A lecture note on  Universal Transverse Mercator is a Metric coordinate system which

Quick Introduction to Precision Agriculture divides the world into 60 zones. Each being 6 degrees Long wide. In
Redmond Ramin Shamshiri, PhD this system, polar regions are excluded. The 1st zone starts at the
redmound@ufl.edu International Date Line proceeding eastward.
Example of UTM:
1. Introduction
Gainesville is Lon:82W20’, Lat: 29N 40’
What UTM zone is Gainesville?
What is precision Agriculture?
180-82=98
 Precision Ag is managing each crop production input (fertilizer,
98/6=16 and 2 reminder (=> Zone 17)
limestone, herbicide, seed, insecticide, etc.) on a site specific basis to
Because 98=6*16+2 => Zone = 17
reduce waste, increase profit and maintain the quality of the
environment.
 State Place coordinates (SPC)
 Precision Ag is carefully tailoring soil and crop management to fit the
This coordinates system is developed in 1930s based on NAD27. The
different conditions found in each field.
State plane 1983 is based on NAD83. All 50 states are divided into
120 zones.
Tools for precision Agriculture:
 GPS, GIS
Projection
 Yield monitoring and mapping Project attempt to portray surface of the earth on a flat surface, examples
 Soil testing are cylindrical projection, UTM projection, Conical projection, Azimuthal
 Variable rate fertilizer application projection, etc.
 Crop scouting/ Ground truthing
 Environment sensing 3. Global Positioning system (GPS)

Disadvantageous of Precision Ag: Global positioning system is used to determine position. It is operated and
 Too much information maintained by Department of Defense (DOD). It was announced fully
 Generate more questions than answers operational capability on April 27, 1995.
 Forcing too many decision on producers
 Still too complicated for most farmers Type of GPS:
 Need multidisciplinary cooperation  Land based
 Satellite based
2. Geodetic datum, Coordinate systems, Projections o GLONASS
o GPS
What is Geodesy? o Galileo
Geodesy is the geological science of the size and shape of the earth. o GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite system)

Methods for Geodesy: GPS has three segments:

 Geodetic datum  Space segment
 Coordinate system  Control segment
 Projection  User segment

Geodetic datum is a geometric model to describe the shape of the earth.
Coordinate system is means of locations points on a standard geodetic
datum. Projection is conversion of a 3 dimensional world to a 2
dimensional map.
Geodetic Datum
Geodetic datum defines the size and shape of the earth; the origin and
orientation of the coordinate systems used to map the earth. Geographic
datum and the coordinate systems were developed to describe geographic
positions. Referencing geodetic coordinates to the wrong datum can result
in position errors of hundreds of meters.
Geometric earth model
Geoid: irregular and changing surface
 NAD27 & NAD83
NAD: North American datum 1927 and 1983
 NAD27 is based on the Clarke 1886 ellipsoid. Location and elevations
were referenced to a single point at Meade’s Ranch in Kansas
 NAD83 is based on measurement taken in 1980. Refined to make
WGS84.
WGS84: World Geodetic system 84 is commonly used by GPS receivers. It
is defined by a set of primary and secondary parameters. (WGS84 and
NAD83 are the two most common reference system used by GPS
receivers.)
Space Segment
There are 24 active NAVSTAR (NAVigation by Satelite Timing And
Ranging) satellites, 8 spare satellites (Space vehicles). They orbit at 20200
km above ground on 6 orbital paths with 4 satellites in each path and 1
revolution per 12 hours. It is guaranteed that at least 4 Space vehicles
(SVs) to be viewed by GPS receiver anytime and anywhere. The NAVSTAR
satellites broadcast radio signals at 1200-1500 MHz and is equipped with
atomic clocks.
Control segment
The control segment receives and transmits information to SV. There are 5
monitoring station around the world. The control segment task is to
ensure accuracy of SV positions and clocks and also to compute exact
orbits of SV and update their navigation signals.
User segment
This includes the GPS receivers. They track SV and use SV signals to
calculate positioning, velocity and time. For a GPS to track a location in 2-D
space there need to be 3 reference points. For 3-D position determination,
there should be 4 reference points.
Pseudorange
Pesudorange is an estimation of the true distance from a GPS receiver to a
SV due to erros ingerent in the GPS. Error sources are atmospheric
propagation delays, clock offset between the receiver’s clock and the SV
clock.

