A guide to low

resistance testing
Contents HOW IS LOW RESISTANCE
MEASURED?12
INTRODUCTION3
Two, three and four wire
Brief history of low resistance d.c. measurements  12
ohmmeters4 Two wire measurements 13

WHY MEASURE LOW RESISTANCE? 4 Three wire measurements 13

Four wire measurements 13
What is a low resistance measurement?  5
D.C. vs. A.C.  13
What does a low resistance measurement
tell the user? 5 The difference between continuity and
low resistance  14
What problems create the need
for a test? 5 Test modes 14
Models designed in the 1970s and 1980s 14
Saving money by low resistance testing 5
10 amp models 14
Industries with significant resistance
problems6 100 amp and above models 14

What equipment needs HOW DOES A LOW RESISTANCE

low resistance testing 6 OHMMETER OPERATE? 15
Motor armature 6
Safety15
Automotive assembly 7
Power generation and distribution 7 Test on de-energized samples 15

Transformers7 Use and misuse of low resistance

ohmmeters16
Uninterruptible power supply -
battery straps 7 Current selection 16
Cement plants and other raw material Probe and lead selection  16
processing applications 8
Low range tests  17
Circuit breakers 8
Aircraft assembly 8 TYPES OF TESTERS - WHICH ONE? 17
Strap and wire bonds between rail segments
Milli-ohmmeter17
(railroad industry) 9
Graphite electrodes 9 10 Amp micro-ohmmeter 17

Welding spot or seam 9 100 Amp and above micro-ohmmeter 18

Cable reels 10 Nominal vs. absolute test current levels 18

Measuring cable resistance of multicore Auto range 19

cable of at least 3 cores 10
Ingress protection 19
Using low resistance measurements to set
torque11
 EVALUATION / INTERPRETATION OF APPENDICES29
RESULTS20
Testing of transformers 29
Repeatability20
Motor bar to bar tests 29
Spot readings / base expectations for
readings20 Battery strap tests 31

Trending  21 Ramp testing 31

Circuit breakers 21 Wheatstone and kelvin bridges 32

Stand-by battery back-up systems 21 Wheatstone bridge 32
Kelvin bridge 32
Measuring components of a system  23

High currents in low resistance DLRO microohm and milliohm

measurement23 applications lists 33

Potential sources of error / ensure quality MEGGER PRODUCTS OVERVIEW 35

results23
Test leads / probes 23
DLRO100 series 35

Accuracy statements 24 DLRO10 / DLRO10X 35

Interference24 DLRO10HD / DLRO10HDX 36

Delivery of stated test current under load  25 DLRO60036
Taking a measurement at a stable plateau 25
DLRO20036
Material resistivity 25
MOM237
Effects of temperature 26
MJÖLNER200 / MJÖLNER600 37
Effects of humidity 26
Background noise, current and voltage  26 MOM690A38

Thermal emf / Seebeck voltage compensation 27 MOM200A / MOM600A 38

Contact resistance contamination 27 BT5138
Noise ratio and induced currents 27 Series 247000 39
Hot spots 28
Duplex connect test lead system 39
Calibration in the field 28
PRODUCT COMPARISON CHART 41

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FIGURES Fig 23: C1 clip being connected to end of
circuit being tested 22
Fig 1:  Qualitative Resistance Temperature
Fig 24: Duplex hand spike being used to
Curve for Manganini 4
perform same test as shown in Fig 23 22
Fig 2:  Bus bar connections 7
Fig 25:  Correct and incorrect probe
Fig 3:  Single strap with two contact surfaces 7 placements 24
Fig 4:  Parallel straps on a large battery Fig 26:  Basic styles of probes 24
complex 8
Fig 27:  Temperature resistance curves for
Fig 5:  Measuring carrier strip resistance 8 iron, copper and carbon 26
Fig 6:  Test on graphite slugs for uniform Fig 28:  Circuit breaker corrosion 27
density (ohms / inch) 9
Fig 29:  Noise 27
Fig 7:  Series of measurements across a
Fig 30:  Hot spots 28
weld seam 9
Fig 31:  Bar to bar test on d.c. motor rotor 29
Fig 8:  Determining the remaining length
of cable on a reel 10 Fig 32:  Lap winding test data 30

Fig 9:  Conventional test, one kelvin at Fig 33:  Commutator with 24 coils in series 30
either end of a multi-core cable 10 Fig 34:  Wave winding test data 30
Fig 10: The C2 and P2 shown as separate Fig 35:  Wave winding coil arrangement 31
cables from a meter to one of the cores 11
Fig 36:  Single strap resistance target 31
Fig 11: C1 connected to an adjacent core
on the same end of the multi-core cable 11 Fig 37:  Parallel strap resistance target 31

Fig 12: P1 connected to another core on the Fig 38:  Wheatstone bridge circuit 32
same end of the multi-core cable 11 Fig 39:  Kelvin bridge circuit 32
Fig 13: The other end of the cable Fig 40:  DLRO100 Series 35
showing the unmarked core 11
Fig 41:  DLRO10 / DLRO10X 35
Fig 14: Contact area reduced due to
Fig 42:  DLRO10HD 36
overtightening 12
Fig 43:  DLRO600 36
Fig 15: Typical joints that should be
tested 12 Fig 44:  DLRO200 37

Fig 16: Typical faults that can be Fig 45:  MOM2 37

prevented by low resistance testing 12 Fig 46:  MJÖLNER200 37
Fig 17: Selection of optimum measuring Fig 47:  MJÖLNER600 37
technique 12
Fig 48:  MOM690A 38
Fig 18:  Simplified example of a 4 wire
measurement 13 Fig 49:  MOM200A / MOM600A 38

Fig 19:  Basic operation diagram 15 Fig 50:  BT51 38

Fig 20:  ASTM standard B193-65 17 Fig 51:  DLRO247000 39

Fig 21:  Probe / lead configurations 17 Fig 52:  Duplex connect test leads 39

Fig 22:  Trending analysis of low resistance

readings 22

2 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 Introduction
The quantitative study of electrical circuits originated in 1827, when
Georg Simon Ohm published his famous book 'Die galvanische Kette,
mathematisch bearbeitet' in which he gave his complete theory of
electricity. In this seminal work, he introduced the relationship or
'Law' that carries his name:
Resistance (R) = Voltage (E) / Current (I)
At that time, the standards for Voltage, Current and Resistance
had not been developed. Ohm’s Law expressed the fact that the
magnitude of the current flowing in a circuit depended directly on
the electrical forces or pressure and inversely on a property of the
circuit known as the resistance. Obviously, however, he did not have
units of the size of our present Volt, Ampere, and Ohm to measure
these quantities.
The thermal emf against copper shows the thermocouple activity of
the material whereby a voltage is generated simply by connecting two
different metals together. The goal is to minimize thermocouple activity
as it introduces error into the measurement.
With the metric system, the measurements are in meters and the
resistivity is determined for a one meter cube of the material. However,
more practical units are based on a centimeter cube. With the USA
system, the resistivity is defined in ohms per mil foot. The wire diameter
is measured in circular mils (0.001)ii and the length in feet.
Fig 1 shows the temperature resistance curve for Manganin wire at 20
ºC (68 ºF). For Manganin shunts, the 20 °C curve shifts to 50 ºC (122
ºF), as this material will be operating at a higher temperature due to
the application. The Manganin alloy was designed for use in coils used
to do stable measuring conditions at 20 ºC ambient room conditions.

At this time, laboratories developed resistance elements, constructed

of iron, copper or other available alloy materials. The laboratories
needed stable alloys that could be moved from place to place to
certify the measurements under review. The standard for the ohm
had to be temperature stable and with minimum effects due to the
material connected to the ohm standard.

In 1861, a committee was established to develop a resistance

standard. This committee included a number of famous men
with whom we are now familiar, including James Clerk Maxwell,
James Prescott Joule, Lord William Thomson Kelvin and Sir Charles
Wheatstonei. In 1864, a coil of platinum-silver alloy wire sealed in Fig 1:  Qualitative Resistance Temperature Curve for Manganiniii
a container filled with paraffin was used as a standard. This was
used for 20 years while studies were made for a more reliable
standard. These studies continued as the old National Bureau of
Standards (NBS), now known as the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST), controlled the standard for the 'Ohm'. Today
the industry uses Manganin alloy because it has a low temperature
coefficient so that its resistance changes very little with temperature.
Melvin B. Stout’s 'Basic Electrical Measurements' highlights the key
properties of Manganin.

Table 1:  Key properties of Manganin

Composition Resistivity Temperature Thermal
% Coefficient emf Against
Microhms for Ohms for Cir. per ºC Copper μv/ ºC
cm Cube mil Foot
Cu 84% 44 μΩ 264 Ω *±0.00001º 1.7
Mn 12%
Ni 4%
*Manganin shows zero effect from 20º to 30º C.

ii Swoope’s Lessons in Practical Electricity; Eighteenth Edition; Erich

i Swoope’s Lessons in Practical Electricity; Eighteenth Edition; Erich Hausmann, E.E., ScD.; page 118.
Hausmann, E.E., ScD.; page 111. iii Basic Electrical Measurements; Melvin B. Stout; 1950; page 61.

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The alloy is modified for strips of material used in measuring shunts,
which operate at a higher ambient, up to 50 ºC.
The purpose of this booklet is to help the engineer, technician or user
to understand:
where a considerable number of improvements could be made to the
1970s designs. Newly designed low resistance ohmmeters by Megger
include data storage and downloading capability, additional test modes,
reduced weight, extended battery life, etc.

■■ The rationale behind low resistance tests

■■ How to make a low resistance measurement
■■ How to select the correct instrument for the test application
■■ How to interpret and use the results
Brief history of low resistance
ohmmeters
™ for a specified energy source, operating on V a.c. or V d.c., the amount
The original DUCTER low resistance ohmmeteriv was developed by
Evershed & Vignoles (one of the companies that evolved into Megger
and the developer of the first insulation resistance tester) in 1908 and
employed the cross-coils meter movement that was already used in the
insulation resistance tester. This initial design evolved into field units in
the 1920s that required a leveling procedure at the time of the test due
to the sensitivity of the coil (to being level). These early models did not
travel well and were sensitive to shock and vibration.
For fifty years, field portable low resistance ohmmeters were analog
units. In 1976, in response to numerous customer requests, the James G.
Biddle Company (another one of the companies that ultimately became
Megger) developed and introduced a digital low resistance ohmmeter.
This unit was known by its trade name, the DLRO. Ultimately, the James
G. Biddle Company released 10 A and 100 A versions of the DLRO,
including a single box design for some versions that simplified the test
process, and an extended range model.
Why measure low
resistance?
Measuring low resistance helps identify resistance elements that
have increased above acceptable values. The operation of electrical
equipment depends on the controlled flow of current within the design
parameters of the given piece of equipment. Ohm’s Law dictates that
of current drawn will be dependent upon the resistance of the circuit
or component.
In the modern age of electronics, increased demands are placed on all
aspects of electrical circuitry. Years ago the ability to measure 0.01 ohms
was acceptable, but, in the present industrial electronic environments,
the field test engineer is now required to make measurements, which
show repeatability within a few microhms or less. These types of
measurements require the unique characteristics of a low resistance
ohmmeter’s four wire test method, which is detailed in "Four wire
measurements" on page 13.
Low resistance measurements are required to prevent long term
damage to existing equipment and to minimize energy wasted as heat.
They show any restrictions in current flow that might prevent a machine
from generating its full power or allow insufficient current to flow to
activate protective devices in the case of a fault.

Through the acquisition of Programma Electric AB, Megger strengthened Periodic tests are made to evaluate an initial condition or to identify
the program of high current low resistance ohmmeters's (LRO's). unexpected changes in the measured values, and the trending of this
data helps to indicate, and may forecast, possible failure conditions.
Back in the late seventies the MOM (Micro Ohm Meter) was one of the
Excessive changes in measured values point to the need for corrective
first products developed by Programma Electric AB, and in the decades
action to prevent a major failure. When making field measurements,
that followed that series has been supplemented with MJÖLNER and
the user should have reference values that apply to the device being
MOM2. The MJÖLNER moved from transformer based technology
tested (the manufacturer should include this information in the
to switched technology, which has the benefit of a much lighter test
literature or name plate supplied with the device). If the tests are a
instrument. The latest innovation is the MOM2, which uses a patented
repeat of previous tests, then these records can also be used to observe
ultra capacitor technology to generate the high current, which makes
the range of the anticipated measurements.
it possible to get over 200 A in a hand held product that weight less
than 1 kg. If, when conducting tests, the user records the results and the
conditions under which the tests were done, the information becomes
This style of instrument served the industry well for a number of years,
the start of a database that can be used to identify any changes from
and the various versions continue to help end users solve problems.
fatigue, corrosion, vibration, temperature or other condition that can
However, electronics and battery technology advanced to the point
occur at the test site.
iv Basic Electrical Measurements; Melvin B. Stout; 1950; page 61.

