Chapter 9 - Generally, organic molecules that have an abundance of H are

Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy excellent fuels  bonds are source of hilltop e- with potential to
fall from glucose to oxygen
Energy-yielding pathway - Oxidation of glucose  respiration takes energy out of storage
- organic cpds store energy in their arrangement of atoms and makes it available for ATP synthesis
- help of enzymes  cell systematically breaks down - Fuels  only barrier of activation energy holds back flood of e-
complex organic molecules that are rich in PE to simpler to lower energy state
waste products that have less energy
- some energy taken out of chemical storage can be used to BREAKDOWN OF GLUCOSE
do work - Glucose and organic fuels are broken down stepwise
- rest is dissipated as heat - each step is catalyzed by an enzyme
- H atoms are stripped from glucose but are not transferred
Catabolic Pathways directly to oxygen
+
- metabolic pathways that release stored energy by - H atoms are passed first to NAD
breaking down complex molecules  coenzyme
 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
1. fermentation  fcns as oxidizing agent/e- acceptor during respiration
 partial degradation of sugars that occur without the  most versatile e- acceptor
help of oxygen - dehydrogenases remove a pair of H atoms from the substrate
2. respiration  sugar/fuel
 most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway - removal of 2 e- and 2 protons
 oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the - enzyme delivers 2 e- and 2 proton
+
organic fuel - other proton is released into surrounding soln as H
- NAD+ receives 2e- and 1 H+  NADH
ENERGY FLOW & CHEMICAL RECYLCING IN - Each NADH molecule formed during resp represents stored
energy that can be tapped to make ATP when the e- complete
ECOSYSTEM
their fall from NADH to Oxygen
- Electron transport chain  e- gradually lose energy
- Oxygen captures e- along with hydrogen nuclei (H+) forming
RESPIRATION water
- harvests energy stored in organic molecules to generate
ATP  powers most cellular work DIFFERENCES: RESPIRATION VS. COMBUSTION
- raw materials  organic molecule and O2 - In respiration, the H that reacts with oxygen is from organic
- waste products  CO2 and H2O molecules rather than H2
- Respiration uses an electron transport chain
PHOTOSYNTHESIS  break the fall of e- to oxygen into several energy-releasing
- raw materials  CO2 and H2O steps instead of one explosive reaction
- waste products  O2  consists mostly of proteins built into inner membrane of
mitochondrion
RESPIRATION
- fuel for respiration RESPIRATION
 food
 carbo, fats, proteins 1. GLYCOLYSIS
- organic cpds + O2  CO2 + H2O + Energy  decompose glucose and other organic fuels
- breakdown of glucose  exergonic  products have less  occurs in cytosol
energy than reactants  some of steps are redox rxns  NAD+ to NADH
 substrate-level phosphorylation
ATP
- Adenosine triphosphate 2. KREB’S CYCLE
- Closely packing of 3 –ly charged phosphate grps is an
 takes place in mitochondrial matrix
unstable, energy storing arrangement
 decomposes pyruvate into CO2
- Tends to lose the terminal phosphate
- Cells use enzymes to transfer phosphate grps from ATP to  substrate-level phosphorylation
other compounds  phosphorylated
- Phosphorylation 3. ETC AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
 primes a molecule to undergo some kind of change  ETC accepts e- from breakdown products of first two
that performs work stages
 molecule loses its phosphate grp  Passes these e- from one molecule to another
- ATP  ADP + inorganic phosphate  E- is combined with H+ and molecular oxygen to form
water
REVIEW: REDOX  Energy released at each step of the chain is stored in a
form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP
REDOX IN RESPIRATION  Mode of ATP synthesis  Oxidative phosphorylation 
- Oxidation: glucose  CO2 accounts for most of ATP generated
- Reduction: O2  H2O  Occurs inside mitochondrion
SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
- generates smaller amounts of ATP
- occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate grp from a
substrate molecule to ADP
