Types of Natural Resources

Unit-1
Integrated Watershed Management
1.1 Objective, Concept, Approach and Scope
What is a Watershed Area?
 All land and water within the confines of a draining divide

 A watershed is an area with a fixed drainage (water) divide as a boundary and drained through a
common oulet of creek/stram/river or drained to common place, e.g. lake.
 Watershed is defined as an area of land which drains into a single body of water such as river,
stream or lake. For example:
1. Trishuli Watershed Area: Entire area of land from where water flows down to Trishuli River.
2. Phewa Tal watershed Area: total area of land form where Lake Phewa receives water.
Watershed being a topographically delineated area does not follow political or administrative boundaries
What does ‘Watershed Resources’ Mean?
Watershed resources mean all the resources within a watershed area including natural as well as other
resources.
Resources within a watershed:
1. Water
2. Soil
3. Forest
4. Animals and Birds
5. Mines and Minerals
6. Human
The principal ingredients of a watershed are its natural resources, chef of which are; land, water and
vegetation.
What are the types of natural resources?
Natural resources generally are of two types: Renewable and Non-renewable
Types of Natural Resources
Non-renewable
Renewable Resources
resources
These are the
resources which can These are the
be obtained resources which get
perpetually even after less and less each
repeated uses. time they are used
Example; Air, Water, up. Example;
Soil and vegetation Petroleum, Coal etc.
Resources like soil, water and vegetation can be available perpetually only if properly managed and used.
Otherwise, they get deteriorated to the extent that they become non-renewable. For example, soil remains
fertile and productive, if it is managed and protected carefully. If not, it will gradually lose its fertility,
eventually turning into the desert.
3. How does a Watershed look like?
A watershed has no regular size of shape. But in general, especially in the hills watershed takes the shape
of a blown balloon. The upstream is usually flat and the downstream is narrower in size.
The watershed of a small stream may confine to a part of the village, while that of a large river may coer
two, three or more countries
Watershed Management (B. Sc. 3rd year 2nd half): Compiled by: Shambhu Kumar Mishra Page 1
4. What is sub-watershed?
 A sub-watershed is a watershed of a single tributary of a large river.
 The union of several sub-watersheds forms a watershed form which all water flows into a single
river system.
 For example: the watershed of Betrawati, a tributary of Trishuli River is a sub-watershed of the
latter.
 A sub-watershed functions as a single ecosystem and any physical; change occurring affects
areas downstream of it
5. What are the problems of Hill watershed?
The Problems of hill watersheds are as follows:
1. Deforestation
2. Erosion, floods and landslides
3. Decline in Agriculture Production
4. Scarcity of water
5. Poverty
The ever increasing population exerted tremendous pressure on the natural resources, causing thereby
increased poverty of the watershed inhabitants. Poverty on the other hand augmented the habit of
misusing or overusing the scarce natural resources, causing again, more and more depletion of the
natural resources within the watershed area. The unprecedented population growth has thus become the
culprit for the watershed problems.
Concept of watershed management
 The important of watersheds as ecological units in the context of natural resource management
and conservation cannot be overstated.
 They are hydrologic units that are often used as a bio-physical and socio-economic or political
units for the planning and management of natural resources"(Brooks et al. 1991).
 A watershed is a topographically delineated area that is drained by a stream system i.e all of the
land draining its rain, snowmelt and ground water into a stream or river (Corn 1993; Swallow et
al. 2001).
 Basically, all the terms like watershed, catchment, river/basin, drainage basin, region and river
valley are synonymous.
Definitions:
Watershed management:
Watershed management can be regarded as both a science and an art (Swallow et al. 2001). Broadly, it
is "the process of guiding and organizing land and other resource use in a watershed to provide desired
goods and services without adversely affecting land resources.
Watershed management integrates various aspects of hydrology, ecology, soils, physical climatology and
other sciences to provide guidelines for choosing acceptable management alternatives within the socio-
economic context taking into consideration the interactions and implications among land resources and
the linkages between uplands and downstream areas" (Brooks et al. 2006; Extension Digest 1999).
The present context watershed management is not only for managing or conserving natural resources in
holistic manner but also to involve local people for betterment of their lives (Mountain-Agenda 2002).
Thus, modern watershed management is more people oriented and process based, unlike many of the
programs in the past, which were physically target oriented. It meant to fit into the farmers‘ lifestyles
rather than merely meeting the requirements of donors, governments, or non-government agencies.
Different aspects of Watershed Management in developing and developed countries
Activities Developing countries Developed countries

Output Farm production Water yield
Focus Livelihoods of the communities Water quality
program Community based socio-economic activities More on natural resources management
Approach Applied science and participatory approach Science based
Action People oriented Natural resources oriented
The earliest civilizations; ancient Chinese proverbs state that ―Whoever rules the mountain also rules the
river, ―and
―Green mountains yield clean and steady water.‖
Today, more than 1.7 billion people live in 40 countries with critically low levels of forest cover, and nearly
250 million people in 20 countries experience both forest and freshwater Scarcities.
Objectives of Watershed Management:
1. To accomplish optimum production of high quality water and reduction of flood and sediment
damage
2. To conserve or improve agricultural, forestry, range, wildlife and recreational resource base
3. To improve the wellbeing of local people and benefit the communities in or nearby the watershed.
4. To develop and test, through assessments and research, suitable watershed management
strategies that address adaptation to climate change
5. To develop, manage and sustain production systems that are well suited to the existing
environment and resource base and that can be sustained for future generation.
6. Overall improve environment and livelihood of the local communities
Integrated watershed Management:
1. What is an integrated system?

2. Integrated Watershed Management Planning?
3. Why Integrated Watershed Management?
4. What to Integrate?
5. What is integrated?
6. What is to be integrated?
7. Element of Integrated Watershed Management Planning
8. How to integrate the program of watershed management
1. What is an Integrated System?
Integrated system refers to the system which combines or merges different scattered components or
resources to make it complete.
By definition Integrated Watershed Management refers to complete management of all the natural
resources of a watershed to obtain completer benefits.
2. Integrated Watershed Management Planning?
Brooks (1985) defined integrated watershed management as ‗a process of formulating and carrying out a
course of action involving manipulation of natural, agricultural and human resources on a watershed to
achieve resources objectives, taking into consideration the social, economic and institutional factors
operating within a river basin and other relevant regions‘
3. Why Integrated Watershed Management?
1. A watershed will remain in good conditions only if these resources are mobilized properly.
2. To keep watershed better it is essential to develop and integrated system consisting of
conservation and utilization of these three key resources.
3. Integration could be an effective way of eliminating conflicting demands as well as helping to
close some of the production gaps.
4. Integration helps to overcome the problems of scarcity and resources use.
5. It brings resources managers closer to the communities concerned and improves their
relationship with the latter.
6. It promotes appreciation of resources by all concerned and thus facilitates the implementation of
better resources management through co-operation and co-ordination.
7. It reduces overhead and infrastructure costs and consequently increases efficiently.
8. It provides diversification and creates longer employment opportunities‘.
4. What to Integrate?
In order to conserve and utilize soil, water and vegetation through watershed management programs, it is
essential to integrate all activities that are concerned with development of forest, water, agriculture,
livestock and infrastructures. This is because, conservation of one resources results in development of
other resources.
5. What is Integrate?
Integrate means combine into a whole, i.e. complete. Therefore, integrated watershed management may
be defined as ‗complete management of diverse land and water resources to obtain integrated (complete)
benefits for the conservation of soil and water‘.
6. What is to be integrated?
Integration of components are decided based on the:
1. Analysis of problem
2. Diversification of objectives and
3. Potentials of given area
The watershed can be:
 a small sub-watershed with a specified problem such as water source protection, or

 a big river basin covering a whole country or even group of countries with a complex set of
problems and potentials such as hydropower, flood control, river transportation, irrigation, etc.
7. Element of Integrated Watershed management:
Forest and vegetation Management

Plantation
Nursery
Agriculture and Livestock

Water Management:
Management:
Soil Conservation Farm land conservation
Riverbank protection
Terrace improvement
Conservation pond Crops
Water resources Protection Stall feeding
Infrastructures Protection:
Roadside protection
Trail Improvement
Irrigation canal Improvement
8. How to integrate the Programs of Watershed Management?
Watershed Management Programs can be integrated in the following two ways:
Based on Affected Area Based on the nature of the Problem
Programs should be launched by taking into Programs should be launched by integrating different
consideration all areas affected by the watershed essential activities to solve watershed problems
problems. For example, terrace improvement, considering the nature of such problems. For
plantation activities etc; should be carried out in examples, if the problem of flood and land slide
the upstream to preserve the irrigation canal in arises, then we should launch programs integrating
the downstream. In this way, both up and down the different activities such as planting of trees,
stream area should be considered. check dams and retaining walls, terrace
improvement, flood control, gully control etc.
What is an integrated watershed plan?
Planning refers to the process of determining answers to the following five questions?
What to do? Select the most pressing programs, by analyzing all the problems of the villages.
Why to do? Identify the benefits from implementation of the programs
How to do? Identify the resources and technology needed for carrying out the plan successfully
When to do? Fix the launching and completion dates of the plan
Where to do? Identify the location for implementing the plan.
How to integrate?
1. Integration may not be achieved only by including different components.

2. If we look at the national level or at the regional level different components such as forestry,
agriculture, livestock, irrigation, health, education, roads etc are in place but we cannot say it is
integrated.
3. The reason is that they are acting independently without due consideration of inter-links and
without the co-ordination sufficient to produce integrated effects.
4. To maintain good co-ordination:
 It should be maintained from the beginning and at every step from planning to
implementation and to utilization.
 procedures should be clearly spelled out at every step;
 its need should be understood by all personnel involved;
 the job description of all personnel should be clearly defined;
 a strong controlling agency of personnel is needed; and
 The personnel need a good attitude, behavior and dedication.
Integration of activities:
1. A holistic approach is widely accepted for successful SCWM programs.

2. In a holistic approach the entire range of activities from resources conservation to rural
infrastructure needs to be included depending on the physio-socio-economic conditions of the
watershed.
3. However, there is an optimum range of activities below which impacts are not created and above
which operational complexities retard the progress.
4. For successful SCWM programs in general, it has realized that forestry measures, agronomic
measures and engineering erosion control measures need to be equally emphasized instead of a
single measure approach.
5. The involvement of other green line agencies along with DSC is essential for successful watershed
management.
6. But, lack of co-operation and co-ordination among various line agencies is a constraint in
integrated watershed management projects..
Elements in Watershed Management
 Land : land mass or a geomorphic unit including soil, water, rock, vegetation, animals and other
resources attached to it.
 People: People refers to the inhabitants in the watershed and those in the downstream area
related to the WS
 Management: It refers to the policy,legislation, adminitration, institutional capability, technology
and resources of various GO\NGOs dealing with WS mgt.
Approaches of watershed management
1. Sectoral approach vs. integrated approach

2. Top down approach vs. bottom up approach
3. Participatory approach
Participatory Integrated Watershed Management (PIWM) Approach
What is participatory Watershed Management?
Participatory Watershed Management refers to the process of formulating and carrying out a course of
action involving the manipulation of natural resources in a watershed with active participation of the
people right form planning stage to implementation and, monitoring and evaluation stages.
Why is Participatory Watershed Management Necessary?
The necessities of participatory watershed management are high lightened by the following statements:
1. Local people are the main stakeholders in watershed management programs.

2. It is the local people who will be the benefited most if the resources within the watershed are
conserved.
3. It is the same people who will suffer most, if these scarce resources are destroyed.
4. Watershed management programs starts from the households of the local people.
5. It can fully utilize indigenous knowledge and skills.
6. It ensures maximum use of local resources.
7. It guaranties continuity of watershed management programs
8. Participation is vital for sustainability of watershed management programs.
Role of the Governmental Organization Role of Non-Governmental Organization
 Coordinate between different agencies  Act as a liaison between the government

related to watershed management organizations and the farmers.
 Launch publicity/communication  Launch publicity/communication
campaigns campaigns
 Provide training opportunities to the  Conduct farmer training in the field.
farmers  Provide technical assistance
 Provide technical assistance  Assist in user group communities
 Assist in user Group/Committee formation formation
 Mate policy guidelines on watershed  Launch extension program
management 
 Conduct research and extension
Participatory is now a basic principle in any development activities and natural resource management
program in any developing countries. There has been a rapid expansion of participatory approaches,
which involves interactive learning between professionals and farmers (Maarleveld 1998; Sikka and
Samra 2000).
Participation includes people‘s involvement in decision making processes, in implementing programme

their shearing in benefits of development program and their involvement in efforts to evaluate such
programme.
Watershed management has evolved into a participatory, multi stakeholder exercise, requiring
institutional and organizational coordination to take into account the economic, social, political and
cultural dimensions (Careney, 1998).
People's participation has been described in terms of a five-part project cycle: watershed resources
assessment; project activity planning; implementation, maintenance, followed-up on and benefit sharing
Comparing the past traditional and current Development approach
Developement Traditional approach Current approach

elemenst
purpose Sinlge (soil conservation) Multiple (social, economical and envireonmental)
Need assessment adn Central level governemnt staff Community help to identify the gap and select the
planning priorities
Strategy Increase production and Emphasis livelihoods, Ecosystem servieces, poverty
conservation and sustainability
Approach Centralise, top down planning with Participatory, community based focus to the women
little input from community and poor communities, landscapes approach
Institution Governemnt and donor agencies NGO, CBO and private and governemnts instituions
Working size Large watershed Small watershed, sub-watershed
Output Target meet, quanities Qualitative, sustainability
Challenge and Opportunities:
Fundamental questions addressed
Challenged faced:
 Water scarcity
 Loss of protective vegetative cover and accelerated loss of soil resources
 Soil loss and nutrient depletion in humid tropical regions
 Problems of sustaining people‘s livelihood
 Other challenge:
Meeting the challenges: Some examples:
 Alleviating water scarcity in arid regions

 Providing necessary natural resources to people
 Reconciling timber production and other watershed values
 Sustaining agricultural production on marginal lands
Fundamental question in Watershed management
 What mechanisms exist to ensure people in a WS have a common and positive overall goal of
land and water use and that their actions do not adversely affect land and water resources for
future generation ?
 How do we enable stakeholders to act in a cooperative and coordinated fashion to achieve these
goals as best possible?
Core principles
 Watersheds are natural systems that we can work with.

