Shewanella (she • wa • nel'la).

The bacterium once classified

Candida famata (Torulopsis Candida; T. famata) Candida kefyr (Candida

pseudotropicalis, T. kefyr; Torula cremoris) Candida stellata (Torulopsis stellata)
Candida holmii (Torulopsis holmii)

Many of the anamorphic forms of Candida are now in the genera Kluyveromyces
and Pichia.13 Candida lipolytica is the anamorph of Saccharo- mycopsis lipolytica.
Members of this genus are the most common yeasts in fresh ground beef and
poultry, and C tropicalis is the most prevalent in foods in general. Some members
are involved in the fer- mentation of cacao beans, as a component of

kefir grains, and in many other products, includ- ing beers, ales, and fruit juices.

Cryptococcus. This genus represents the anamorph of Filobasidiella and other

Basidi- omycetes. They

Biryani (pronounced [bɪr.jaːniː]) is a mixed rice dish with its origins among

the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent.[1][2][3] It can be compared to mixing a
curry, later combining it with semi-cooked rice separately. This dish is especially
popular throughout the Indian subcontinent, as well as among its diaspora. It is
also prepared in other regions such as Iraqi Kurdistan.[4] It is made with Indian
spices, rice, meat (chicken, beef, goat, pork, lamb, prawn,
or fish), vegetables or eggs. The word 'biryani' is derived from a Persian
word, birian, which means fried before cooking. It is one of the most popular
dishes, which has acquired a niche for itself in South Asian cuisine.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2Origin
o 2.1Difference between biryani and pulao
 3Ingredients
 4Varieties
o 4.1Kacchi biryani
o 4.2Tehari
 o 4.3Beef biryani
o 4.4In the Indian subcontinent
 4.4.1Kolkata biryani
 4.4.2Hyderabadi biryani
 4.4.3Dhakaiya Haji Biriyani
 4.4.4Delhi biryani
 4.4.5Sindhi biryani
 4.4.6Thalassery biryani
 4.4.7Ambur/Vaniyambadi biryani
 4.4.8Chettinad biryani
 4.4.9Bhatkali/Navayathi biryani
 4.4.10Memoni/Kutchi biryani
 4.4.11Dindigul biryani
 4.4.12Bohri biryani
 4.4.13Kalyani biryani
 4.4.14Degh Ki biryani
 4.4.15Sri Lankan biryani
 4.4.16Rawther biryani
o 4.5Outside the Indian subcontinent
 4.5.1Burma
 4.5.2Western Asia
 4.5.3Afghan biryani
 4.5.4Indonesia
 4.5.5Malaysia and Singapore
 4.5.6Mauritius
 4.5.7Philippines
 4.5.8South Africa
 4.5.9Thailand
 5See also
 6References
 7External links

Etymology[edit]
‫ن‬
Biryani (‫ )بری ا ی‬is a Hindustani word derived from the Persian language, which was
used as an official language in different parts of medieval India by various Islamic
dynasties.[5][6] One theory states that it originated from birinj (Persian: ‫)برنج‬, the
Persian word for rice.[7][8] Another theory states that it is derived
from biryan or beriyan (Persian: ‫)بریان‬, which means "to fry" or "to roast".[9][10]