4 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 What is a low resistance
measurement?
A low resistance measurement is typically a measurement below
1 Ohm. At this level it is important to use test instruments that will
minimize errors introduced by the test lead resistance and / or the
contact resistance between the probe and the material under test.
Also, at this level, standing voltages across the item being measured
(e.g. thermal electromotive forces (emfs) at junctions between different
metals) can cause errors, which need to be identified.
To allow a measurement to compensate the errors, a four terminal
measurement method is employed with a reversible test current and a
suitable Kelvin Bridge meter. Low resistance ohmmeters are designed
specifically for these applications. In addition the upper span on a
number of these meters will range into kilohms, which covers the lower
ranges of a Wheatstone bridge (see "Wheatstone and kelvin bridges"
on page 32 for a discussion of each method). The lower range on
many low resistance ohmmeters will resolve 0.1 microhm. This level of
measurement is required to do a number of low range resistance tests.
What does a low resistance
measurement tell the user?
Resistance (R) is the property of a circuit or element that determines, for
a given current, the rate at which electrical energy is converted to heat
in accordance with the formula W=I²R. The practical unit is the ohm.
The low resistance measurement will show to the observant user when
degradation has or is taking place within an electrical device.
Changes in the value of a low resistance element are one of the best
and quickest indications of degradation taking place between two
contact points. Alternatively, readings can be compared to 'like' test
specimens. These elements include rail bonds, ground bonds, circuit
breaker contacts, switches, transformer windings, battery strap
connections, motor windings, squirrel cage bars, bus bar with cable
joints and bond connections to ground beds.
The measurement will alert the user to changes having taken place
from the initial and / or subsequent measurements. These changes can
occur from a number of influences including temperature, chemical
corrosion, vibration, loss of torque between mating surfaces, fatigue
and incorrect handling.
These measurements are required on a regular timed cycle to chart any
changes taking place. Seasonal changes may be evident when summer
and winter data are reviewed.
www.megger.com 5
What problems create the need for
a test?
Assuming a device has been correctly installed in the first place,
temperature, cycling, fatigue, vibration and corrosion all work to cause
the gradual degradation of the resistance value of an electrical device.
These influences build up over a period of time until a level is reached
at which the device no longer operates correctly. The critical degrading
factor will be determined by the application.
Environmental and chemical attacks are relentless. Even air will oxidize
organic materials while the ingress of moisture, oil and salt will degrade
connections even more rapidly. Chemical corrosion can attack the cross
sectional area of an element, reducing the area while increasing the
resistance of the component. Electrical stresses, particularly sustained
overvoltages or impulses, can cause welds to loosen. Mechanical stress
from vibration during operation can also degrade connections, causing
resistance to rise. These conditions result in excessive heating at the
location when the component is carrying the rated current, based on
the formula W=I²R. For example:
6000 A across a 1 µΩ bus = 36 Watts.
6000 A across a 100 mΩ bus = 3,600 kWatts,
which will result in excessive heating.
If left unattended, these types of problems can lead to failure in the
electrical system containing the affected components. Excessive
heating will ultimately result in failure due to burnout, which can open
an energized circuit.
Backup battery power supplies provide a good practical example of
how degradation can occur under normal operating conditions.
Changes in current flow cause expansion and contraction of the
terminal connections, causing them to loosen or corrode. Additionally,
connections are exposed to acid vapors, causing further degradation.
These conditions result in a decrease in the surface-to-surface contact
area with an associated increase in surface-to-surface contact resistance,
ultimately causing excessive heating at the junction.
Saving money by low resistance
testing
If you think about it, a joint that carries current will heat up over time.
The amount of heat is dependent on the resistance of the connection
and the amount of current it carries and also the amount of time!
So obviously a joint or cable connection which becomes hot will only
ever become hotter until, if you are lucky, it is identified by thermal
imaging, and if you are not so lucky, when the lights go out as the
connection burns out and the protective device operates.
But what if you can’t use thermal imaging because there is no direct
line of site to the connections. These can cook away deep inside a panel
and not be spotted until it’s too late.
Critical supplies fail regularly because of overheating connections due
to high resistance connections burning out. Because of their critical
nature, this makes regular isolation and maintenance almost impossible.
Think about hospitals and data centers. Health and data are probably
two of the most critical but vulnerable installations but get the least
downtime for maintenance of enclosed switchgear assemblies and
panel busbar systems.
Using the formula W=I2R we can estimate the power lost over a
connection or connections.
For a 10kA joint/s with a 0.1mΩ resistance, the power is 10kW.
For a 10kA joint/s with a 1mΩ resistance, the power is 100kW.
For a 6kA joint/s with a 0.1µΩ resistance, the power is 36W.
For a 6kA joint/s with a 100mΩ resistance, the power is 3600kW.
Simply, the power manifests itself as heat.
Using a DLRO to check the contact resistance of switchgear, lapped
joints on busbars and cable lug connections before the power is
switched on is the only sure way to prevent poor connections becoming
potentially catastrophic failures.
Industries with significant
resistance problems
Industries that consume vast amounts of electrical power must
include low resistance ohmmeter measurements in their maintenance
operations. Not only does abnormally high resistance cause unwanted
heating, possibly leading to danger, but it also causes energy losses,
which increase operating costs; in effect you are paying for energy
which you can not use.
In addition, there are industries that have critical specifications on
bond connections to ensure solid connections to 'ground beds.' Poor
connections reduce the effectiveness of the ground bed and can cause
significant power quality related problems and / or catastrophic failure
in the event of major electrical surge. A number of sub-assembly
operations supply components to aircraft manufacturers that specify
low resistance connections to the airframe. Strap connections between
cells on a power back-up battery system also require very low resistance.
6 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
A general list of industries include:
■■ Power generation and distribution companies
■■ Chemical plants
■■ Refineries
■■ Mines
■■ Railroads
■■ Telecommunications companies
■■ Automotive manufacturers
■■ Aircraft manufacturers
■■ Anyone with UPS battery back-up systems
What equipment needs low
resistance testing
As we have shown, low resistance ohmmeters have an application
in a wide range of industries, and can help identify a number
of problems that could lead to apparatus failure. In general
manufacturing industries, motor windings, circuit breakers, bus bar
connections, coils, ground bonds, switches, weld joints, lightning
conductors, small transformers and resistive components all require
to be tested for low resistance.
The following are some of the more typical applications.
Motor armature
Armature windings can be tested to identify shorting between
adjacent coils or conductors. Squirrel cage bars in the rotor can
separate from the end plates, resulting in loss of performance. If a
motor seems to be losing power, a low resistance test should be
done. Alternatively, tests can be made when bearings are being
replaced at a periodic or annual shutdown.
■■ Motor bar to bar tests
Motor bar to bar tests on d.c. motor rotors are done to
identify open or shorted coils. These tests are done with spring
loaded hand probes. This is a dynamic method to determine
the conditions of the windings and the soldered connections
to the riser on the commutator segments. When test data is
reviewed periodically, the effects of overheating due to excessive
temperature rise can be identified.
For more detailed information, see 'motor bar to bar tests'
section' in Appendices.
 Automotive assembly
Cable leads in a 'robot' spot welder can work harden through continual
flexing. Eventually fatigue can occur, causing strands to break. This
condition results in a high lead resistance with loss of power to the
weld, producing a poor spot weld (nugget) or even complete failure
of the machine.
Power generation and distribution
High current joints, connections and bus bars
Uninterruptible power supply - battery
straps
On series connected industrial batteries, straps (lead coated copper bars)
are secured to the posts on adjacent batteries, (+) to (-), with stainless
steel bolts. These surfaces are cleaned, greased and tightened to a preset
torque value. As noted previously, they are subject to vibration, chemical
corrosion and heat due to the charging and high current discharges
associated with the application. The quickest and best way to determine
the quality of the connections is to measure the resistance between the
two adjacent battery terminals (see Figs 3 and 4).

Bus bars in a power system consisting of lap joints and other connections,
are used to deliver current to the elements in the system. These bolted
connections can be degraded by vibration and corrosion (see Fig 2). The
bolts are stressed to a specific tightness (torque), and the quickest and
most economical way to determine the quality of the connection is to
measure the resistance across the joint. The user should have historical
data to make a determination on the suitability of the connection. If left
uncorrected, loss of power and / or excessive heating could lead to a
meltdown at the connection.
This is the only field application in which the user makes measurements
on an energized system. More for detailed information, see 'battery
strap test' section in Appendices.
Please note that there are various levels of 'float current' in a battery
system and the test procedure must account for this current flow. A test
is done with the test current added to the float current and a second
test is made with the test current opposed to the float current. These
two measurements are averaged to determine the 'ohmic' value of the
connection.

Standard procedures require measurements on a regular schedule,

as past experience has determined that battery straps are one of the
weakest elements in the operation of a battery system. When not
attended to on a regular test program, high resistance connections can
develop. This situation can result in the battery being unable to deliver
Fig 2:  Bus bar connections sufficient current when called for, or when combined with current surge
and hydrogen gas evolved from the battery cells, can cause a fire in the
battery system, destroying the UPS.
Transformers

Transformer winding tests are done in the factory and then periodically
in the field. The factory test is done at ambient temperature. A second
factory test is a heat run to check that, at rated power, the resistance of
the windings stays within its designed temperature rise characteristics.

Large transformers have 'taps' on both the primary and secondary

windings. The condition of the taps requires verification, since the
secondary taps are operated daily and are exposed to excessive wear
and vibration as the power distribution system balances the load
carried on the various circuits. The taps on the primary side are critical
to major adjustments in the power distribution and should be tested
to ensure that a low resistance connection is available for the new
Fig 3:  Single strap with two contact surfaces
power condition. Tap connections can corrode when not in use and
can overheat due to the high current (which can result in a fire).

For more detailed information, see 'testing of transformers' section in

Appendices.

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Carrier strips 'carry' the plates in a cell. The plates are suspended
from the carrier strips into the liquid in the cell. If the resistance of
the terminal to carrier strip welds is too high, the battery’s ability to
carry current is limited. In addition to measuring strap resistance, a
low resistance ohmmeter can also be used to measure the quality of
these welds (see Fig 5).
Fig 4:  Parallel straps on a large battery complex
Fig 5:  Measuring carrier strip resistance
Cement plants and other raw
material processing applications
The electrical system at a cement plant or other raw materials
processing facility includes motors, relays, disconnect switches,
etc. Tests of these power carrying elements, as part of a regular
program or when major retrofits take place, is critical to the ongoing
operation of the plant. The quality of the current connections can
identify weak elements or connections in the system.
Note: Cement dust is chemically active (corrosive) and will attack
metallic connection.
8 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
Circuit breakers
Due to arcing at the pads of a circuit breaker, carbonized layers can
build up and the live contact area will reduce or become pitted,
leading to increased resistance and heating. This situation reduces
the efficiency of the circuit breaker and can lead to failure on an
active transmission system resulting in the loss of a substation. When
planning a test, the user must be aware of IEC62271-100 (minimum
50 A) ANSI and ANSI C37.09 (minimum 100 A) for test current
requirements. When tests are done on large oil circuit breakers, the
best instrument is one that ramps up current, holds it for a period
of time and then ramps down (see "Ramp testing" on page 31).
When d.c. is run through a circuit with a Current Transformer (CT),
the CT will be magnetized. The problem caused is that the positive
flank in the d.c. can cause a transient that might trip the relay. A d.c.
with a large ripple is particularly problematic.
Care should be taken when making a measurement across a CT as
high d.c. currents can saturate the CT, desensitizing it to potential
faults. Also, a ripple on the test current can cause circuit breakers
to trip.
Careful positioning of the current probes should prevent this from
happening, and the ripple present on the current waveform may be
minimized by separating the test leads. Alternatively use a test set
with a ramp feature and smoothed d.c.
Aircraft assembly
Bonding test of all main frame electrical and mechanical connections
is required to ensure a stable 'ground plane' within an aircraft.
These physical 'bond' connections provide a uniform path for static
electricity to be discharged to the wicks on the trailing edge of the
wings and tail assembly. This path reduces the chance of lightning
damaging the avionics in the event of a lightning strike situation.
Over time, the bonding of static wicks, antenna, control linkage
and battery terminals must be inspected. The integrity of a welded
exhaust system should also be checked and documented.
In normal operations, excessive static electricity will not effect the
operation of most navigation and communications systems. The
best (lowest) resistance connections will improve the performance
of such systems.
 Strap and wire bonds between rail
segments (railroad industry)

In the railroad environment, bonds are exposed to vibration as the wheels

pass over the rails (each click-clack causes vibration across the interface
bonding the strap to the rail). These bonds are part of the control system
which tells the user the location of different trains. Within the rail
system, a telephone system uses the rail conductors to communicate.
The resistance of these bonds is critical to the performance of the
control system. In systems that use three rails, the third rail is the active Fig 7:  Series of measurements across a weld seam

source of power for the engine, and power lost across a high resistance
bond (such as a poor Cadweld joint) reduces the efficiency of the transit
system. The user can select a five foot section of track without a bond,
make a measurement and then measure a five foot section with a bond
to determine the quality of the connection. As a rule of thumb, these
measurements should be within a few microhms (or ±5%).
Welding spot or seam
The quality of a spot weld can be determined by measuring the
resistance across the joined materials. The quality of a seam weld can
be determined by a series of tests along the weld seam. Readings
should stay within a narrow band of values. An increase and then

Graphite electrodes a drop in readings shows that the uniformity of the weld is out of
specification. To make the measurement correctly, the user should

Graphite electrodes have a negative temperature characteristic (as the fabricate a fixture to keep the probes in a fixed relationship. Readings

temperature of the element increases the resistance measurement will are then taken at a number of points across the weld seam and

decrease). Graphite slugs are extruded as large diameter cylinders and plotted (see Fig 7). These measurements are normally in the microhm

can be up to six feet in length. One of the applications for these large region and special care is required in the design of the test fixture.

slugs is in aluminum refineries where high currents (150,000 A) are used

to reduce bauxite ore to high grade aluminum.

Low resistance tests are done as a quality control step to check the
density of the graphite extrusion. Due to the size of the electrodes, this
test requires a special test fixture to introduce the test current across
the surface of the ends, ensuring a uniform current density through the
volume of the sample. The potential probes are then connected across
a known length of the sample to determine the 'ohms per unit length'
(see Fig 6).

Fig 6:  Test on graphite slugs for uniform density (ohms / inch)

www.megger.com 9
 Measuring cable resistance of
multicore cables of at least 3 cores
When measuring cable resistance, the standard method is to connect
the current and potential lead at each end of the cable core to be tested
(see Fig 9).