 Watershed management is continuous and needs a multi disciplinary approach.
 A watershed management framework supports partnering, using sound science, taking well-
planned actions and achieving results.
 A flexible approach is always needed.
General principles of watershed management
1. Comprehensiveness:
2. Commitment and Leadership
3. Process and Communication
4. Integration of Interdisciplinary Science and Local Knowledge
5. Monitoring and Adaptive Management
6. Cooperation and Coordination
7. Community-based
1. Comprehensiveness:
 Consider whole drainage basin (headwaters to basin outlet)
 Address all significant factors affecting the resource(s)
 Use an ecosystem-based approach (address environmental, economic and social benefits
 Recognize diversity of watershed in State
 Work across boundaries (land ownership/jurisdictional responsibilities)
2. Commitment and Leadership
 Get commitment and leadership from those who live and work in the watershed
 Provide State and regional management support and commitment
 Achieve a common vision and collective set of objectives at the Watershed level
3. Process and Communication
 Recognize that process is important as outcome

 Use a stake-holder based process (inclusive from beginning to end)
 Provide for an on-going iterative process with many opportunities for input
4. Integration of Interdisciplinary Science and Local Knowledge
 Use the best available scientific information

 Incorporate local knowledge and common sense approach
 Acknowledge watershed assessments as a necessary first step
5. Monitoring and Adaptive Management
 Monitor outcomes (include social and technical components)

 Take long-term approach
 Adapt management based on monitoring results Provide for flexibility in the watershed
assessment and monitoring approach
6. Cooperation and Coordination
 Foster local interest and participation
 Promote federal/State/local government/tribal/public/private partnerships
 Comply with existing laws
 Utilize a combination of voluntary and regulatory approaches
 Seek equitable ways to distribute responsibilities and funding
7. Community-based
 Emphasize local initiatives and energy while acknowledging larger public trust interests
 Do not employ a top-down approach
 Consider scale dependencies
 Recognize beneficial resource utilization
Delineating the watershed boundary
 Delineation of a watershed or sub watershed is the process of demarcating a hydrological and

physiographical entity encircled by a distinct ridge line and surrounded by many such entities
from a major unit for the sake of administrative and technical feasibility, considering homogeneity
of basic resources and problems.
 Before delineating a watershed the size of the proposed entity should be decided. The size of the
watershed varies according to the size of the stream or river for which it forms a catchment.
 A watershed can be delineated using any one of the available topo sheet, cadastral map or aerial
photographs.
 Delineate a watershed (or many watersheds) on a topographic (topo) map using two important
map symbols:
 The blue hydrographic lines symbolizing water and the brown elevation contour lines indicating
areas of equal height above sea level. Since water flows downhill from higher elevations to a
common body of water, to delineate the watershed boundary for a particular place on a stream or
lake, you will need to draw a line along the ridge tops connecting the highest elevation points
surrounding the lake or stream.
Two step for delineation
Step 1: Choose the point of the watershed outlet.

Step 2: Delineate the watershed boundary by drawing perpendicular lines across the elevation
contour lines for land that drains to the point of interest.
1.2 Watershed as a management unit:
Managed based on different

management unit e.g. types, block
etc
Vegetation
Human
Existence
Soil Water
Managed based on different Managed based watershed only

management unit e.g. types, block
etc
Watershed as Management Unit, Why?
 Watershed literally means shed water

 Therefore, a watershed is an ideal natural unit over which hydrological process are integrated and
for which a water balance may be constructed to show the disposal of precipitation into a number
of subsequent forms, e.g. interpretation, soil moisture and ground storage, evapo-transpiration
and runoff.
 The movement of water is the prime agent in creating fluvial landform. Therefore, a watershed is
also the area over which fluvial geomorphic process operate and for which and energy balance
can be constructed whereby the precipitation input us equated with an erosional output of water
and gravity move load.
 A watershed allows assessment of the environmental effects and impacts of development
including landuse activities both upstream and downstream.
 Thus, the effects of upstream disturbances such as road construction, quarrying, logging, etc,
which often result in a chain of downstream consequences can be readily examined at any point
within a watershed context.
 Therefore, a watershed is an ideal unit for the planning and implementation of water resources
development and soil conservation programs. Also the effect of upstream activities can be linked
to the downstream and their impact assessed
Watershed Characteristics
A. Geomorphology
1. Physical characteristics
 The physiographical characteristics of a watershed influence to a large degree its hydrological

responses and especially the flow regime during floods and periods of drought.
 The concentration time, which characterizes the speed and intensity of the watershed's reaction
to stress (rainfall), is influenced by the different morphological characteristics.
2. Watershed Area
 The drainage area (A) is the probably the single most important watershed characteristic for
hydrologic design.
 It reflects the volume of water that can be generated from rainfall.
 It is common in hydrologic design to assume a constant depth of rainfall occurring uniformly over
the watershed. Under this assumption, the volume of water available for runoff would be the
product of rainfall depth and the drainage area.
 The surface of a watershed can be measured using a variety of methods: superposing a grid over
the watershed map, using a planimeter or digitalizing methods (Size Ha or Sq.Km).
3. Watershed Length
 The length (L) of a watershed is the second watershed characteristic of interest.

 While the length increases as the drainage increases, the length of a watershed is important in
hydrologic computations.
 Watershed length is usually defined as the distance measured along the main channel from the
watershed outlet to the basin divide.
 While the drainage area and length are both measures of watershed size, they may reflect
different aspects of size.
 The drainage area is used to indicate the potential for rainfall to provide a volume of water.
 The length is usually used in computing a time parameter, which is a measure of the travel time
of water through a watershed.
 L increases with area drained
 L important in hydrologic computation
 L usually defined as the distance along the main channel from the watershed outlet to the basin
divide.
 Thus, the length is measured along the principal flow path.
 L used to compute travel time of water through a watershed.
4. Elevation
 At the highest point on divide

 At the mouth or gazing station
 At the headwaters of the permanent streams
 Fall of streams in ft.per mile or meters per Km
Watersheds at different elevations behave quite differently due to differences in precipitations forms,
vegetation and evapotranspiration.
5. Watershed Slope:
 Flood magnitudes reflect the momentum of the runoff. Slope is an important factor in the
momentum. Slope length, steepness and uniformity of slopes affect both surface runoff and soil
loss.
 Both watershed and channel slope may be of interest. Watershed slope reflects the rate of change
of elevation with respect to distance along the principal flow path.
 Typically, the principal flow path is delineated, and the watershed slope (S) is computed as the
difference in elevation (DE) between the end points of the principal flow path divided by the
hydrologic length of the flow path (L):
 S = DE/L
 Runoff on short and steep slopes will usually flow faster to the channel than on long and gentle
slopes often carrying mud and debris and causing disasters in the low lands.
6. Watershed Shape:
 The shape of a watershed influences the shape of its characteristic hydrograph.

 For example, a long shape watershed generates, for the same rainfall, a lower outlet flow, as the
concentration time is higher.
 A watershed having a fan-shape presents a lower concentration time, and it generates higher
flow.
The influence of watershed shape on the hydrograph
7. Drainage pattern features
1. Trellised drainage patterns tend to develop where

there is strong structural control upon streams
because of geology. In such situations, channels align
themselves parallel to structures in the bedrock with
minor tributaries coming in at right angles.
2. Areas with tectonic faults or bedrock joints can cause
streams to take on a grid-like or rectangular pattern.
3. Parallel drainage patterns are often found in areas
with steep relief or where flow is over non-cohesive
materials.
4. Dendritic patterns are typical of adjusted systems on
erodible sediments and uniformly dipping bedrock.
5. Deranged drainage patterns are found in areas
recently disturbed by events like glacial activity or
volcanic deposition. Over time, the stream will adjust
the topography of such regions by transporting
sediment to(B.improve
Watershed Management flow2nd
Sc. 3rd year and channel
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Compiled by: Shambhu Kumar Mishra Page 10
7. Drainage Density:
 Number of well defined channels per sq. miles or sq.km of watershed.

 Miles or Km. of permanent stream per. Sq. Miles or sq.Km of watershed.
In calculation:
 The drainage density (D0 is the ratio of the total length of streams within a watershed to the total
area of the watershed; thus D has units of the reciprocal of length (1/L). A high value of the
drainage density would indicate a relatively high density of streams and thus a rapid storm
response.
D = Lt/A
 Furthermore, In includes location, description of lakes bogs and swamps.

 The drainage patterns and density also affects the disposal of water and sediment yield . Much
dissected topography will yield more runoff and thus, more sediment to the downstreams area
than less dissected area.
8. Gelology
 Percent of each and specific types (igeneous, metamorphic, sedimentary)

 Conditions of parent rock: solid, fractured, faulted and extent of outcrops
 Geological structures and rock types also, greatly influence the characteristics of hydrologic
processes and water quality in the watershed. The underlying rocks determine how easily the
land can be shaped by the processes of weathering, erosion or mass movement.
 In limestone areas, surface runoff is comparatively low and most of the water goes underground
through sink holes.
 But, If the watershed has underlying impermeable materials such as shale or mudstones, the
runoff is usually very high.
9. Soils
 Soil depth
 Soil type
 Soil infiltration capacity
 Soil erosiveness etc
Physical and chemical properties of soil specialy texture, structure, moisture,Organic matter content,
surface roughness and depth of soil influence to a great extent the disposition of water by the way of
infiltration, storage and runoff.
10. Land use and Land cover conditions:
 Land use types (forest, grassland, agriculture, urban, etc.)

 Ownership pattern (government, private, community)
 Forest land conditions (including fire history and past use where applicable, ground and crown
cover)
 Major forest types
 Rangeland condition and types
 Agricultural practices (Traditional vs. Intensive; Cereal or others, Livestock management)
 Development infrastructure (Road networks and condition)
 Recreational use (resort use, wildlife resource, fish resource, etc.)
B. Climatic Characteristics
1. Precipitation (amount, duration, distribution, seasonal, forms of pot-snow, hail, rain, max.
intensities)
2. Temperature (max- min)
3. Evaporation
4. Wind (speed and direction)
5. Relative humidity etc.
 Meterological parameters like ppt, temp., wind velocity, humidity and evapotranspiration, decide
a quantitative approach for arriving as water availability in a WS.
 Climate is a determining factors for the management of all aspects of watershed.
 Climate change will make the pieces of watershed management more difficult, because of greater
uncertainty about future conditions. Given that uncertainty, we have a greater need to plan, a
greater need to get more function from watershed processes, a greater need to design in resiliency
and local self-sufficiency.
Watershed Hydrology:
 Erosion conditions along streams

 Floods
 Stream flow (quantity and quality)
Source of stream flow (lake, bogs, springs, ground water flow,snow etc.)
Annual Yield, seasonal yield, maximum and minum yield in cu.m per sec.
 Socioeconmic characterstics
 Economical activities and oppertunities
 Institutional characterstics (Local Go\Ngos, UGs and program), Market, Road , etc.
Forest Social Economi

Land cal
WS People Watershed
management Management
Water
ent and peoplel‘s
Animal livelihood
Institutio
Ecologica nal
l
Questions: 1 Explain geomorphologic characteristics of watershed: (detailed from book)
A good knowledge on watershed characteristics will help in predicting flows, which are useful for
designing erosion control measures and planning and, designing and selection of watershed.
The watershed characteristics are categorized into following groups:
1. Soil
2. Geology
3. Land use
4. Land capability
5. Climatic features
6. Socio-economic features
7. Geomorphologic characteristics:
Geomorphologic characteristics:
Two general types of numbers have been used to describe geomorphologic characteristics namely linear
scale and dimensionless number i.e. ratio. Three broad groups of geomorphologic characteristics are:
A. Linear Aspects of watershed
1. Stream Orders
2. Bifurcation Ratio(𝑅𝑏 ): following are the some of the important linear aspects of watershed
characteristics related with bifurcation ratio:
1. Horton‘s Law of Stream Numbers
2. Total Stream Number in the Watershed
3. Length Ratio:
1. Law of stream length
4. Total Stream length
5. Length of overland flow
B. Areal Aspects of Watershed:
1. Area
2. Law of stream
3. Length – Area relation
a. Basin Shape
b. Elongation Ratio
c. Circulatory Ratio
4. Drainage Density
5. Constant of channel Maintenance
6. Stream Frequency: Stream Density
C. Relief Slope Aspect of watershed and Drainage Network:
1. Relief
2. Relief Ratio
3. Elevation
4. Hypsometric (Area – Altitude) Analysis
5. Law of Stream Slopes
6. Relation Between Valleys –side slope and channel slope
7. Slope of a watershed
a. Mean slope
b. Slope map
c. The maximum valley-side slopes
A. Linear Aspects of watershed

1. Stream Orders:
 The first step in watershed analysis is stream ordering.
 Stream order is a measure of the amount of branching in a drainage system.
 This is used to compare with other drainage system and to relate with hydrological and erosional
processes.
 The smallest fingertip streams with no tributaries are counted as first order;
 Two first order channels combine to form a channel segment of second order
 ……., two nth order channels from a channel of n + 1 order
 Therefore, second order stream has only first order tributaries and third order stream has only
first and second order tributaries, and so forth.
 The order of particular drainage basin is determined by the order of the principle stream
 Stream ordering is done in a drainage map including all intermittent and permanent flow lines
located in clearly defined valleys.
 Order is extremely sensitive to the map scale used.
 A careful study of aerial photographs will show more small ephemeral segments not indicated on
a standard topographical map.
 Therefore, map scale must be carefully defined depending upon the purpose
Figure: Stranhler‘s Stream Ordering
2. Bifurcation Ratio (𝑹𝒃 ):