Origin[edit]
The exact origin of the dish is uncertain. In North India, different varieties of
biryani developed in the Muslim centers of Delhi (Mughlai
cuisine), Lucknow (Awadhi cuisine) and other small principalities. In South India,
where rice is more widely used as a staple food, several distinct varieties of
biryani emerged from Hyderabad Deccan (where some believe the dish
originated[11]) as well as Tamil
Nadu (Ambur, Thanjavur, Chettinad, Salem, Dindigal), Kerala (Malabar),Andhra
Pradesh, and Karnataka, where Muslim communities were present. [7][12]
According to historian Lizzie Collingham, the modern biryani developed in the
royal kitchens of the Mughal Empire (1526–1857) and is a mix of the native spicy
rice dishes of India and the Persian pilaf.[13] Indian restaurateur Kris Dhillon
believes that the dish originated in Persia, and was brought to India by the
Mughals.[14] Another theory claims that the dish was prepared in India before the
first Mughal emperor Babur conquered India.[15] The 16th-century Mughal
text Ain-i-Akbari makes no distinction between biryanis and pilaf (or pulao): it
states that the word "biryani" is of older usage in India. [16] A similar theory, that
biryani came to India with Timur's invasion, appears to be incorrect, because
there is no record of biryani having existed in his native land during that period. [15]
According to Pratibha Karan, who authored the book Biryani, the biryani is of
South Indian origin, derived from pilaf varieties brought to the Indian
subcontinent by the Arab traders. She speculates that the pulao was an army dish
in medieval India. The armies, unable to cook elaborate meals, would prepare a
one-pot dish where they cooked rice with whichever meat was available. Over
time, the dish became biryani due to different methods of cooking, with the
distinction between "pulao" and "biryani" being arbitrary.[7][15] According to
Vishwanath Shenoy, the owner of a biryani restaurant chain in India, one branch
of biryani comes from the Mughals, while another was brought by the Arab
traders to Malabar in South India.[17]
Difference between biryani and pulao[edit]
Biryani contains more gravy and is cooked for longer with condiments.
  

Two biryani accompaniments: mirchi ka salan and dahi chutney.

Pilaf or pulao, as it is known in the Indian subcontinent, is another mixed rice dish
popular in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and Middle
Eastern cuisine. Opinions differ on the differences between pulao and biryani, and
whether actually there is a difference between the two.[18]
According to Delhi-based historian Sohail Nakhvi, pulao tends to be comparatively
plainer than the biryani and consists of meat (or vegetables) cooked with rice.
Biryani, on the other hand, contains more gravy (due to the use of yakhni in it),
and is often cooked for longer, leaving the meat or vegetables more tender.
Biryani is also cooked with additional dressings. [19] Pratibha Karan states that
while the terms are often applied arbitrarily, the main distinction is that a biryani
consists of two layers of rice with a layer of meat (or vegetables) in the middle;
whereas, the pulao is not layered.[15]
Colleen Taylor Sen lists the following distinctions between biryani and pulao:[20]

 Biryani is the primary dish in a meal, while the pulao is usually a secondary
accompaniment to a larger meal.
 In biryani, meat(or vegetables) and rice are cooked separately before being
layered and cooked together. Pulao is a single-pot dish: meat(or vegetables)
and rice are simmered in a liquid until the liquid is absorbed. However, some
other writers, such as Holly Shaffer (based on her observations in Lucknow), R.
K. Saxena and Sangeeta Bhatnagar have reported pulao recipes in which the
rice and meat are cooked separately and then mixed before the dum cooking.
[18][21]

 Biryanis have more complex and stronger spices compared to pulao.

The British-era author Abdul Halim Sharar mentions the following as their
primary difference: biryani has a stronger taste of curried rice due to a greater
amount of spices.[18][22]

Ingredients[edit]
Ingredients vary according to the region and the type of meat or vegetables used.
Meat (of either chicken, goat, beef, lamb, [23] prawn or fish) is the prime ingredient
with rice. As is common in dishes of the Indian subcontinent, vegetables are also
used when preparing biryani, which is known as vegetable biriyani. Corn may be
used depending on the season and availability. Navratan biryani tends to use
sweeter, richer ingredients such as cashews, kismis and fruits, such
as apples and pineapples.[19]
The spices and condiments used in biryani may include ghee (clarified
butter), nutmeg, mace,[24] pepper, cloves,[24] cardamom, cinnamon, bay
leaves, coriander, mint leaves, ginger, onions, tomatoes, green chilies,
[25] [24]
 and garlic. The premium varieties include saffron.  In all biryanis, the main
ingredient that accompanies the spices is the chicken or goat meat; special
varieties might use beef or seafood instead. The dish may be served with dahi
chutney or raita, korma, curry, a sour dish of aubergine (brinjal), boiled egg,
and salad.