Global Coordinate system How GPS receivers calculates position

1. Lat, Long and Height
2. UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)
3. State Plane coordinate (SPC)
4. National grid systems
 Lat and Long reference planes are the prime meridian and the
equator. Position is recorded in angular units: Degree, minute,
second. Meridian is an imaginary line that connects north and south
poles. The Longitude at Greenwich is zero.
The GPS receiver first calculates the SV signal travel time by comparing
signals from SV with those generated by the receiver itself. Then calculates
the distance from the GPS receiver to each of at least 4 SVs according to
x=v.t. Receiver identifies each SV with PRN code and knows each SV
positions from an electronic almanac. Receiver uses triangulation to
calculate its position, Lat, Long and Altitude.

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Introduction to Precision Agriculture,
Lecture Note by Dr. Redmond Ramin Shamshiri
https://florida.academia.edu/RaminShamshiri
GPS signals must be capable of on-the-fly initialization. RTK need your own base
Ephemeris: include precise orbital information for an individual satellite. station within 10km. RTK is very expensive.
Almanac: Include orbital information of all satellites Carrier phase positioning
Time: Signal sent from the satellite. Has single L1 and dual (L1 and L2) frequency. This is a very precise
system. It counts the number of waves to determine the distance.
GPS signals
 L band signals: L1 and L2 1.3- Satellite-based differential correction (WAAS, OmniStar,
 C/A code on L1. The standard position signal that GPS satellite Starfire, etc)
transmit to the civil users OmniStar is in Huston, Texas.
 P code on L1 and L2: The precise code of the GPS signal typically
used only by the US. Military. WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation system): Augmentation to the GPS
WAAS is one of the GPS correction methods. Current GPS and GLONASS
Antispoofing cannot support requirement for all phases of flight. WAAS is implemented
Antispoofing is encryption of P-code by adding an unknown W-code to by FAA and DoT. There is no additional equipemt or fees.
prevent unauthorized transmissions of false GPS signals. The resulting
encrypted code is called Y-code. Objectives of WAAS:
 Accuracy < 7.6 m, 95% horizontal and vertical
Source of Error:  Integrity: 6 second time-to alarm
Accuracy can be improved by different correction.  Availability of positioning system
 Satellite clock drift  Continuity of service to GPS
 Satellite orbit
 Earth’s atmosphere 6-seconds-to-alarm means the ability of a system to provide a timely
o Ionosphere (50-250 mile above earth) warnings when the system should not be used for navigation. If integrity of
o Troposphere (5-9 mile above ground, factors are temp, WAAS is violated, WAAS has 6 seonds to let the user know.
RH, pressure, elevation angle)
 Multipath interference How does WAAS work?
 GPS receivers WAAS signals are broadcasted at 1575.42 MHz (GPS L1). Data
 Signal availability transmission rate for WAAS is 500bps. (Data transmission for GPS is 50
bps). WAAS is capable of processing inputs from at least 50 WRSs (Wide
4. Differential Global Positioning system, DGPS area reference stations) and can switch automatically between WMSs
without interruptions.
The objective of DGPS is to improve accuracy of GPS. DGPS transmit error
signal. Current status of WAAS
WAAS is five years old. The FAA commissioned WAAS at 12:01 AM on July
DGPS requirements: 10, 2003.
 Known position
 Able to calculate Pseudorange and true distance WAAS coverage:
 Differential correction distance= True distance – Pseudorange North America
Florida: WRS at Jacksonville and Miami.
Differential correction methods: South America can receive signal but not corrected signal.
1. Real-Time correction
2. Post processing WAAS accuracy
Original GPS accuracy is 100 m. WAAS accuracy is 1-2 m horizontal and 2-
1. Real Time correction Methods 3m vertical. Accuracy of DGPS is 1-3 m and accuracy of GPS w/o SA is 10
1.1. NDGPS (Nationwide DGPS), formerly known as U.S. Coast m.
Guard beacon system
1.2. Local Base Station (user provided) Comparison of WAAS to DGPS
1.3. Satellite-based differential correction (WAAS, OmniStar, Performance of WAAS and DGPS are very similar, they also have similar
Starfire, etc) accuracy. There is no additional equipment for WAAS and it is free of
charge. WAAS is another free source of DGPS signal for precision
1.1- Nationwide DGPS (NDGPS) agriculture. Most of the GPS receiver has WAAS system, enabling that
Typical position error of NDGPS is 1-3 m. It is free of charge. provides more accuracy.
 GPS base station: 2 control center, over 80 broadcast sites
Satellite based augmentation system (SBAS)
 Differential correction signals on marine radio beacon frequencies
North America: WAAS
U.S. Coast guard signal area ground waves that travel up to 300mile with
Japan: MSAS
frequency of 285-325Khz. The standard message format for differential
China: Beido
correction data is RTCM-SC104.
Europ: EGNOS
Analogy of the signal to conversation
 Share common language RTCM-SC104
Worldwide GNSS (Global Navigation satellite system)
 Understand the meaning of the words: MSK
USA- GPS and WAAS
 Be able to keep up with the pace: bps Russia: GLONASS
Europe: Galileo
NMEA standards (National Maritime Electronics Association) China: BeiDou
Defines electrical signal requirement, data transmission protocol and time Japan: QZSS and MSAS
and specific sentence formats for a 4800-baus serial data bus India: GAGAN
NMEA-0183 sentences: Accuracy terms of GPS and DGPS
 GGA sentence: Time, position and fix related data  CEP (Circular Error Probability): is the smallest radius of a circle
 GSA sentence: GPS DOP and active satellites which will enclose 50% of the computed GPS positions.
 RMC sentence: Recommended min. specific GPS data  SEP (Spherical Error Probability) is the sphere inside which
 VTG sentence: Course over ground and ground speed calculated positions have a 50% probability of being located.
 RMS (Roor Mean Square Error, also called sigma)
1.2- Local base Station o ±1 RMS= 68% of computed positions would be within 1SD
Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS receiver o ±2 RMS= 95% of computed positions would be within 2SD
This system has centimeter accuracy in all 3 dimensions using carrier  2DRMS: twice the DRMS (Distance RMS error)
phase positioning. RTK system needs at least 5 SVs to get initialized. RTK
needs a dual frequency receiver and it takes 1 minute to initialize. RTK
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Introduction to Precision Agriculture,
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 Different interpolation methods:
PRM (Part per million) 1. Nearest neighbor
The degradation of accuracy with distance is known as spatial 2. Local average
Decorrelation which is often expressed in PPM of the distance between 3. Inverse distance weighting (IDW)
the base and rover receivers. For example, if the distance between your 4. Contouring
base and rover is 200km, and your base station is specified at 10PPM, you 5. Kriging
may experience as much as 10 millionths of 200km of accuracy
degradation or 2 m. 1. Nearest neighbor
This is the simplest method of interpolation. Unknown value is set equal to
Another example: 2PPM*200KM=(2/10^6)*200*10^3=0.4m its nearest neighbor.