 Bifurcation Ratio of any given stream order is the ratio of the number of stream of the given
stream order to the number in the next higher order.
 The established of stream ordering led by Horton to realize that certain linear parameters of the
basin are proportionately related to the stream order and that these relationships could be
expressed as basic law of the drainage composition.
 Many of the linear morph metric laws are function of the bifurcation ratio(𝑹𝒃 )
Numerically;
𝐍𝐔
𝑹𝒃 =
𝐍𝐔 + 𝟏
Where,
R b = Bifurcation Ratio
NU = Number of streams of given order U
NU + 1 = Number of streams of next higher order U + 1
 Generally, Bifurcation Ratios are found to be in the range between 2 to 5 with a mean value near
3.5.
 The bifurcation ratio of 3.5 means that on the average there are 3.5 times as many channels
segments of any given order as of the next higher order.
 When geology is reasonably homogeneous throughout a basin, bifurcation ratio usually ranges
from 3.0 to 5.0.
 The theoretical minimum possible value of 2.00 is rarely approached under natural conditions.
 Abnormally high bifurcation rations might be expected in regions of steeply dipping rock strata
where narrow strike valleys are confined between hogback ridges.
 Bifurcation ratio is inversely proportional to flood discharge.
 If the ratio is low the discharges are higher with sharp peaks.
 If the ratio is high the discharges are low but with broad peaks
Fig: Hypothetical basins of extreme and moderate bifurcation ratio, with schematic hydrographs
Following are the some of the important linear aspects of watershed characteristics related with
bifurcation ratio:
2.1 Horton’s Law of Stream Numbers:
The numbers of stream segments of each order form an average geometric sequences with order number,
or
𝐍𝐮 = 𝐑 𝐛 𝐊−𝐮
Where;
Nu = Number of stream order of given order U

K = is the order of the trunk segment (main stream)
u = is the given order stream
Note: When logarithm of number of streams is plotted against order most drainage networks show a
linear relationship, with a small deviation from a straight line
2.2 Total Stream Number in the Watershed

Horton shows that the total number of streams of all orders in a watershed can be commuted if the
bifurcation ration𝑅𝑏, and trunk order K are known:
Numerically;
𝐑𝐛𝐤 − 𝟏
𝐍=
𝐑𝐛 − 𝟏
Where,
𝐍 = Total number of stream in watershed
k = Trunk order
3. Length Ratio:
The length ratio (R L ), is the ratio of mean length LU of segments of order u to mean length of segments of
the next lower order Lu−1
Numerically;
𝐋𝐔
𝐑𝐋 =
𝐋𝐔−𝟏
The mean length of channel LU or order u is obtained by dividing the total length of u order streams by
the number of segments 𝐍𝐔 of u order i.e.
𝐍
𝐢=𝟏 𝐋𝐔
𝐋𝐔 =
𝐍𝐮
3.1 Law of stream length
The law of stream length states that the mean lengths of stream segments of each of the successive orders
of a basin tend to approximate a direct geometric sequence in which the first term is the average length of
the first order:
𝐋𝐮 = 𝐋𝟏 . 𝐑𝐮−𝟏
𝟏
4. Total Stream length
The laws of stream numbers and lengths can be combined as a product to yield an equation for the total
length of streams of a given order ‗u‘, knowing the bifurcation ratio 𝐑 𝐛 , a length ratio𝐑 𝐋 , the mean length
𝐋𝟏 of the first order segments, and the order of the trunk segments, thus:
5. Length of overland flow:
 This is the distance over which runoff will flow before concentrating into permanent channels.
 Horton defined length of overland flow as the length of flow path, projected to the horizontal, of
non-channel flow from a point on the drainage divide to a point on the adjacent stream channel.
 Horton noted that length of overland flow is one of the most important independent variables
affecting both the hydrologic and physiographic development of drainage basins
 Horton expressed this as:
𝟏
𝐥𝐮 =
𝐒
𝟐𝐃𝐮 (𝟏 − 𝐜 )
𝐒𝐠
Where,
lu = Lenght of overland flow of the given stream order u

Du = drainage density of the given stream order u
Sc = Average channel slope of stream of order u
Sg = Average ground slope
D. Areal Aspects of Watershed:

1. Area
2. Law of stream
3. Length – Area relation
3.1 Basin Shape
3.2 Elongation Ratio
4. Circulatory Ratio
5. Drainage Density
6. Constant of channel Maintenance
7. Stream Frequency: Stream Density
1 Area:
 The fundamental unit of aerial elements is the area contained within the basin of any given order
(Au )
 The area Au of a basin of a given order u is defined as the total area projected upon a horizontal
plane, contributing overland flow to the channel segment of the given order and including all
attributaries for lower.
 The area of watershed affects the time it takes for a total flood flow to reach a given station and
the peaks flow.
 As the size of watershed increases, peak flow decreases and flood flow takes longer time to reach
a given stations.
 The stream discharge is related with area as
𝐐 = 𝐛𝐀𝐜
Where;
Q = Steam dicharge
b and c = Numerical constatns
A = Area of watershed
 Run-off volumes and rates increases as watershed size increases. However, both rate and volume
per unit of watershed area decreases as the watershed area increases.
 All other factors being equal, Sediment yield decrease as the area of the drainage basin expands.
 The explanation for this phenomenon seems to lie in several topographic realities:
1. Small basins generally have steep valley-side slopes and high gradient stream channels
which efficiently transport sediment
2. In basins, the drainage density always remains high near the basin divide, but it may
decrease with time in the central part of the basin;
3. Flood plain area increase as the basin expands, especially in the central and lower
reaches of the basin.
The integration of these factors leads us to realize that in natural basins most sediment is produced in
the small head-ward sub-area where it is quickly removed, but during its downstream transits a
significant portion may be stored in the flood plain system. How long it will remain in storage depends on
the rigor of the geomorphic and hydrologic processes.
2. Law of Stream Areas:
The law of stream states that the mean basin areas of stream of each order tend closely to approximate a
direct geomorphic sequence in which the first term is the mean area of the first order basins
𝐀𝐮 = 𝐀𝟏 × 𝐑𝐮−𝟏
𝐚
Where,
Au = Mean area of basins of order u,

A1 = Mean area of the first order basins, and
R a = Area
3. length-Area Relation:
Showed that for a large number of basins are related by the simple power function:
𝐋 = 𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝐀𝟎.𝟔
Where,
L = the distance from any locality on a stream to the divide to the head of the longest segment above the
given locality
A = Basin area above given locality.
3.1 Bain Shape:
 The shape of a watershed affects the stream flow hydrograph and peak flow rates.
 Watersheds tend to the form of a pear shaped ovoid, but geological controls result in much
substantial deviation from this shape
 Horton, 1932 suggested the dimensionless form factors (Rf) as an index of shape;
𝐀𝐮
𝐑𝐟 =
𝐋𝟐𝐛
Where,
Au = Basin area of order u

Lb = Lenght of the basin of uth order stream measured from outlet to divide near the head of the longest
stream along a straight line
The runoff from the watershed with low form factor does not concentrate as quickly as it does from the
watershed with high form factor of the same size and the former is less likely to have an intense rainfall
simultaneously over its entire extent than area of equal size with a larger form factor, therefore less peaks
flow.
A compact basin will yield will yield a value close to unity, while a long, narrow basin will yield a lose
value, and generally a lower peak runoff total than a similar sized area with a high form factor, since a
heavy rainfall is less likely to fall simultaneously over the entire area.
3.2 Elongation Ratio:
Elongation ratio Re, defined as the ratio of diameter of a circle of the same area as the basin to the
maximum basin length
𝐃 𝐥 𝟒𝐀
𝐑𝐞 = = × 𝟏/𝟐
𝐋 𝐋 𝛑
This ratio ranges between 0.6 to 1.0 over a wide variety of climatic and geologic types. Values near to 1.0
are typical of regions of very low relief, whereas values in the range 0.6 to 0.8 are generally associated
with strong relief and steep ground slopes.
3.3 Circularity Ratio:
Miller used a dimensionless circularity ratio, Rc defined as the ratio of basin area Au to the area of a
circle Ac having the same perimeter as the basin.
𝐀𝐮
𝐑𝐜 =
𝐀𝐜
Miller found that circularity ratio reminded remarkably uniform in the range 0.6 to 0.7 for first and
second order basins in homogeneous shales and dolomites, indicating the tendency of small drainage
basins in homogenous geologic materials to preserve geometrical similarity.
4. Drainage Density:
Drainage density is the average length of streams per unit area. It is directly controlled by the interaction
of climatic and geologic factors
In general, low drainage density is favored in regions of highly resistant or highly permeable sub-soil
materials, under dense vegetation cover, and where relief is low. High drainage density is favored in
regions of weak or impermeable sub-surface materials, sparse vegetation, and mountain relief. As a rule
of thumb, where geology and slope angles are the same, humid regions develop a thick vegetal mat unit
increases resistance and infiltration and thereby perpetuates a lower drainage density than would be
expected in more arid basins.
5 Constant of channel maintenance:
A channel will be formed when the overland flow velocity reaches the critical value with respects to
erosion of the local surface material. The distance necessary for this velocity to develop will be related to
the strength and permeability of the surface material and to the intensity and duration of rainfall to the
surface slope, and to the surface roughness.
6. Stream Frequency: Stream Density:
 It is a number of stream segments per unit area

 In counting the total number of streams, the mainstream from the source to the mouth is
counted as one.
 The tributaries f\of the next lower order, each extending from its source to its junction with main
stream are counted individually.
 Then the tributaries of the next lower order, each extending from its source to its junction with a
stream of next higher order are aloes counted individually, and so on.
C. Relief Slope Aspect of watershed and Drainage Network:
1. Relief
2. Relief Ratio
3. Elevation
4. Hypsometric (Area – Altitude) Analysis
5. Law of Stream Slopes
6. Relation Between Valleys –side slope and channel slope
7. Slope of a watershed
7.1 Mean slope
7.2 Slope map
7.3 The maximum valley-side slopes
1. Relief
 Relief is the difference in elevation between the high and low points of a land surface.
 Maximum basin relief is the difference between highest elevation on the basin perimeter the
elevation at the mouth of the trunk river
 Relief measure are indicative of the potential energy of a drainage system present by virtue of
elevation above a given datum
 Relative relief (R hp ) is defined as the ratio of the maximum basin relief (H) to the perimeter (P) of
the basin
𝐑 𝐡𝐩 = 𝐇/𝐏
2. Relief Ratio:
2. Relief Ratio:
 The dimensionless relief ratio is the

maximum basin relief, ∆E divided by the
longest horizontal distance L or the basin
measured parallel to the major stream.
 The relief ratio thus measures the overall
steepness of a drainage basin and is an
indicator or the intensity of erosion
processes operating on slopes of the basin.
 Also relief ratio is related to sediment yield.
Relief ratio, 𝐑 𝐫 = ∆𝐄/𝐋
3. Elevation:
Elevation: The median elevation is determined as the
midpoint in the curve plotting the percent of total
 The elevation, mean elevation and median
area above given lower limit of elevation class
elevation of a watershed are important
against the lower limit of elevation
factors in relation to temperatures and
precipitation
 The mean elevation Eˉ is computed as
𝐚𝐞
𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐌 =
𝐀
Where,
a = area between pair of contour
e = Mean elevation of given pair of contours
A = Total area of basin
Figure: Area-Elevation Distribution
4. Hypsometric (Area-Altitude) Analysis:
 It is useful to know the watershed area is distributed with elevation

 Hypsometric analysis is to relate elevation and basin area.
 The relative height (Y) is the ratio of the height (h) of a given contour above the horizontal datum
plane to the total relief (H).
5 Law of stream slopes:
 The slope of a channel effects velocity of flow and must play a role in hydrograph shape.
 The average slope of given order streams will obviously be less than the average slope for the next
lower order but greater than for the next higher order.
 Horton expressed this relationship in a law of stream slopes as;
𝐒𝐮+𝐫
𝐑𝐫𝐬 =
𝐒𝐮
Where
Su = The avergae slope of segments of "u: order stream
R s = Slope ratio constant
K = order of the main trunk stream
Note: Except for the geographical youngest watersheds and those containing marked geological
heterogeneity‘s the law of stream slopes appears to be generally valid i.e. the channel slope decrease with
increase in stream order
6. Relation between valley-side slope and channel slope:

 Steep valleys side slopes contributes large quantities of coarse debris to the stream channels,
which must have steep slopes to enables stream flow to transports debris as bed load,
 While gentle valleys-side slopes yield smaller quantities of fine debris which in turn requires
correspondingly low channel gradients for its transport
Relation between valley-side slope and
7. Slope of a watershed:
 The slope of a watershed has important influences on infiltration, surfaces runoff and ground
water contribution of stream flow.
 It is a major factor affecting the time of overland flow and concentration of rainfall in stream
channels and flood magnitude.
 It is also an important factor affecting erosion and sediment production
7.1 Mean slope
The slope of the basin is equal to the total length of contour running across the watersheds multiplied by
the contour interval and divided by the area of the watershed
7.2 Slope Map;
The slope map of a watershed can be prepared to show the distribution of the slope classes throughout.
7.3 The maximum valley-side slopes:
 The maximum valley-side slopes are a significant parameter of the overall steepness of the slopes
in a watershed.
 It was found to have significant variations between different watersheds and could therefore be an
important factor which might relate to sediment production
 It is measured at intervals along the valley walls on the steepest part of the contour running from
divides to adjacent stream channels.
Unit-2
Desertification
2.1 Concept of the desert and desertification

2.2 Causes of desertification
2.2.1 Effects of desertification
2.1 Concept of the desert and desertification
Degradation:
 A decline in the overall quality of soil, water or vegetation condition commonly caused by human
activities.
 Or as defined by the Vegetation Management Act 1999, this includes soil erosion, rising water
tables, the expression of salinity, mass movement by gravity of soil or rock, stream bank
instability, and a process that results in declining water quality.
 It is also considered to include a change in the ground cover to less palatable species, or a change
from predominantly perennial grasses to predominantly annual grasses (Tothill and Gillies 1992).
Desertification:
 Desertification is generally viewed as an advanced stage of land degradation.

 At the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD), desertification was defined as
a "diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land which can lead ultimately to
desert-like conditions" (1978).
 Desertification is the expansion of dry lands due to poor agricultural practices (e.g. overgrazing,
degradation of soil fertility and structure), improper soil moisture management, salinization and
erosion, forest removal, and climate change.
Worldwide Soil Degradation Mechanisms for all land-use types:
1. Water erosion: 56%

2. Wind Erosion: 28%
3. Chemical Degradation: 12%
4. Physical Degradation: 4%
Types of Soil Degradation
2.2 Causes of desertification
Cause of Desertification
1. Desertification comes about by a complex interaction between the natural environment and
human activities.
2. The cause may vary from region to region on account of economic conditions, population
pressure, agricultural practices, and politics.
3. A human activity that destroys surface vegetation, degrades soil structure and fertility, impedes
water infiltration, and causes soil drying promotes desertification.
4. Population growth and its demand on agricultural resources have promoted the desertification
process.
5. Over cultivation, for example, causes declining soil fertility leading to falling crop yields.
6. Over use leads to crusting of exposed topsoil by rain and sun that increases runoff, water erosion
and gulling.
7. Soil drying promotes wind erosion and encroachment of sand dunes on arable land.
Extent and immediate causes of land degradation
1. Human activities leading to desertification are mainly related to agriculture.

