
intended to it. If yes, it receives it and passes the empty to into the
network, otherwise passes token along with the data to next node.

• This process connues unl the signal reaches its intended

desnaon.

• The nodes with token are the ones only allowed to send data. Other
nodes have to wait for an empty token to reach them.

• This network is usually found in oces, schools and small buildings.

• Advanages of Ring Topology

1. This type of network topology is very organized.

2. Even when the load on the network increases, its performance

is beer than that of Bus topology.

3. Each computer has equal access to resources.

4. It prevents network collisions .

• Disadvanages of Ring Topology
1. Data packets must pass through every computer between the
sender and recipient therefore this makes it slower.
2. If any of the nodes fail then the whole network is fail
3. It is dicult to troubleshoot the ring.
4. Because all staons are wired together, to add a staon you
must shut down the network temporarily.
5. In order for all computers to communicate with each other, all
computers must be turned on.
6. Total dependence upon the one cable.
star topology

• A star topology  in which all nodes  are connected to a central

device (hub, switch).

• All the nodes are connected to central device with a point-to-

point connecon.
• All the data on the star topology passes through the central device
before reaching the intended desnaon.

• Hub acts as a juncon to connect dierent nodes present in Star

Network, and at the same me it manages and controls whole of the
network

• Advanages of Sar Topology

1. beer performance.

2. Easy to connect new nodes or devices.

3. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.

4. Failure of one node or link doesn’t aect the rest of network.

5. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

• Disadvanages of Sar Topology

1. If the central device is fail , then whole network goes down.

2. Expensive to purchase.

3. Requires a large amount of cable to be connected.

Tree Topology

• Tree opology  is combinaon of bus topology  and

star topology.

• In tree topology mulple star networks are connected

together using a backbone cable.

• This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star

networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Sar

Topology.
Tree Topology
Advanages of Tree Topology

1. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.

2. It can be easily managed and maintained.

3. Error detecon and correcon is easy.

4. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not aected.

Disadvanages of Tree Topology

5. if the backbone cable is break ,then whole network is fail.

Mesh topology

• In mesh topology, each node  (workstaon or other device) is

connected directly to each of the others.
• It is commonly used in wireless networks.

• Flooding or roung technique is used in mesh topology.

Advanages of Mesh opology

1. Data can be transmied from dierent devices simultaneously.

2. Even if one of the components fails there is always an

alternave present. So data transfer doesn’t get aected.

3. Expansion and modicaon in topology can be done without

disrupng other nodes.

Default Network: The special network 0.0.0.0 is generally used for roung.

Class A address

• In class A 1 Bit used for prex 7 bits used for network id and 24 bits used
for host id.

• Class A provide the range of IP address from 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 .

• Class A addresses were designed for large organizaons with a large

number of aached hosts .

• This type of allocaon is generally given to very large networks such as

mul-naonal companies.

Disadvantages:- There are small no of networks with large no. of computers .

Class B:

In class B 2 Bit used for prex 14 bits used for network id and 16 bits

used for host id.

This class consists of 16,000 individual networks, each allocaon

consisng of 65,000 possible IP addresses. These blocks are

generally allocated to Internet Service Providers and large

networks, like a college or major hospital.

Advantages:-  There are medium no of networks with medium no. of

computers .
• Class C:
• In class C 3 Bit used for prex 21 bits used for network id and 8 bits
used for host id.
• There is a total of 2,000000 Class C networks available, with each
network consisng of 255 individual IP addresses. This type of class
is generally given to small to mid-sized companies.
• Disadvantages:- There are large no of networks with small no. of
computers .

• Class D: The IP addresses in this class are reserved for a service

called Mulcast.
• Class E: The IP addresses in this class are reserved for experimental
use.
Special Address

• There are several IP addresses that are used for special purpose.

• Loopback: This is the special 127.0.0.1network that is reserved as a

loopback to your own computer. These addresses are used for

tesng and debugging of your programs or hardware.

• Typically all IP addresses in the range 127.0.0.1 - 127.255.255.255

are reserved for private use.

• Broadcast: This is the special network of 255.255.255.255, and is

used for broadcasng messages to the enre network that your

computer resides on.