Dilution of Precision (DOP) 2. Local average

DOP is an indicator of the quality of the geometry of the SV constellation. Estimate unknown values by a simple average of a selected number of
Small DOP indicates better geometry, more confidence in computed points around the sesired location.
positions with lower DOP. Geometry of SV constellation can affect the
accuracy. Components of GDOP: HDOP, VDOP, PDOP, TDOP, … 3. Inverse distance weighting (IDW)
This method assumes that the unknown point is more likely to have a
Residuals similar value closer to it than those farther away. Points closer to the
Indicator of uncorrectable error: Multipath and Ionosphere effect unknown point are weighted heavier when taking an average. There are 2
Residual is computed if more than 4 SV tracked basic questions to ask:
GPS receiver uses combination that provides lowest DOP How many neighboring points should be used?
How much should each neighbor contribute to the estimated point?
Guideline for DOP/Residual
Quality Residual DOPs Example if IDW:
Very good (not good) < 0.5 1-3 Simple function
Good 0.5-1.0 4-5
( )
Fair 1.0-2.0 6
Suspect >2.0 >6 With the most common choice p=1 or 2.

GPS Modernization 4. Contouring

Current GPS signal structure was designed in the early 1970s. This method was originally developed to display elevation on a
Modernization includes upgrading ground control facilities. Addition of topographic map. This is a method of interpolating data to generate maps.
civil codes and two new military codes on L1 and L2 frequencies. Addition Contour lines connect points with the same elevation (values). Contouring
of L5 signal with L2C and M-code. Developing next generation SV: Block III generates values for the unknown data points between the known points.