2. Overgrazing removes the grass and other vegetation that protects the soil from erosion.
3. Over cultivation exhausts the soil‘s nutrients and minerals needed to sustain plant life.
4. Deforestation destroys the trees that bind the land to the soil.
5. Wood is the principal source for lighting and cooking in many arid areas.
Degradation extent Immediate cause

(million ha)
680 Overgrazing-about 20% world‘s pastures and rangeland have been damaged, speciaiily
recently in Africa and Asia
580 Deforestation: large scale logging; clearance for farm and urban use, more than 220
million ha of tropical forests were destroyed 1975-90
550 Agricultural damage: water erosion cause soil losses estimated at 25000 million tons
annually. Soil saliniazation and water logging affect about 40 million ha of land globally.
137 Fuel wood: about 1730 million m3 of fuel wood are harvested annually from forests and
plantations
19.5 Industry and urbanization: urban growth, road construction, mining and industry, Mainly
a loss of Agricultural land.
Overgrazing has several effects, it:
1. Causes a decline in pasture vegetation and palatable grass species.

2. Replaces perennials with short-lived annual species that do not hold soil against erosion.
3. Compacts soil under trampling hoofs.
4. Destabilizes dunes when crest vegetation is eaten.
5. Forest cutting for fuel wood has deforested large tracks of land in Africa and Asia encouraging
desertification.
Major factors contributing degradation are:
1. Natural Factors: High potential for degradation - steep slopes, unstable geology, short periods of
heavy rainfall, high speed winds, flooding, drought
2. Demand Factors: Rapid increase in human and livestock populations, Unsound Management
Practices, Uncontrolled and excessive grazing, poor soil management practices, improper forest
harvesting, unmanaged mining activities
3. Harmful Practices: Setting fires to forests, environmentally unsound infra-structural activities
4. Macro-policy related factors: Land ownership problems, unplanned urbanization, inappropriate
land use practices, lack of environmentally sound guidelines for land use
2.2.1 Effects of desertification
Impact of Degradation
1. Environmental Impacts
2. Economic Impacts
3. Poverty and mass migration
1. Environmental impacts:
Because of the plant loss, loss of biodiversity, desertification makes areas more flood-prone. It also causes
the salt level in soil to rise, results in deteriorating quality of water, and silting of rivers, streams and
reservoirs.
2. Economic impacts:
Desertification has huge economic consequences – the World Bank estimates that at the global level, the
annual income lost in the areas affected by desertification amounts to US$ 42 billion each year, while the
annual cost of fighting desertification would cost only US$ 2.4 billion a year.
3. Poverty and mass migration:
Desertification brings hunger and poverty. People living in areas threatened by desertification are forced
to move elsewhere to find other means of livelihood. Usually they migrate towards urban areas or go
abroad. Mass migration is a major consequence of desertification.
The DPSIR (Driving Force, Pressure, State, Impacts, Response) Conceptual Framework applied to
potential land degradation control interventions.
The United Nations Conference on Desertification ranks desertification hazard on the basis of a drop in
agricultural productivity:
1. None - less than 10%

2. Moderate - 10% to 25 %
3. High - 25% to 50%
4. Very high - more than 50%
Land degradation in Nepal:
 Land degradation is identified as one of the major environmental problems in Nepal requiring
urgent action while desertification has been noticed in geologically and ecologically vulnerable
ecosystems.
 About 28.24% of the total land (3.2 million ha) is under the process of desertification.
 Of the total area of the Terai districts about 1.3 million hectare is dreaded.
 The situation of pasture land is even worse and high mountains pasturelands (about 79%) are
adversely affected by uncontrolled transhumance grazers because of rapidly deteriorating
effectiveness of traditional systems of management.
Table-1: Types of land degradation in Nepal:
Types of degradation Area in million ha Percentage of total area

Water erosion 6.68 45.50
Wind erosion 0.59 4.00
Chemical deterioration 0.25 1.70
Physical deterioration 0.20 1.30
Table-2: Land area under degradation:
Land Use categories Degraded Area Total Land area Land

(million ha) (million hac) degradation (%)
1. Poorly managed forest 2.10 5.828 36.03
2. Poorly managed sloppy terraces 0.290 2.969 10.00
3. Degraded rangeland/open land 0.647 1.75 37.00
4. Areas damaged by floods and 0.106 11.55 0.72
landslides (1984-2003)
5. Forest encroachment 0.119 5.828 2.04
Total 3.262 11.551 28.24
Table – 3: Lands under rehabilitation:
Lands under rehabilitation Area in ha Remarks

Rehabilitation of degraded crop land 5176 Annually rehabilitated
Rehabilitation of degraded rangeland 900 ‗‘
Rehabilitation of degraded forest 12992 ;;
Table – 4: Estimated annual soil erosion;
S.N. Land use category Erosion rate Area (million ha) Approximate soil
(ton/ha/yr) loss (ton/ha/yr)
1 Well managed forest 5-10 2.71 13.55-27.10
2 Poorly managed forest land 25-40 1.559 38.98-62.36
3 Well managed paddy terrace 5-10 1.50 7.50-15.00
4 Well managed bari (dry terrace) 5-15 0.83 4.15-12.45
5 Poorly managed sloppy terraces 20-100 0.29 5.80-29.00
6 Degraded rangeland/open land 40-200 1.75 112.40-562.00
Total 9.699 182.38-707.00
Unit-3
Land Productivity and Soil Fertility
3.1 Factors affecting Production and productivity

3.2 Nutrient Management/soil fertility
Concept:
Productivity:
 The capacity of a land for producing a specified plant under a specified of management.
 Productivity emphasizes the capacity of land\soil to produce plants, biomass\livestock\crops
and express in terms of yield.
Soil fertility:
The quality of soil that enables it to provide essential chemicals elements in quantities and proportions for
the growth of specified plants
 Soil fertility is usually discussed in the context of crop production but it can be considered from
the point of view of inherent soil fertility and induced soil fertility.
 Nearly every soil has a certain inherent fertility.
 Soils that are wet, acid, alkaline, or deficient in a particular element will support a specific plant
community.
 Therefore, they can be regarded as fertile with regard to the plants growing on them, but when
humans wants to replace one of these natural plant communities with a crop.
 Then it may be necessary to change the soil to induce the type of fertility to suit the needs of
crops.
Factors affecting plant growth:
Climatic Factors Soil Factors Crop Factors

1. Precipitation (quality; Organic matter Species; variety
distribution)
2. Air Temperature Texture Planting date
3. Relative Humidity Structure Seed quality
4. Light (quality, intensity, Cation exchange capacity Seedling rate; planting
duration) density
5. Altitude/latitude Base saturation Water availability
6. Wind (velocity, distribution) Management (tillage, drainage, Pests (insects, weeds,
others) diseases)
7. CO2 concentration Slope; topography, soil Evapotransipiration
temperature and soil depth
3.1 Factors Affecting Production and productivity:
Production is the function of (f) = Land qualities + soil qualities + input (fertilizer + management + labor +
capital resources+ technology) + Climatic factors+ Market.
Factors of production
1. Land (natural resource) - natural resources used in the creation of products.

2. Labor - human efforts provided in the creation of products, paid in wage.
3. Capital goods - human-made goods or means of production (including machinery, building and
so forth) used in the production of other goods, paid in interest.
Land qualities related to productivity from crop other than plant growth.
1. Crop yield
2. Moisture availability
3. Oxygen availability in the root zone
4. Adequacy of foothold for roots
5. Conditions for germination
6. Workability of the land (ease of cultivation)
7. Salinity or alkalinity
8. Soil toxicity
9. Resistance to soil erosion
10. Pests and disease related to the land
11. Flooding hazard (including frequency, period of inundation)
12. Temperature regime
13. Radiation energy
14. Climatic hazards affecting plant growth (including wind, hail, frost)
15. Air humidity as affecting plant growth
16. Drying periods for ripening of crops
Land qualities related to the forest productivity
1. Mean annual increments of timber species

2. Site factors affecting establishment of young tree
3. Pest and diseases
4. Fire hazard.
Land productivity
 Land productivity measures, for example, help determine the amount of land needed to meet
future world food needs—and thus the potential level of pressure on land currently providing
other environmental services.
 Labor productivity measures help determines the incomes and welfare of people employed in
agriculture (including the majority of rural people in developing countries).
Factors Affecting Productivity Growth
1. In explaining productivity growth, economists originally limited themselves to the role of

conventional inputs such as land, labour, physical capital, water and chemical inputs.
2. However, the failure to explain productivity growth adequately led them to examine the role of
human capital and public goods, such as education, agricultural research and extension and
publicly provided infrastructure
3. Public policies that have a strong link to agricultural productivity such as policy reforms were
also examined
4. Soil productivity is a result of how well the soil is able to receive and store moisture and nutrients
as well as providing a desirable environment for all plant root functions.
Production and Productivity Growth in Agriculture
1. It is common to use production (the level of output), productivity (output per unit of input) or
efficiency (actual output relative to the potential output or best practices) as indicators.
2. Although these measures are closely related, they can yield different rankings in measuring
performance.
3. In general, productivity is the most commonly used measure, be it measured in terms of total
factor productivity (TFP) or in partial terms such as labour productivity (output per labour) and
yield (output per hectare) for its relative ease in calculation and interpretation
Agricultural productivity
1. Agricultural productivity is a measure of the amount of agricultural output produced for a given
amount of inputs.
2. Agricultural productivity can be defined and measured in a variety of ways, including partial
measures, such as the amount of a single output per unit of a single input (e.g., tons of wheat per
hectare of land), or in terms of an index of multiple outputs divided by an index of multiple inputs
(e.g., the value of all farm outputs divided by the value of all farm inputs).
3. Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to agricultural inputs.
Output is usually measured as the market value of final output.
4. This output value may be compared to many different types of inputs such as labor and land
(yield)
5. Agricultural productivity may also be measured by what is termed total factor productivity (TFP).
6. This method of calculating agricultural productivity compares an index of agricultural inputs to
an index of outputs.
7. Increases in agricultural productivity lead also to agricultural growth and can help to alleviate
poverty in poor and developing countries, where agriculture often employs the greatest portion of
the population.
8. As farms become more productive, the wages earned by those who work in agriculture increase.
At the same time, food prices decrease and food supplies become more stable.
9. Laborers therefore have more money to spend on food as well as other products.
10. This also leads to agricultural growth. People see that there is a greater opportunity earn their
living by farming and are attracted to agriculture either as owners of farms themselves or as
laborers.
3.1 Nutrient management
 NM is the holistic approach to managing soils in the larger environment.
Four board interalated goals:
1. Cost effective production of high quality plants

2. Efficient use and conservation of nutrient resources
3. Maintenance or enhancement of soil quality
4. Protection of the environment beyound the soil
Crop response to fertilizer/nutrient
Nutrient levels in plants
1. Deficient: insufficient; yield

severely limited or even death
2. Critical range: below the required
level; yield response to added
nutrient occurs.
3. Sufficient: at optimum; additional
nutrient does not increase yield
4. Excessive: too high, toxic levels;
reduces yields
Sustainable soil management: the ability to keep in existence; maintain or prolong; to

provide sustenance growth
Different people have defined and interpreted sustainability based on their experience and local context.
1. Kang et al. (1990) defined sustainability as the ability of a production system to produce stable
yield of a crop(s) over a long period of time while minimizing soil degradation.
2. Increased farm productivity and income are important factors for agricultural sustainability that
can contribute to increased adoption of natural resource conservation measures to sustain
upland production systems (Sajise & Ganapin, 1990; Vorley, 2002).
3. Pretty et al. (2008a) further suggest that resilience and persistence,
4. In addition to economic, social and environmental outcomes need to be considered with respect to
sustainability of agriculture systems.
Integrated Nutrient Management
1. The basic concept of integrated nutrient management (INM) or integrated plant nutrition
management (IPNM) is the adjustment of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining
the desired crop productivity.
2. It involves proper combination of chemical fertilizers, organic manure, crop residues, N2~fixing
crops, bio fertilizers suitable to the system of land use and ecological, social and economic
conditions.
3. The cropping system rather than an individual crop, and farming system rather than an
individual field, is the focus of attention in this approach for development INM practices for
various categories
4. Plant nutrients stored in the soil. Plant nutrients, those present in the crop residues, organic
manure and domestic wastes.
5. Plant nutrients purchased or obtained from outside the farm.
6. Plant nutrient loosed e.g. those removed from the field in crop harvest and lost from the soil
through volatilization (ammonia and nitrogen oxide gases and leaching (nitrate, sulphate etc.)
7. Plant nutrient outputs e.g. nutrient uptake by the crops at harvest time.
Soil Fertility Management
Fertility: adequate crop nutrition will enhance resilience (flexibility) of agriculture to climate hazards
1. Inorganic fertilizer application,

2. Manure amendment,
3. Rotational cropping,
4. Adequate soil organic matter,
5. Increase soil fertility,
6. Crop yields (by 50% -120%)
Erosion leads to rapid soil degradation, physical loss of plants & soil productivity. Control Practices:
1. Optimum plant population,

2. Residue mulching,
3. Agro forestry,
4. Changing land topography (land contouring)
5. terracing and construction of diversions and reservoirs and water storage)
Soil fertility management in Nepal:
The two principal practices for maintaining soil fertility are:
1. Application of farmyard manure and compost

2. Use of chemical fertilizer (mainly urea and diammonium phosphate).
3. Green manuring, in-situ manuring, slicing terrace risers, and burning plant residues , storm
water harvesting, Use of night soil,
Unit-4
Legal Aspects
4.1 Land Tenure