This" network :- 0.0.0.0 Used to communicate with "This" network
Sub-neng

• A sub nework, or subne, is a logically subdivision of an IP network

to create two or more logical network.

• Dividing a network into two or more networks is called sub-neng.

• All computers that belong to a subnet are addressed with a
common net-id subnet id and their host id.

• Example 192.168.1.100

•  This is a class C IP address with 192.168.1 is used for network and

100 used for host.

• Here 8 bit is used for host id and therefore we use 2 msb bits from

host id for sub-neng

• 0000000 0100000 1000000 1100000 , in this way we can create 4

subnet with address 00 01 10 and 11

•
Advantages of sub-neng

• By organizing hosts into logical groups, sub-neng can improve

network security and performance.

• Improve bandwidth.

• Subnets enable easier management of networks.

Super neng

• Super neng combines several networks into one large one.

• Super neng, also called Classless Inter-Domain Roung (CIDR), is a

way to aggregate mulple Internet addresses of the same class.

• Super-net places more host on single network than the currently

class full conguraon.

• Super neng is most oen used to combine Class C network

addresses.

• For example if we are using the class c address and there are two

networks each of 255 computers, then subneng combines these

networks into one large one with 510 computers
• Using superneng, the network address 192.168.2.0/24 and an
adjacent address 192.168.3.0/24 can be merged into

192.168.2.0/23. The "23" at the end of the address says that the

rst 23 bits are the network part of the address, remaining nine bits
for specic host addresses.

• Advantages

1. Modify the network size according to the need.

2. Super-neng Preserve the IP address.

Subnet mask

• An IP address has two components, the network address and the

host address.

• A subnet mask separates the IP address into the network and host
addresses (<network><host>).

• It is called a subnet mask because it is used to idenfy network

address of an IP address by performing bitwise AND operaon on

the netmask.
• Subnet Mask is made by seng network bits to all "1"s and

seng host bits to all "0"s. Within a given network, two host
addresses are reserved for special purpose. The "0" address is

assigned a network address and "255" is assigned to a broadcast

address, and they cannot be assigned to a host.

• For example, applying the Class C subnet mask to our IP address
216.3.128.12 produces the following network address:
• IP: 1101 1000 . 0000 0011 . 1000 0000 . 0000 1100 (216.003.128.012)
•  Mask: 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 0000 0000 (255.255.255.000)
-----------------------------------------1101 1000 . 0000 0011 . 1000 0000 . 0000 0000 (216.003.128.000)
VLAN (virual local area nework )

• A virtual local area network (VLAN) as a local area network

congured by soware, not by physical wiring.

• This is a good conguraon for a company with two separate

buildings. Each building can have its own switched LAN

connected by a backbone. People in the rst building and people

in the second building can be in the same work group even

though they are connected to dierent physical LANs.

• VLANs create broadcast domains.

Advantages

There are several advantages to using VLANs.

1. Cost and Time Reducon :- VLANs can reduce the migraon cost

of staons going from one group to another. Physical

reconguraon takes me and is costly.

2. Creang Virtual Work Groups:- VLANs can be used to create

virtual work groups.

3. Security:- VLANs provide an extra measure of security. People

belonging to the same group can send broadcast messages with

the guaranteed assurance that users in other groups will not

receive these messages.
 Unit -3
• NETWORKING COMPONENTS AND NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
• The Networking media is the physical/air path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, bre-opc cable, and radio waves.
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 Networking media

Guided Unguided
(Wired) Wireless

Free space

Coaxial Cable Fiber Opcs

Twisted -Pair
• Repeaer
• A repeaer is an electronic
electronic device
 device that receives a weak signal
signal and
 and

retransmits it
retransmits  it at a higher power onto the other side , so that the
signal can cover longer distances.

• Repeaters
Repeaters are used to boost signals in coaxial and
coaxial and twisted pair

cable and in opcal ber lines.

ber lines. An electrical signal in
signal in a cable gets
weaker
weaker the further it travels,
travels, due to energy dissipated in

conductor resistance
Advanages

• Makes it easy to expand a network over a large distance.

• Connecon between various types of media is possible.

Disadvanages

• Repeater can not be used for trac ltered.

