The process of making viscose was discovered by C.F.Cross and E.J.Bevan in 1891.

*******
Rayon, a textile material, is composed of cellulose obtained from cotton linters
or from the pulp of
trees such as spruce. Since the introduction of rayon about 1900, it has been us
ed in many textile
fields. At first rayon was called artificial silk because, in its filament form,
it somewhat resembles
silk.
The manufacture of rayon filaments (and all manufactured fibers) is done by mean
s of an
extrusion process called spinning. In this procedure the fiber-forming liquid is
forced through tiny
holes in a nozzle or spinneret into a liquid bath containing a solution that pro
duces filaments of
pure cellulose, which can be spun into yarn. The filaments are drawn together to
form both fibers
and yarn in a single, continuous process.
**************
Rayon has been around for more than 250 years but not as a fabric. The term rayo
n has only
been with us since 1924.
The idea to artificially duplicate the silk worm process was advanced in 1665 by
an English
scientist. It lay dormant until 1754 when a French scientist reported it was pos
sible to make
varnishes into threads, which imitated silk. More than 100 years later another F
renchman, Count
Chardonnet, produced the first fiber having commercial success as a textile. In
1884 rayonne was
born from his nitrocellulose process.
Right on its heels the cuprammonium process was developed, a third in 1982 by tw
o Englishmen
called viscose , followed by acetate. The Chardonnet process is no longer in pro
duction.
Rayonne was more widely known as artificial silk. The name was outlawed in 1924
and the name
rayon was given to the fabric. Manufactured in this country in 1911, artificial
silk got a cold
reception from the public. It was not good looking nor good wearing and as late
as 1920, wound
up on bargain counters.
Eventually, rayon started to catch on. In 1930 Sears offered yard goods in rayon
and cotton flat
crepe, rayon and cotton brocaded flat crepe, rayon and cotton alpaca and an asso
rtment of
washable all-rayon flat crepes. In 1933 Sears offered rayon taffeta guaranteed n
ot to crack, rayon
twill satin, textured rayon crepes and rayon seersucker, all sunfast. By 1939, M
ontgomery Wards
was offering Petalspun, an all-spun washable rayon; Petalqeen, all rayon flat cr
epe prints with
only 1% shrinkage; and Spunblend, a spun rayon and cotton blend. All rayons were
advertised as
being brilliant new patterns
However, even as late as the 1950s rayon or rayon blends in yard goods and ready
to wear were
still suspect. Anyone who is familiar with butcher linen knows the horrors of th
is fabric stretching
lengthwise while shrinking crossgrain, of bemburg-type sheers stretching unevenl
y causing
hemline havoc and in general, the rotting of fibers around armholes and seam puc
kering and
splitting.
Fortunately research continued to improve the production process, making rayon a
n essential
fiber that proved it could be attractive and desirable on its own or as blend wi
th natural fibers.
For quick reference, here is a summary of how rayon is made and the three method
s by which
cellulose is transformed into rayon yarn:
VISCOSE cellulose is treated with caustic soda and carbon bisulphide, converting
it into a gold
liquid about the color and consistency of honey, called viscose. Viscose is forc
ed through fine
holes in end of a nozzle, called a spinnerette, directly into a chemical bath wh
ere it hardens into
fine strands. When washed and bleached these strands become rayon yarn.
Viscose was first introduced commercially in this country in 1911 and by 1950 ac
counted for 66%
of US rayon production.
ACETATE cellulose is combined with acetic acid [refined vinegar] making a substa
nce called
cellulose acetate. This is dissolved in acetone, then forced through the holes i
n a spinnerette
directly into a tube. In the tube, warm air evaporates the acetone and the cellu
lose acetate
emerges as dry filaments.
Acetate was first introduced in this country on a commercial basis in 1919 and b
y 1950 accounted
for 32% of rayon production.
CUPRAMMONIUM purified cotton linters or wood pulp are treated chemically with co
pper
ammonia which dissolves cellulose. The liquid thus obtained is pumped through th
e holes in a
spinnerette into a solution which coagulates it into filaments.