4.2 Water laws in Nepal
4.3 Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 1982
4.4 Soil and Watershed conservation regulation, 1985
4.5 Other legislation related with the protected areas
4.1 Land Tenure
Part A Land Tenure consideration:
Definitions
 Land: An area of the earth surface the characterises of which embrace those of the atmosphere,
the soil and underlying geology, the hydrology, the plant and animal populations, and the results
of past and present human activity (after AFO, 1985)
 Land means all types of land including house, orchard, garden, trees, factory, lake, pond etc.
A. Land tenure (land survey act 1964)
Land tenure can be distinguished:
1. Government land,
2. Community land and
3. Private land
1."Government land"
―Government land is meant road, path, railway, and land housing government building or construction;
and this word also denotes forest, shrubs, rivers, rivulets, land abandoned by river, lakes ponds and their
banks, canal, water channels, unregistered land, uncultivated land, un-used land-slopes, sands and
other lands specifically denoted so by Government of Nepal through publication in the Nepal Gazette.
2. Community land
―Community land " is meant land allocated for use not only by individual but by general public like path,
pond, waterspout, well and their banks, exit for cattle, grazing-land, graveyard, public inn, temple, place
for religious practice, memorials, court-yard, sewerage, market-place, public entertainment and sports
ground and other lands specifically denoted so by Government of Nepal through publication in the Nepal
Gazette
3. Private land:
1. Road, house, pasture land, pond, agriculture land and other lands, on which government levy tax
on individual or group of individual are the private land.
2. The individual or group of peoples have right to sale and use the land the way he/she/they
wished to use following concerned government rule.
3. Land survey act 1964 limits the land that any land owner and his/her family can own and any
tenant and his/her family can cultivate at any time and excess land had been nationalized and
redistributed to the land less peoples by the government.
Act on public land
1. The local Chief District Officer (CDO) also has an important role in the protection of government
and public land. As per clauses 9 and 10a of Local Administration Act 1971, the CDO can order
demolition of houses constructed by unauthorized persons in the government and public land
and fine up to an amount of NRs 5000.
2. Nobody can cultivate government and public land without proper government authority. In case
of cultivating or providing unlawful authority for their cultivation, the CDO can award a jail term
of three months. The CDO should maintain the record of government and public land under his
jurisdiction and provide a copy to the related Land Revenue Office and the District Development
Committee‘s Office (LBMC/GoN, 1971).
B. Land use:
1. Agriculture;
 Agriculture plays a crucial role in Nepalese economy and 91% of the population derives its
livelihood from agriculture and related activities.
 About 20% of the nation‘s lands are cultivated, without any scope for significant expansion.
 Although, the Land Reform Act, 1964 imposed a ceiling of land holding and gave security to
tenants, the distribution of land holding is still skewed.
 Average of 1 hectare of agriculture land in mountain and 0.5 hectare in hill and the Terai are
required per household for subsistence living.
 About 82% mountain farmers, 47.3% hill farmers and 35.6% Terai farmers have land holding less
than required for subsistence living, therefore, will be seeking more land for cultivation
 To alleviate the problem caused by small land holding, increasing and sustaining production,
proper land use and measures to conserve soil and water become an indispensable part.
Land Type:
1. Awal
2. Doyam
3. Sim
4. Chahar
Table: 1
Physiographic Awal Doyam Sim Chahar

zone
Terai Dhanhar Irrigated pady land, Irrigable during Non irrigable only Sandy, stony, dry non-
No stone mixed good rainy, No stone one crop during irrigable. Water dries
soil, two or more mixed good soil, two rainy season can quickly, only one crop can
crops can be grown crops can be grown be grown be grown by bringing water
for long time
Terai Bhit Good fertile soil, Sand mixed less Sandy stony soil. Sloppy sandy stony land
Wheat, Maize, millet, fertile soil; Maize, No crop every
mustard and similar mustard and similar year, Maize, millet,
kind of cash crop can kind of cash crop mustard, and
be grown can be grown similar kind of
each crop can be
grown every 1 to 2
years intervals
Table: 2: Limitation on Land Ownership and cultivation:
Category Any Land Owner and his/her family can Owned Any tenant and his/her
family can cultivate
For cultivation For Housing (additional)
Inner Terai all Terai Land 25 Bigaha 3 Bigaha 4 Bigaha
Kathmandu Valley 50 Ropanies 8 Ropanies 10 Ropanies
All Hill Area Except 80 Ropanies 16 Ropanies 20 Ropanies
Kathmandu Valley
2. Forest;
 The subsistence agriculture of Nepal is heavily based on the forest products for fodder required
for cattle and manure; fuel wood for cooking and heating and timber for housing
 Forestry forms the extensive land use system of the country.
 Forest area means any area predominantly or partially covered by trees, and included grassland,
waste land and fallow Government land, but does not include land under lawful cultivation
Table: 3: Land use Status in Nepal (based on 1978/79 Aerial Photographs)
Land use category Percent

1. Agriculture land 27
2. Forest land including shrub 43
3. Grazing land 12
4. Others 18
Total land 100
On the basis of ownership, the forest can be categorized into following four types;
1. National Forest
2. Private Forest
3. Religious Forest
4. Forest areas on community land
a. Community Forest
b. Protected forest
c. Leasehold Forest
d. Un allocated national forest: three broad classes;
 Production Forest
 Limited use forest
 Protection Forest
Part B. Legal Consideration
1. Legal Consideration (B):
 One of the implementation strategies is the legal strategy

 In which rules and regulations are formulated in order to make the people follow them and
implement the necessary soil conservation and watershed management activities with or without
the government‘s supports
 As one of the legal strategies, Government of Nepal formulated the Soil Conservation Act, 1982
and Regulation, 1985
2. Soil and Watershed Conservation Act; 1982 and Regulation 1985:
a. Rationale of Act regulation:

b. Salient features of SWC Act and Regulation
c. Procedure of Declare Protected Watershed
d. Issues and Constraints
b. Salient features of SWC Act and Regulation:
1. Government may declare any area of the kingdom of Nepal as a protected watershed area by
notification the Nepal Rajptra (Gazette)
2. Catchment Conservation Officer (CCO) may carry out following activities in a protected
watershed.
 Construction and maintenance of embankment, ckeck dam, terraces improvement,
canals diversion channels, retaining wall ponds etc
 Establishment of trial plots
 Planting of trees, shrubs, grasses, and fruit trees
 Protection of vegetation (forest, shrub ladns, grasslands) and prohibit to cut vegetation (
tree, shrub and grasses)
 Prohibit quarrying of stone, sand and soil
 Prohibit grazing etc
3. Regulated prescribed land use practices on private, community and public lands
4. While regulating prescribed land use, department shall provide technical know-how and financial
assistance
5. In case any tenant is liable to be evicted from any land use system as a result of prescribed land
use system, Government shall pay compensation to such tenant.
6. In case the concerned land owner desires to relinquish to Government his ownership of lands on
which any work is being done on the basis of a land use system, he may do so.
7. While carrying out prescribed land use, if there is any loss or damage on the private property,
compensation shall be paid.
8. CCO may acquire private lands to carry out SCWM activities
9. Power to seize: CCO may seize the tools, animals, vehicles or other goods used in any acts in
contravention of this act.
10. Penalties:
 Any person, who acts in contravention of sub-section 2 of section 6 (concerned land
owner does not undertake activities prescribed) shall be punished with imprisonment for
a term not exceeding 2 months, or with a fine amounting to not more than Rs, 500 or
with both
 Any person, who acts in contravention of Section 10 (Activities causing adverse effects on
SCWM activities) shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3
months, or with affine amounting to not more than Rs. 500, or with both.
 Any person, who acts in contravention of section 17 (destroy, use up, damage, or alter
any work done in the protected area) shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not
exceeding 1 years, or with a fine amounting to not more than Rs. 1000, or with both
c. Procedure to Declare Protected Watershed:
Catchment Conservation Officer:
1. Carry out study and survey of the watershed to declare protected watershed.
2. If there is a need for declaration of protected watershed, proposal showing the boundary and area
has to be prepared.
3. With the recommendation from District Soil Conservation Committee, the CCO forwarded the
proposal to the department and then to Ministry
4. Ministry will sent to the Cabinet for approval
Catchment Conservation Officer:
 Need to classify all lands specifying prescribed treatment

 Such information should contain:
1. Prescribed land use practice explaining crops, farming system etc.
2. Map showing area and boundaries for each prescribed unit
3. Area, which is prone to flood, land slide, washout or erosion.
4. Activities not to be carried out by any individuals or groups
Such information needs to be publically notified:
In case of any technical knowhow, services and financial aid are required to undertake any prescribed,
the concerned land owner shall submit an application to CCO in the prescribed form, specifying the
details of work plan, required technical know-how, services and the financial aid.
d. Issues and Constrains:
Legal means of implementation is more of the top-down approach whereas, people‘s participation or
development by the people for the people has been main implementing theme of to-days strategies.
Therefore, legal means of controlling land use seems absolute. In the past, efforts were made to declare
Kulekhani and Phewatal Watershed Areas for its importance for hydropower, irrigation, tourism, fisheries
So, for the Department of Soil Conservation has not been able to declare in a single watershed
Major reasons:
1. The act and regulation sound too restrictive is using land by farmers
2. It demands detailed land use planning, which requires intensive works, resources and in-depth
technical know-how which has been major constraint
3. The watershed areas are too big for the available resources
4. The procedure for declaration of protected watershed is very long. It has to start at the field and
has to end up the cabinet.
Recommendations:
1. Declaration of act should be in small scale so that implementation of conservations measures can
be done in few years.
2. Such declaration should only exercise for nationally important watershed areas.
3. Declaration of the act should be within the district authority with area limitation
4.2 Water laws in Nepal
Water law
 The term water laws refers to both municipal and international laws, norms, values and
principles which protect the right of people to access to water resources for various purposes.
 General speaking, water laws are rules enacted or provided by a legitimate authority that regulate
the sectoral use of water.
Water law plays a principal role
1. Protecting the right to water as a basic human right;

2. Ensuring access to water for drinking, health and sanitation;
3. Ensuring access to water for food production;
4. Meeting the water needs of industry and commerce resolving and preventing disputes over
the allocation, distribution and use of water resources;
5. Facilitating the implementation of effective water policy; and
6. Ensuring water quality by controlling pollution.
International water Law
1. Under international law, the right to water is implicitly and explicitly protected as a human right.
2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 1966 also implicitly recognizes the
right to water as an integral component of the right to life, to an adequate standard of living, to
health, to housing and to food
3. The right to access to water is explicitly protected under the Convention on the Elimination of all
Kinds of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) 1979 and the Convention on the Rights of the
Child (CRC) 1989.
4. The International Conference on Water and Environment 1992 adopted a statement
acknowledging “the basic right of all human beings to have access to clean water and sanitation at
an affordable price”.
Nepal law:
1. Nepal is signatory to all of the above international instruments and, as a signatory, is bound to
uphold the provisions by enacting National legislation to bring them into effect.
2. Nepal is also a signatory to the Millennium Development Goals as follows:
3. Millennium Development Target: To halve by 2015 the proportion of people without access to safe
drinking water in 1990 (signed in Stockholm in 2000).
4. Millennium Development Target: To halve by 2015 the proportion of people without access to
hygienic sanitation in 1990 (signed in Johannesburg in 2002).
5. Nepal has prepared the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy 2004 (2060 BS), the
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy 2004 (2060 BS)
6. The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sectoral Strategic Action Plan 2004 (2060 BS).
7. These policy and strategy documents recognize that all people have a right to access to basic
water supply and sanitation services and that these services are necessary for socio economic
development and to combat waterborne diseases.
8. The main legislation in relation to drinking water in Nepal is the Water Resource Act 1992 (2049
BS).
9. This Act is an umbrella Act, governing not only drinking water, but other uses of water and
overall water resource management in Nepal.
10. There are two regulations under the Act, for drinking water purposes the Water Resource
Regulation 1993 (2050 BS) and the Drinking Water Regulation 1998 (2055 BS).
11. The Water Resource Regulation 1993 (2050 BS) is an umbrella Regulation covering all uses of
water and providing procedural mechanisms for the implementation of the Water Resource Act
1992 (2049 BS).
12. The Regulation covers the formation of Water User Associations and District Water Resource
Committees, licensing, provides a dispute settlement mechanism in relation to water use service
charges, sets out the process to be followed by the State in relation to land acquisition and
compensation and provides some forms in the Schedules to the Regulations for certain
administrative procedures.
Watershed management related and National Adaptation Plan of action on Climate Change:
1. Conservation of Medicinal Plants and NTFP in High Altitude of Mid and Farwest
2. Integrated Watershed Management in Churia to ensure ecosystem and community resilience on
climate change
3. Integrated Wetland Management in Terai
4. Community Based Forest Fire Management in Mid Hills
Promotion and up-scaling of Multi Use System (MUS) for the benefit of poor and vulnerable
households in mid hills and Churia range of Nepal
1. Water Induced Disaster Management
2. Environmental Action Plan on Management of Watersheds and Aquatic Ecosystems
3. Adoption of National Energy Strategy and Formulation of Integrated Energy Policy and Plans
4. Energy Plantation Programs to Maintain the Balance between Annual Fuel Wood Demand and
Supply for Rural Household Energy
5. GLOF Monitoring and Management Program
6. Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Program (STWSSP)
7. Strengthening of Capacity Building of Local Level Institutions in Planning and Project
Implementation
8. Program to develop cost-effective micro, small, and medium hydropower
9. Program to enhance rural electrification
10. Support to Water Related Tourism
11. Management of existing hydrological and meteorological network at DHM
12. Institutional Capacity Building of Government Agencies at Central and Local Level
13. Scaling up of biomass energy technologies (quantity, quality, and coverage) for less fuel wood
consumption
4.3 Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 1982
Following are the general major content of Act, 1982:

Act Published on, November 21st, 1982
1. Introduction of protected watershed areas. (section 2)
2. Power to declare Protected watershed areas (section -3)
3. Measures which may be taken in protected watershed area (section – 4)
4. Classification of lands within protected watershed area (section- 5)
5. Section-6; Provision of cultivation under land use system
6. Section-7: Provision of Technical know-how, services, and financial co-operation
7. Section-8: Provision of compensation
8. Section-9: Power to undertake tests
9. Section-10: Prohibited actions in areas where natural disasters occurs or may occurs
10. Section -11: Power to shift industrial, Commercial or Restaurant colonies
11. Section-12: Power to entry
12. Section-13: Power to prohibit
13. Section-14: Power to Acquire land
14. Section-15: national Soil and watershed conservation committees
15. Section-16: District soil and watershed conservation committee
16. Section-17: Prohibition to destroy, use up or alter
17. Section-18: Obligation to consult district soil and watershed conservation committee
18. Sectio-19: Appointment of watershed conservation officer
19. Section-20: Power to seize
20. Section-21: Penalties
21. Section-22: His majesty of Government to be plaintiff
22. Section-23: Prosecution of cases
23. Section-24: No obstacles to the use and distribution of water resources by GoN
24. Section-25: Power to frame Rules
4.4 Soil and Watershed conservation regulation, 1985
Main features or content of this regulation are:
1. Provision of declaration of protected watershed area