• A repeater cannot work across mulple network architectures.

architectures.
 HUB
A
C

B
D

C
• A special type of network device called the hub.

• It can be used to connect the computers to form

form the network.

• It can also be used to connect the segment of the network.

• Any data packet

packet coming from one port is sent to all other ports. It

is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for

it. Imagine packets going through a hub as messages going into a

mailing list. The mail is sent out to everyone and it is up to the

receiving party to decide if it is of interest.

interest.
• The biggest problem with hubs is their simplicity.
simplicity. Since every

packet
packet is sent out to every computer on the network, there is a
lot of wasted
wasted transmission. This means that the network can

easily become bogged down.

• Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of

data going across the network is never very high.

• hubs contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24 ports.

• Hubs classify as Layer 1 devices in the OSI model

• Three dierent types of hubs exist:
1. passive
2. acve
3. intelligent
• Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal
of incoming packets before broadcasng them
out to the network.

• Actve hubs, on the other hand, do perform this

amplicaon

• Inelligen hubs: intelligent h ubs include addional features

intelligent hubs

that enables an administrator to monitor the trac passing

through the hub and to congure each port in the hub.

Intelligent
Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs.
Bridge
A bridge  device lters data trac at a network boundary. Bridges

reduce the amount of trac on a LAN by dividing it into two

segments.

• Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

Bridges inspect incoming trac and decide whether to forward

or discard it.

• An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming

Ethernet frame - including the source and desnaon MAC

addresses, and somemes the frame size - in making individual

forwarding decisions.
• A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the

desnaon of the packet before sending. If the desnaon

address is not on the other side of the bridge it will not transmit

the data.

• Bridges are typically used to separate parts of a network that do

not need to communicate regularly, but sll need to be

connected.
Swich
swich
• A nework swich  is a small hardware device that joins mulple
computers together within one local area network (LAN).

• Switches control the ow of network trac based on the address

informaon in each packet and forwards packets to the

appropriate port only.

• This switching operaon reduces the amount of unnecessary

trac .

•  switches divide the network into smaller, less congested secons

Rouer
RJ connectors
RJ connectors
• A regisered jack (RJ) is a standard network interface used
to connect the devices.
• There are dierent regisered jacks are available such as
RJ11, RJ14, RJ21, RJ45, RJ48
• Many of these interface standards are commonly used in
North America, though some interfaces are used world-
wide.

• Registered Jack-45, an eight-wire connector used commonly to

connect computers onto a local-area networks (LAN), especially

Ethernets.

• RJ-11 connectors used for connecng telephone equipment.

Informaon Outlets (I/O Box)
• Informaon outlet is widely used in buildings as telephonic

wiring system.

• Informaon outlet is designed mainly for the wall, where

telephone wiring terminates.

• It contains a female jack that receives a mail plug that is inserted

into it. The oered outlet is used to connect many networking

equipment like telephone, fax, telephone answering machine,

etc.
Advantages
• Extending the network:- If your department has a wired network
and you need to add an outlet for a new employee or a new
oce or area which requires network access.
Media Converter
• A media converer is a simple networking device that makes it

possible to connect two dissimilar media types such as twisted

pair with ber opc cabling.

• A media converter is composed of two transceivers or MAU

(Media Aachment Units) that can transmit data to and receive

data from each other, and a power supply.

The applicatons of media converers

• Media converters can be used anywhere in the network from

computer servers to workstaons.

• Media converters are used to extend the network

Leased line Non Exchange
• A leased line, a type of dedicated line, is a permanent ber opc

or telephone line connecon between two points set up by a

telecommunicaons carrier.

• It can be used for telephone, data, or Internet services. Oen,

businesses will use a leased line to connect geographically

distant oces because it guarantees bandwidth for network

trac.

• For example, a bank may use a leased line in order to easily

transfer nancial informaon from one branch oce to another.

• Both long and short distances can be spanned by a leased line,

and customers generally pay a at monthly rate for the service.

• Leased lines do not have telephone numbers because each side

of the line is always connected to the other. In contrast,

telephone lines reuse the same lines for dierent purpose.