Varieties[edit]
Kacchi biryani[edit]
For kacchi biryani, raw marinated meat is layered with raw rice before being
cooked together. It is also known as kacchi yeqni. It is typically cooked with goat
meat. The dish is cooked layered with the meat and a dahi-based marinade at the
bottom of the cooking pot. A layer of rice (usually basmati rice or chinigura rice) is
placed over it. Potatoes are often added before adding the rice layer. The pot is
usually sealed (typically with wheat dough) to allow it to cook in its own steam
and it is not opened until it is ready to serve.
Tehari[edit]
Tehari, tehri or tehari are various names for the vegetarian version of biryani. It
was developed for the Hindu bookkeepers of the Muslim Nawabs. It is prepared
by adding the potatoes to the rice, as opposed to the case of traditional biryani,
where the rice is added to the meat. In Kashmir, tehari is sold as street food.
Tehari became more popular during World War II, when meat prices increased
substantially and potatoes became the popular substitute in biryani.
Beef biryani[edit]
Beef biryani
Beef biryani, as the name implies, uses beef as the meat. In Hyderabad, it is
famous as Kalyani biryani, in which buffalo or cow meat is used.[26][27] This meal
was started after the Kalyani Nawabs of Bidar came to Hyderabad sometime in
the 18th century. The Kalyani biryani is made with small cubes of beef, regular
spices, onions and lots of tomatoes. It has a distinct tomato, jeera and dhania
flavor.[28] In Kerala, beef biryani is well known.[29] The Bhatkali biryani is a special
biryani where the main ingredient is onion. Its variations include beef, goat,
chicken, titar, egg, fish, crab, prawn and vegetable biryani.
In the Indian subcontinent[edit]

Hyderabadi vegetable biryani served in Tampa, U.S.

There are many types of biryani, whose names are often based on their region of
origin. For example, Sindhi biryani developed in the Sindh region of what is now
Pakistan, and Hyderabadi biryani developed in the city of Hyderabad in South
India. Some have taken the name of the shop that sells it, for example: Haji
Biriyani, Haji Nanna Biriyani in Old Dhaka,[30] Fakhruddin Biriyani in Dhaka,[31]
[32]
 Students biryani in Karachi, Lucky biryani in Bandra, Mumbai and Baghdadi
biryani in Colaba, Mumbai.[19] Biryanis are often specific to the respective Muslim
communities where they originate, as they are usually the defining dishes of
those communities. Cosmopolitanism has also led to the creation of these native
versions to suit the tastes of others as well.[33]
Kolkata biryani[edit]

Kolkata biryani
Calcutta or Kolkata biryani evolved from the Lucknow style, when Awadh's
last Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was exiled in 1856 to the Kolkata suburb
of Metiabruz.[17] Shah brought his personal chef with him. The poorer

revision of the genera Campylobacter, Helicobacter, and Wolinella,39 and the

three species were once clas- sified as Campylobacter. They are gram-nega- tive
curved or S-shaped rods that are quite simi- lar to the campylobacters except they
can grow at 15 0C and are aero tolerant. They are found in poultry, raw milk,
shellfish, and water; and in cattle and swine products.4546 These oxidative- and
catalase-positive organisms cause abortion and enteritis in some animals, and the
latter in humans is associated with A. butzleri.

Bacillus (ba • cil'lus). These are gram-positive sporeforming rods that are aerobes
in contrast to the clostridia, which are anaerobes. Although most are mesophiles,
psychrotrophs and thermo- philes exist. The genus contains only two patho- gens:
B. anthracis (cause of anthrax) and B. cereus. Although most strains of the latter
are nonpathogens, some cause foodborne gastroen- teritis (further discussed in
Chapter 24). The phylogenetic heterogeneity of this genus em- ploying small-
subunit rRNA sequence data al- lowed five groups to be formed.2 Group 1 in-
cludes B. cereus, B. subtilis, B. coagulans, and B. anthracis among others, and it
seems likely that this group will be retained as Bacillus. The group 3 cluster has
been given the generic name Paenibacillus (see below); and B. stearother-
mophilus clustered with group 5.The thermoaci- dophilic Bacillus species, B.
acidocaldarius, B. acidoterrestris, and B. cycloheptanicus, have been reclassified
in the new genus Alicycloba- cillus.47 The latter have mol% G + C of 51.6- 60.3,
grow as low as about 35°C to 700C, and over the pH range 2 to 6. The B. brevis
cluster of 10 species has been reclassified into a new ge- nus, Brevibacillus31
based on 16S RNA gene se- quences.