2. It provides classification of land
3. Provision for cultivation under land use system
4. Provision of aid for cultivation under land use system
5. Transfer of land ownership on land to GoN
6. Technical know-how, services and financial aid to be provided
7. Land to be prescribed where natural calamity may occur
8. Permission to be obtained
9. Power to prohibit the work which may cause soil erosion or washout
10. Functions, Duties and powers of the National Resources Conservation Commission
11. Meetings and procedure of the commission
12. Secretariat of the commission
13. Provision of functions, duties and powers of the committee
14. Meeting and procedure of the committee
How to make this act and regulation users friendly:
 Community Development group must be recognized as permanent group
 Registration and CRMP Plan must be approved by DSCO
 Enforcement of law with the coordination of DDC and other green line agencies
 Go through prioritized watershed
 Link the Soil conservation watershed management activities with all line agencies
 Coordination mechanism with VDC and DDC
 Public awareness about soil conservation and watershed activities
Unit-5
Management Approaches
5.1 Introduction to the watershed management approaches

5.2 Management approach
5.2.1 Line agency implementation/Participatory-Decentralized approaches
5.2.2 Sectoral/Integrated (Holistic) approaches
5.2.3 Conservation in individual farm/community lands
5.2.4 Basin/watershed/sub-watershed/micro-watershed/political unit
5.2.5 Model farmer/group approach
5.2.6 Project/program approach
5.3 Development strategies to enhance local management capacity
5.3.1 Ownership building
5.3.2 In-situ institution
5.3.3 Networking and linkages
Evolution of Watershed management Policy/Plan in Nepal:
Plan Year Changes in Policies/Plan

1965-1970 (Third Plan) The importance of soil and water conservation (SWC) realized for the first time
1970-1975 (Fourth Plan) Department of soil & water conservation under Ministry of Forest established in 1974
1975-1980 (fifth Plan)  National Forests Policy 1976 comes into effect
 Shivapuri Watershed Area Development Board 1976 created
 Nepal Remote Control Centre 1979 established in DSWC
 Policy to execute soil and watershed conservation extension and education
programs nationwide promulgated
 Regional Development Concept in Soil Conservation & Watershed Management
(SCWM) introduced
 Concept of integrated WM introduced
 River control work continued
1980-1985 (Sixth Plan)  Environmental impact assessment (EIA) initiated for development projects
 DSWC‘s name changed to Department of Soil Conservation & Watershed
Management (DSCWM)
 River Control work transferred to Ministry of Water Resources.
 Name of Ministry of Forests changed to Ministry of Forests & Soil Conservation
(MFSC)
 Soil Conservation Act, 1982 and Regulations, 1985 came into effect.
 High-level National Resources Conservation Commission (NRCC) formed under
MFSC.
 Environmental Impact Study Project 1980 established under DSCWM
1985-1990 (Seventh Plan)  EIA of development Project made mandatory
 Environment Division established in DSCWM (later transferred to MFSC)
Twenty-five-Master Plan for the Forestry sector, keeping SCWM into priority
program, came into effect, 1988
 National Conservation Strategy 1988, with higher emphasis on SCWM, endorsed
by Government
 NRCC re-formed as Council of National and Cultural Resources (CNCR) under
National Planning Commission.
1992-1997 (Eight Plan)  Tendency to expand SCWM offices in the districts increased with political
interests and priorities
 Ministry‘s name changed to Ministry of Forests and Environment, 1992
 Environment Division was created in the Ministry and letter dissolved
 Ministry again renamed as Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation
1997-2002 (Ninth Plan)  Nepal Environment protection Action Plan 1998, with priority to SCWM, came
into effect
 Forest Sector Policy 2000 emphasized people‘s participation, private sector,
including NGO and civil society involvement, and integrated WM approach or
strategy was prioritized in the policy
 45 permanent and 10 district soil conservation offices are established
2002-2007 (Tenth Plan)  Churia/Siwalisk emphasized
 People‘s participation, integrated WM, people‘s awareness programs, land
productivity, flood control and income-generating programs emphasized.
 Concept of user groups such as formation of CDGs and CDCCs continued to
develop to mobilize people‘s participation on SCWM programs
Interim plan 2007- as above and Basin approach. Restructuring the institution, ecosystem / ecological
approach
5.2.5 Model farmers (extension program)
• Soil conservation and watershed management programs have been implemented through model
farmers, users groups and conservation communities
Rational
 Soil conservation activities in the community and public lands user groups play major roles.
 Dealing with the huge number of individuals by the limited numbers of the staff becomes one of
the major bottlenecks for the extension program in the private land.
 The conservation activities on the private land demands time bound carefully designed steps for
which the government mechanisms has not been proved very successful.
 In the community there are several farmers highly skilled, interested and dedicated to implement
the conservation activities on their farm as a demonstration.
 On farm demonstration of the conservation activities by the farmers has been proved one of the
effective means of extension program.
 Other local farmers can copy the conservation technologies from such model farmers.
User groups
 A user group is a set of people who have similar interests, goals, or concerns. The members have
regular meetings where they can share their ideas.
 Ideally, the members of a user group live in the same geographic area, so they can get together in
person.
 It is a group of peoples who will be benefitted from the activity in consideration. Basic rational is
the people will be benefitted from the activity should involve in the planning, contribute in
implementation, maintenance of the activity as well as benefit sharing.
 Power groups, conservation groups and sub groups
Rational for group mobilization and support
 Traditionally social mobilization is perceived as a community-based call to action for political and
social commitment by strengthening human and institutional resources development at local
level.
 As social mobilization develops, it takes advantage of constantly evolving communications tools
and technologies.
 Initiation of activities at the community level demands first the floor for the members of the
community come together and discuss for the need, planning, implementation, maintenance of
the activity. This process initiated by the community if there are good benevolent leaders in the
community.
 There is a need of external agency playing a facilitator role for the process.
 Also in the community there may be several conflicts among the different members of the
community, which need some mediator to resolve.
 Similarly, most of the community needs support in terms of administrative procedure to approach
concerned agency, technical and financial support to initiate any activity of their need.
Development strategies to enhanced local management capacity
Capacity Development is a conceptual approach to development that focuses on understanding the

obstacles that inhibit people, governments, international organizations and non-governmental
organizations from realizing their developmental goals while enhancing the abilities that will allow them to
achieve measurable and sustainable results.
Capacity building
 The UNDP defines capacity building as a long-term continual process of development that
involves all stakeholders; including ministries, local authorities, non-governmental organizations,
professionals, community members, academics and more.
 Capacity building uses a country‘s human, scientific, technological, organizational, and
institutional and resource capabilities.
 The goal of capacity building is to tackle problems related to policy and methods of development,
while considering the potential, limits and needs of the people of the country concerned
Different level of capacity building
1. Individual Level- Capacity-building on an individual level requires the development of conditions

that allow individual participants to build and enhance existing knowledge and skills. It also calls
for the establishment of conditions that will allow individuals to engage in the ―process of learning
and adapting to change‖
2. Institutional Level- Capacity building on an institutional level should involve aiding pre-existing
institutions in developing countries. It should not involve creating new institutions, rather
modernizing existing institutions and supporting them in forming sound policies, organizational
structures, and effective methods of management and revenue control.
3. Societal Level- Capacity building at the societal level should support the establishment of a more
―interactive public administration that learns equally from its actions and from feedback it
receives from the population at large.‖ Capacity building must be used to develop public
administrators that are responsive and accountable
Local institutional capacity building
 Local institutional capacity building is emphasized through the formulation of community

development committee and user groups.
 Financial resource is one of the keys to the sustainability of the local institutions such as the
community development community.
 Institutionalization of the fund raising mechanisms needs to be developed and rooted in the
socioeconomic system of the communities.
 Good governance is another key factor for sustainability of the local institutions.
Local ownership
 For the development to be sustained and gear towards the need of the people, evolution of local
ownership towards the programme should be the first step.
 The strategy considered is that the participatory planning process and people‘s participation.
Participatory Approach:
 Participatory is now a basic principle in any development activities and natural resource
management programs in most developing countries.
 It is generally believed to be a good thing in development theory and key feature of natural
resource management (NRM) (Walker and Carpenter, 2002).
 Cohen and Uphoff (1977) point out that participation should include people‘s involvement in
decision-making, implementation of programs, sharing in the benefits of development, as well as
involvement in efforts to evaluate such programs.
 FAO (1982) elaborated that peoples‘ participation is essential to enhance economic and political
relationship within the wider society.
 It is not just a matter of involvement in project activities but rather the process by which rural
people are able to organise themselves and,through their own organisation, to identify their own
needs and share in design, implementation and evaluation actions
People Participation…..
 Thus, participatory approach is full involvement of local people in the identification of priority
problems and potential solutions with a team of scientists, planners and development specialists
(Blackburn and Holland, 1998).
 It is bottom-up from participation in the sense that the local people engage in planning,
implementing, evaluating and control over the process.
Participation can be divided into different stages
 In each stage people's participation has been described in terms of a five-part project cycle:
 Watershed resources assessment; project activity planning; implementation, maintenance, follow-
up and benefit sharing; and extension efforts.
Networking and linkage (social capital)
 Networks represent a space where economics, politics, culture and ecology come together in the
articulation of the competition-cooperation balance.
 Social networks can be defined as informal, horizontal and vertical linkages between actors
sharing a common interest
 Networks provide a useful window because they allow us to examine the bonds that hold together
individuals actors in social interaction and common goal
 This implies a set of structural issues (who are the actors and where are the linkages?) and a set
of practice issues (how do they interact and what holds them together?).
 Thus, networks represent specified trust among members of the group, and formed social capital
(Putnam, 1993).
 Creating networks that cross the boundaries of culture and administration is the key challenge.
 It is because the organizational structures of the state have been unsuccessful in dealing with
environmental and natural resource management problems across these boundaries that
networks have arisen as an alternative
 Central government agencies have typically been insensitive to the details of local diversity.
 But networks, such as those established to enhance the management of watershed resources,
face many of the same difficulties in establishing the trust necessary to enable cross-boundary
cooperation.
 They must also develop capacity to deal with the technical and social issues of natural resource
management.
Why is networking and linkage so important?
 The case from India Joint actions in the community

 Some of the neo-literates of Panja village were poor and landless. Before, people had approached
the authorities separately and asked to give them some land but no one had succeeded, so they
decided to form a Peoples Collective and co-ordinate all the past efforts.
 They built a dwelling of bamboo and thatch on the land. Although the authorities tried to evict
them, they were unable to do so due to the strong linkages in the community.
 They now have a literacy centre and 60 learners can undertake a formal school examination.
 Instead of two institutions having separate expenses for training, they can share the cost.
 There is no duplication of effort because they have common goals, objectives, and programmes.
 Partnerships and networking ensure greater use of resources by all partners by complementing
the work of each other.
 Collective strength in the community has a greater impact than a single voice.
 Networking among groups can minimize the wastage and optimize the use of time and resources.
 The community has a model of co-operation worthy of being followed in other situations
Purpose of Networking and linkage
 For resource conservation and management

 For sharing information and resources
 For community mobilization
 For material development
 For program support
 For infrastructural/equipment needs
 For monitoring and supervision needs
Process steps in achieving integrated watershed management
Do’s and don’ts of watershed management
Do Don’t
1. Stress positive aspects and promote win-win 1. Use reductionist discipline – based solutions to
solutions complex problems
2. Help participants generate lasting success to 2. Provide unnecessary financial incentives, with
justify political decisions hidden agendas
3. Adopt holistic approach to natural resources 3. Use excessive instrumentation to analyze water,
management, linking biophysical and socio- soil and biota
economic issues.
4. Encourage the two-way flow of information,
5. Ensure long-term continuity
6. Improve marketing systems
7. Generate non-farm income
8. Strengthen institutional support
9. Attend to farmer‘s real needs
10. Aim to benefit non-farmers
5.2.4 Basin/watershed/sub-watershed/micro-watershed/political unit
Watershed Problems
1. Decline of soil fertility

2. Forest degradation
3. Hazard: Landslide, soil erosion and flood
4. Watershed Degradation
Decline of soil Fertility
Watershed
Degradation
Hazard: Landslide, soil erosion Forest degradation

and flood
Watershed Condition in District of Nepal
1. Good: 25
2. Fairly good: 25
3. Marginal: 13
4. Poor: 5
5. Very poor: 7
2. SCWM Effort
1. Trishuli WM project in 1960

2. DSCWM was established to minimize soil erosion in 1974
3. DSCWM has been providing its services based on priority sub-watershed
Realization of the problems: Soil and Water Conservation Initiatives
1. Government of Nepal realized watershed degradation and accelerated soil erosion problems,
causes and consequences about 4 decades ago.
2. To address the problems institutionally, Department of Soil and Water Conservation was
established in 1974.
3. Renamed and restructured (in 1980 and 1997) as Department of Soil Conservation & Watershed
Management (DSCWM)
Benefit of W/S Management:
W =Water Harvesting
A =Adoptive Action Research
T =Torrent Control
E =Evao-trantspiration Management F =Flood havoc minimized
R =Recharge of Water I =Infrastructure Protected
S =Siltation decreased
H =Household income increase
3. Emerging Challenges, Problems
1. Limited coverage and service delivery

2. Difficult to response immediately in case of soil erosion related (landslide/flood) damage and
disasters
3. SCWM Program covers only a small part of a district (15 to 25 square kilometers)
4. Lacking Upstream - Downstream linkage
5. Effects are site specific due to small scale input
6. SCWM programmes need to be scientific, practical and internationally established system
7. Climate change Resilience watershed management
8. SCWM Act and Regulation ineffective
Downstream destruction of infrastructures