Fig 8:  Determining the remaining length of cable on a reel

Fig 9:  Conventional test, one kelvin at either end of a core of

Cable reels a multi-core cable

A reel of insulated copper wire may have a tag, which shows the wire When the cable is too long to use extension test leads or passes through
gauge along with the ohms per unit length. When wire remains on the the floors of a building, the above method cannot be used. However,
reel after partial utilization, the remaining length can be calculated by there is a way to configure the test leads to accurately measure the
measuring the resistance of the wire and making a calculation using the resistance of each core of the cable with the DLRO positioned at one
ohms per length specification (see Fig 8). end of the cable to be tested. The current and potential test leads must
be connected individually and not as a single kelvin type connection.
Alternatively, if the tag has been destroyed, the user can cut off a
Step 1: Connect the current and potental leads C2 and P2 to the core
known length of wire, measure that sample and determine the ohms
under test. In Fig 10 it is the core with the blue marker.
per length. This value can then be used with the reading taken when
measuring the balance of wire on the reel to calculate the remaining Step 2: Connect the current lead C to an adjacent core. In Fig 11 it is
length. The temperature of the reel of cable will be approximately the unmarked core.
the same as the temperature of the sample. Though the internal
Step 3: Connect the potential lead P1 to the other core. In Fig 12 it is
temperature of the reel can be slightly different, a reasonable estimate
the core with the red marker.
of the remaining length of cable can be calculated. If the user reviews
the temperature charts in "Effects of temperature" on page 26, an
estimate of the inaccuracy can be determined. This method also applies
to aluminum and steel wires as long as the wire has an insulating
coating to prevent shorting between adjacent loops of wire.

10 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com


Fig 10:  The C2 and P2 shown as separate cables from a meter to
one of the cores
Fig 11:  C1 connected to an adjacent core on the same end of
the multi-core cable
Fig 12:  P1 connected to another core on the same end of the
multi-core cable
www.megger.com 11
Step 4: At the other end of the cable, connect core C1 to core 1
and core 3 to core 1 using shorthumper cable ensuring that the core
carrying the P1 connection is on the inner side of the cable.
Fig 13:  The other end of the cable shows the unmarked core
carrying C1 connected to core with the blue marker (the core
to be tested) and the core with the red marker carrying P1
connected to core with the blue marker (the core to be tested)
the connections with short jumper cables
Using the simple configuration (see Fig 13) shows that the resistance
of long multi-core cables can be measured by using 2 cores of the cable
as part of the measuring circuit.
Using low resistance
measurements to set torque
One application for the DLRO which is infrequently used is the use of
low resistance measurements in the assembly of bolted components to
a set torque.
When bus bar lapped joints or terminal lugs are overtightened, the
material of the joint becomes dished and instead of becoming a better
connection the resistance starts to increase as the surface area contact
becomes distorted. This is why each joint and connection in a system
normally has a manufacturer’s torque setting.
But that’s not the whole story. If the joint has some contamination
when it is tightened to its torque setting, the higher resistance may go
undiscovered and the connection begins a journey on the downward
spiral to overheating, arcing and eventual failure.
But what if the connection does not have a manufacturer’s torque
setting? The DLRO can be used during tightening to ensure the
resistance of the joint is at its optimal value before being made live and
put to work.
Single bolted connections have always had issues with the relationship
between tightness and optimal surface area contact.

Fig 16:  Typical faults that can be prevented by low resistance

testing

Fig 14:  Contact area reduced due to overtightening

How is low resistance
For this reason, and to increase the surface area contact, many panel
and busbar systems use clamped, lapped or sandwich type joints (see
measured?
Fib 14). In assemblies that are subject to excesses of heat and vibration,
the issues discussed can become dramatic very quickly, which is why we
Two, three and four wire d.c.
see more use of elaborate locking mechanisms to maintain the contact
measurements
Why do we have resistance measuring instruments, some with
resistance once set.
only two test leads, some with three and even some with four test
leads? The answer depends on the degree of information required
from the measurement, and the magnitude of the resistance being
measured. Resistance readings cover a wide range of values from
microhms into the thousands of megohms region. Fig 17 shows the
measurement range in which each type of instrument works best.

Fig 15:  Typical joints that should be tested

Using a DLRO to measure the effectiveness of these types of connections

(see Fib 15), the resulting data can be collected and using predictive
maintenance techniques, trended over time to identify potential failures,
in a joint or an assembly of connected parts by the early identification of
a rise in resistance levels (see Fig 16).

Fig 17:  Selection of optimum measuring technique

12 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 resistance ohmmeters. Four wire d.c. measurements uses two current
Two wire measurements
and two potential leads (see Fig 18). The four wire d.c. measurement
negates the errors due to the probe lead wire and any contact resistance
Two wire tests are the simplest method and are used to make a
values in the final reading, ensuring more accurate measurements.
general assessment of a circuit element, conductor or the routing of a
conductor in a circuit. The two wire lead configuration is most familiar
to many users as it is the configuration used on most multimeters.
It is generally used when the probe’s contact resistance, series lead
resistance or parallel leakage resistances do not degrade the quality of
the measurement beyond a point acceptable to the user.

The measured value will include the test lead wire resistance and contact
probe resistance values, which will affect the measurement by adding
some tens of milliohms to the actual resistance. In most instances this
will make little practical difference to the measured value, but when the
measurement is below 1 ohm the two wire method can easily introduce
an error, which could be several percent, into the measured resistance
Fig 18:  Simplified example of a 4 wire measurement
value.

The specifications on some hand held meters show a 200 milliohm
range with one milliohm sensitivity. The lead resistance can be zeroed
out, but that leaves the uncertainty of the contact resistances, which
can change with each measurement. Contact resistance values can
be in the 35 milliohm range at each probe and can vary with the
temperature of the material under investigation.
The two wire test method is best used for readings above 10.00 ohm
up to 1.0 to 10.0 megohm.
Three wire measurements
D.C. vs. A.C.
The issue here is the selection of the correct type of test current. A d.c.
instrument should be used when trying to measure the pure resistance
of a circuit or device. An a.c. instrument is used for applications such as
ground bed tests or impedance tests.
A special impedance meter is used to do tests on industrial batteries.
The word impedance is used to show that a measurement comprised
of a resistance and reactance, which can be either an inductive or
capacitive component. These measurements are conducted as
part of a battery maintenance program; typically a low resistance
ohmmeter is used to do strap connection verification tests.

Three wire d.c. tests are reserved for very high resistance and is typically
Three or four wire a.c. measuring systems are used to do
used for measurements above 10 megohms. We normally associate
tests on 'ground beds' with special frequencies that exclude
these types of tests with diagnostic insulation resistance. The test
measurement errors from 50 / 60 Hz ground currents. The use
method uses a third test lead as a guard, and allows for resistances, in
of a.c. prevents the test current polarizing ions in the soil,
parallel with the test circuit, to be eliminated from the measurement.
thereby changing the conditions and thus the measured
This parallel resistance is usually considerably lower than the insulation
values. This is an area of interest to the electrical power
resistance being measured. In fact it can, in severe cases, effectively
distribution and telecommunication fields. The low
short out the insulation resistance such that a meaningful measurement
ground resistance path is required for maintaining the
cannot be carried out without the use of a guarding circuit.
potential of the ground wire to the 'earth' potential.
Electrical performance of the power system
This test method is described and illustrated in the Megger booklets
minimizes shock hazards as a path to ground is
'A Stitch in Time' and 'A Guide To Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above
made available for the energy from lightning and
1 kV'.
other static voltages that can affect the power
control system. The same conditions pertain
Four wire measurements to the telephone systems, as high resistance
grounds can cause excessive noise on the
Four wire tests are the most accurate method when measuring
voice and data links (see the Megger
circuits below 10 ohms as this method eliminates errors due to lead
booklet 'Getting Down to Earth' for more
and contact resistances. This is the test method associated with low
information on ground resistance tests).