Brochothrix (bro • cho • thr'ix; Gr. brochos, loop; thrix, thread). These gram-
positive non-spore- forming rods are closely related to the genera Lactobacillus
and Listeria,33 and some of the common features are discussed in Chapter 25.
Although they are not true coryneforms, they bear resemblance to this group.
Typically, expo- nential-phase cells are rods, and older cells are coccoids, a feature
typical of coryneforms. Their separate taxonomic status has been reaffirmed by
rRNA data, although only two species are rec- ognized: B. thermosphacta and B.
campestris. They share some features with the genus Micro- bacterium. They are
common on processed meats and on fresh and processed meats that are stored in
gas-impermeable packages at refrigerator tem- peratures. In contrast to B.
thermosphacta, B. campestris is rhamnose and hippurate positive.36

The mol% G + C content of DNA is 36. They do not grow at 37°C.

Campylobacter (cam • py' • Io • bac • ter; Gr. campylo, curved). Although most
often pro- nounced "camp 'Io • bac • ter," the technically correct pronunciation
should be noted. These gram-negative, spirally curved rods were for- merly
classified as vibrios. They are microaero- philic to anaerobic. The genus has been
restruc- tured since 1984. The once C. nitrofigilis and C. cryaerophila have been
transferred to the new genus Arcobacter; the once C. cinnaedi and C. fenneliae
are now in the genus Helicobacter; and the once Wolinella carva and W. recta are
now C. curvus and C. rectus?9 The mol% G + C content of DNA is 30-35. For more
information, see reference 32 and Chapter 28.

Carnobacterium (car • no • bac • terium; L. car- nis, of flesh-meat bacteria). This

genus of gram- positive, catalase-negative rods was formed to accommodate
some organisms previously clas- sified as lactobacilli. They are phylogenetically
closer to the enterococci and vagococci than the lactobacilli.542They are
heterofermentative, and most grow at 00C and none at 450C. Gas is pro- duced
from glucose by some species, and the mol% G + C for the genus is 33.0-37.2.
They differ from the lactobacilli in being unable to grow on acetate medium and
in their synthesis of oleic acid. They are found on vacuum-pack- aged meats and
related products, as well as on fish and poultry meats.102042

Citrobacter (cit • ro • bac'ter). These enteric bac- teria are slow lactose-
fermenting, gram-negative rods. All members can use citrate as the sole carbon
source. C.freundii is the most prevalent species in foods, and it and the other
species are not uncommon on vegetables and fresh meats. The mol% G + C
content of DNA is 50-52.

Clostridium (clos • tri'di • um; Gr. closter, a spindle). These anaerobic

sporeforming rods are widely distributed in nature, as are their aerobic

counterparts, the bacilli. The genus contains many species, some of which cause
disease in humans (see Chapter 24 for C. perfringens food poisoning and
botulism). Mesotrophic, psy- chrotrophic, and thermophilic species/strains ex- ist;
their importance in the thermal canning of foods is discussed in Chapter 17. A
reorganiza- tion of the genus involves the creation of the fol- lowing five new
genera: Caloramater, Filifactor, Moorella, Oxobacter, and Oxalophagus.6 The
clostridial species of known importance in foods remain in the genus at this time.
The five new genera appear to be unimportant in foods.