Advantages of leased line

1. They typically oer faster download and upload speeds.

2. beer security and privacy, as the lines are dedicated to the

company
3. Reliable bandwidths are available.
4. Constant Connecvity are available.
Cable Net
• Presently GSM support more than one billion mobile subscribers

in more than 210 countries throughout of the world.

• The GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services

including Roaming service. Roaming is the ability to use your

GSM phone number in another GSM network.

Advantages of GSM
• Improved spectrum eciency.
• Internaonal roaming.
• Low-cost mobile sets and base staons (BSs)
• High-quality speech
• Compability with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and
other telephone company services.
• Support for new services
network operang system
• An operang system that includes special funcons for

connecng computers and devices into a local-area network

 (LAN).

•  A network operang system (NOS)  provides services to clients

over a network. Network Operang Systems are based on a

client/server architecture in which a server enables mulple

clients to share resources.

• The network operang system is designed to allow

shared le and printer access among mulple computers in a

network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network

 or to other networks.
•  The most popular network operang systems are Microso

Windows Server 2003, Microso Windows Server 2008, UNIX,

Linux, Mac OS X, and Novell NetWare.

Funcons of NOS

Providing access to remote printers

Enabling and managing access to les on remote systems

Granng access to remote applicaons and resources

Providing roung services

Monitoring the system security

Providing basic network administraon

 Uni -4
Inerne proocol
• ARP/RARP: Resoluon

•  Address Resoluon P rotocol, a network layer protocol  used to

convert an IP address into a physical address.

• A host  wishing to obtain a physical address broadcasts  an ARP

request onto the TCP/IP network. The host on the network that
has the IP address in the request then replies with its physical

hardware address.

• On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a

link is identified by a physical therefore ARP is required to map
the logical address into the physical address.
Figure 7.1  ARP and RARP 

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 250

Figure 7.2  Position of ARP and RARP in TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 251

Figure 7.3  ARP operation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 252

  Note:

 An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 253

Figure 8.1  Position of IP in TCP/IP protocol
protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26 9

• IP (Internet Protocol)
Protocol) is the
t he primary network protocol
protocol used on

the Internet.

•  On the Internet and many other networks, IP is oen used

together with the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and referred

to interchangeably as TCP/IP
TCP/IP..

• IP supports unique addressing for computers

computers on a network. Most

networks use the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) standard that

features IP addresses four
addresses four bytes (32 bits) in length.

• The newer Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6

(IPv6)) standard features

addresses 16 bytes (128 bits) in length.

• Data on an Internet Protocol network is organized into packets
 packets.

Each IP packet includes both a header (that species source,

desnaon, and other informaon about the data) and the

message data itself.

• IP funcons at layer 3 of the OSI model.

model.
• Its roung funcon
roung funcon enables internetworking
internetworking,, and essenally
establishes
establishes theInternet
theInternet..
• The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing hosts and for

roung datagram (packets) from a source host to a desnaon

host across one or more IP networks. For this purpose, the

Internet Protocol denes the format of packets and provides an

addressing system that has two funcons: idenfying hosts and

providing a logical locaon service.
 Virtual network
• A virual nework is a computer network that
network that consists of virtual

network links.

• A virtual network link is a link that does not consist of a physical

(wired or wireless) connecon between two compung devices

but is implemented using methods of network virtualizaon.

virtualizaon.

• The two most common forms of network virtualizaon are

protocol-based virtual networks, (such as VLANs,

VLANs, VPNs
VPNs,, and

VPLSs)) and virtual networks that are based on virtual devices.

VPLSs
1. Virtual LANs (VLANs)
LANs (VLANs) are logical local area network s
network s (LANs) based

on physical LANs. A VLAN can be created by paroning a

physical
physical LAN into mulple logical LANs using a VLAN ID.

• several physical
physical LAN's can funcon as a single logical LAN

2. VPN is a private network that uses a public network (usually the

Internet)) to connect remote sites or users together. The VPN uses
Internet

"virtual" connecons routed

routed   through the Internet from the

business's private network to the remote site or employee.

By using a VPN, businesses ensure security -- anyone intercepng

intercepng

the encrypted data can't

data can't read it.
• The goal of a VPN is to provide the organizaon
organizaon with the same

capabilies as leased line, but at a much lower cost.