www.megger.com 13
Both of these industries require not only low ground bed resistance but
also low resistance 'a.c. / d.c. bonds' between the ground bed and the
active circuits.
The difference between continuity
and low resistance
In basic terms, continuity shows us that we are connected to both ends
of the same cable. This is normally done as a 2-wire test with a resistance
measurement of 10 mΩ or above. In many cases, this is acceptable for
a value to be recorded on certification. But it is worth bearing in mind
that continuity can also be proved with an indication such as a buzzer
or test lamp.
Low resistance measurements can start at 0.1µΩ, often revealing
connection issues with joints and contacts which can prove to be points
of failure in waiting. This test uses the 4-wire test method which is
not susceptible to test lead or probe / clip connection resistance to the
device under test as it can be on the continuity 2-wire method.
Test modes
Digital low resistance ohmmeters designed in the 1970s and 1980s
tended to offer two modes of operation, each designed for specific
applications. Recent microprocessor technology has allowed newer
instruments to include additional modes, further extending the
capabilities of these models. The following is a brief review of the types
of test modes available on different vintage instruments:
Models designed in the 1970s and
1980s
Continuous Mode: Allows the test current to flow and a measurement
taken when the current and potential probes contact the test specimen.
This mode of operation is usually implemented when the helical spring
point lead sets are used and is the normal method when conducting
field tests. Battery life is extended, as the test current flows only when
the tests are in progress.
Momentary Mode: Requires both sets of test leads to be connected to
the specimen. The measurement is done when the switch is toggled to
the Momentary position. This mode of operation is used when separate
current and potential leads are connected to the specimen.
14 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
10 amp models
Normal Mode: The user connects all four test leads and presses the
test button on the instrument to start a test. The instrument checks the
continuity of the test connections and then applies forward and reverse
current. The reading is shown for a short period (10 seconds).
Auto Mode: Allows forward and reverse current measurements to
be made (the average value is shown) by making contact with all four
probes. Each time the probes are removed and reconnected to the load,
another test is done. This mode, which is similar to the Continuous
Mode found on older instruments, is an excellent time saving method
to use when battery straps are tested with hand-spikes. It has the added
advantage, when hand-spikes are used, that the contact detection
sensing ensures good contact before heavy currents are applied. This
avoids arcing when contact is made, which erodes the probe tips as well
as potentially damaging the surface of the item under test.
Continuous Mode: Allows repeated measurements to be made on
the same test sample. Once the test leads are connected and the test
button pressed, a measurement is made every set number of seconds
until the circuit is broken.
Unidirectional Mode: Applies a current in one direction only. While
this type of measurement does not negate standing emfs, it does speed
up the measuring process. In many test conditions, such as battery
straps tests, it is not necessary to do a reversed current test on the
sample. This mode is also used when objects with inductive properties,
such as motors and transformers, are tested.
100 amp and above models
Normal Mode: The user connects all four test leads and presses the
test button on the instrument to start a test. The instrument checks
the continuity of the test connections and then applies the test current.
Continuous Mode: Used to monitor test conditions for a period of
time. After the test leads are connected and the test button is pressed,
tests will be recorded every set number of seconds until the test button
is pressed again or contact is broken with any of the test probes.
Auto Mode: Because of the heavy test currents used, the user connects
the current leads, selects the desired test current and presses the test
button. As soon as the potential leads are connected, a test will start.
To make another test, the user breaks contact with the voltage probes
and then remakes contact. This is an excellent mode for measuring
individual joints in a bus bar.
 How does a low resistance
ohmmeter operate?
A low resistance ohmmeter uses two internal measuring circuits. The
supply injects a current into the test sample through two leads, usually
identified as C1 and C2, and the magnitude of the current is measured.
Concurrently, two probes (normally referred to as P1 and P2) measure
the potential across the sample. The instrument then does an internal
calculation to determine the resistance of the test sample.
Why does this approach result in a measurement that is independent of
lead resistance and contact resistance?
We have represented the complete measurement circuit in Fig 19.
Current is injected into the item under test via leads C1 and C2. The
current that flows will be dependent upon the total resistance of
this loop and the power available to push the current through that
resistance. Since this current is measured, and the measured value is
used in subsequent calculations, the loop resistance, including the
contact resistance of the C1 and C2 contacts and the lead resistance of
C1 and C2, does not have an effect on the final result.
Fig 19:  Basic operation diagram
From Ohm’s Law, if we pass a current through a resistance we will
generate a voltage across the resistance. This voltage is detected by the
P1 and P2 probes. The voltmeter to which these probes are connected
internally has a high impedance, which prevents current flowing in this
potential loop. Since no current flows, the contact resistance of the
P1 and P2 contacts produces no voltage and thus has no effect on
the potential difference (voltage) detected by the probes. Furthermore,
since no current flows through the P leads their resistance has no effect.
www.megger.com 15
A high current output is one of the qualifying characteristics of
a true low resistance ohmmeter. Generic multimeters do not
supply enough current to give a reliable indication of the current
carrying capabilities of joints, welds, bonds and the like under real
operating conditions. At the same time, little voltage is required, as
measurements are typically being made at the extreme low end of
the resistance spectrum. Only the voltage drop across the measured
resistance is critical, and it is measured at the millivolt level.
Good instruments alert the user of open circuit conditions on the
test leads while a few models have automatic range selection.
Safety
Safety is the responsibility of the field test engineer or technician,
whoever will be in contact with the sample being tested. The
majority of field tests are done on de-energized circuits. When
magnetic components are tested, a state of winding saturation can
occur. The user should connect a short circuit across the winding to
neutralize the energy stored in the winding and then make a voltage
test to check the neutral state of the sample. Some instruments have
indication lamps on the test probes to alert the user to a live voltage
condition.
Battery strap tests represents a special condition, as the batteries
must remain connected. The user is required to use insulated gloves,
face mask and a body apron for protection when performing these
tests. This is one of the few times when electrical resistance tests
are done in the field on energized systems. Special probes, rated
for 600 V operation, are available with the newer instruments to do
these tests.
Using instruments with the capacity to store measured values
improves the safety as the user does not have to write down the
readings between each test.
Test on de-energized samples
As a general safety measure, tests should always be done on de-
energized samples. Special training and equipment are required
to do tests on energized circuits. Internal fused input circuits are
designed into a few instruments that will protect the instrument if
inadvertently connected to an energized test sample. The low input
impedance of the current supply internal to general instruments
becomes a willing current sink when connected across a live circuit.
Use and misuse of low resistance
ohmmeters
The effective operation of a low resistance ohmmeter relies on the user
using the correct test leads. Battery operated instruments are designed
for a specific lead resistance, based on the operational life of the test
sequence. The specified leads allow for a reasonable current drain from
the power supply for the test cycle. If leads with a higher resistance
are used, the current used for the test can be lower than the meter
requires, potentially causing a signal-to-noise problem that can reduce
the accuracy and / or repeatability of the measurement.
If leads with lower than the specified resistance values are used, the test
cycle for the instrument will be shorter than anticipated. This situation
may be suitable if the meter is to be used in a test program with high
background electrical noise. The use of special leads with shielding can
also be a solution for these high noise situations.
A common error in the field is to use a low resistance ohmmeter to
sample the resistance of a ground bed. This application is incorrect, as
the ground bed test method requires an instrument that toggles the
test signal at a known frequency and current level. A low resistance
ohmmeter used in this application will provide an erroneous reading as
the ground current will have an undue influence on the measurement.
A genuine ground tester works in essentially the same way as a low
resistance ohmmeter, that is, by injecting a current into the test sample
and measuring the voltage drop across it. However, the earth typically
carries numerous currents originating from other sources, such as the
utility. These will interfere with the d.c. measurement being taken by a
low resistance ohmmeter. The genuine ground tester, however, operates
with a definitive alternating square wave of a frequency distinct from
utility harmonics. In this manner, it is able to do a discrete measurement,
free of noise influence.
Current selection
Depending on the selected instrument, the current selection can be
either manual or automatic. The user should select the highest current
suitable for the test to provide the best signal to noise ratio for the
measurement. On instruments that offer current levels in excess of 10 A,
care is required to minimize any heating of the sample that would itself
cause the resistance of the sample to change.
Instruments designed to test circuit breakers have much higher current
characteristics. For high current paths, like overhead line joints, bus bars
and circuit breakers, it is important to make the measurement with the
highest current possible, to be able to detect degraded current paths.
Phenomena called 'hot spots' heat up the current path at high currents
and the heat increases resistance even more, which makes the situation
worse. This problem needs to be detected before it happens within
nominal currents and creates a problem.
16 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
To be compliant with circuit breaker standards, a minimum 50 A
(IEC) and 100 A (ANSI) is required when performing low resistance
measurements.
In circuit breakers, contaminations have been seen that influences the
results to a higher value than what can be expected. By using a high
current, it breaks through the contamination and by that the user gets
the correct value.
Instruments designed specifically to test transformers have a special
high voltage power level at the start of a test, to saturate the winding.
These instruments then switch to a lower constant current mode to
measure the winding on the transformer.
It is also important that the instrument discharges the transformer
when the measurement is completed. If not, lethal voltages can be
present at disconnection. Dedicated test instruments with these
features integrated are available.
Warning: Never use a non-dedicated LRO to measure the winding
resistance on a power transformer, since lethal voltages can be present if
a winding is not discharged correctly before the leads are disconnected.
Probe and lead selection
The potential and current leads are either connected separately or to
a probe. When probes are used the potential connection is identified
with a P. The connections are placed in contact with the sample so
that the P-identified contacts or leads are positioned towards each
other. The current contacts are then positioned outside or away from
the potential connections. This causes the current to flow with a more
uniform current density across the sample being measured.
For the more rigorous tests, separate test leads are used and the current
connections are positioned away from the potential connections by
a distance that is 1.5 times the circumference of the sample being
measured. ASTM Standard B193-65 provides guidelines for making a
measurement that will establish uniform current density. This standard
suggests separating the current probes from the potential probes by
1.5 times the cross sectional perimeter of the test specimen. Fig 20
on the following page shows a test being made to the standard on a
cylindrical test item.
The use of probes, Kelvin Clips, or C-clamps will meet most field
requirements as the user should be making repetitive measurements
under the same conditions. The sharp points on the probes should
leave a mark on the specimen for future tests. In some situations a
marker pen can show the test area and the probe positions will be
identified by the probe indents.
Leads are available in a number of lengths to meet different field
application requirements. The probe selection is made from separate
 current and potential leads with clips to connect to the test sample.
Helical spring point probes have both potential and current probes
in the same handle. The 'P' identification on the probe identifies the
position on the sample at which the measurement is taken. This probe
arrangement provides a practical method when making repetitive
measurements (ideal for tests on strap connections in UPS battery
supply systems).
Kelvin Clips and C-clamps have the current and potential connections
180º from each other, providing separate current and potential
connections. The size of the terminal connection determines which one
to select. See Fig 21 for the different probe / lead configurations.
Note: The order of connection of potential and current clips is not
important. However, never connect the potential clip to the current clip
as this will cause an error in the measurement due to the voltage drop
at the current connection interface at the sample.
Fig 20:  ASTM standard B193-65
Fig 21:  Probe / lead configurations
Low range tests
When measuring on the extreme edge of precision and sensitivity,
factors that would be too small to be of consequence in conventional
tests, become significant.
In low resistance tests, thermal emfs (electromotive forces), also
known as Seebeck voltage, can produce voltage gradients across the
test sample. Although only on the millivolt level, and of little or no
influence on common multimeter tests, these can cause fluctuations
www.megger.com 17
of several digits. Such instability defeats the purpose of a high
precision measurement. In addition, a.c. interference can be induced
by nearby electric or magnetic fields, or can be present from the
float charge on standby battery systems, or through leaky switches,
electrical imbalance and so on.
This problem is readily overcome by taking readings in forward and
reverse polarity and then averaging them. Some models accomplish
this with a manually operated reversal switch, while others do the
two measurements automatically, then show the average reading. If
unidirectional measurement is required (to save time (as in battery
strap tests)), the tester may have an override function. Another
sophisticated technique automatically measures the magnitude and
slope of thermal emfs and subtracts from the shown reading.
However, the simplest technique is to test with high current if it is a
high current path. Since the measured voltage becomes significantly
higher than the thermal emf voltage the accuracy will be kept. This
simple method also saves time since there is no need for reversed
polarity.
Types of testers - which
one?
Milli-ohmmeter
As the name implies, a milli-ohmmeter is less sensitive than a micro-
ohmmeter, with measurement capability in the milliohm rather than
microhm range (minimum resolution of 0.01 millohm. This type of
instrument is normally used for general circuit and component
verification. Milli-ohmmeters also tend to be less expensive
than micro-ohmmeters, making them a good choice if
measurement sensitivity and resolution are not critical. The
maximum test current is typically less than 2 A and as low
as 0.2 A.
10 Amp micro-ohmmeter
The field portable micro-ohmmeter with a 10 A
maximum test current is the 'work horse' instrument
for most users because it covers the majority of field
applications. The 10 A output not only provides
a comfortable and suitable test current through
the test sample to make the measurement, but
also allows for reduced weight and improved
battery operation.
The best 10 A micro-ohmmeters offer measurements from 0.1 microhm
to 2000 ohms with a best resolution of 0.1 microhm at the low end of
the range and accuracy of ±0.2%, ±0.2 microhm. On some instruments,
different measurement modes can be selected which address different
types of test conditions. Measurement modes could include manual,
automatic or a continuous test, or a high power test on windings.
The following is a selected list of key d.c. resistance measurement
applications for 10 A micro-ohmmeters.
■■ Switch and contact breaker resistance
■■ Bus bar and cable joints
■■ Aircraft frame bonds and static control circuits
■■ Welded joint integrity
■■ Intercell strap connections on battery systems
■■ Resistive components (quality control)
■■ Small transformer and motor winding resistance
■■ Rail and pipe bonds
■■ Metal alloy welds and fuse resistance
■■ Graphite electrodes and other composites
■■ Wire and cable resistance
■■ Transmitter aerial and lightning conductor bonding
100 Amp and above micro-
ohmmeter
According to IEC62271-100, a test of the contact resistance of high
voltage a.c. circuit breakers calls for a test current with any convenient
value between 50 A and the rated normal current. ANSI C37.09 specifies
that the test current should be a minimum of 100 A. Most electrical
utilities prefer to test at higher currents, as they believe this is more
representative of working conditions.
Field portable micro-ohmmeters are available that can deliver anywhere
from 100 A up to 600 A (subject to the load resistance and supply
voltage). The best instruments have measurement resolution to 0.1
microhm and offer variable test current to address a wider range of
applications. If a test is done at 10 A and then at a higher current, the
user can get a better understanding of the maintenance requirements
for the circuit breaker.
As previously stated, in circuit breakers, contaminations have been seen
that influence the results to a higher value than what can be expected.
By using a high current, it breaks through the contamination and by that
the user gets the correct value.
18 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
In addition to circuit breakers, electrical utilities and test companies
use higher current micro-ohmmeters on other high voltage apparatus,
including:
■■ Cables
■■ Cable joints
■■ Overhead line joints
■■ Ground connections
■■ Lightning protections
■■ Welds
■■ Bus bars
■■ Switchgear in general
When a 100 A (or above) micro-ohmmeter is used, users should be
aware of certain technical issues related to tests at high currents. Some
users have shown that they do a 10 A test and then see improved
resistance readings with 100 A (or more) test currents. This difference
in the measurements raises the question of whether there is a need for
additional maintenance. A strict reading of Ohm’s Law does not indicate
the need for the higher current to do the measurement. In the equation
R = V/I, the magnitude of the current is not defined. Is this a situation
where the high current is blasting contaminants away from the contacts,
and at the same time welding the contacts together? The user should
be aware that they could be masking a potential problem in a power
distribution system and avoiding necessary maintenance.
Users should also be aware that high current meters are intended to be
used at high currents. Their accuracy may reduce considerably at low
currents, particularly when measuring small resistances.
Nominal vs. absolute test current
levels
Battery operated digital low resistance ohmmeters have different test
currents, which are a function of the selected range. The lowest range
has the highest current level and as the range increases the current
decreases. As the range increases by a factor of 10, the test current will
decrease by a factor of 10. This action allows for a balance of weight
and function; if the current were to increase as the range increases, this
field instrument would lose much of its portability, and its usefulness for
field tests would decrease significantly. In power plants, substation and
distribution sites, the test equipment is exposed to interference from
high currents generated in the area. The user will have to determine
the test current level to provide the most accurate and repeatable
measurements.
 Industry standard test currents were originally developed according to
available technology in metering. With early technology, enormous
currents were needed to develop a measurable voltage across a test
sample with negligible resistance. By Ohm’s Law, a typical meter of
one millivolt full scale would require 100 A to measure as little as a
microhm. The microhm being the preferred unit of measurement for
low resistance tests, this made 100 A testers the standard design for
early instrumentation.
Unfortunately, this design made for testers that were large, difficult
to move, and of limited practicality in the field. The development of
cross-coil movements, with the balancing of voltage and current in
two separate coils driving the pointer, produced a dramatic increase
in sensitivity, and brought workable test currents down to the familiar
10 A level. Of course, microprocessors have further extended the
sensitivity of modern instruments. But this process is limited by the need
for adequate noise suppression. Low resistance ohmmeters measure at
levels several powers of ten lower than common multimeters. Noise
becomes large by comparison, and makes noise suppression critical to
the adequate function of the instrument. The tester, therefore, must
maintain an adequate signal-to-noise ratio.
Testers with large current outputs are still widely used, however, for
tests on specific types of equipment. The limiting factor on the high
end is principally the generation of heat. Tests at too high a current can
cause a heating effect on the measurements, be injurious to the test
item, and even cause welding of contacts. Certain types of equipment
such as high voltage a.c. circuit breakers (see IEC62271-100) have
sufficiently large conductors and areas of contact to carry currents of
several hundred Amps without experiencing these harmful effects.
The demand for test current is critical when coils are tested, transformers
or other magnetic components due to the inductive characteristics
of these types of components. Industry standards may call for some
specified high current. Such selection is typically a compromise between
various factors as discussed above, with a view toward practicality,
rather than scientifically justified demands. Sophisticated testers will
automatically balance current against the load, for maximum precision
and minimum heat effect, so that it is not necessary to impose specific,
pre-selected values on the test procedure. Some suppliers specify 200+
Amps for SF6 breaker contacts to overcome oxidation on the contact
surfaces.
Note: The Kelvin Bridge instrument, which has been used to make
measurements in the sub-microhm region, uses approximately 5 A of
test current.
www.megger.com 19
Auto range
Auto range capability on an instrument allows the user full use of the
test probes. An auto range instrument will automatically select the
range to give the best use of the display, provide the most sensitive
reading for the measurement and optimize the resolution of the
reading.
When taking a series of readings, the user will be able to maximize
the use of their time.
Ingress protection
Somewhere in the fine print (specifications) of most test instrument
product bulletins is an IP rating, a number that gives the user vital
information. In fact, the IP rating lets the user know whether a
piece of test equipment is suitable for an application and / or test
environment.
'IP' stands for 'ingress protection'. That is the degree to which the
instrument can withstand invasion by foreign matter. The IP rating
system was established by the IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission), in their Standard 529, and is used as a guide to help
the user protect the life of the instrument. It also can help the user
make a more informed purchase decision by ensuring that the test
equipment is designed to work in the environments that a user faces.
The IP rating comprises of two numbers, each signify a separate
characteristic. The designation shows how well the item is sealed
against invasion by foreign matter, both moisture and dust (the
higher the number, the better the degree of protection). What would
a typical rating of IP54 tell a buyer about the application capabilities
of a model? If you want to sound thoroughly knowledgeable, that’s
IP five-four, not fifty-four. Each number relates to a separate rating,
not to each other.
The first number refers to particulate ingress, reflecting the degree to
which solid objects can penetrate the enclosure. A level of '5' means
'dust protected', as well as protected from invasion with a wire down
to 1.0 mm. There is only one higher category: 'dust tight'.
The second number refers to moisture. A rating of '4' means a
resistance to 'splashing water, any direction'. The higher ratings of 5
through to 8 indicate 'jetting water' and 'temporary' or 'continuous'
immersion.
As an example, suppose an instrument under consideration is rated
to IP43. What would that tell the user about its usability? Could
it be thoroughly utilized in a quarry or cement plant? Hardly! The
particulate rating 4 means 'objects equal or greater than 1 mm'.
That’s a boulder in comparison to particles typically produced by
industrial processes. Flying dust could put the instrument out of
commission.
Suppose the instrument is rated at IP42. A moisture rating of 2 means
'dripping water'. Therefore, it would not be resistant to flying spray. An
instrument which is used in an environment that exceeds its IP rating
likely means that the user will need a new instrument very soon. What
about a rating of IP40? A moisture rating of 0 means that the instrument
is not protected against any liquid ingress.
The following tables provide a guide to various IP ratings and what they
mean to the user:
Table 2:  Ingress and access protection
First No. Description
0 Non-protected
1 Objects equal to or greater than 50 mm
Protected against access with back of hand
2 Objects equal to or greater than 12.5 mm
Protected against access with jointed finger
3 Objects equal to or greater than 2.5 mm
Protected against access with a tool
4 Objects equal to or greater than 1 mm
Protected against access with a wire
5 Dust protected
6 Dust tight
Table 3:  Ingress of liquids protection
Second Description
No.
0 Non-protected
1 Water dripping vertically
2 Water dripping, enclosure tilted up to 15°
3 Spraying water, up to 60° angle from vertical
4 Splashing water, any direction
5 Jetting water, any direction
6 Powerful jetting water, any direction
7 Temporary immersion in water
8 Continuous immersion in water
20 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
Evaluation / interpretation
of results
Repeatability
A good quality low resistance ohmmeter will provide repeatable readings
within the accuracy specifications for the instrument. A typical accuracy
specification is ±0.2% of reading, ±2 LSD (least significant digit). For a
reading of 1500.0, this accuracy specification allows a variance of ±3.2
(0.2% x 1500 = 3; 2 LSD = 0.2).
Additionally, the temperature coefficient must be factored into the
reading if the ambient temperature deviates from the standard
calibration temperature.
Spot readings / base expectations
for readings
Spot readings can be very important in understanding the condition
of an electrical system. The user should have some idea of the level of
the expected measurement based on the system’s data sheet or the
supplier’s nameplate. Using this information as a baseline, variances can
be identified and analyzed. A comparison can also be made with data
collected on similar equipment.
As noted, the data sheet or nameplate on a device should include
electrical data relevant to its operation. The voltage, current and power
requirements can be used to estimate the resistance of a circuit, and the
operating specification can be used to determine the allowed change
in a device (for example, with battery straps, connection resistances
will change with time). Various national standards provide guidance for
periodic test cycles.
The temperature of the device will have a strong influence on the
expected reading. As an example, the data collected on a hot motor
will be different from a cold reading at the time of the installation. As
the motor warms up, the resistance readings will go up. The resistance
of copper windings responds to changes in temperature based on
the basic nature of copper as a material. A more detailed review of
temperature effects is covered in the appendix. Using the nameplate
data for a motor, the expected percentage change in resistance due to
temperature can be estimated using Table 4 for copper windings or the
equation on which it is based.
Different materials will have different temperature coefficients. As a
result, the temperature correction equation will vary depending on the
material being tested.
 Table 4:  Copper: temperature / resistance relationship Circuit breakers
Temp ºC (ºF) Resistance µΩ % Change
-40 (-40) 764.2 -23.6 As noted previously, mechanical wear and tear on circuit breaker
32 (0) 921.5 -7.8 contacts, that reduces the area of the contact surfaces combined with
68 (20) 1000.0 0.0 sparking and / or arcing, will increase the resistance across the working
104 (40) 1078.6 7.9
connections. This condition will produce heat that can reduce the
140 (60) 1157.2 15.7
effectiveness of the circuit breaker. Periodic measurements will show
176 (80) 1235.8 23.6
the rate of increase of the contact resistance value. When these values
212 (100) 1314.3 31.4
are compared to the original manufacturer’s specification, a decision
221 (105) 1334.0 33.4
can be made to continue or repair. By tracking the trend of the readings,