Cuprammonium was first produced commercially in this country in 1927.
Filament Rayon rayon yarn, regardless of process, is produced in the form of a c
ontinuous thread
and is known as filament rayon.
Spun Rayon rayon can be made or cut in short lengths and are called rayon staple
s. They are
twisted together [spun] into yarn and known as spun rayon fabrics.
By 1950, 104 fabrics were available as rayon blends.
That interest in vintage rayon flourishes is evidenced by collectors of vintage
Hawaiian aloha
shirts. Many are made of rayon and a book is being written on the history of thi
s subject.
**********
Federal Trade Commission Definition for Rayon Fiber: A manufactured fiber compos
ed of
regenerated cellulose, in which substituents have replaced not more than 15% of
the hydrogens
of the hydroxyl groups.
http://www.ftc.gov/os/statutes/textile/textlact.htm
***********
Rayon Fiber (Viscose)
Rayon Staple Fiber
Rayon Textile Filament Fiber
Rayon Industrial Filament Fiber
First U.S. Commercial Rayon Fiber Production: 1910, Avtex Fibers Inc. (Formerly
FMC
Corporation and American Viscose)
Current U.S Rayon Fiber Producers: Acordis Cellulosic Fibers, Inc., Lenzing Fibe
rs Corporation.
Federal Trade Commission Definition for Rayon Fiber: A manufactured fiber compos
ed of
regenerated cellulose, in which substituents have replaced not more than 15% of
the hydrogens
of the hydroxyl groups. (Complete FTC Fiber Rules here.)
http://www.ftc.gov/os/statutes/textilejump.htm
Basic Principles of Rayon Fiber Production In the production of rayon, purified
cellulose is
chemically converted into a soluble compound. A solution of this compound is pas
sed through the
spinneret to form soft filaments that are then converted or "regenerated" into a
lmost pure
cellulose. Because of the reconversion of the soluble compound to cellulose, ray
on is referred to
as a regenerated cellulose fiber.
There are several types of rayon fibers in commercial use today, named according
to the process
by which the cellulose is converted to the soluble form and then regenerated. Ra
yon fibers are
wet spun, which means that the filaments emerging from the spinneret pass direct
ly into chemical
baths for solidifying or regeneration.
Viscose rayon is made by converting purified cellulose to xanthate, dissolving t
he xanthate in
dilute caustic soda and then regenerating the cellulose from the product as it e
merges from the
spinneret. Most rayon is made by the viscose process.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Viscose Process
Most commercial rayon manufacturing today utilizes the viscose process. This pro
cess dates to
the early 1900s, with most of the growth in production occurring between 1925 an
d 1955. In the
early period, production was mainly textile filament, although the first staple
was produced in
1916. High performance rayons, such as tire cord, did not appear until the late
1930s, with the
advent of hot-stretching and addition of larger amounts of zinc to the spin bath
. Invention of
modifiers in 1947 brought on super tire cords and marked the beginning of the hi
gh-performance
rayon fibers.
All of the early viscose production involved batch processing. In more recent ti
mes, processes
have been modified to allow some semi-continuous production. For easier understa
nding, the
viscose process is a batch operation. Click on each process step for a brief exp
lanation.
Cellulose
Purified cellulose for rayon production usually comes from specially processed w
ood pulp. It is
sometimes referred to as "dissolving cellulose" or "dissolving pulp" to distingu
ish it from lower
grade pulps used for papermaking and other purposes. Dissolving cellulose is cha
racterized by a
high a -cellulose content, i.e., it is composed of long-chain molecules, relativ
ely free from lignin
and hemicelluloses, or other short-chain carbohydrates.
Steeping
The cellulose sheets are saturated with a solution of caustic soda (or sodium hy
droxide) and
allowed to steep for enough time for the caustic solution to penetrate the cellu
lose and convert
some of it into "soda cellulose", the sodium salt of cellulose. This is necessar
y to facilitate
controlled oxidation of the cellulose chains and the ensuing reaction to form ce
llulose xanthate.