Application of GPS: 5. Kriging

 Field boundary mapping Kriging performs optimal prediction and is the most complex
 Soil sampling interpolation method. This method can create very good interpolations.
 Crop scouting (weeds, pest infestations, nutrient deficiencies) Kriging has two basic steps:
 Parallel swathing An estimation is made of the variability in the existing raw data.
 Yield maps Interpolation is performed
 Chemical application
 Vehicle Guidance system Kriging  Lag Semi variance  Semi variogram  Kriging

5. GIS (Geographic Information System) Lag (h): Distance between samples

Semivariance: Variability at each lag, describe the expected deviation from
What is GIS? samples values (z) as a function of distance (h) between sample pairs.
GIS is just a type of data base system, but georeferenced data (spatial data)
Semivariogram descriptors:
Definition of GIS by USGS: Nugget: Variability at Zero distance, represents sampling and analytical
GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating and error
displaying geographically information Range: The extent of spatial trends
Sill: A measure of the amount of variability
Georeferenced data: Low sill: data doesn’t change much
Geographic data contains location on the earth’s surface High sill: data changes a lot across the field
Example of data layers for precision farming: Lat, Long, Yield, MC
Kriging can be used more accurately when we know how fast and how
GIS data formats: much the data changes within a field. Kriging is slower than other
Raster interpolation algorithms and need a lot of data points. Data points must be
Vector spaced at different intervals. For example, 2.5 ac grid is not a good
sampling method for kriging because the closet sample is 330 ft apart.
Raster format:
The space is divided into cells (Squares) and each cell in the structure has Predicting unknown points:
a value. A group of cells with the same value represents a feature. Points closer: weighted inversely with distance
Points farther away: weighted equally
Vector Format: Range: determine which method will be used
Vector format is coordinate-based representation of map features. Vector
format has three elements, include points, line and polygon. Comparison GIS hardware:
of Raster and Vector: Raster is faster, Vector is corrector  Computer
 Digitizer or scanner
Interpolation methods:  Plotter or color printer
Interpolation means filling in gaps between measured data points.  Floppy disk drive, PCMCIA or PC card reader
 Hight resoloution display monitor
Analysis of precision faring data:
Data analysis needs methods to fill in gaps between measure data points.
This method is called interpolation.

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Introduction to Precision Agriculture,
Lecture Note by Dr. Redmond Ramin Shamshiri
https://florida.academia.edu/RaminShamshiri
GIS software modules When to collection samples?
 Data input Farmers should sample close to the same date each year to minimize year-
 Data storage and management to-year variability. Farmers should sample in spring or fall to avoid rapid
 Data output and presentation change over mid-summer. Farmers should seek the best
 Data output (geostatistics) recommendations for local conditions.
 User interface or interaction
Factors that affect soil analysis results
GIS creating steps  Sampling near field boundary because soil may vary due to external
 Creating a data layer factors.
 Entering data, digitizing and scanning  Sampling near gravel roads because the limestone in the gravel may
 Lining up data wth exisiting layers affect the PH levels.
 Storing layers  Sampling near fertilizer bands because samples from fertilizer bands
 Smoothing or interpolating data in row crops will have higher nutrient levels than surrounding areas.
 Printing maps
Real-time soil property sensors
GIS interpreting maps  On-the-go nutrient sensors may be available near future
Should have extensive knowledge of the field’s history  SOM sensor: Soil-applied herbicide
Accurate maps are essential  MS sensor: detect ideal planting depth
Soil maps vary little over time  Light reflectance sensors has proven successful
The data in other layers vary annually
Soil electrical conductivity (EC)
GIS applicagtion in precision agriculture Soils vary in their electrical conductivity depending on particle size. Soil
 Spatial query: Selection of location based on characteristics conductivity is influenced by the solution in the soil pore spaces. EC is
 Data manipulation: Mathematical or logical operations correlated with clay pan depth, crop yield, water table depth, etc.
 Data analysis: a process of extracting meaning from spatial data
Soil compaction:
6. Soil Sampling and Analysis Soil compaction can be measured by Cone penetrometer. Factors affecting
penetration resistance are soil texture, soil density and moisture content.
Why is soil sampling needed?
To understand: Soil factors that can influence crop yields:
1- Variability of Soil 1- Nutrient level
2- Inventory of the available nutrition supply 2- Soil PH
3- Soil type and soil characteristic 3- Organic matter content ( OMC)
Soil Property: 4- Soil structure
1- Soil structure 5- Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
2- Soil Texture 6- Slope and topography
3- Soil fertility (Primary nutrition: N, P, K, Secondary nutrition: Mg, S, 7- Tillage
Ca) 8- Drainage
4- Soil PH 9- Soil Depth
10- Compaction
Soil sampling method:
1- Grid Sampling 7. Yield Monitoring and Mapping
a. Grid center method (Grid point sampling or point
sampling) Yield Mapping procedure:
b. Grid cell method  Position recorded by DGPS
2- Soil type sampling  Measure yield (measure flow rate, measure area, measure moisture
content)
Grid Sampling:  Display and record yields
This method divides the field into square sections then gathers soil  Analyze data
samples in each section. This method is used for better estimation of soil
nutrition on a smaller scale than the entire field. Grid Center Method Traditional vs. modern yield:
measures the nutrient levels at the center of the grid cell. Samples are Traditionally farmers measured crop yields for whole fields or for large
obtained within 10-30 feet. In the Grid Cell method, the field is divided sections, while modern technological advances permit farmers to measure
into smaller cells and several samples are obtained from each cell. In the yield more precisely.
other hand, the entire cell is treated as having the same soil property.
Methods for measure crop yields:
Soil Type sampling  Collect-and-weigh
This method samples sections of the field that have similar soil types. Soil  Batch-type yield monitoring
survey maps are used to select sampling locations. After sampling is done,  Instantaneous yield monitors (different methods are measuring crop
the samples are sent to a soil testing lab which takes several days or volume and weight the crop)
weeks to complete the results. Results are then used to generate soil
properties map by interpolation. Instantaneous yield monitor system measure and records yield on-the-go.
Measuring process is continuous as the grain is being harvested. In this
Questions to be asked in selecting a sampling program: procedure, site-specific yield maps can be generated.
How often should I sample? Instantaneous yield calculation
When should I collect samples? Yield= Mass/Area = flow rate/(Travelspeed*width)
How can I sample different tillage systems? =Mass/(Travel distance*width)
What factors affect the outcome of my samples?  Flow rate= Mss/time
 Travel speed=Travel distance/time
How often to sample?  Width
Factors to be considered is soil type, soil nutrient levels, cation exchange
capacity (CEC) and crop systems such as irrigation and crop rotation.
Current recommendation is to sample soil every 2-4 years for PH, P and K,
however no single recommendation exists.