R(end of test)/R(start of test) the user will get an idea of when the circuit breaker should be pulled for

= (234.5 + T(end of test))/(234.5 + T(start of test) service before damage is done.

Trending Stand-by battery back-up systems

In addition to comparing measurements made with a low resistance
ohmmeter against some preset standard (spot test), the results should
be saved and tracked against past and future measurements. Logging
of measurements on standard forms with the data registered in a central
database will improve the efficiency of the test operation. Previous test
data can be reviewed by the user, and then on-site conditions can be
determined.
Developing a trend of readings helps the user better predict when a
joint, weld, connection, or other component will become unsafe, and
make the necessary repairs. Remember that degradation can be a slow
process. Electrical equipment faces mechanical operations or thermal
cycles that can fatigue the leads, contacts and bond connections.
Additionally, these components can also be exposed to chemical attack
from either the atmosphere or man made situations. Periodic tests and
recording of the results will provide a database of values that can be
used to develop resistance trends.
Note: When taking periodic measurements, the user should always
connect the probes in the same place on the test sample to ensure
similar test conditions.
The interface between the terminals and the straps on battery back-up
systems is subject to chemical attack from the acid atmosphere, thermal
changes due to the charging and discharge currents and mechanical
stress from vibration. Each of these factors can cause the resistance
bond to degrade, resulting in the potential for a fire at a critical power
discharge (due to the hydrogen gas atmosphere).
Battery systems require diligent attention, as replacement batteries
are both expensive and not off-the-shelf items. A failure situation can
result in a battery system being out of service for a number of weeks.
Periodic measurements of the strap resistance will identify those bond
connections that have degraded since the last test and corrective action
can be planned.
Note: When connections have higher than normal resistance
measurements, the user should not retighten the bolts, as this will
over stress the soft lead connection. Over tightening does not cure
the problem. The correct procedure is to disassemble the straps, clean,
grease and then reconnect with the bolts tightened to the supplier’s
torque level. All the connections should be balanced within a narrow
tolerance of ±10 to 20%.

The following are several examples of where trending can help the user
make better informed maintenance decisions:
In these and many other systems, time lost to repair defective equipment
may be small compared to the cost of having equipment out of service
for weeks. Periodic tests can avert many problems. Analyzing data
against past results and reasonable standards allows the user to select
the time when corrective work should be done.

www.megger.com 21
The value of a system is in its ability to work on demand. Operations
are predicated on many systems being available at an instant’s notice.
When elements break, production is lost and time is wasted making
emergency repairs. Taking and analyzing periodic low resistance
measurements saves companies money by helping identify problems
before they result in catastrophic failure.

The practical example shown in Fig 22 shows how trending low

resistance measurements made on a periodic basis provides critical
information to the user.

When low resistance measurements are made on stranded cables on

spot welding robot #23, the user is gathering data to estimate when
fatigue to the current conductor will degrade the quality of the weld
nugget. The test data starts with the wire manufacturer’s specifications.
The example shows that a resistance increase of up to 10% is acceptable.

In this case, measurements are made after a specific number of weld

operations. When charting this data, observe the rate of change as the
readings approach the end of life for the stranded cable. The critical
factor could have been long-term exposure to a chemical solvent. In
other operations the critical factor is time, with tests done on a seasonal
basis or on specified number of days. Fig 23:  C1 clip being connected to end of circuit being tested

Fig 22:  Trending analysis of low resistance readings

Fig 24:  Duplex hand spike being used to perform same test as
shown in Fig 23

22 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 ■■ High currents are recommended by International high
Measuring components of a voltage Circuit Breaker test standards and by Megger (taking
system care of heating issues)

When using the current and potential as split test leads there is the ■■ Higher test currents give a better chance of good reliable test
ability to locate faulty components and connections by probing at each results

connection or joint and looking at the increase in resistance. ■■ Bad low current results do not always indicate that a contact
is in a bad state (contamination) or that a good result
An example is measuring the resistance of a cable to lug joint or lug to indicates a good contact condition (hot spots)
bolted connection while still connected to a system.
The International Standards for high voltage Circuit Breaker tests can be
found in IEC 622 7 1 and IEEE C32.09.
In Figs 23 and 24, a kelvin clip is shown connected to a bus bar for the
C2 and P2 connections, although these connections could easily be
Test Current (d.c.)
done using separate clips.
■■ Minimum 50 A (IEC): 100 A (ANSI)
Fig 23 shows a large C1 clip being connected to the end of the circuit
being tested, which in this case is the end of a cable. A single probe Potential sources of error / ensure
tip is being used for the P1 connection to easily probe to the point the
quality results
measurement is required.
The user can compromise low resistance measurements if the wrong test

In Fig 24, a duplex hand spike is being used to perform the same equipment is used or the temperature at the test site is not determined

tests. Roughly the same resistance values will be measured, although and noted on the test data sheet. Before a test, surface preparation can

in practice they will have slight differences due to the current density be critical. Heavy scale or oxide coatings should be removed to expose

difference produced by the different C1 connection point. a clean surface and ensure good current connections.

The test results in Fig 24 show a jump in resistance of nearly 1.8 mW at

Test leads / probes
the connection between the cable and the crimp lug. This would not
be detected using a continuity test of 200 mA or a multimeter. This
An instrument’s specification should have a recommended listing of
additional resistance will over develop into a larger value eventually
suitable test leads. The user should always check that the correct leads
causing a breakdown or even a fire. As it stands, the additional
are being used as leads can look alike but have different resistances,
resistance will at least create power losses.
which can limit the maximum current that the instrument can produce.

High currents in low resistance Do not use thermocouple extension wire in place of copper leads as the

measurement material mismatch will produce erratic data that will change as the site

Low resistance measurements are good for identifying resistive temperature varies with the seasons.

elements that change over time due to environmental conditions.

The probe selection is also critical. High current tests require secure
Conditions that can degrade devices or materials include, temperature,
connections to the work surface because high resistance at the
noise ratio or induced currents, thermal EMF / Seebeck voltage, fatigue,
contacting point can limit the expected level of test current, causing a
corrosion, vibration, oxidization, hot spots (see "Potential sources of
poor signal-to-noise ratio, with erratic results. Use of unsuitable probes
error / ensure quality results" below).
for the particular application can lead to unreliable results.

Low resistance measurements are typically below 1 A, so it is important

In all cases tests are done with current injection and potential
that test equipment errors be minimized. To minimise these errors as
measurements made at separate locations on the component. Potential
much as possible use the four wire (Kelvin) test method, which gives
test clips must never be connected to the current connection as the
accurate results when low resistance is measured.
voltage drop at the current interface will be added to the potential

www.megger.com 23
measurement and produce an error in the reading. The ideal current
connection injects current above the potential measurement position.
When these points are close to each other the Kelvin clip or C-clamp
connectors are used, injecting current 180º from the potential
connection (see Fig 25).

The test leads are matched to battery operated meters to ensure that
the nominal level of test current will be delivered to the test specimen.

Finally, probes are designed to make electrical connection with the test
sample. They are not intended to be used to clean surfaces, open tins,
etc.

Fig 26:  Basic styles of probes

Accuracy statements

Quality low resistance ohmmeters will show their accuracy statement as

Fig 25:  Correct and incorrect probe placements
Probes are available in five basic styles. Each probe is designed to address
specific field and / or application situations. Fig 26 shows some of the
different styles.
Fixed Point: Most economical and lightweight probes.
Kelvin Clips: Feature spade lugs on the outboard end and alligator clips
with insulated silver or gold plated jaws.
'±X.X% of reading, ±X LSD'. Beware of instrument accuracies stated as a
percent of range rather than a percent of reading. While these accuracy
statements can look alike, the measurements made on an instrument with (%
of range) accuracy would provide readings that are less accurate.
The resolution of an instrument reading is typically one half the least
significant digit (LSD) noted in the accuracy statement. The magnitude of the
LSD influences the repeatability of the measurement. A large LSD number is
due to the low sensitivity of the instrument, adding an additional error to the
measurement.
Check the temperature coefficient of the selected instrument. The temperature
coefficient (% of reading per degree) is multiplied by the site temperature
difference from the instrument’s calibrated temperature and will influence the

Linear Spring Points: These probes are designed with spring points, accuracy of the field measurements. An instrument that includes an accuracy

which recess into the handle to allow for unevenness of the surface. notation of +0.2% / ºC should not be used in the field, as its best utilization

They are designed for clean surfaces as they have no 'cutting' action to would be in a laboratory with a constant ambient environment.

allow them to bite through surface contamination.

The user must be aware of all these characteristics when selecting the test

Helical Spring Points: The tips rotate and compress into the body of instrument.

the probe, allowing the probes to break through any grease or surface
film, ensuring an accurate measurement. Additionally, these probes will Interference
leave a mark on the test surface to identify the points where the test
was done. Care should be taken when using these probes if the surface A strong electrical field, flux linkage from a high current circuit or voltage
being contacted is sensitive to pressure points. induced from a high voltage conductor can cause interference at the test site.
In addition ground currents can induce noise on a conductor. Interference
C-Clamps: A current passes through the C-clamp and screw thread
can reduce sensitivity and produce unstable readings. An instrument with low
while the potential passes through a four point anvil insulated from the
noise rejection, or hum attenuation may be stable when tested on the bench,
clamp metal.
but be erratic in selective field conditions.