Pressing
The soda cellulose is squeezed mechanically to remove excess caustic soda soluti
on.
Shredding
The soda cellulose is mechanically shredded to increase surface area and make th
e cellulose
easier to process. This shredded cellulose is often referred to as "white crumb"
.
Aging
The white crumb is allowed to stand in contact with the oxygen of the ambient ai
r. Because of the
high alkalinity of white crumb, the cellulose is partially oxidized and degraded
to lower molecular
weights. This degradation must be carefully controlled to produce chain lengths
short enough to
give manageable viscosities in the spinning solution, but still long enough to i
mpart good physical
properties to the fiber product.
Xanthation
The properly aged white crumb is placed into a churn, or other mixing vessel, an
d treated with
gaseous carbon disulfide. The soda cellulose reacts with the CS2 to form xanthat
e ester groups.
The carbon disulfide also reacts with the alkaline medium to form inorganic impu
rities which give
the cellulose mixture a characteristic yellow color and this material is referre
d to as "yellow
crumb". Because accessibility to the CS2 is greatly restricted in the crystallin
e regions of the soda
cellulose, the yellow crumb is essentially a block copolymer of cellulose and ce
llulose xanthate.
Dissolving
The yellow crumb is dissolved in aqueous caustic solution. The large xanthate su
bstituents on the
cellulose force the chains apart, reducing the interchain hydrogen bonds and all
owing water
molecules to solvate and separate the chains, leading to solution of the otherwi
se insoluble
cellulose. Because of the blocks of un-xanthated cellulose in the crystalline re
gions, the yellow
crumb is not completely soluble at this stage. Because the cellulose xanthate so
lution (or more
accurately, suspension) has a very high viscosity, it has been termed "viscose".
Ripening
The viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to "ripen". Two important p
rocess occur during
ripening: Redistribution and loss of xanthate groups. The reversible xanthation
reaction allows
some of the xanthate groups to revert to cellulosic hydroxyls and free CS2. This
free CS2 can
then escape or react with other hydroxyl on other portions of the cellulose chai
n. In this way, the
ordered, or crystalline, regions are gradually broken down and more complete sol
ution is
achieved. The CS2 that is lost reduces the solubility of the cellulose and facil
itates regeneration
of the cellulose after it is formed into a filament.
Filtering
The viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt the s
pinning process or
cause defects in the rayon filament.
Degassing
Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion or th
ey would cause
voids, or weak spots, in the fine rayon filaments.
Spinning - (Wet Spinning)
The viscose is forced through a spinneret, a device resembling a shower head wit
h many small
holes. Each hole produces a fine filament of viscose. As the viscose exits the s
pinneret, it comes
in contact with a solution of sulfuric acid, sodium sulfate and, usually, Zn++ i
ons. Several
processes occur at this point which cause the cellulose to be regenerated and pr
ecipitate from
solution. Water diffuses out from the extruded viscose to increase the concentra
tion in the
filament beyond the limit of solubility. The xanthate groups form complexes with
the Zn++ which
draw the cellulose chains together. The acidic spin bath converts the xanthate f
unctions into
unstable xantheic acid groups, which spontaneously lose CS2 and regenerate the f
ree hydroxyls
of cellulose. (This is similar to the well-known reaction of carbonate salts wit
h acid to form
unstable carbonic acid, which loses CO2). The result is the formation of fine fi
laments of
cellulose, or rayon.
Drawing
The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relativel
y mobile. This
causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fiber axis. As the chains
become more
parallel, interchain hydrogen bonds form, giving the filaments the properties ne
cessary for use as
textile fibers.
Washing
The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble impuri
ties which need
to be removed. Several different washing techniques may be used.