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Introduction to Precision Agriculture,
Lecture Note by Dr. Redmond Ramin Shamshiri
https://florida.academia.edu/RaminShamshiri
Yield Mapping components:
 Position sensor (DGPS)
 Grain flow sensor (Impact force sensor, Plate displacement sensor,
radiometer system, load cell system, volume measurement system
photosensor)
 Grain moisture sensor (Capacitance-type sensor (dielectric))
 Ground speed sensor(Shaft speed sensor, radar and ultrasonic
sensor, GPS-based speed measurement)
 Header position switch (Operation delay: Start of pass delay: at the
beginning, End of pass delay, after the header is lifted)
 Display/processor console
Remote sensing system:
 Active sensing system : Generate a signal, the measure the reflected
signal, i.e.: radar, laser
 Passive sensing system: receive naturally emitted and reflected
signals from objects, (mostly used in agricultural applications)
Remote sensing systems- Measure of performance
 Spatial resolution:
 Spectral resolution:
 Spectral response (sensitivity of a sensor)
 Frequency of coverage (Temporal resolution)

System calibration
Why calibration is needed?
 Yields are not measured directly but rather a derived value from
force, displacement, volume, flow rate, travel speed, etc.
 To ensure that sensor data and operator input are properly used to
produce correct yield
 To remove the effect of machine vibration on yield readings
Calibration method
 Compare known weights with actual yield monitor estimation
 Generate calibration curves
 Need to test over wide range of conditions
 Need to calibrate moisture sensor
Spatial resolution refers to the size of the smallest object than can be
distinguished in an image.
Spectral resolution refers to the ability of a sensing system to distinguish
or differentiate between EM radiations of different wavelengths. Example
is Panchromatic images (B,G,R,NIR). Spectral response refers to the ability
of a sensing system to response to, and collect, radiation measurements
within a particular spectral band. Frequency of coverage is a measure that
determines how often a sensing system can be available to collect data
from the ground.
Remote sensing systems characteristics:
Earliest RS platforms were hot air balloons, but today’s main platforms are
aircraft-based and satellite based. Electro-optical sensors are used to
produce digital images.