24 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 Modern electronics can detect the level of noise and some instruments
use this to show when excessive noise is present to make a valid
measurement.
A simple technique to minimize noise problems is to measure at high
current since the measured signal gets larger than the noise it self.
Delivery of stated test current under
load
Battery operated, digital low resistance ohmmeters have different test
currents dependent on the selected range. The lowest resistance range
has the highest current level and as the range increases the current will
decrease (as the range increases by a factor of ten the test current will
decrease by a factor of ten). This feature allows for an effective balance
between weight and functionality.
Material resistivity
Conductors of the same dimensions have different resistances if they are
made of different materials, due to the varying number of free electrons
in varying substances. We account for these differences with the term
resistivity, which is the resistance of a sample of the material having
dimensions with specified unit values.
While scientists tend to look at cubes of material as the measurement
standard (one centimeter cube or one inch cube), conductors tend to be
circular, making a circular standard important for practical use.
The resistivity of a material is defined in ohm-circular mils per foot; that
is, the resistance (in ohms) of a piece of material one foot long and one
circular mil cross section. It is defined at a temperature of 20 ºC (68 ºF).
Table 5 shows the resistivities for a number of conducting materialsv:

The output current delivered by the instrument is not critical, as the In most field applications the user determines the suitability of a field

instrument will be measuring the actual test current at the time of measurement against a pre-selected specification. In most cases,

the test. However, the instrument must be able to deliver sufficient these specifications have been generated from the following formula

current to produce a clear signal in the presence of typical noise. A (at 20 ºC (68 ºF)):

typical instrument can have a 10% to 20% tolerance on the maximum

R = ρL/A
current rating. But, to make a good potential measurement, the current
must be stable. The critical factor for the measurement is the voltage ρ = Resistivity of the material in ohm-CM per foot.
measurement via the potential leads (Ohms Law).
L = Distance between two points on the material, in feet.
The one test area where the test current is critical is on a transformer,
A = Cross section area measured in circular mils.
due to the magnetic characteristics of the winding. Sufficient current is
required to saturate the winding, and then a lower constant current is Table 5:  Resistivities of conductors
used to do the measurement. Microhms Ohm-
Substance cm per
cm in Foot
cube cube
Taking a measurement at a stable Aluminum 2.83 1.11 17.0

plateau Carbon (Graphite) 700 275 4210

Constantan (Cu 60%, Ni 40%) 49 19.3 295

A de-energized test specimen provides a stable platform on which Copper (annealed) 1.72 0.68 10.4

to make the measurement. Live circuits can produce an unstable test Iron (99.98% pure) 10 3.94 60.2

platform. An example of the latter is the test of battery straps on a UPS Lead 22 8.66 132
Manganin (Cu 84%, Ni 4%, 44 17.3 264
system. The charging and / or discharging currents may induce noise
Mn 12%)
across the battery straps being measured, and at the same time cause Mercury 95.78 37.7 576
the resistance values to increase (due to heating of the strap and its Platinum 9.9 3.9 59.5
connections). Silver 1.65 0.65 9.9
Tungsten 5.5 2.17 33.1
When collecting data, the user must define the test conditions. As
Zinc 6.1 2.4 36.7
noted previously, temperature can have a significant influence on
any measurements made. The user should note the temperature and
document any electrical equipment that is in operation in the test area.
v Electrical Metermen’s Handbook; Third Edition; 1965; page 479

www.megger.com 25
Effects of temperature
Resistance measurements are dependent on temperature. If the original
data was read at one temperature but later tests are conducted at
other temperatures, this temperature data is required to determine the
suitability of the measurements. All materials do not react to temperature
When making a measurement on a specific material, the user can
calculate the change in resistance due to a change in temperature
by multiplying the resistance at the reference temperature by the
temperature coefficient of resistance and by the change in temperature:
R2-R1 = (R1)(a)(T2 – T1)

to the same degree. Aluminum, steel, copper and graphite have specific
R1 = resistance of the conductor at the reference temperature
temperature coefficients that will affect the degree of changes that can
take place with temperature at the site of the measurement. R2 = resistance of the conductor when the measurement is made

Low resistance measurements rely on the user conducting the tests T1 = reference temperature
within the operating temperature range of the instrument (the user
T2 = temperature at which the measurement is made
must be aware of field conditions). When the user sees out-of-tolerance
measurements, one of the first steps is to check the instrument’s reading a = temperature coefficient of resistance for the material being tested
with a suitable calibration shunt.
The user should also be aware of operating and storage temperature
As mentioned previously, resistance measurements are dependent on specifications of the instrument they are using to ensure that it is suitable
temperature. The resistance of all pure metals increases with rising for the environment in which it will be used.
temperature. The proportional change in resistance for a specific
material with a unit change in temperature is called the temperature
coefficient of resistance for that material. Temperature coefficients are
expressed as the relative increase in resistance for a one degree increase
in temperature. While most materials have positive temperature
coefficients (resistance increases as temperature rises), carbon graphite
materials have negative temperature coefficients (resistance decreases
as temperature rises).

Table 6 shows the temperature coefficients of resistance for selected

materialsvi:

Table 6:  Temperature coefficients of resistance

Fig 27:  Temperature resistance curves for iron, copper and carbon
Material Per ºC Per ºF
Aluminum 0.0038 0.0021

Carbon (0 - 1850 ºC) -0.00025 -0.00014 Effects of humidity

Constantan (0 - 100 ºC) Negligible Negligible
Copper (@ 20 ºC) 0.00393 0.00218 The relative humidity of the test specimen should not affect the
Iron 0.0050 0.0028 resistance reading unless the material is hygroscopic, in which case more
Lead 0.0043 0.0024 moisture will be absorbed into the sample at higher humidities. This
Manganin (0-100 ºC) Negligible Negligible will change the measurement conditions and will affect the achieved
Mercury 0.00090 0.00050 result. However, most conductors are non-hygroscopic. Therefore, since
Platinum 0.0038 0.0021 instruments are typically designed with an operating range of from 0
Silver 0.0040 0.0021
to 95% RH, providing that moisture is not actually condensing on the
Tungsten 0.0045 0.0025
instrument then a correct reading will be obtained.
Zinc 0.0037 0.0021

Fig 27 shows the temperature resistance curves for some of these

Background noise, current and voltage
materials (based on a baseline reading of 1000 microhms at 20 ºC
Resistance measurements can be degraded by static voltages and
(68 ºF).
ripple currents (electrical noise) impressed on the test specimen. The
user should be aware of the level of noise rejection in the instrument
vi Electrical Metermen’s Handbook; Third Edition; 1965; page 480
being used. Changing to a different model can help the user make a
measurement at a difficult test site.

26 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 The magnitude of the test current used by the instrument will affect
the noise rejection capability of that instrument. A 10 A test current will
provide much better noise rejection than a 0.1 A test current. Beware
of excessive test currents which can change or damage the test sample
due to heating (W = I2R). If 100 A is used in place of 10 A, the sample
will experience 100 times the heat of the lower test current. With that
said, use appropriate test current based on the nominal current rating.
The open circuit voltage on most low resistance ohmmeters is low. When
making measurements on transformer windings, additional power is
required to saturate the winding and allow the meter to stabilize more
rapidly. Instruments designed for this type of application have a higher
open circuit voltage (in the 50 V d.c. range) to deliver the energy needed
to saturate the windings. Then a constant current mode of operation is
used to do the resistance measurement.
Contact resistance contamination
Contact resistance is the resistance to current flow through a closed pair
of contacts. Sometimes it takes a high current to break through, melt or
soften the contact point and its surrounding area, which increases the
contact area and, as such, reduce the resistance.
Example: A circuit breaker is tested and its main contact shows a
resistance of 300 microhms using a 100 A test current. The test is
repeated using a 600 A test current and a resistance of 80 microhms
shows, the test is again repeated using a 100 A test current, again the
result is 80 microhms.

Thermal emf / Seebeck voltage

compensation

Thermal EMF / Seebeck voltage is generated when different conducting

materials are part of the same circuit or at different temperatures. The
effects of this can be overcome by increasing the current used for the
test. Increasing the current will reduce the error, but ensure that it is not
to high (heating), see tables below: Fig 28:  Circuit breaker corrosion

Table 7:  Current error percentage

Error Noise ratio and induced currents
Current Voltage
Cu-Ni Cu-Al Cu-Ag
1A 50 µV 400% 200% 20% It's common to have noise in a power environment, so to establish
10 A 500 µV 40% 20% 2% an accurate result the measurement signal needs to be greater
100 A 5 mV 4% 2% 0.2% than the noise generated:
600 A 30 mV 0.7% 0.3% 0.03%
■■ Low resistance measurement of 50 Ω
Table 8: Conducting materials temperature ■■ 1 A => measurement signal 50 µV

Junction µV/ºC ■■ 10 A => measurement signal 500 µV

Copper - Copper <0.3
■■ 100 A => measurement signal 5 mV
Copper - Gold 0.5
Copper - Silver 0.5 ■■ 600 A => measurement signal 30 mV

Copper - Brass 3
Copper - Nickel 10
Copper - Lead - Tin Solder 1-3
Cooper - Aluminum 5
Copper - Kovar 40
Copper - Copper Oxide >500

Fig 29:  Noise

www.megger.com 27
Hot spots
Hot spots from degrading contact inhibits the contacts ability to carry
nominal or overload currents and, dependant on the severity of the
contact state, this can result in temperature rises.
Calibration in the field
Calibration of low resistance ohmmeters can be checked in the field
by the use of a shunt. Calibration is done using individual current and
potential 12-gauge copper leads, to ensure correct current distribution
through the shunt and an accurate potential measurement. Be aware
that 'test probes' do not provide accurate positioning of the leads to
check instrument calibration. They can, however, be used to determine
the relative calibration of the instrument.

Table 8:  Commercially available shunts

Resistance ±0.25% Value Current Rating
10 Ω 1 mA
1Ω 10 mA
0.10 Ω 100 mA
0.01 Ω 1A
Fig 30:  Hot spots
0.0010 Ω 10 A
0.0001 Ω 100 A
At the point where a hot spot is detected you may see a much higher
rise in temperature than the overall temperature measured, this would
These calibration shunts when used with a Certificate of Calibration,
increase the resistance and a greater chance of fire:
traceable to National Standards, help the field service engineer
■■ Hot spots are the source of high frequency waves (Harmonics). demonstrate to a customer the accuracy of the tests being conducted.
When these waves pile up at a location, they will cause
equipment damage by Resonance Phenomenon

■■ Hot spots are indicators of impending failure of the equipment

■■ There are sources of electrical energy losses (loose

connections)

■■ Hot spots are the primary cause for a major explosion of

electrical equipment

■■ It is one of the main reasons for failure of current transformer

(especially in HV circuits)

28 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 Appendices
Testing of transformers
Regular tests on transformers can help identify problems that reduce
system performance and can lead to unexpected outages. The d.c.
resistance of a transformer winding can indicate the internal temperature
of the winding, when the resistance at ambient is compared to the
hot resistance. The ideal test method is to make resistance readings at
one minute intervals as the hot winding is cooling. When this data is
charted, the resistance at time zero can be estimated. This test is one of
the mandatory tests done when the transformer is manufactured and
might also be used in the field if the transformer is accessed while still
heated up.
The typical test will show excessive overheating in the coils due to fatigue
or corrosion of the internal coil and / or the internal connections. Low
resistance tests on transformers addresses small, medium, large single,
large poly-phase and auto-transformer windings. Tests are done on:
■■ Dual windings with the test current connected through the
windings in opposed polarities
■■ Wye to wye windings with and without a neutral connection;
the leg of the other winding is connected to the potential
lead to measure the voltage at the internal connection
■■ Wye to delta windings; a jumper is used to connect the
current from the wye winding to the delta winding (this test
mode reduces the test time)
■■ Delta to delta windings; the test time can be improved by
connecting the current jumper to the primary and secondary
of the same phase in opposed polarities
Taps are used to improve voltage regulation and are adjusted daily.
Excessive wear and loosening due to vibration can be identified with low
resistance measurements. Consecutive tests can be done on secondary
tap changers (shorting style of taps). Large transformers have many tap
positions and test time will be reduced, as the test current does not have
to be shut off between tests. Tests on primary taps (open taps) must be
done as individual tests with the test current shut off between tests.
The low resistance ohmmeter must have sufficient current capacity
to saturate the windings. The time taken to test will depend on the
available test current. Large transformers require special attention prior
to performing the tests. The insulation between the windings will store
energy, similar to the dielectric in a cable, and must be discharged
before a test can be done.
www.megger.com 29
When three-phase transformers are tested, interaction will occur
between the primary and secondary windings. This situation is most
evident when transformers with Wye and Delta windings are tested,
and can be minimized by connecting the test current to flow through
both primary and secondary windings. The net effect is to reduce the
mutual coupling between the windings and minimize the flow of
circulating current in the delta winding.
The recommended test current is between 1 - 10% of the nominal
current, but not above 15%. Over 15% will cause heating, as it will
affect their resistance value significantly. The lower test currents reduce
stress in the magnetic core of the winding, but will increase the test
time.
Large test currents produce large forces on the core and can cause
damage and generate heat, which will affect the resistance value.
It is also important that the instrument discharges the transformer when
the measurement is completed. If not, lethal voltages can be present
at disconnection. Dedicated test instruments with these features
integrated are available.
Warning: Never use a non-dedicated LRO to measure the winding
resistance on a power transformer. Lethal voltages can be present
if a winding is not discharged correctly before the test leads are
disconnected.
Motor bar to bar tests
Helical spring point probes are used to measure the value of the bar
to bar resistances of the rotor in a d.c. motor (see Fig 31). This test is
typically done at the 10 A current level with the typical coil resistance
measurements in the 6000 microhm range. These tests identify broken/
loose welds or solder connections between the coils and commutator
bars. The resistance measurements should remain consistent. Readings
can be higher on a heated motor, due to the temperature of the coils.
As the coils cool, the resistance values can drop to some prior reference
value recorded at ambient temperature.
Fig 31:  Bar to bar test on d.c. motor rotor
 The expected resistance can be calculated by the equation:

Expected Rm = (Rc)(# of coils being tested)(# of coils in parallel)/(# of

coils being tested + # of coils in parallel).

In this example:

Expected Rm = (1 A)(1)(23)/(1 + 23)

Expected Rm = 0.958 A

Fig 34 shows a wave winding, another manufacturing technique for

putting high resistance coils in a motor. In this example, the coil runs
from commutator bar 1 to 6 to 11 to 16 and then loops back around
the armature to commutator bar 2 (connected in series). When the user
Fig 32:  Lap winding test data measures between bars 1 and 2, he / she is checking the resistance
of the wave wound coil (the complete loop). In this example, there is
Fig 32 shows a lap winding, a style where the windings are connected
a break in the coil between bars 12 and 17. This problem will appear
to bars laying next to each other. To make a test, the current probe
when measuring bars 2 and 3, since they are the start and end bars of
should be placed at the end of the commutator bar and the potential
the loop.
probe should be placed at the connection to the winding (the riser on
the commutator bar). The user measures the resistance of the windings
between each set of bars under test (1 - 2, 2 - 3, 3 - 4, etc.). In this
example, there is a possible weak solder joint between bars 4 and 5, and
a break in the coil between bars 12 and 13 (the instrument will show
this as an open).