Cutting
If the rayon is to be used as staple (i.e., discreet lengths of fiber), the grou
p of filaments (termed
"tow") is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber which can be process
ed in much the
same way as cotton.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Other forms of regenerated cellulose fibers that are classified by the Commissio
n as rayon
without separate, distinctive names include high wet modulus rayon, cuprammonium
rayon and
saponified rayon.
High wet modulus rayon is highly modified viscose rayon that has greater dimensi
onal stability in
washing.
Cuprammonium rayon is made by converting the cellulose into a soluble compound b
y combining
it with copper and ammonia. The solution of this material in caustic soda is pas
sed through the
spinneret and the cellulose is regenerated in the hardening baths that remove th
e copper and
ammonia and neutralize the caustic soda. Cuprammonium rayon is usually made in f
ine filaments
that are used in lightweight summer dresses and blouses, sometimes in Combinatio
n with cotton
to make textured fabrics with clubbed, uneven surfaces.
When extruded filaments of cellulose acetate are reconverted to cellulose, they
are described as
saponified rayon, which dyes like rayon instead of acetate.
Rayon Fiber Characteristics
Highly absorbent
Soft and comfortable
Easy to dye
Drapes well
The drawing process applied in spinning may be adjusted to produce rayon fibers
of extra
strength and reduced elongation. Such fibers are designated as high tenacity ray
ons, which have
about twice the strength and two-thirds of the stretch of regular rayon. An inte
rmediate grade,
known as medium tenacity rayon, is also made. Its strength and stretch character
istics fall
midway between those of high tenacity and regular rayon.
Some Major Rayon Fiber Uses
Apparel: Accessories, blouses, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery, s
lacks, sportshirts,
sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes
Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slipcovers,
tablecloths,
upholstery
Industrial Uses: Industrial products, medical surgical products, nonwoven produc
ts, tire cord
Other Uses: Feminine hygiene products
General Rayon Fiber Care Tips Most rayon fabrics should be dry-cleaned, but some
types of
fabric and garment construction are such that they can be hand or machine washed
. For
washable items, use the following as a guide:
Fabrics containing rayon can be bleached; some finishes, however, are sensitive
to chlorine
bleach.
Use mild lukewarm or cool suds. Gently squeeze suds through fabric and rinse in
lukewarm
water. Do not wring or twist the article.
Smooth or shake out article and place on a non-rust hanger to dry. Rayon sweater
s should be
dried flat.
Press the article while damp on the wrong side with the iron at a moderate setti
ng. If finishing on
the right side is required, a press cloth should be used.
Between wearings, rayon articles may be pressed with a cool iron. (For specific
instructions, refer
to garment's sewn-in care label.)
http://www.fibersource.com/f-tutor/rayon.htm 10aug02
****************
RULES AND REGULATIONS UNDER THE TEXTILE FIBER PRODUCTS IDENTIFICATION
ACT
16 CFR Part 303
§ 303.7 (d)
Rayon. A manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, as well as manufa
ctured fibers
composed of regenerated cellulose in which substituents have replaced not more t
han 15 percent
of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups. Where the fiber is composed of cellulos
e precipitated
from an organic solution in which no substitution of the hydroxyl groups takes p
lace and no
chemical intermediates are formed, the term lyocell may be used as a generic des
cription of the
fiber.
http://www.ftc.gov/os/statutes/textile/rr-textl.htm
*************
Manufacturing:
Synthetic and Cellulosic Fiber Formation Technology
Most synthetic and cellulosic manufactured fibers are created by "extrusion" for
cing a thick,
viscous liquid (about the consistency of cold honey) through the tiny holes of a
device called a
spinneret to form continuous filaments of semi-solid polymer.
In their initial state, the fiber-forming polymers are solids and therefore must
be first converted
into a fluid state for extrusion. This is usually achieved by melting, if the po
lymers are
thermoplastic synthetics (i.e., they soften and melt when heated), or by dissolv
ing them in a
suitable solvent if they are non-thermoplastic cellulosics. If they cannot be di
ssolved or melted
directly, they must be chemically treated to form soluble or thermoplastic deriv
atives. Recent
technologies have been developed for some specialty fibers made of polymers that
do not melt,
dissolve, or form appropriate derivatives. For these materials, the small fluid
molecules are mixed
and reacted to form the otherwise intractable polymers during the extrusion proc
ess (if you are
interested in the latest information on extrusion, click here to go to the PolyS
ort chat board on the
topic).