• These systems use encrypon and

encrypon and other security
security mechanisms
 mechanisms to

ensure that only authorized

authorized users
 users can access the network and

that the data cannot be intercepted.

• Virtual private LAN service (VPLS) is a technology that makes it

possible to connect local area networks (LANs) over the Internet.

• A VPLS uses mulprotocol label switching

switching (MPLS) to create the
appearance of a virtual private network (VPN) at each subscriber

locaon.
• A VPLS is easy to use because subscribers do not have to connect

directly to the Internet

• A VPLS can provide point-to-point and mulpoint services.

• It is possible to build a VPLS over a wide geographic area, and the

technology allows for subscribers to change locaons easily. The

service is also scalable. A VPLS can serve anywhere from a few

subscribers up to hundreds of thousands.

 IP as a Conneconless Network

• Delivery of a packet can be accomplished by using either a

connecon-oriented or a conneconless network service.

• In a connecon-oriented service, the source rst makes a

connecon with the desnaon before sending a packet.

• When the connecon is established, a sequence of packets from

the same source to the same desnaon can be sent one aer

another.

•  In this case, there is a relaonship between packets.

• They are sent on the same path in sequenal order.

• maximum transmission unit (MTU)

• A maximum transmission unit (MTU) is the largest size packet or frame,

specied in octets (eight-bit bytes), that can be sent in a packet- or frame-
based network such as the Internet.

• The value of the MTU diers from one physical network protocol to
another. Forexample, the value for the Ethernet LAN is 1500 bytes, for
FDDI LAN is 4352 bytes,and for PPP is 296 bytes.

• Too large an MTU size may mean retransmissions if the packet encounters
a router that can't handle that large a packet. Too small an MTU size
means relavely more header overhead and more acknowledgements

that have to be sent and handled. Most computer operang systems

provide a default MTU value that is suitable for most users.
• In order to make the IP protocol independent of the physical network,

the designers decided to make the maximum length of the IP

datagram equal to 65,535 bytes. This makes transmission more

ecient if we use a protocol with an MTU of this size. How-ever, for

other physical networks, we must divide the datagram to make it

possible to pass through these networks. This is called fragmentaon.

• When a datagram is fragmented, each fragment has its own header

with most of the elds repeated, but some changed. A fragmented

datagram may itself be frag-mented if it encounters a network with an

even smaller MTU. In other words, a data-gram can be fragmented

several mes before it reaches the nal desnaon.

• ·
 Roung Algorithm
• Routng algorithm is the process of selecng paths in a network
along which to send network trac.
 ICMP Header Format
 An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data

secon. the rst 4 bytes are common to all.

• ICMP type :- The rst eld, ICMP type, denes the type of the

message. for example message may be Desnaon Unreachable,

Time Exceeded, Query etc.

• Code eld (8 bits) is used to specify the type of error, and can be

any of the following:

Code Descripon

0 Network unreachable error.

1 Host unreachable error.

2 Protocol unreachable error

3 Port unreachable error

4 The datagram is too big.

• Checksum: This eld is used to detect errors over the ICMP

header First, the value of the checksum eld is set to O. Then the
enre header is divided into 16-bit secons and added together.

The result (sum) is complemented and inserted into the

checksum eld.

• Res of Header  – Four byte eld. Will vary based on the ICMP
type and code.

• The data secon :- The data secon in error messages carries

informaon for nding the original packet that had the error.
UDP

• Real communicaon takes place between two processes (applicaon

programs). We need process-to-process delivery.

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery

• At the transport layer, TCP/IP denes three protocols: Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream

Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).

• The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a conneconless,

unreliable transport protocol. It does not add anything to the

services of IP except to provide process-to-process communicaon

instead of host-to-host communicaon. Also, it performs verylimited

error checking.
• UDP is a very simple protocol using a minimum of overhead.

•   If a process wants to send a small message and does not care

much about reliability, it can use UDP. Sending a small message by

using UDP takes much less Interacon between the sender and

receiver than using TCP or SCTP.

• UPD Header Format

8 Byte

Source port number Desnaon port number

16 bits 16 bits

Total length Checksum

16 bits 16 bits

• UDP packets, called user datagrams, have a xed-size header of 8

bytes.
1. Source port number:- This is the port number used by

the process running on the source host. It is 16 bits long.