Fig 34:  Wave winding test data

Fig 35 on the following page shows wave winding commutator

connections to the internal coils and test probe connections to individual
commutator bars. This is a simplified layout, as the heavy ring shows
the series connections for all the coils in the armature. A d.c. motor will
have a different number of coils depending on the horse power and the
voltage rating. In this example (tests from bar #1 to bar #2), two coils
Fig 33:  Commutator with 24 coils in series
are in series and nineteen are in parallel. If one coil is open in the ring,

In Fig 33 (lap winding, 24 coils), all the coils are connected in series. the measurement from bar #1 to bar #2 will be the series value of the
two coils. If the test probes are across the open coil, the total resistance
The resistance of each coil will be measured with the resistance of all of of the other nineteen coils will be shown.
the other coils connected in parallel. The primary question for the user is
what constitutes an acceptable reading for a specific coil (Rm) since the
remaining 23 coils in parallel will lower the resistance of the coil being
tested. For this example, we will assume that the resistance of the coil
before insertion into the motor (Rc) was 1 A.

30 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 Fig 36:  Single strap resistance target

Fig 35:  Wave winding coil arrangement

Battery strap tests

When battery straps are tested, the user should have baseline values or
targets to compare against the actual results.

The following are examples of how these target levels are determined:

Example 1: In Fig 36, the user is measuring the resistance (R0) across
a single battery strap (both sides of the terminal). The straps on
each side of the terminal have a resistance of 20 microhm and the
connections to the terminals each have a resistance of 5 microhm.
Under these conditions, the target resistance that the user wants to see
is 15 microhm. A significant variance from this resistance in the actual
reading would show a loose connection.
Fig 37:  Parallel strap resistance target

Example 2: Fig 37 shows terminals connected in parallel by carrier strips

with a resistance of 100 microhm. In this case, the target resistance that
the user wants to see is 14 microhm.
If there was an open strap between terminal 'a' and terminal 'b', the
resistance reading would be significantly higher than the target, as
follows:
Ra-b = Ra-c + Rc-d + Rb-d
Ra-b = 100 + 15 + 100
Ra-b = 215 µΩ
Additional tests can be done between the same polarity terminals on a
cell. Such a test will help determine the quality of the terminal-to-bar
welds and major problems with the internal bar to which the plates
are welded, as all are series connected. In this example, the measured
resistance between like terminals on the same cell should be in the 100
microhm range.
Ramp testing
A ramp test delivers a controlled 'ramp' of the output current from 0 up
to the required output. This ability is particularly beneficial where there
are protection relays in place, typically in the form of differential relays.
When the contact resistance of a circuit breaker is tested, a differential
relay monitors the line for any sudden rise in current that may be an
a.c. signal. If the rise in current is too fast the differential relay detects
this as a fault and trips the circuit breaker, as it would do under normal
operating conditions.
By the application of the current at a slower rate, which is variable and
configurable, it allows low resistance test equipment to be used with a
multitude of protection relays, each with different sensitivities.
This means that the protection relays can stay in place and removes the
undesirable need to disconnect the protection relay in a test.

www.megger.com 31
Protection relays are also sensitive to the a.c. ripple, which can exist
within the output current of the test equipment. These small ripples
can look like a potential fault, for example, a.c. signal and also trip the
Circuit Breaker under test.
Is this a reason to keep these relays in place?
Smooth current output enables protection to remain in place during
testing thus maximizing safety for the user.
Wheatstone and Kelvin bridges
A Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure resistance by comparing
an unknown resistor against precision resistors of known value. A Kelvin
double bridge is a variant of the Wheatstone bridge and can be used for
measuring very low resistances.
Wheatstone bridge
A pioneering method for measuring resistance was devised in 1833 by
S. H. Christie and made public by Sir Charles Wheatstone. The simplest
arrangement is a square pattern of four resistors with a galvanometer
connected across one diagonal and a battery across the other (see Fig
38). Two of the resistors are of known appropriate values and comprise
the ratio arm (A + B). A third has a known value which can be varied in
small increments over a wide range, and is thus designated the rheostat
arm (R). The fourth is the resistance being measured, the unknown arm
(X).
Fig 38:  Wheatstone bridge circuitvii
The bridge is considered balanced when the rheostat arm has been
adjusted (tweaked) so that current is divided in such a way that there
is no voltage drop across the galvanometer and it ceases to deflect (is
nulled). The resistance being measured can then be calculated from a
vii Electrical Meterman’s Handbook; Third Edition; 1965; page 479
32 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
knowledge of the values of the ratio resistors and the adjusted value of
the rheostat arm. The basic formula is:
X = B/A x R
Where:
B and A are the ratio resistors
R is the rheostat
The Wheatstone Bridge can be constructed to a variety of ranges and
is generally used for all but the highest and lowest measurements. It's
suited to a range of about 1 to 100,000 A.
Kelvin bridge
The Kelvin Bridge (also known as the Thomson Bridge) is used for
precision measurements below the typical range of the Wheatstone
Bridge. Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) devised the concept circa
1854. The classic arrangement has six resistors in a rectangle, bisected
by a galvanometer (see Fig 39). A comparatively large current is passed
through the unknown resistance and a known resistance of a low
value. The galvanometer compares the voltage drops across these two
resistances with the double ratio circuit comprised of the other four
resistors.
Fig 39:  Kelvin bridge circuitviii
For very low measurements, the Kelvin Bridge has the advantage of
nullifying extraneous resistances from leads and contacts by employing
the system of double ratio arms. The resistances of the connecting
leads are in series with the high resistance ratio arms and not with
the reference or tested resistors. The two pairs of ratio resistors (A/B,
a/b) are paralleled with each other and connected across with the
galvanometer. One pair (a/b) is in series with the unknown (X) and the
reference standard (R). The latter is an adjustable low resistance, usually
viii Electrical Meterman’s Handbook; Third Edition; 1965; page 480
 a Manganin bar with a sliding contact. When potential is balanced Automotive and electric vehicles
across the two parallel circuits, the unknown is equivalent to the parallel
ratio multiplied by the adjusted reference value. ■■ Battery connections

X = A/B x R ■■ Weld quality

■■ Quality of crimped connections

A connecting link (Y), sometimes called the yoke, shunts the ratio pair
(a/b) that are otherwise in series with the unknown and standard, but ■■ Assembly robot welding cables

has minimal effect on the accuracy of the measurement so long as the

two pairs of parallel ratio resistors are kept exactly equal (A to a, B to b). Cable manufacturers
Lead and contact resistances are included in the value of the ratio pairs,
■■ Quality control
and any effects can be nullified by keeping the resistance of the yoke
extremely low. Keeping the yoke resistance low also accommodates ■■ Cable length
the large test currents often used in Kelvin Bridges without causing
unwanted heating effects. Component manufacturers

DLRO microohm and milliohm ■■ Quality control

applications list ■■ Resistors, inductors, chokes

Aviation All types of mechanically assembled

■■ Assembly of components joints which need low resistance values
■■ Interconnection of equipment
■■ Bolted
■■ Repair and maintenance
■■ Welded

■■ Compressed
Rail, including tram and underground
■■ Crimped
■■ Rolling stock and infrastructure
■■ Soldered
■■ Track high current joints
■■ Conductive adhesive
■■ Signalling systems
■■ Joints subject to

■■ Stress
Marine
■■ Vibration
■■ Power wiring systems
■■ Heat
■■ Protection systems
■■ Cold
■■ Ship-to-shore bonding
■■ Corrosion
■■ Cable
■■ Fatigue
■■ Connection points

■■ Cathode protection system testing Cable manufacturers

■■ Motors and generators
Oil and gas pipelines
■■ Coil and turn-to-turn shorts
■■ Bonding between welded joints
■■ Bar-t-bar tests
■■ Grounding systems
■■ Coil balance — cold to full load current comparison

www.megger.com 33
Space exploration and engineering Electrical infrastructure
■■ Structural metal to metal ■■ Transformer windings

■■ Ground network metal to metal ■■ Substation wiring and grounding

■■ Carbon fiber to metal ■■ Tap changers

■■ Carbon fiber to carbon fiber ■■ Battery strap resistance testing

■■ Cable resistance from one end

Data centers ■■ Cable length

■■ During installation ■■ Identification of parallel supplies while connected

■■ Main panel supplies ■■ Cable to lug to connection fault finding

■■ UPS supplies
■■ Checking assembled connections
■■ Generator supplies

■■ Verification of proective device contact resistance

■■ Busbar parallel feeds

■■ Busbar lapped joints

■■ Optimum resistance over torque

■■ Cable lug to busbar connections

■■ Copper cable to lug to busbar fault finding

■■ During maintenance

■■ Using trending data of all of the above aspects

■■ Verification after repair

Medical
■■ Grounding and bonding systems for protection against

■■ Microshock

■■ Macroshock

■■ On new, in service, fully or partly connected systems

■■ Each medical location be tested every 12 months

Robotics
■■ Wiring systems and connections which are subjec to stress/
movement/vibration

■■ Bonding of component parts to minimize static

■■ Grounding of machine

■■ Welding leads of robot spot welder

34 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 Megger products overview
Megger offers solutions to ensure electrical system performance
with its comprehensive line of low resistance ohmmeters and
Micro-ohmmeters. An overview of the various products available is
described below.
DLRO10 / DLRO10X
The DLRO10 and DLRO10X are built into a strong, lightweight case that
is equally suitable in the field or in the laboratory. Light enough to be
worn around the neck, they are small enough to be taken into areas
which were previously too small to access. The DLRO10 uses a large,
bright 4.5 digit LED display while the DLRO10X has a large, backlit LCD.

For more information on these and many other Megger products, The DLRO10 displays the average of measurements achieved using
please contact us at 866-254-0962 or. Or visit our web site us.megger. forward and reverse current, while the DLRO10X displays both individual
com for the most up-to-date news, product and service information measurements and the average. The DLRO10X uses a menu system
24 hours a day. controlled by a two axis paddle to allow the user to manually select the
test current. The unit also adds real time download of results and on-
DLRO100 series board storage for later download to a PC.
The DLRO100 offers a unique range of 100 A digital low resistance
testers. Never before has CAT IV 600 V safety, operational IP54
ingress protection for dust and water, and lightweight, fast charge,
Li Ion battery technology been available on a continuous 100 A low
resistance tester.

Providing low resistance measurements across a multitude of

applications, including areas without access to mains power, the
DLRO100 is extremely flexible. Some example applications include
switchgear, circuit breaker contact resistance, bus bar and cable
joints, wire and cable resistance, lightning conductor bonding,
welded joints, ground connections and joints.

Megger has taken a no compromise approach when designing the

new DLRO100 series. The range offers a unique combination of
features, including DualGroundTM tests, adjustable current ramp
tests, high noise immunity, high power 100 A continuous tests and Fig 41:  DLRO10 / DLRO10X

even remote control, yet it still manages to be small and lightweight.

There are three models in the series, all of which have CAT IV 600 V
and can test currents from 10 A to 110 A. The mid-range model adds
data storage and DualGroundTM tests. The top of the range model
adds to this, the capability of asset tags to enter unique asset ID’s
with the DLRO100 Asset Tag Windows app, Bluetooth® download
and USB remote operation.

Fig 40:  DLRO100 Series

www.megger.com 35
DLRO10HD / DLRO10HDX
Common with the DLRO10 series, the DLRO10HD and DLROHDX
feature output power limiting to 0.25 W so as not to heat the test piece.
However, the DLRO10HD and DLROHDX have the additional benefit of
combining this with two high power, high compliance ranges. Benefits
include the ability to use much longer test leads, the ability to heat and,
therefore, identify circuit weakness and the ability to maintain 10 A for
at least a minute, which allows for improved tests on inductive loads. In
addition the DLRO10HDX comes with on-board memory for up to 200
test records and the ability to download saved test results to external
software.
Fig 42:  DLRO10HD
The two instruments are designed to operate in the harshest of
conditions, surviving knocks, drops, dusty and wet conditions. They can
be used in the rain, and, with the lid closed, are sealed to IP65. There
is no need to worry about inadvertent connection to live supplies. High
input protection shrugs it off without even blowing a fuse.
The DLRO10HD and DLROHDX are powered by a rechargeable battery or
from mains power, which makes them suitable to do continuous tests in
a production line or repetitive use environments, even with the internal
battery on charge. You never have to wait for the battery to charge.
36 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com
DLRO600
All the features of the DLRO10 and 10X, plus additional current up to
600 A to accommodate the preferred standards to test circuit breaker
contacts. Yet ease of portability has been retained, with the instrument
weighing in at only 33 pounds!
Measurement range from 0.1 millohm to 1 ohm facilitates all standard
high current requirements. Memory stores up to 300 results while an
RS232 connection enables downloading to printer or laptop. The added
data manipulation capabilities enable current limitation at standard
values up to 600 A, thereby eliminating the need for multiple testers to
conform to a variety of standards.
Fig 43:  DLRO600
DLRO200
The DLRO200 is designed to check and measure contact resistance in
high voltage circuit breakers, disconnecting switches (isolators), bus bar
joints, or for any low resistance measurement. Both models accurately
measure resistances ranging from 0.1 microhm and 1 ohm, at high
currents.
This versatile instrument can provide test currents from 10 A up to 200
A, subject to the load resistance and supply voltage. The DLRO200
delivers an unfiltered d.c. current and can drive 200 A through a total
current loop resistance of 19 millohm (Supply >207 V, 11 millohm for
115 V supply).
The unique design allows the weight and size of the DLRO200 to be
kept to a minimum; the instrument weighs less than 14.5 kg (32 lbs).
This small size plus a water / dust ingress rating of IP54 makes the test
set equally at home in the workshop, on the production floor or in the
field.
 As well as adding notes to stored results, the alphanumeric keypad
allows you to set the test current directly by keying in the value required.
The DLRO200 will check the continuity of the test circuit, and will quickly
ramp the test current up to the desired level. The keyboard is also used
to set upper and lower limits for the result and to prevent the use of
excessive currents by setting an upper limit to the allowable test current.
Fig 44:  DLRO200
MOM2
The MOM2 micro-ohmmeter is designed to measure the resistance of
circuit breaker contacts, bus bar joints and other high current links.
MOM2 uses an ultra capacitor to generate the high output current.
The ultra capacitor is able to store a huge amount of energy compared
to conventional capacitors and can deliver very high current during the
discharge thanks to its very low internal resistance.
The MOM2 can be used anywhere to measure a low resistance value
with high accuracy.
With the MOM2 it is possible to make measurements according to
the DualGround™ method. This means that the test object will be
grounded on both sides throughout the test giving a safer, faster and
easier workflow.
Fig 45:  MOM2
www.megger.com 37
MJÖLNER200 / MJÖLNER600
The MJÖLNER200 and MJÖLNER600 micro-ohmmeters, like the MOM2,
are designed to measure the resistance of circuit breaker contacts, bus
bar joints and other high-current links, and in addition also measures
contact elements in bus bars.
Fig 46:  MJÖLNER200
With MJÖLNER200, its high current capability, up to 200 A d.c., the user
avoids problems with incorrect test results due to low test current when
high current devices such as circuit breakers are tested. It can also do
true d.c. ripple free current tests of bus bars, circuit breakers, fuses, etc.
Use the MJÖLNER600, with excessive power resources for demanding
applications, for superior measurement accuracy and when 300 A
continuous is required.
Fig 47:  MJÖLNER600
The MJÖLNER200 and MJÖLNER600 also make measurements
according to the DualGround™ method, the same as the MOM2, and
can be used anywhere to measure a low resistance value with high
accuracy.
With its lightweight and rugged suitcase design, it makes the
MOM200A / MOM600A
MJÖLNER200 and MJÖLNER600 an excellent choice when a portable
The MOM200A™ is designed to check and measure contact resistances
solution is needed. When the case is closed, the product can withstand
in high voltage circuit breakers, disconnecting switches (isolators) and
the impact of water, dust or sand – it even floats.
bus bar joints. It is an excellent choice when 200 A or less are needed
for measurement.
Optional accessories are a remote control and PC software.