- substrate molecule  organic molecule generated during
the catabolism of glucose
NOTE: For each molecule of glucose, the cell can make ~38
ATP
GLYCOLYSIS
- Harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
- “splitting of sugar”
- Summary
 glucose is split into 2 3-C sugars
 3-C sugar  oxidized  rearrangement of atoms
 pyruvate is formed
- oxidizing agent of glucose: NAD+
- net energy yield per molecule of glucose: 2 ATP, 2 NADH
- no CO2 is released
- occurs whether or not molecular oxygen (O2) is present
- presence of O2
 energy stored in NADH can be converted to ATP
energy by ETC and OP
 chemical energy left in pyruvate can be extracted by
Kreb’s cycle
PHASES
1. energy investment phase
 cell expends ATP to phosphorylate fuel molecules
 glucose enters  phosphorylated
 phosphate grp is transferred from ATP to sugar 1
ATP is expended
 glucose-6-phosphate
 fructose-6-phosphate
 1 ATP is expended  fructose-1,6-phosphate
 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate [and dihydroxyacetone
phosphate]
2. energy payoff phase
 ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation
 2 NAD+ is reduced to 2 NADH by oxidation of food
 2 1,3-biphosphoglycerate
 2 ATP is produced
 2 3-phosphoglycerate
 2 2-phosphoglycerate
 2 H2O is extracted  2 PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate)
 phosphate grp from PEP is transferred to ADP
 2 ATP is produced
 2 molecules of pyruvate (per glucose molecule)
TRANSITION: GLYCOLYSIS TO KREB’S CYCLE
- most of energy remains stocked in pyruvate
- transition step: pyruvate is converted to acetyl coenzyme
A (acetyl CoA)
- Pyruvate’s carboxyl grp is removed and given off as CO2
- Remaining 2-C fragment is oxidized to form acetate,
NAD+  NADH
- Coenzyme A is attached to acetate  acetyl CoA
KREB’S CYCLE
- For each turn of cycle, 2 C enter in reduced form of
acetate and leave in oxidized form of CO2
- “Cycle”  regeneration of oxaloacetate
- most of energy harvested in oxidative steps is conserved
in NADH
- for each acetate that enters the cycle, 3 NAD+ are reduced to
NADH
- FAD
 accepted electrons in step 6
 flavin adenine dinucleotide
 reduced to FADH2  donates its e- to ETC like NADH
- NADH and FADH2 eventually relay the e- from foods to ETC
- Products:
 per molecule of pyruvate: 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP
 per molecule of glucose: 8 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- NADH and FADH2  e- escorts link glycolysis and kreb’s
cycle to OP
- ETC  collection of protein molecules embedded in inner
membrane of mitochondrion
- Cristae  increases surface area  providing space for
thousands of copies of each chain in each mitochondrion
- Prosthetic groups
 bound to proteins in ETC
 nonprotein components essential for catalytic fcns of
certain enzymes
 alternate between reduced and oxidized states
-
st
e- removed from food are transferred by NADH to 1 molecule
of ETC (Flavoprotein)
- ubiquinone (Q)  lipid (only nonprotein member of ETC)
- cytochromes  e- carriers between Q and O2 consist of these
- ETC has several types of cytochromes
- FADH2 adds its e- to ETC at a lower energy level than NADH
- ETC provides 1/3 less energy for ATP synthesis when FADH2
is e- donor compared to NADH
- ETC doesn’t directly make ATP  fcn is to ease fall of e-
ATP SYNTHASE
- Populates the inner membrane of mitochondrion
- protein complex
- enzyme that makes ATP from ADP + inorganic phosphate
CHEMIOSMOSIS
- (read book if needed)
- an energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the
form of an H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular
work
- used by chloroplast to generate ATP through photosynthesis
REVIEW
Steps
- glucose
- NADH
- ETC
- Proton-motive force
- ATP
- 1 molecule glucose  6 CO2
- each NADH that transfers 2e- from food to ETC contributes
enough to the proton-motive force to generate 3 ATP max.
- FADH2  2 ATP max.
- In some eukaryotic cells, this Lower ATP yield per 2e- also
applies to NADH produced by glycolysis in the cytosol
- Mitochondrial inner membrane is impermeable to NADH
- NADH in cytosol is separated from OP
- Depending on which shuttle is operating, e- are passed either
to NAD+ or FAD