2. Desnaon port number:- This is the port number used

by the process running on the desnaon host. It is also 16 bits

long.

3. Total Length:-This is a 16-bit eld that denes the total length of

the user datagram, header plus data.

4. Checksum:-  This eld is used to detect errors over the enre

user datagram (header plus data).

Pseudo Header
• The pseudo header conceptually prexed to the UDP header

contains the source address, the desnaon address, the

protocol, and the UDP length.

•  This informaon gives protecon against misrouted datagrams.

• This checksum procedure is the same as is used in TCP.

• Pseudo Header Forma
• source and desnaon addresses :-The
:- The source and desnaon

addresses are those in the IPv4 header.

•   Protocol eld:- 
eld:-  The protocol eld is added to ensure that the

packet belongs to UDP.

• UDP length eld :- The

:-  The UDP length eld is the length of the UDP
header and data.

• zero :-If
:-If the computed checksum is zero, it is transmied as all

ones (the equivalent in one's complement arithmec). An all zero

transmied checksum value means that the transmier

generated no checksum.
 Mulplexing & De-mulplexi
De-mulplexing
ng

• The addressing mechanism allows mulplexing and de-

mulplexing by the transport layer.

Mulplexing
• At the sender site, there may be several processes that need to

send packets. However

However , there is only one transport layer
protocol at any me. This is a many-to-one relaonship and

requires mulplexing.

• The protocol accepts messages from dierent processes,

dierenated
dierenated by their assigned port numbers.

• Aer adding the header, the transport layer passes the packet to
the network layer.
layer.
De-mulplexing
• At the receiver site, the relaonship is one-to-many and requires

de-mulplexing.

• The transport layer receives datagrams from the network layer.

Aer error checking and dropping of the header,

header, the transport
layer delivers
delivers each message to the appropriate process based on

the port number.

Figure 15.1 TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 326

TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)

• TCP provides process-to-process communicaon using port

numbers.

• TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/Ip networks.

•  TCP enables two hosts to establish a connecon and exchange

streams of data.

•  TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that packets

will be delivered in the same order in which they were sent.

• TCP provide connecon oriented service.

• TCP oers reliable service. It uses an acknowledgment

mechanism to check the safe and sound arrival of data.

• TCP oers full-duplex service, where data can ow in both

direcons at the same me.

• TCP performs mulplexing at the sender and de-mulplexing at

the receiver.

• TCP provides ow control mechanism.

• TCP implements an error control mechanism.

• Source port address:-  This is a 16-bit eld that denes the port
number of the applicaon program in the host that is sending the
segment.
• Desnaon port address:- This is a 16-bit eld that denes the
port number of the applicaon program in the host that is
receiving the segment.
• Sequence number:- This 32-bit eld denes the number assigned
to the rst byte of data contained in this segment.
• Acknowledgment number:- This 32-bit eld denes the byte
number that the receiver of the segment is expecng to receive
from the other party.
Header length:-  This 4-bit eld indicates the number of 4-byte
words in the TCP header. The length of the header can be
between 20 and 60 bytes. Therefore, the value of this eld is
always between 5 (5 × 4 = 20) and 15 (15 × 4 = 60.

Reserved:- This is a 6-bit eld reserved for future use.

Control.:- This eld denes 6 dierent control bits or ags.

One or more of these bits can be set at a me. These bits
enable ow control, connecon establishment and terminaon,
connecon aboron, and the mode of data transfer in TCP.
2. The server sends the second segment, a SYN + ACK segment with

two ag bits set:SYN and ACK. This segment has a dual purpose.
First, it is a SYN segment for com-municaon in the other

direcon. The server uses this segment to inialize a sequence

number for numbering the bytes sent from the server to the
client. The server also acknowledges the receipt of the SYN

segment from the client by seng the ACK ag and displaying
the next sequence number it expects to receive from the client.
3. The client sends the third segment. This is just an ACK segment.
It acknowledges the receipt of the second segment with the ACK

ag and acknowledgment number eld. Note that the sequence

number in this segment is the same as the one in the SYN

segment; the ACK segment does not consume any sequence

numbers.
• FTP uses the services of TCP. It needs two TCP connecons. The

well-known port 21 is used for the control connecon and the

well-known port 20 for the data connecon.