Nagma GLOF Destroyed embankment of Tamore River in 2037 B.S
Integration of natural resources
Forest Others
Human resource
Natural Resource Water
Animal Land
Possible Modalities to Address the Problem
1. Extension of DSCO offices – no change in approach

2. Division approach (Particular division provides services to 2-3 districts, maintain the district level
approach)
3. Basin approach: Based on major river basin
4. Basin approach is the best to address the existing problems/limitations
4. Basin Approach
1. A coordination, planning, monitoring, research and overall management framework for natural
resources (soil and water) in line with integrated watershed management perspective that focuses
government and communities efforts to address the pertinent problems within Hydrologically
defined geographic areas i.e., river basin
2. The watershed management approach within the basin
(Watershed, drainage area, catchment area, drainage basin, river basin area are synonyms)
Rationale of Basin Approach
Gun policies and strategies have adopted Basin concept for water, Biodiversity conservation and
management
1. Water Resource Strategy-2002

2. National Water Plan-2005
3. Irrigation Policy-1992
4. National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy-2002
5. Hydropower Development Policy-2001
6. National Wetland Policy-2003
7. 3-Year Interim Plan and 3-Year Approach Paper
Why Basin Approach?
1. Integrated water resources management should be carried out at the level of catchment basin or
sub-basin (Agenda-21, 1992)
2. Basin approach follows the technically sound and internationally accepted watershed principles.
3. Basin is a perfect geographic unit to create inter-relationship between upstream and downstream
4. This approach integrates water system, forestry, land system and other in ecosystem approach
5. Integrated approach to minimize water related problem (Too much water, Too little water)
6. All European Union countries have been adopting basin approach since 2000 AD.
7. SCWM service will be better coordinated and extended throughout the country
8. The basin approach is cost efficient compared with the extension of DSCOs to all 75 districts. (Rs.
59.150 million vs. Rs. 66 million)
9. improved coordination and communication will reduce costly duplication of efforts and some
conflicting actions of other agencies
10. opportunity for basin team members to pool technical and financial resources
11. Embraces natural boundary and hydrologic principles
12. To scale up SCWM programmes
Importance of Basin Approach
1. Establishes upstream-downstream linkages and implements PES for resource generation

2. Climate Change Adaptation friendly
3. Easy to address Trans-boundary issues of water
Unit-6
Soil Conservation Program and Activities
Soil Conservation and watershed management activities;
A. Implementation Process
1. Delineation of sub-watershed of the District

2. Selection of critical sub-watershed (s)
3. Extension and community mobilization
4. User group formation
5. Application by users group
6. Cost Estimation
7. Agreement with user group
8. Implementation of activity
9. Supervision and monitoring
10. Maintenances
B. Main Features of SCWM Activities
1. Sub-watershed prioritization
2. Sub-watershed as working unit
3. Integrated package programs
4. Participation of the local people
5. Local capacity building
6. Linkages with other sectors
7. Conservation-oriented poverty reduction
8. Related with Climate change Adaptations
9. Multi sectoral activities
10. Emphasis on Low Cost Technology, Indigenous skill and technology
11. Greenery promotion (Bio-engineering, SALT)
C. Major SCWM Programmes
There are four major interventions, which are implementing by the DSCO:
1. Planning
2. Implementation
3. Research and development
4. Monitoring and evaluation
Activity implementing by the DSCO
1. Land Use Development Planning

2. Community Integrated Watershed Management (IWM)
a. Natural Hazard Prevention
b. Infrastructure Protection & Development
c. Land Productivity Conservation
3. Community Soil Conservation
4. Group mobilization and Empowerment
5. Nursery Establishment and Seedling Production
6. Maintenance and Improvement
7. Technology Development, Research, Study and Mapping
8. Monitoring and Evaluation
9. Others (Refer to Green/White Book of the DSCWM)
1. Land use Development planning:
Land use plans are the basis for rational utilization and management of watershed resources.
1. Sub-watershed prioritization
2. Watershed/Sub-watershed planning
3. Integrated resource/forest management & forest operation plan preparation
4. Community Development Groups‘ operational plan formulation
5. Re-planning
6. Soil conservation consultation service
2. Community IWM Program
2.1 Natural Hazard Prevention: Aimed to reduce the damage to life, property and natural resources
caused by water induced hazards.
1. Gully Control
2. Landslide Control
3. Torrent control
4. River Bank Protection and strengthening
5. Conservation pond
6. Runoff harvesting dam construction
2.1.1 Gully Treatment
a. Objective: prevent further degradation of a Gully and its catchment

b. Working unit: gully and its catchment
c. Sub-activities: diversion ditches, gully head plugging, check dams, retaining walls, re-vegetation,
slope correction, conservation pond, and appropriate land use in gully‘s catchment
2.1.2 Landslide Treatment
a. Objective: reduce soil erosion and mass movement from landslide

b. Working unit: landslide, its catchment, and immediate downstream vicinity
c. Sub-activities: diversion ditches, check dams, retaining walls, Toe wall, re vegetation, slope
correction, conservation pond, appropriate land use in landslide‘s catchment area
2.1.3 Torrent Control
a. Objective: protect property from erosion, flood and sedimentation; dispose runoff safely
b. Working unit: Torrent and immediate downstream vicinity
c. Sub-activities: embankment, spur, channelization, conservation pond, appropriate land use in
catchment area, plantation
2.1.4 Riverbank Protection
a. Objective: protect adjacent land from stream cutting

b. Working unit: 5 to 10 m strip of land from the stream bank
c. Sub-activities: construction of revetments, spurs, bioengineering structures
2.1.5 Conservation Pond
a. Objective: store excess runoff reducing soil erosion, improve soil moisture, use stored water for
production activities
b. Working unit: pond and its catchment
c. Sub-activities: improvement of old pond, construction of new pond, vegetative and structural
erosion control measures in the catchment, safe drainage of excess water, appropriate land use in
pond‘s catchment
2.1.6 Runoff Harvesting Dam
a. Objective: to harvest run-off and utilize for multipurpose

b. Working unit: gully, river, stream, and catchment area
c. Sub-activities: Check dam, Dyke, embankment, vegetative and structural erosion control
measures in the catchment, safe drainage of excess water, appropriate land use in catchment
2.2 Infrastructure protection and Development:
Aimed to sustain the services of development infrastructures by prolonging the age of development
infrastructures
a. Irrigation channel Improvement

b. Trail Improvement
c. Road slope stabilization
d. Shelterbelt/greenbelt/buffer strip development
e. Foot bridge
f. Community ropeway construction
2.2.1 Irrigation channel Improvement
a. Objective: to protect irrigation channel from up-slope and down-slope erosion; to prevent erosion
from seepage; to reduce seepage loss, to improve water distribution
b. Working unit: irrigation channel and its vicinity
c. Sub-activities: channel lining, construction and improvement of intake, distribution and
sediment trap system, retaining wall in up and down slopes of the irrigation channel
2.2.2 Trail Improvement
a. Objective: to reduce erosion from unmanaged trails, to protect trails from erosion
b. Working unit: trail segments
c. Sub-activities: stone paving/stepping on steep trail segment; diversion channel and safe
drainage along the trail; construction and protection of small bridges and other minor structures
within the trail segment, vegetative and structural erosion control measures in up slope and/or
down slope of the trail
2.2.3 Road slope Stabilization
a. Objective: to reduce erosion from unmanaged road slopes; to protect road from erosion; to
improve the road for general human and livestock traffic
b. Working unit: Road and its up slope and down slope
c. Sub-activities: contour terracing/trenching/bonding with grass/shrubs and tree planting; rills
and gullies plugging, diversion drainage, cross drains
2.2.4 Shelter belt/Buffer strip Development
a. Objective:
 Shelter Belt : to reduce wind erosion and conserve soil and moisture for better
production of crops
 Buffer Strip: to reduce adverse effect from upslope and conserve soil and moisture for
better production.
b. Working unit: farming area

c. Sub-activities: trees and shrubs planting in pre-designed pattern of spacing and height, seedling
production, protection of the vegetation from grazing and human interference, construction of
diversion waterways for safe drainage (for buffer strips), erosion control measures such as
fascine, palisades, contour wattling, brushwood check dam
2.3 Land Productivity Conservation: Aimed to increase production of the land

a. On-farm conservation, Terrace improvement, Agro-forestry
b. Degraded land rehabilitation
c. Grass/fodder plantation
d. Fruit tree plantation
2.3.1 On-farm Conservation
a. Objective: conserve soil, water nutrient; and improve farm productivity

b. Working unit: farmland of one or more farmers
c. Sub-activities: terrace improvement, safe drainage of water, planting of grass / shrubs / trees on
marginal land, and terrace risers, catch ponds, gully plugging, modification of the terrace,
vegetative (hedgerow) and physical measures (retaining wall)
2.3.2 Degraded Land Rehabilitation
a. Objective: reduce run-off and soil loss from degraded land, and to enhance its productivity
b. Working unit: degraded land area
c. Sub-activities: erosion control structures, plantation, contour bunding, contour trenching,
diversion channels, grazing control
2.3.3 Grass/fodder plantation
a. Objective: to reduce erosion from degraded grassland, shrub land and private non-cultivated
areas and increase forage and fodder production
b. Working unit: marginal land/grazing/shrub/waste lands, terrace risers, kharbari, road slopes,
gullies, waster and fodder orchards
c. Sub-activities: erosion control structures, plantation, contour bunding, contour trenching,
diversion channels, grazing control
2.3.4 Fruit tree plantation
a. Objective: to reduce erosion and increase productivity on the individual‘s overused agriculture
land and communal land by introducing fruit trees
b. Working unit: agriculture land which is not suitable for annual cultivation
c. Sub-activities: live fence for protection, diversion channel and safe drainage, erosion control
measures (fascine, palisade, wattling, etc)
3. Community Soil Conservation
Aimed to increase participation of the local community in conservation activities

a. Water source protection
b. Income generation activities
c. Small watershed conservation demonstration plot establishment/improvement
d. Demonstration plot management and improvement
e. Community development plan implementation package
f. Support in rural soil conservation
3.1 Water source Protection
a. Objective: improving the water quality and yield

b. Working unit: water spring, its catchment and the distribution system
c. Sub-activities: vegetative and structural erosion control measures in the catchment, drainage
channel & safe drainage of excess water, conservation pond, appropriate land use in catchment,
protection from contaminants
3.2 Income Generation Activity
a. Objective: to improve livelihood of individual poor household through income generation

b. Working unit: poor women household
c. Sub-activities: different IGA as per local community‘s demand (vegetable farming, livestock
raising, training etc.)
4. Group Mobilization & Empowerment
Aimed to increase awareness on soil conservation in the local community

a. Group formulation and mobilization
b. Different conservation trainings, workshops, study tour, exposure visit
c. Conservation education in Schools
d. Conservation day celebration
e. Conservation materials production/purchasing/distribution
f. Conservation newsletter publication
6. Maintenance and Improvement
Care and maintenance of the conservation works as per need
7. Technology Development, Research, Study and Mapping
a. Action research
b. Watershed Information System
c. Different types of Map preparation
d. Different study, research and report preparation
e. Soil and water sample collection, examination/test and analysis
8. Monitoring and Evaluation
a. Natural process monitoring

b. Implemented activities monitoring and evaluation
c. Photo point monitoring
d. Progress review meeting
e. Annual report preparation
9. Others
1. Green Book/White Book have mentioned all the program and activities of SCWM
Sub-watershed Prioritization Procedure
Why prioritization?
1. Several watersheds in a district

2. Constraints of financial and man power resources
3. Scattered programs will have resource constraints and no significant ecological and economic
advantages
Therefore, planning, programming, implementation and monitoring should proceed in priority

watersheds.
Principal criteria adopted for prioritization:
1. Erosion condition of sub-watershed

2. Population to be benefited
3. Need of the local people
1. Erosion condition of Sub-watershed:
 Critical condition in terms of potential soil erosion

 1:50,000 scale land use and land system maps
 Land use and land system erosion potential value (LULSEPV)
2. Population to be benefitted:
 VDC population data -> Population density

 Sub-watershed population density numerical value (SWSPDNV)
3. Need of the local people:
RRA/PRA
 To gather bio-physical and socio-economic information

 To assess and appraise resource conditions, people‘s needs and priorities in selecting SCWM
activities
Prioritization Methodologies:
1. Erosion potential mapping method

2. Soil loss estimation method:
 Universal Soil Loss Equation for surface erosion:

 Soil loss = RKLSCP
 Other soil erosion estimation models:
 Erosion Prediction Impact Calculator (EPIC)
 Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)
 European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM)
 Limburg Soil Erosion Model (LISEM)
3. Aerial photograph:
 Gives visual picture of the extent of erosion

 Planning can be done using topo and other maps along with photographs
4. Extensive field survey:
 To identify extent, location, causes of soil erosion and consequences

 To observe soil fertility and land productivity
1. Time consuming, expensive and require experienced professionals
2. Use to collect detailed information of prioritized SWs
Maps required:
1. 1: 125,000 drainage map (Suspension Division, 1989)

Or district map
 To delineate tentative SWs
2. 1:50,000 (old) or 1:25,000 scale (new) topographical maps
 To delineate SWs and confirm SWs boundaries precisely
3. 1:50,000 land utilization map
 provides information on land use
A. Agriculture
 Terai cultivation
 Hill slope cultivation
 Valley cultivation
Terai cultivation
 Wetland (W)
 Dryland (D)
Hill slope cultivation
 Level terrace (T) – 1, 2, 3

 Sloping terrace ( C) - 1, 2, 3

Cultivation intensity factors:
1 = light: 25-50% cultivation

2 = medium: 50-75% cultivation
3 = intense: > 75% cultivation
Valley cultivation:
 Valley floor cultivation (V)

 Tar/Fan cultivation (F)
B. All grazing lands (G)
C. Forest
1. Coniferous (C) – 1, 2, 3, 4
2. Hardwood (H) – 1, 2, 3, 4
3. Mixed (M) – 1, 2, 3, 4
4. Shrub (S)
1 = Crown density < 10%

2 = Crown density 10 - 40%
3 = Crown density 40 - 70%
4 = Crown density > 70%
4. 1:50,000 Land system map
 Provides information on land forms, soil, slope, dominant texture and drainage
Each land system is further divided into land units depending on position, slope, degree of dissection,
flooding frequency, soil characteristics and soil acidity
On the basis of physiography, geology and geomorphology:
 Terai – 3 land systems; 12 land units