MOM690A
The MOM690A supplements Meggers family of micro-ohmmeters. In
addition to high current capacity, the MOM690A features microprocessor
based measurement, storage and reporting. The built-in software enables
individual tests or a whole series of tests and store the results.
With the optional MOMWin™ software test results can also be exported
to a PC for further analysis and reporting. Ranges are set automatically,
The MOM200A is ideal for finding poor connections, since it can put
out 100 A for extended periods. Its range, extending up to 20 millohm,
makes it ideal for measuring many different types of connections, and,
with its weight at 14 kg (31 lb), it's convenient to take along with you.
The MOM600A, with output current between 100 and 660 A, comes
in two versions, a 115 V and a 230 V.
A complete MOM200A and MOM600A includes a cable set (including

resistances are measured continually and test results an be automatically separate sensing cables) and a transport case.

captured at a preset test current.

After a circuit breaker with a Current Transformer (CT) mounted in its

current circuit has been tested, e.g. dead tank and GIS breakers, some
standards recommended that the CT is demagnetized. This troublesome
task can be accomplished quickly and easily thanks to the a.c. output
of the MOM690. The a.c. output can also be used as a general multi-
purpose current source in different applications.

Fig 49:  MOM200A / MOM600A

BT51
Where economy and simplicity of operation are paramount, the
Megger DUCTER BT51 requires only the setting two position range
switch. Ranges of 2 A and 20 mA are selectable, with 1 millohm and
0.01 millohm resolution, respectively.

Fig 48:  MOM690A The instrument operates with a 2 A test current, provides warning
indicators, and is supplied with duplex hand spike leads.

Fig 50:  BT51

38 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 Series 247000 Duplex connect test lead system
This traditional line from Megger has been the hallmark of quality and The Megger Duplex Connect test lead system can be used with the
reliability since the emergence of the DLRO, and remains as popular 10 A DLRO and BT51 instruments.
today as ever. Decades of proven field use have made them the defining
standard in ruggedness and portability.

Three 10 A models in the series offer highest accuracy combined with

user friendly ease of operation:

Cat. No. 247000 features the tried and popular dual-pak design, where
the charger is a separate item that can be left behind while the measuring
module affords the maximum in portability. Where self containment is a
premium.

Cat. No. 247001 combines the measurement module and charger in a

single-pak instrument without loss of convenient portability.
Fig 52:  Duplex connect test leads
Cat. No. 247002 is a single-pak instrument as well, with an added range
This test lead system provides the most cost effective and convenient
for extra precision, down to 0.1 mA resolution.
way to provide the user with many test lead lengths, including
extensions, and the ability to connect test lead terminations
required for the many different applications encountered in low
resistance testing.

One set of test leads, all the terminations.

At the center of this unique test lead system is the bespoke

four terminal connectors (two in each test lead), which allows
terminations such as kelvin clips or duplex test probes to be used
as required.
Fig 51:  DLRO247000
There are two connector versions, one without and one with
indicator LEDs, which operate with the DLRO10 range of
instruments.

www.megger.com 39
 Product comparison chart

Technical Data BT51 DLRO10 DLRO10X DLRO10HD DLRO10HDX

Test currents 2A 10 A 10 A 0.1 - 10 A 0.1 - 10 A
Current steps 2A Preset values: 100 μA, Preset values: 100 μA, 1 mA, Preset values: 0.1 mA, 1 mA, Preset values: 0.1 mA,
1 mA, 10 mA, 100 mA, 1 10 mA, 10 0mA, 1 A, 10 A 10 mA, 100 mA, 1 A, 10 A 1 mA, 10 mA, 100 mA,
A, 10 A 1 A, 10 A
Max test time at max 1 A continuous on inductive 1 A continuous on inductive 60 sec 60 sec
current mode mode
Max continuous 2A 10 A 10 A 10 A 10 A
current
Max. resistance for 2Ω 1.999 mΩ*** 1.999 mΩ*** 250 mΩ 250 mΩ
max. current

Measurement range 2000 mΩ and 1.9999 mΩ - 1999.9Ω 1.9999 mΩ - 1999.9Ω 0 Ω - 250 mΩ 0 Ω - 250 mΩ
20.00 mΩ
Best resolution 1 mΩ 0.1 μΩ 0.1 μΩ 0.1 μΩ 0.1 μΩ
0.01 mΩ
Inaccuracy ± 1% ± 2 digit ± 0.2% ± 0.2 μΩ ± 0.2% ± 0.2 μΩ ± 0.2% ± 0.2%
Ripple free DC n n n n n

Additional smoothing
on DC
DualGround

Ramp up/down
(Automatic)
AC Demagnetization
Remote control

Built in printer
User settable High and n
low test limits
Data storage n n

Memo field for stored n

test results
Communication PC RS232 USB

Battery operated n n n n** n**

Detachable battery pack Detachable battery pack
CAT rating * CAT III 600 V CAT III 600 V CAT III 300 V CAT III 300 V

External voltage 240 V AC 600 V AC or DC 600 V AC or DC 600 V AC or DC 600 V AC or DC

protection Test inhibit Test inhibit Test inhibit Test inhibit Test inhibit
Without blowing a fuse Without blowing a fuse Without blowing a fuse Without blowing a fuse Without blowing a fuse
Noise immunity spec 100 mV 50/60 Hz 100 mV 50/60 Hz 100 mV 50/60 Hz 100 mV 50/60 Hz
(Differential) (Differential) (Differential) (Differential)

IP rating IP65 closed IP65 closed

IP54 open IP54 open
Tough transport case n n n
housing
Weight excluding leads 4.5 kg (9.9 lbs) 2.6 kg (5.7 lbs) 2.6 kg (5.7 lbs) 6.7 kg (14.77 lbs) 6.7 kg (14.77 lbs)
Dimensions 245 x 344 x 158 mm 220 x 100 x 237 mm 220 x 100 x 237 mm 315 x 285 x 181 mm 315 x 285 x 181 mm
(9.6 x 13.5 x 6.2 in) (8.66 x 3.9 x 9.3 in) (8.66 x 3.9 x 9.3 in) (12.4 x 11.2 x 7.1 in) (12.4 x 11.2 x 7.1 in)

40 Insulation Resistance Testers Above 2.5 kV www.megger.com

DLRO100 DLRO200 DLRO200-115 DLRO600 Comments
10 - 110 A 10 - 200 A 10 - 600 A
1A 1A 1A
(Also 10 A, 50 A and 100 A
presets)
10 min >10 min >60 sec

100 A (10min ) 200 A (15 min) 200 A (15 min) Long test times can help locate weaknesses by
heating
100 mΩ 19 mΩ 11 mΩ 11 mΩ Subtract expected test resistance and you can
calculate max. test lead length
***Power limited to 0.25W for sensitive
applications
0.1 μΩ - 1.999 Ω 0.1 μΩ - 999.9 mΩ 0.1 μΩ - 999.9 mΩ

0.1 μΩ 0.1 μΩ 0.1 μΩ

± 0.2% + 2 μΩ ± 0.7% + 1 μΩ 0.6% + 0.3 μΩ

n Ideal for testing circuit breakers with active relay
system connected without tripping
n Can test most circuit breakers with active relay
system connected without tripping
n Used when testing circuit breakers with both
side connected to ground, with out additional
inaccuracy.
n n n n Ideal for testing circuit breakers with active relay
system connected without tripping

n
Depending on model

n n n n Ideal for rapid testing to pre-determined test limits

Depending on model
n n n n
Depending on model
n n n Make note of issues or corrective action required

USB RS232 RS232 RS232

Depending on model
n** *Operates from line supply even with a dead
battery
CAT IV 600 V *Touch proof CAT II 300 V CAT II 300 V CAT II 300 V **Touch proof clips reduce chance of causing arc
clips flash over in live environments
600 V AC or DC Particulary important when testing in close vicinity
Test inhibit of live voltage
Without blowing a fuse
100 mV 50/60 Hz 5 V rms 50/60 Hz 5 V rms 50/60 Hz 5 V rms 50/60 Hz Reflects instruments ability to work in electrically
(Differential) (common mode) (common mode) (common mode) noise environments such as high voltage sub-
stations
IP65 closed IP53 IP53 IP53 High IP ratings ideal for outdoor operation
IP54 open
n

7.9 kg (18 lbs) 14.5 kg (33 lbs) 14.5 kg (33 lbs) 14.5 kg (33 lbs) Weight excluding leads
400 x 300 x 200 mm 410 x 250 x 270 mm 410 x 250 x 270 mm (16 x 410 x 250 x 270 mm Dimensions
(16 x 12 x 7.9 in) (16 x 10 x 11 in) 10 x 11 in) (16 x 10 x 11 in)

www.megger.com 41
Technical Data Mjolner200 Mjolner600 MOM2 MOM200 MOM600A
Test currents 5 - 200 A 5 - 600 A 220 A 0 - 200 A 0 - 600 A

Current steps 1A 1A

Max test time at max 2 min 15 sec 3 sec - discharging 20 sec 15 sec
current
Max continuous 200 A 300 A N/A 100 A (15 min) 100 A
current
Max. resistance for 19mΩ, with cables 2mΩ, with cables 2 mΩ, with cables 17mΩ, with cables 9mΩ, with cables
max. current

Measurement range 0 μΩ - 999.9 mΩ 0 μΩ - 0 μΩ - 1000 mΩ 0 μΩ - 19.99 mΩ 0 μΩ - 1999 mΩ

999.9 mΩ
Best resolution 0.1 μΩ 0.1 μΩ 1.0 μΩ 1.0 μΩ 1.0 μΩ

Inaccuracy ± 0.3 μΩ ± 0.3 μΩ ± 1% + 1μΩ ± 1% + 1 μΩ ± 1% + 1 μΩ

Ripple free DC n n n

Additional smoothing
on DC
DualGround n n n

Ramp up/down n n
(Automatic)
AC Demagnetization

Remote control n n n

Built in printer n n

User settable High and n

low test limits
Data storage n n n

Memo field for stored

test results
Communication PC USB USB Bluetooth

Battery operated n

CAT rating *

External voltage
protection
Noise immunity spec

IP rating IP41 IP41 IP54 IP20 IP20

Tough transport case n n

housing
Weight excluding leads 8.8 kg (20 lbs) 13.8 kg (31 lbs) 1.0 kg (2lbs) 14.6 kg (32 lbs) 24.7 kg (55 lbs)

Dimensions 486 x 392 x 192 mm 486 x 392 x 192 mm 217 x 92 x 72 mm 280 x 178 x 246 mm 356 x 203 x 241 mm
(19 x 15 x 7.6 in) (19 x 15 x 7.6 in) (8.5 x 3.6 x 2.8 in) (11 x 7 x 9.7 in) (14 x 8 x 9.5 in)

42 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 *For measuring circuits used to measure any other electrical signal (CAT
II the transient stresses must be considered by the user to assure that they
do not exceed the capabilities of the measuring equipment. The expected
transient level for CAT IV is 6000 V, CAT III 4000 V, CAT II 2500 V and for
CAT I 1500 V. For CAT I the transient levels can be specified differently and
they are then designed and tested accordingly to assure that they withstand
the expected transients.
MOM690 Comments
0 -800 A

Instant shut off

100 A (10 min) Long test times can help locate weaknesses by
heating
With cables, 600A 0,5mΩ Subtract expected test resistance and you can
calculate max. test lead length
***Power limited to 0.25W for sensitive
applications
0 μΩ - 200 mΩ

1.0 μΩ

± 1% + 1 μΩ

Ideal for testing circuit breakers with active relay

system connected without tripping
Can test most circuit breakers with active relay
system connected without tripping
Used when testing circuit breakers with both
side connected to ground, with out additional
inaccuracy.
Ideal for testing circuit breakers with active relay
system connected without tripping
n

Ideal for rapid testing to pre-determined test limits

Make note of issues or corrective action required

*Operates from line supply even with a dead

battery
CAT I **Touch proof clips reduce chance of causing arc
flash over in live environments
Particulary important when testing in close vicinity
of live voltage
Reflects instruments ability to work in electrically
noise environments such as high voltage sub-
stations
IP20 High IP ratings ideal for outdoor operation

23.7 kg (52 lbs) Weight excluding leads

350 x 270 x 220 mm Dimensions

(14 x 11 x 8.7 in)

www.megger.com 43
 NOTES

44 A guide to low resistance testing www.megger.com

 NOTES

www.megger.com 45
Guide to low resistance testing_en_V01

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