The Spinneret
The spinnerets used in the production of most manufactured fibers are similar, i
n principle, to a
bathroom shower head. A spinneret may have from one to several hundred holes. Th
e tiny
openings are very sensitive to impurities and corrosion. The liquid feeding them
must be carefully
filtered (not an easy task with very viscous materials) and, in some cases, the
spinneret must be
made from very expensive, corrosion-resistant metals. Maintenance is also critic
al, and
spinnerets must be removed and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent clogging.
As the filaments emerge from the holes in the spinneret, the liquid polymer is c
onverted first to a
rubbery state and then solidified. This process of extrusion and solidification
of endless filaments
is called spinning, not to be confused with the textile operation of the same na
me, where short
pieces of staple fiber are twisted into yarn. There are four methods of spinning
filaments of
manufactured fibers: wet, dry, melt, and gel spinning.

Wet Spinning
Wet spinning is the oldest process. It is used for fiber-forming substances that
have been
dissolved in a solvent. The spinnerets are submerged in a chemical bath and as t
he filaments
emerge they precipitate from solution and solidify.
Because the solution is extruded directly into the precipitating liquid, this pr
ocess for making
fibers is called wet spinning. Acrylic, rayon, aramid, modacrylic and spandex ca
n be produced by
this process.
Dry Spinning
Dry spinning is also used for fiber-forming substances in solution. However, ins
tead of
precipitating the polymer by dilution or chemical reaction, solidification is ac
hieved by evaporating
the solvent in a stream of air or inert gas.
The filaments do not come in contact with a precipitating liquid, eliminating th
e need for drying
and easing solvent recovery. This process may be used for the production of acet
ate, triacetate,
acrylic, modacrylic, PBI, spandex, and vinyon.

Melt Spinning
In melt spinning, the fiber-forming substance is melted for extrusion through th
e spinneret and
then directly solidified by cooling. Nylon, olefin, polyester, saran and sulfar
are produced in this
manner.

Melt spun fibers can be extruded from the spinneret in different cross-sectional
shapes (round,
trilobal, pentagonal, octagonal, and others). Trilobal-shaped fibers reflect mor
e light and give an
attractive sparkle to textiles.
Pentagonal-shaped and hollow fibers, when used in carpet, show less soil and dir
t. Octagonal-
shaped fibers offer glitter-free effects. Hollow fibers trap air, creating insul
ation and provide loft
characteristics equal to, or better than, down.
Detailed production flowcharts:
Acrylic Nylon (Polyamide) Polyester

Gel Spinning
Gel spinning is a special process used to obtain high strength or other special
fiber properties.
The polymer is not in a true liquid state during extrusion. Not completely separ
ated, as they would
be in a true solution, the polymer chains are bound together at various points i
n liquid crystal
form. This produces strong inter-chain forces in the resulting filaments that ca
n significantly
increase the tensile strength of the fibers. In addition, the liquid crystals ar
e aligned along the
fiber axis by the shear forces during extrusion. The filaments emerge with an un
usually high
degree of orientation relative to each other, further enhancing strength. The pr
ocess can also be
described as dry-wet spinning, since the filaments first pass through air and th
en are cooled
further in a liquid bath. Some high-strength polyethylene and aramid fibers are
produced by gel
spinning.
Stretching and Orientation
While extruded fibers are solidifying, or in some cases even after they have har
dened, the
filaments may be drawn to impart strength. Drawing pulls the molecular chains to
gether and
orients them along the fiber axis, creating a considerably stronger yarn.
http://www.fibersource.com/f-tutor/techpag.htm 10aug02
*********************