Yield Mapping Use of remote sensing data:

Each yield data must correspond to a particular location. For an accurate  Collection
map, DGPS is needed. Real-time DGPS correction is NOT required since  Pre-processing
yield data can be processes after it is collected, however many farmers use  Image analysis
DGPS. Special computer software is used to create yield maps.  Ground validation/verification
 Incorporation
What yield maps can reveal?  Identification
 Yield variation across the field  Treatment
 Relationship between yield variations and soil type, fertility, weed,
drainage, soil compaction, equipment malfunctions, etc.  Remote sensing data need to be corrected:
 Effect of hybrids, seeding/fertilizer application rates, pesticide types o Radiometric correction
and rates, etc o Geometric correction (Ground control points)

8. Remote Sensing  Relief displacement:

Differences in elevation that cause objects to appear to be positioned
Remote sensing: differently when viewed from an angle instead from overhead
Sensing information without being in contact with an object
 Rectification: process of making image data conform to a map
Remote sensing methods: projection system
 Aerial photography
 Satellite imaging Wavelength indices
 Radio vegetation index
Basic of remote sensing:
 Electromagnetic energy
 Electromagnetic spectrum
 Wavelengths  Normalized difference vegetation index:

Wavelength ranges:
 Visible: 400-700nm
o Blue: 435  Red edge: wavelength of greatest change in reflectance between
o Green: 546 R and NIR (between 680-750nm)
o Red: 700
 NIR: 750-2,500 Two purpose of NDVI:
 MIR: 2,500-50,000  Crop health
 Vegetation changes over time can be identified
Nitrogen Absorption band is 550nm, this is the band which nitrogen in the
sample absorbs light. Water absorption band is 1430-1940nm. Resources of Satellite-based RS data
1. LANDSAT
Absorption more => reflect less 2. SPOT
3. GeoEye
How objects interact with EM energy: 4. Digital Globe
The incoming energy will be either
 Reflected (emitted) LANDSAT (Land Satellite)
 Absorbed This is a sun-synchronize orbit satellite. The first one was named ERTS-1
in 1972, but later it changed name to LANDSAT. It has two types of
 Or Transmitted
sensors:
 Multispectral scanner system
 Thematic Mapper (TM)
 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM)

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Introduction to Precision Agriculture,
Lecture Note by Dr. Redmond Ramin Shamshiri
https://florida.academia.edu/RaminShamshiri
SPOT:
The first one launched in 1986. It is operated by French. Resolution is 33- Variable seeding rate planters: Conventional planters user a ground
66 ft. driven wheel to drive the seed metering system. Variable seeding is
accomplished by uncoupling the driven when and metering system from
IKONOS its ground drive wheel and using another drive mechanism.
It means image in Greek.

Issues to consider: Source: The precision farming guide for agriculturists

 RS products must provide farmers help in decision-making Publisher: John Deer Publishing
 The RS information must be accurate
 RS data should be properly processed.

Economic Consideration
 Image type
 Image size
 Level of processing
 Timeliness of data
 Spatial resolution

Further development of RS data in precision agriculture

 Crop status
 Yield estimation
 Hyperspectral sensors
 Higher resolution data

The limiting factor is the knowledge to effectively convert the data to

information that can be used to management decision

9. VRT/VRA, Variable Rate Technology- Variable Rate application

Two basic methods:
 Map Based
 Sensor based

Map based VRA:

Adjust application rate based on electronic map (prescription map). It has
the ability to determine machine position and fine desired rate by reading
a map. Using a look-ahead procedure t adjust flow rate for the speed
(>=15mph)

Sensor-based VRA:
It uses data from real-time sensor to measure soil properties or crop
characteristics on-the-go. These sensors provide a continuous stream of
data to the controller. NO position system is required.
Examples are:
 EM 38 (use eddy current & electromagnetic induction)
 Veris machine
 Soil doctor (sensing soil properties using two electrodes,
(electrochemistry and conductovity))

Component of all VR applicators

 Sensor (Map based: positioning sensor, Sensor based: Soil type
sensor)
 Controller
 Actuator

Sensors for VRA:

 Positioning system
 Soil & plant sensor (Soil: SOM content, MC, fertility, Plant: light
reflectance, )
 Pressure sensor
 Flow sensor (measure volumetric or mass flow rate, Total flow=
(Flow rate) x (Duration))
 Speed sensor (shaft sensor, radar sensor, GPS)

Controller:
Microprocessor, algorithm, use serial port RS-232 to transfer algorithm or
control maps

Actuators
Devices that responde to signals from controller to regulate the amount of
material applied to fields, Example: Solenoid valves, servo valves,
hydraulic cylinder

VRA systems:
Seeds
Dry chemicals
Liquid chemicals
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Introduction to Precision Agriculture,
Lecture Note by Dr. Redmond Ramin Shamshiri
https://florida.academia.edu/RaminShamshiri