 Siwaliks – 5 land systems; 11 land units
 Mid mountains – 4 land systems; 5 land units
 High mountains – 3 land systems and 8 land units
 High Himalaya – 2 land systems and 6 land units
A. Bio-physical characteristics
1. Delineate the district into tentative sub-watersheds on 1:125,000 drainage map or district amp
 Delineate sub-watersheds on 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 topo map confirming sub-watersheds

boundaries precisely.
 Prepare base maps of sub-watersheds on transparent sheet.
 Measure and calculate areas of Sub-watersheds.
2. Prepare a land use erosion potential (LUEP) map by marking H (high), M (moderate) and L (low) erosion
potential areas on Land use map.
Based on soil loss from different land uses pattern and intensity of cultivation -> cultivated land
Land use Land use erosion potential (LUEP)

Agricultural land
T1, T2 Low (L)
T3, C1, C2, V Moderate (M)
C3, F High (H)
Forest
Crown density < 10% High (H)
Crown density 10 - 40% Moderate (M)
Crown density 40 - 70% Moderate (M)
Crown density > 70% Low (L)
Shrub
S Moderate (M)
Grazing
G High (H)
3. Prepare a land system erosion potential (LSEP) map by marking h (high), m (moderate) and l (low)
erosion potential areas on Land system map
Based on the slope gradient class, soil characteristics and others:
Land system Land system erosion potential (LSEP)

A. Terai Region
1. Active alluvial plain
1a, 1b High (h)
1c, 1d Moderate (m)
3.
B. Siwaliks Region
4. Active and recent alluvial plain
4a (h)
4b (m)
4c (l)
8.
C. Middle Mountain region
9. Alluvial plains and fans
9a (h)
9b, 9c (l)
12
D. High Mountain region
13a (h)
13c (m)
13b, 13d (l)
4. Prepare Erosion Potential Composite (EPC) by overlaying Land use erosion potential (LUEP) map on
Land system erosion potential (LSEP) map.
Mark the common area overlapped by LUEP and LSEP on another sheet and give double alphabet
symbols.
Convert double alphabet symbols into single alphabet to indicate very high, high, moderate, low and very
low Land Use Land System Erosion Potentials (LULSEP) as:
Single alphabet symbol of LULSEP Double alphabet symbol of LULSEP
Very High (H) Hh
High (h) Hm, Mh
Moderate (M) Hl, Mm, Lh
Low (L) Lm, Ml
Very low (l) Ll
5. Overlay Erosion Potential Composite map and Sub-watershed map on each other.
Calculate Land use and land system potential areas for each sub-watershed.
6. Give numerical values to enable quantitative comparisons as:
LULSEP Numerical Values

H 8
h 6
M 4
L 2
l 1
Calculate erosion severity called Land Use Land System Erosion Potential Value (LULSEPV) for each Sub-
watershed and enter in a Table
LULSEPV = (‗H area X 8 + ‗h‘ area X 6 + ‗M‘ X 4 + ‗L‘ X 2 + ‗l‘ X 1)/ Total area of SW
7. Give 60% and 40% weight to biophysical and population parameters to finalize the prioritization.
For the purpose of prioritization, the estimated LULSEPV is calibrated from 1 to the highest value of 60.
Calculate SWs Biophysical value (SWSBPV)
SWSBPV = (LULSEPV – 1) X60/ (Highest LULSEPV for the district -1)
B. Population characteristics
1. Use VDC population statistics and calculate VDC population density
 Overlay SW map on another map to transform VDC boundaries

 Estimate the area covered by different VDCs in each SW.
 Calculate the weighted average population density (PD) for each SW.
2. Calculate average population density (APD) of the district
APD = Total population of the district/ Total area
3. Calculate SW population density numerical value (SWSPDNV)
IF PD of SW < APD of the district

SWSPDNV = PD X 20/APD
IF PD of SW > APD of the district
SWSPDNV = (PD – APD) X 20/ (HPD – APD) + 20
HPD = Highest population density of SWs in the district.
Limitation:
If HPD for a SW exceeds too much from other SWs, take HPD of the more representative SW.
Combine Biophysical and population characteristics
1. Add SWSBPNV and SWSPDNV ->

Sub-watershed Priority Cumulative Value (SWSPCV)
= SWSBPNV + SWSPDNV
2. Rank SWs based on SWSPCV and arranges SWs in descending order of SWSPCV
Selection of SWs
SWs are further selected for watershed management planning and implementation of activities on the
basis of:
1. People‘s willingness to participate and views of local leaders

2. Some projects may consider:
 Accessibility of SWs
 Ethnicity
 Underprivileged groups
 Political pressure or influence
Basic Steps of Watershed Management Planning
Planning:
An assessment and spatial scheduling of work programs in order to fulfill the objectives in the given area.
Objectives:
 To obtain sufficient biophysical and socio-economic data for integrated WM planning

 To prepare a report covering the survey data and its analysis in addition to thematic maps ->
1. Erosion status map

2. Population density
3. Base map of SWs with VDC boundary
4. Land use map
5. Slope map
6 Proposed land use map
Methodology:
1. Selection criteria
Critical SWs are prioritized based on:
 Land use condition

 Land form
 Slope gradient classes
 Population density
 Additional criteria
2. Data collection for assessment:
 Bio-physical
 Socio-economic
 Institutional capabilities
Primary information: RRA/PRA and household survey
Secondary information: Various offices, departments, line agencies
A. Bio-physical assessment
 Interpretation of secondary information and

 Field verification
1. Climate:
 General climatic condition
 Maximum and minimum temperature
 Total precipitation
 Rainfall intensity
2. Soil/Geology:
 Soil type, structure, texture, etc. to predict soil loss

 Soil depth to assess capability of the area
 Nature of rock and its orientation to evaluate stability of the area
3. Slope:
 Slope gradient,
 slope type,
 slope length
Five categories are identified and mapped on topo map.
4. Hydrology:
 Drainage pattern to understand hydrological condition

 Stream flow, Evapotranspiration rate, runoff volume and silt content, etc. give an idea of
hydrological regime and rate of erosion.
5. Present land use:
 Studied with aerial photographs,

 Land use maps and field verification.
6. Land system:
 Land forms,
 slope,
 soil,
 water table (drainage)
-> Land system map
Helps to understand situation of natural erosion.
B. Socio-economic study and Needs assessment
 Socio-economic (Household) survey at ward and VDC level in the prioritized (proposed) SWs.
 Discussion among VDC leaders, local farmer leaders, educated people and women to learn and
assess local needs
1. VDC level infrastructure survey
Socio-economic data used to:
 Assess the living condition of the people

 Assess the need for watershed management
 Provide valuable input on the availability of local labor
Required for analysis and subsequent program development activity for watershed management
C. Institutional capabilities:
 Information on the existing institutions and staff members, available physical facilities and
budgetary provision
 Design a sizeable and suitable plan based on the needs assessment, institutional capacity and
cost involvement.
SWs management problems
1. Land use problems:
 Due to improper and managed land use practices
For proper land use planning:
 land type,
 slope,
 aspect and
 land uses have to be studied
Land use type with >60% slope requires protection

,, ,, ,, ,, < 60% slope needs conservation of different intensities
In certain adverse situation -> change in existing land use pattern may be required.
2. Food and population:
Make a food balance table to know food surplus more deficit
3. Fodder and livestock:
 Estimate the type and number of livestock

 Identify the sources of fodder and feed
 Calculate the total production of fodder in terms of total digestible nutrients
 Analyze the fodder situation.
4. Timber and Fuel wood:
 Calculate the requirement of fuel wood and timber

 Alternate sources of energy and low timber consuming houses have to be designed and
constructed
5. Erosion and landslides:
 Mark erosional features like rills, gullies, landslides, torrent, etc.

 Note land use practices causing erosion.
 Study and analyze causes of erosion and landslides.
 These help to plan for minimizing erosion and control of gullies/landslides.
Need assessment:
 Needs assessment done by asking VDC chairman, ward members, local knowledgeable persons,
local leaders, etc.
 Identify priority areas of the people to formulate plans and implement activities.
 Fix the priorities taking into account:
1. Physical degradation (deforestation, soil erosion, river cutting, etc.)
2. Technical and economic feasibility of the activity
3. Expected number of participants
4. Sustainability of the activity in the future, etc.
Plan preparation:
 Prepare a SW management plan based on biophysical conditions, socio-economic situation and
people‘s need.
 Prepare annual work program to implement programs on the basis of available budget and man
power.
Work program:
 Prepare development programs for 3 to 5 years based on the needs.

 Annual work programs to implement activities/programs on the basis of available budget and
man power.
 Revise the programs if needed.
Monitoring:
 Monitoring and evaluation system is to measure accomplishment in terms of percentage of

allocated budget spent.
 To ensure implementation of activities, a register is maintained with description of location/area,
date, specification of activities, amount spent and record of maintenance.
 Monitoring of activities by staffs is done to assess the benefits of the program.
Watershed Boundary Delineation;
Watershed:
A watershed is defined according to the Soil and Water Conservation Society as ―All land and water within
the confines of drainage divide‖ or simply as ―land drained by a stream system‖.
 A watershed is sometimes called a catchment, a drainage area, a drainage basin or a river basin.
 Although these terms are used interchangeably, watershed, drainage area or catchment should
be used comparatively for small streams and rivers, whereas river basin or drainage basin is the
aggregation of several watersheds, drainage areas or catchment areas.
 It is also called a hydrological unit (Figure 1).
Watershed Boundary:
Watershed boundary is a line drawn along the watershed ridge. Watershed area is a closed area covered
by the watershed boundary.
Delineation of Watershed Boundary
Procedure:
1. Delineation of a watershed or sub-watershed is the process of demarcating a hydrologic and

physiographical entity encircled by a distinct ridge line and surrounded by many such entities
from a major unit for the sake of administrative and technical feasibility, considering homogeneity
of basic resources and problems.
2. Before delineating a watershed, the size of the proposed entity should be decided. The size of the
watershed varies according to the size of the stream or river for which it forms a catchment.
3. A watershed can be delineated using any one of the available topo-sheet, cadastral map or aerial
photographs or high resolution RS imagery.
4. The most widely used is the topo-sheet and therefore, the procedure for delineating a watershed
using a topo-sheet is described.
Methodology: 1
A. Traditional Approach:
1. Hand drawn on a paper topographic map

2. Contour line (Continuous line for the same elevation points) use
3. Requires experience and labor
4. Manual
B. Delineation of watershed boundary consists of tracing the ridgeline starting from a point, which is
the outlet for runoff from the particular watershed.
C. A line is traced from this point along the ridgeline till it joins the same point while tracing this
line, the loops of contours should be considered for properly locating the boundary line.
D. This line encircles the area of the watershed and delineates it from the adjacent watersheds.
E. The topo-sheets contain the watercourses and contours and other important natural and created
physical features.
F. The watercourses, ponds and lakes serve a good guideline for demarcating a watershed unit.
G. The contours have V- and U-shaped loops, watercourses cross the V- shaped loops, while ridge
lines the U-shaped loops.
H. Contours never cross each other.
I. Look for index contours, spot heights and trails (usually pass through or near ridge lines
Contour line clues:
Figure: Watershed boundary location and stream flow patterns derived from contour interval shapes:
1. Watershed boundary parallels contour saddles,

2. Split peaks as indicated by a closed contour homes, and
3. Water flows from the bottom of contour funnels through the top.
Methodology: 2
Using DEM and desktop GIS software:
 Digital Elevation Model (DEM): Grid format, Each grid has elevation (altitude) value
 GIS: Geographic Information System: Computer program for digital mapping
 Possible automatic data preparation
 Web GIS tools
 WWW + GIS: Yahoo Map, MapQuest
 Preprocessed data, limited functionalities

Types of Natural Resources

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Unit-1

Integrated Watershed Management

1.1 Objective, Concept, Approach and Scope

What is a Watershed Area?

 All land and water within the confines of a draining divide

Types of Natural Resources

The Problems of hill watersheds are as follows:

Different aspects of Watershed Management in developing and developed countries

Activities Developing countries Developed countries

Objectives of Watershed Management:

Integrated watershed Management:

1. What is an integrated system?

1. What is an Integrated System?

2. Integrated Watershed Management Planning?

3. Why Integrated Watershed Management?

 a small sub-watershed with a specified problem such as water source protection, or

Forest and vegetation Management

Agriculture and Livestock

8. How to integrate the Programs of Watershed Management?

Watershed Management Programs can be integrated in the following two ways:

Based on Affected Area Based on the nature of the Problem

What is an integrated watershed plan?

1. Integration may not be achieved only by including different components.

1. A holistic approach is widely accepted for successful SCWM programs.

Elements in Watershed Management

Approaches of watershed management

1. Sectoral approach vs. integrated approach

What is participatory Watershed Management?

Why is Participatory Watershed Management Necessary?

1. Local people are the main stakeholders in watershed management programs.

Role of the Governmental Organization Role of Non-Governmental Organization

 Coordinate between different agencies  Act as a liaison between the government

Participation includes people‘s involvement in decision making processes, in implementing programme

Comparing the past traditional and current Development approach

Developement Traditional approach Current approach

Challenge and Opportunities:

Fundamental questions addressed

 Alleviating water scarcity in arid regions

Fundamental question in Watershed management

 Watersheds are natural systems that we can work with.

General principles of watershed management

 Recognize that process is important as outcome

4. Integration of Interdisciplinary Science and Local Knowledge

 Use the best available scientific information

 Monitor outcomes (include social and technical components)

Delineating the watershed boundary

 Delineation of a watershed or sub watershed is the process of demarcating a hydrological and

Two step for delineation

Step 1: Choose the point of the watershed outlet.

1.2 Watershed as a management unit:

Managed based on different

Managed based on different Managed based watershed only

Watershed as Management Unit, Why?

 Watershed literally means shed water

 The physiographical characteristics of a watershed influence to a large degree its hydrological

 The length (L) of a watershed is the second watershed characteristic of interest.

 At the highest point on divide

 The shape of a watershed influences the shape of its characteristic hydrograph.

The influence of watershed shape on the hydrograph

7. Drainage pattern features

1. Trellised drainage patterns tend to develop where

 Number of well defined channels per sq. miles or sq.km of watershed.

 Furthermore, In includes location, description of lakes bogs and swamps.