• Aer logon to an FTP server, you can also update (delete,

rename, move, and copy) les at a server.

TELNET
• TELNET is stands for TErminaL NETwork.

•  It provides virtual terminal service and operate at applicaon

layer.

• TELNET is a general-purpose client-server applicaon program.

• TELNET establish a connecon to a remote system in such a way

that the remote system appears to be a local terminal.

• TELNET operate in Time-Sharing Environment.

• TELNET uses the ip address of the desnaon to connect.

• TELNET requires user id and password to connect remote server

Characterisc of Distance Vector Roung Protocols
1. Periodic Updates
• Periodic updates means that at the end of a certain me period,
updates will be transmied.
2. Updaes o Neighbors
• Neighbors means routers
routers sharing a common data
data link. A distance
vector roung protocol sends its updates to neighboring routers.
routers.
3. Broadcast Updates
Updates are sent to the broadcast
broadcast address 255.255.255.255.
4. Full able updaes
When an update is sent, the enre roung table is sent.
5. Triggered updaes
Also known as Flash updates, these are sent when a change
occurs outside the update interval.
Distance-Vector Roung Example
1. The starng assumpon for distance-vector roung is that each

node knows the cost of the link to each of its directly connected
neighbors.

2. A link that is down is assigned an innite cost.

A 1

B
1
3
2
C
D
1
 Inial State

A 1

B
1
3
2
C
D
1

Sored a Disance o reach a node

a node

A B C D
A 0 1 3 ?
B 1 0 1 2
C 3 1 0 1
D ? 2 1 0
  State 2

A 1

B
1
3
2
C
D
1

Sored a Disance o reach a node

a node

A B C D
A 0 1 2 (vi B) 3(vi B)
B 1 0 1 2
C 2(vi B) 1 0 1
D 3 (vi B) 2 1 0
Link state roung protocol
• Link State protocols track the status and connecon type of
each link and produces a calculated metric based on these
and other factors, including some set by the network
administrator.
• Link state protocols know whether a link is up or down and
how fast it is and calculates a cost.
• Link State protocols will take a path which has more hops,
but that uses a faster medium over a path using a slower
medium with fewer hops.
• Because of their awareness of media types and other
factors, link state protocols require more processing power
and memory
2. Wireless Modem /rouer:-
• A wireless rouer  is a device that performs the funcons of a

router but also includes the funcons of a wireless access point.

It is commonly used to provide access to the Internet or a

computer network. It does not require a wired link, as the

connecon is made wirelessly, via radio waves
3. Wireless Anennas

• Access points and routers oen ulize a Wi-Fi wireless antenna

that signicantly increase the communicaon range of the

wireless radio signal.

4. Wireless Repeaers

• A wireless repeater connects to a router or access point. Oen

called signal boosters or range expanders
•  Soware Requirement:-
1. Driver support soware for Wireless card.
2. Driver support soware for Wireless Access Point.
3. Driver support soware for Wireless Router.
4. Operatng Sysem:- Windows XP, Windows 7 / Windows Vista
•  Types of wireless networks
1.  Wireless PAN:- Wireless personal area networks
 (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relavely
small area, that is generally within a person's reach.
[ For example, Bluetooth network

2.  Wireless LAN:- A wireless local area network

(WLAN) links two or more devices over a short
distance using a wireless method.
3.  Wireless mesh network:- A wireless mesh network
is a wireless network made up of radio nodes
organized in a mesh topology
• 802.11n
• Uses mulple transmier and receiver antennas
(MIMO) to allow for increased data throughput
and range.
• 8 Applicaons of wireless technology
 – 8.1 Mobile telephones
 – 8.2 Wireless data communicaons
 – 8.3 Wireless energy transfer
 – 8.4 Wireless Medical Technologies
 – 8.5 Computer interface devices
• 8 Applicaons of wireless technology
 – 8.1 Mobile telephones
 – 8.2 Wireless data communicaons
 – 8.3 Wireless energy transfer
 – 8.4 Wireless Medical Technologies
 – 8.5 Computer interface devices