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THE ATMOSPHERE
• Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most
commonly measured weather parameter.
1. Celsius scale: This scale is named for the Swedish astronomer Anders
Celsius. It is internationally accepted for measurement of temperature. The
boiling point of water is 100ºC and freezing point of water (Triple point) is 0ºC.
4. Reaumer scale: The freezing point of water is 0ºR and the boiling point of
water is 80ºR.
Conversion formula
All plants have maximum, optimum and minimum temperature limits. The
limits are cardinal temperature points. Optimum temperature range is very
important.
3 – 4°C Minimum
WHEAT 25° Optimum
30° - 32°C Maximum
10-12°C Minimum
RICE 30-32°C Optimum
36-38°C Maximum
Definitions
• Diurnal range: It is defined as the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures of
the day.
• Daily mean: The average of the maximum temperature and minimum temperature recorded
during a day is known as daily mean temperature.
• Monthly mean: It is computed by adding the daily mean temperatures and dividing by the
number of days in the month.
• Annual mean: It is computed by adding the monthly means and divided by twelve.
• Annual range: It is the difference between mean temperatures of warmest and coldest
months.
• Normal temperature: It is computed by adding temperature values of more than 30 years and
divided by the number of years.
• Lapse rate: The decrease in temperature with height is called as lapse rate. The mean value
of lapse rate is 6.5ºC/km or 3.5ºF/1000 feet. It is also called as normal lapse rate.
Hypothetical vertical variation in temperature
• Continentality: The impact of continental location on weather and climate
characteristics of a place is called continentally. Air temperature is greatly
affected by the location of a place relative to large body of water i.e.
sea/ocean.
• Specific heat: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance through one-degree Celsius. The specific heat of water is
1.0 cal/gm.
• The air temperature varies from place to place, called horizontal temperature
variation and its change with height above the earth surface, called vertical
temperature variation.
Highest official air temperature of 58ºC was recorded at Azizia, Libya on September 13,
1922.Lowest temperature recorded was –88.3ºC at Vostok Soviet station on August 24, 1960.
Factors affecting temperature distribution
1. Latitude: Air temperature decreases with increase in latitude in both hemispheres over
the earth surface. Therefore, the places near equator are warmer as compared to the
places in mid latitudes and near poles. Since the temperature is primarily controlled by
radiation and radiation intensity is higher at equator then at poles.
2. Altitude: The air temperature decreases with increase in altitude. This decrease in
temperature with altitude ceases at tropopause. The normal lapse rate is 6.5ºC/km. Since
the direct source of atmospheric heat is the earth surface, therefore, as we go higher in
atmosphere, we experience lower and lower temperature.
3. Distribution of land and water: Land surface is heated more quickly than water when
subjected to equal amount of radiation and it also cools more rapidly. This is due to one
of the reasons that specific heat of water is three times more than that of land.
4. Distance from sea: The distance from sea also affects the temperature distribution of a
place. Diurnal range of temperatures is higher over places, which are far away from sea
in comparison with costal places. The temperatures are moderate in costal places e.g.
temperature range is higher at Delhi as compared to Mumbai.
5. Slope of the land: Slope of the land controls the radiation intensity over a place,
which in turn controls the temperature. Therefore, south facing slopes are warmer
than north facing slopes in northern hemisphere and vice-versa in southern
hemisphere.
6. Nature of soil: Rocky and sandy soils warm more quickly and cool more rapidly as
compared to heavy soils, which contain more water. Therefore, western Haryana
is comparatively warmer than eastern Haryana in summer and vice-versa in
winter.
7. Vegetation: The vegetation cuts off much of the incoming solar radiation and also
converts much of the energy into latent heat of evapo-transpiration. So, the places
with more vegetation are cooler than the places without vegetation.
Thermocouple: It consists of pair of junctions of two unlike metals. When one junction is kept
at constant temperature and other is exposed to a different temperature, an electromotive
force is developed in the circuit, which is measured by a potentiometer calibrated in degrees.
Thermistor: It is semi-conducting ceramic element, offers less resistance to the flow of current
as its temperature increases.
Thermistor Thermograph
AIR PRESSURE
• The weight of the air pushing down and the collisions between molecules.
Pressure may be defined as the force per unit surface area.
P = F/A
Where,
P = Pressure
F = Force
A = Area upon which force is exerted
• Units
• The factors which control the temperature variation from place to place over the
earth surface also control the air pressure distribution over the earth surface.
• This is due to the fact that temperature and pressure are closely related and
have inverse relationship
• 1. Altitude
Air pressure decreases with altitude. The places at higher altitudes, have
comparatively lower air pressure than that of places which are at lower altitudes
e.g. hill station (Ooty) has lower pressure as compared to stations in plain
(Coimbatore).
2. Latitude
The air temperatures are high over equatorial region and low over polar
regions. Therefore, air pressure is low at equator and high over poles. The air
pressure increases as we move towards poles..
3. Land and water surface
Air pressure is more over water surface as compared to land surface in summer
season and vice-versa in winter season. Similarly, air pressure is higher over water
surface in comparison with nearby land surface during day time and vice-versa during
night. Due to this fact land breeze and sea breeze prevails in coastal regions.
4. Condition of atmosphere
5. Ocean currents
Air pressure will be lower over the places near warm ocean currents in
comparison with the places near cold ocean currents.
Isobar
• These cyclones are more intense and spread over a few kilometres to
several kilometres.
• Tropical cyclones move with trade winds and most prominent in Pacific
Ocean.
• They are also named as Hurricanes in USA, Typhoons in China and Willy-
willies in Australia e.g. Cyclone in India (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).
• Temperate cyclone:
• Its intensity is less compared to tropical cyclone but have more spread
of several hundred kilometres.
• Anticyclone is associated with dry, cool air and little cloud, which
produce fine weather.
• The reverse pressure system develop over land and water bodies
in winter season.
Instruments
1. Fortins barometer
4. Barograph