Corynebacterium (co • ry • ne • bac • ter' • i • um; Gr. coryne, club). This is one
of the true coryneform genera of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that are
sometimes involved in the spoil- age of vegetable and meat products. Most are
mesotrophs, although psychrotrophs are known, and one, C. diphtheriae, causes
diphtheria in humans. The genus has been reduced in species with the transfer of
some of the plant pathogens to the genus Clavibacter and others to the genus
Curtobacterium. The mol% G + C content of DNA is 51-63.

Enterobacter (en • te • ro • bac'ter). These en- teric gram-negative bacteria are

typical of other Enterobacteriaceae relative to growth require- ments, although
they are not generally adapted to the gastrointestinal tract. They are further char-
acterized and discussed in Chapter 20. E. ag- glomerans has been transferred to
the genus Pantoea.

Enterococcus (en • te • ro • coc'cus).This genus was erected to accommodate

some of the Lancefield serologic group D cocci. It has since been expanded to
more than 16 species of gram- positive ovoid cells that occur singly, in pairs, or in
short chains. They were once in the genus Streptococcus. Some species do not
react with group D antisera. The genus is characterized more thoroughly in
Chapter 20, and its phyloge- netic relationship to other lactic acid bacteria can be
seen in Figure 25-1.

Erwinia (er • wi'ni • a). These gram-negative enteric rods are especially associated
with plants, where they cause bacterial soft rot (see Chapter 8). At least three
species have been transferred to the genus Pantoea.28 The mol% G + C content
of DNA is 53.6-54.1.

Escherichia (esch • er • i'chi • a). This is clearly the most widely studied genus of
all bacteria. Those strains that cause foodborne gastroen- teritis are discussed in
Chapter 27, and£. coli as an indicator of food safety is discussed in Chap- ter 20.

Flavobacterium (fla • vo • bac • te'ri • um). These gram-negative rods are

characterized by their production of yellow to red pigments on agar and by their
association with plants. Some are mesotrophs, and others are psychrotrophs,
where they participate in the spoilage of refrigerated meats and vegetables. This
genus has undergone drastic redefinition, resulting in the creation of several new
genera (Weeksella, Chryseo- bacterium, Empedobacter, andBergeyella), none of
which appear to be associated with foods. Some of the new genera contain fish
pathogens and some are halophiles.38

Hafnia (hafni • a). These gram-negative enteric rods are important in the spoilage
of refriger- ated meat and vegetable products; H. alvei is the only species at this
time. It is motile and lysine and ornithine positive, and it has a mol% G + C content
of DNA of 48-49.

Kocuria (Ko • cu'ri • a, after M. Kocur). A new genus split off from the genus
Micrococcus?5 The three species (K. rosea, K. varians, and K. kristinae) are
oxidase negative and catalase positive, and the mol% G + C content of DNA is 66-
75.

Lactobacillus (lac • to • ba • cil'lus). Taxonomic techniques that came into wide

use during the 1980s have been applied to this genus, resulting in some of those
in the ninth edition of Bergey's

Manual being transferred to other genera. Based on 16S rRNA sequence data,
three phylogeneti- cally distinct clusters are revealed,8 with one clus- ter
encompassing Weissella. In all probability, this genus will undergo further
reclassification. They are gram-positive, catalase-negative rods that often occur in
long chains. Although those in foods are typically microaerophilic, many true
anaerobic strains exist, especially in human stools and the rumen. They typically
occur on most, if not all, vegetables, along with some of the other lactic acid
bacteria. Their occurrence in dairy products is common. A recently described spe-
cies, L. suebicus, was recovered from apple and pear mashes; it grows at pH 2.8 in
12-16% etha- nol.24 Many fermented products are produced, and these are
discussed in Chapter 7. Those that are common on refrigerator-stored, vacuum-
packaged meats are discussed in Chapter 5.

Lactococcus (lac • to • coc'cus). The nonmotile Lancefield serologic group N cocci

once classi- fied in the genus Streptococcus have been el- evated to generic
status.They are gram-positive, nonmotile, and catalase-negative spherical or
ovoid cells that occur singly, in pairs, or as chains. They grow at 100C but not at