- Efficiency of respiration: 40%  The rest is lost as heat
FERMENTATION 2. cytosolic location of glycolysis
- Without oxygen  oxidative phosphorylation ceases  also implies great antiquity
- Provides a mechanism by which some cells can oxidize  glycolysis doesn’t require any of the membrane-enclosed
organic fuel and generate ATP without oxygen organelles
- An extension of glycolysis that can generate ATP solely by
substrate-level phosphorylation  there should be VERSATILITY OF CATABOLISM
sufficient supply of NAD+ - We obtain most of our calories in form of fats, proteins,
- Under aerobic conditions  NAD+ is recycled from NADH sucrose, starch (polysaccharide), and other dissacharides
by transfer of e- from ETC
- Anaerobic  transfer e- from NADH to pyruvate CARBOHYDRATES
- Consists of glycolysis + rxns that regenerate NAD+ by - Digestive tract  starch is hydrolyzed to glucose
transferring e- from NADH to pyruvate/derivatives of - Glycogen
pyruvate  polysaccharide
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION  humans and other animals store this in their live and
- Pyruvate is converted to ethanol muscle cells
- CO2 is released from pyruvate  can be hydrolyzed to glucose between meals
- Pyruvate is converted to 2-C cpd called acetaldehyde - digestion of disaccharides  provides glucose and other
- Acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol  monosaccharides as fuel for respiration
regenerates NAD+
- Yeast (fungus), bacteria PROTEINS
- must first be digested to its constituent amino acids
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION - amino acids present in excess are converted by enzymes to
- Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as intermediates of glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle
waste product - amino groups must first be removed  deamination
- No release of CO2
- Fungi and bacteria FATS
- Means by which human muscle cells make ATP when - fats are digested
oxygen is scarce - glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde phosphate  an
intermediate of glycolysis
PRODUCTS OF OTHER TYPES OF MICROBIAL - most of energy of fat is stored in fatty acids
FERMENTATION - beta oxidation  breaks fatty acids to 2-C fragments which
- Acetone enter Kreb’s as acetyl CoA
- methanol - gram of fat produces > 2x ATP as 1 gram of carbo
2 TYPES OF RESPIRATION BIOSYNTHESIS (ANABOLIC PATHWAYS)
1. Aerobic  w/ oxygen
2. Anaerobic  without oxygen - Cells need substance as well as energy
- Not all organic molecules of food are destined to be oxidized
RESPIRATION vs. FERMENTATION as fuel to make ATP
- Both use glycolysis to oxidize glucose/organic fuels to - Food must also provide carbon skeletons that cells require to
pyruvate by substrate-level phosphorylation make their own molecules
- Both use NAD+ as oxidizing agent that accepts e- from - Amino acids can be incorporated into organism’s own proteins
food during glycolysis - Glycolysis and kreb’s cycle function as metabolic interchanges
- Differ in final e- acceptor that enable our cells to convert some kinds of molecules to
 Fermentation: pyruvate (lactic acid) or acetaldehyde others as we need them
(alcohol)
 Respiration: oxygen  regenerates NAD+ and FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
generates ATP - Basic principles of supply and demand regulate the metabolic
- Respiration harvests more energy economy
 Fermentation: 2 ATP - Most common mechanism for control  feedback inhibition
 Respiration: 38 ATP - Cell controls its catabolism
 cell works hard  ATP drops  respiration speeds up
FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES  many ATP to meet demand  respiration slows down 
- Can make enough ATP to survive using either organic molecules are used for other fcns
fermentation or respiration
- Yeasts and many bacteria
- Human Muscle cells
- Pyruvate is a fork in the metabolic road that leads to 2
alternative catabolic routes

EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF GLYCOLYSIS

- Ancient prokaryotes probably used glycolysis to make
ATP long before oxygen was present in atmosphere

1. glycolysis is the most widespread metabolic pathway

 suggests that it evolved very early in the history of life