TRANSFORMERS AND POWER QUALITY ISSUES

Dr.T.L.Jose
Professor,Dept. of Elect. Engg.


R.E.C.,Calicut

1. Introduction


In recent years, there has been an increased concern about the effects of non-linear loads on the electric
power system. Non-linear loads are any loads that draw current that is not sinusoidal and include such equipment
as arc furnaces, gas discharge lighting, solid state motor drives, battery chargers, UPS systems, and the
increasingly common electronic power supply. While non-linear loads are not new, their increased use means a
larger percentage of any power system tends to be non-linear. Additionally, non-linear loads were once thought


to be a concern only to industrial power systems where large static power converters are used. Such is not the
case today. With the widespread application of electronics to virtually every electrical load, non-linear loads are
also prevalent in commercial and even residential power systems.
Non-linear loads generate harmonic currents that flow from the load toward the power source,
following the paths of least impedance. Harmonic currents are currents that have frequencies that are whole


number multiples of the fundamental (power supply) frequency. The harmonic currents superimposed on the
fundamental current result in the non-sinusoidal current waveforms associated with non-linear loads.

Harmonic currents adversely affect virtually every component in the power system, creating additional
dielectric, thermal, and/or mechanical stresses. The harmonic currents flowing through the power system
impedances result in harmonic voltage drops that are observed as harmonic voltage distortion. Very severe


voltage distortion can result when the power system's inductive and capacitive reactances happen to be equal
(parallel resonance) at one of the non-linear load's significant harmonic current frequencies (typically the 5th,
7th, 11th or 13th harmonic).

With today's increased use of modern electronics has come a corresponding concern about harmonic
currents and their effects on the power system. Most modern electronic equipment contains static power

converters that generate harmonic currents. Harmonic currents flow in the power system as reactive power
(VAR), adding to the apparent power demand (VA). In addition to the increased apparent power demand of non-
linear loads, the harmonic currents cause additional heating and stresses in the power system components due to
their higher frequencies. In some circumstances, the non-linear load's harmonic currents can excite harmonic
resonances, cause undesirable system interactions, or cause misoperation of other equipment. Computers and


similar electronic loads have traditionally been non-linear loads. While the development of switch-mode power
supplies (SMPS) has been blamed for the harmonic current problems associated with computers, the earlier
"linear" power supplies also were non-linear loads which generated similar harmonic currents but generally at
lower levels than the SMPS. It is arguable that improvements in computers which spawned the great
proliferation of single-phase, 230-volt computers and electronics outside the protected environments of


traditional data processing rooms are responsible for the present industry attention to harmonics issues.
Nonetheless, there is great interest in harmonic current reduction techniques.

2. How Non-linear Loads Create Voltage Distortion

By far the majority of the voltage distortion found in



today's distribution systems is produced by the loads

themselves, not the supply. Much of today's electrical
load is non-linear, meaning they consume current in a
non-sinusoidal manner. Since, by definition, a non-
sinusoidal waveform is composed of harmonic
currents; non-linear loads are considered to be
harmonic current sources. In other words, by
consuming current in a non-sinusoidal manner, these



non-linear loads produce harmonic currents that

circulate through the power distribution system. Most
voltage distortion is the result of the interaction of
these harmonic currents with the impedance of the
electrical distribution system. As the harmonic currents
pass through the system's impedance, they produce
voltage drops at each harmonic frequency in relation to
ohm's Law - V h = I h x Z h [Fig. 1]. The voltage drops appear as harmonic voltages and the accumulation of
these voltages at all the harmonic frequencies produces the voltage distortion.
The relationship is: VTH = (V22+ V32+ V42+... Vh2)0.5 where VTHD =Total harmonic distortion of voltage,
Vh=Voltage at harmonic h V1 =Fundamental voltage. Distortion levels can be quite high when system
impedance is high. A fatal combination is high densities of non-linear loads in systems with high impedance or


low fault level. This situation is common when weak sources, such as UPS system or diesel generators, are used
to service electronic equipment. The problem is magnified further when the equipment is serviced by long cable
runs.
3. Voltage distortion demonstration setup


A simple way of demonstrating the relationship between harmonic voltage drop and voltage distortion is shown
in Figure 2. The objective is to show that the harmonic voltages, as measured across a harmonic current
generating load, are primarily the result of the voltage drop developing as the harmonic current passes through
the impedance of the power distribution system. In this demonstration, the non-linear loads chosen are 23-watt
compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). The main reasons for choosing these loads are as follows:


• Their current spectrum is quite typical of that found in today's electronic loads.(see phase current in Fig. 2)
• The low wattage of the lamps means that very little voltage drop is created as the harmonic currents pass
through the impedance of the system. Voltage distortion can then be artificially increased by adding a
relatively small reactor to increase system impedance. The voltage drop across this known reactance is then


used to demonstrate how the voltage distortion is the result of voltage drops at each harmonic frequency.
The system impedance is artificially increased by inserting a 5% impedance, 3-phase, core-type, line reactor in
series. Since the 3-phase reactor presents a very low impedance to the zero sequence harmonics (those that run
on the neutral), a similar size single-phase reactor is inserted in the neutral as well. By applying Ohm's Law as
shown in Figure 1, the voltage drops at each harmonic can be calculated. Since the inductance of the reactor (20
mH) is significantly greater than the remaining inductance in the system, the following assumptions can be made


to simplify the voltage drop calculation:
• Cable, transformer and source impedances are neglected since, in comparison with the reactor impedance,
they are insignificant.
• Resistance in the reactor and the overall system is negligible as well.
This simplified the
demonstration setup system

impedance as follows:
Zh=ZS+ZT+ZC=ZL,
for each harmonic frequency
and since, Z = (R2+X2)0.5 ,
neglecting resistance then, Z h


= X L = 2π πfL, for the 5th

harmonic (where h = 5, f =
300 Hz, and L = 20 mH) the
system impedance becomes:
Z 5 = X 5 = 2π πfL =


π(300)(.02)
2π = 37.7
Ohms.Applying Ohm's Law,
and using the harmonic
current as measured with a
harmonics analyzer, the 5th
harmonic voltage drop is


calculated to be: I 5 = 0.13A

V h = I h x Z h = 0.13 x 37.68
= 4.9V .The above calculations are applied to all odd harmonics from the 3rd to the 13th and the results tabulated
in the accompanying table. By comparing the calculated voltage drops with the actual measured harmonic
voltage at each harmonic, you can see that they match quite closely. This confirms the harmonic voltages (which
define voltage distortion) are primarily the result of the accumulation of harmonic voltage drops.
Harmonic Current in amps Line Reactor Calculated Measured



No. Hz (as measured) Reactance Voltage Drop Harmonic

(ohms) Voltage
3 180 0.81 22.6 18.3 14.5
5 300 0.13 37.7 4.9 5.4
7 420 0.04 52.8 2.1 2.1
9 540 0.05 67.8 3.4 3.0
11 660 0.02 82.9 1.6 1.3
13 780 0.02 98.0 2.0 1.8
The table also shows how the voltage drop across a neutral conductor creates a high neutral-ground voltage,
which is a form of common-mode noise. The 20 mH single-phase reactor inserted in the neutral in the
demonstration, produces a calculated voltage drop of 18.3 volts at the 3rd harmonic. The measured value of
neutral-ground voltage, at 13V (see Fig. 2), approaches this calculated value. Although levels this high are not


normally found in the field, it is now fairly common to find levels above 5 volts. An example is shown in Figure
1 where the neutral-ground voltage at the first site was 6.6 volts.

3. Some Harmonic Mitigation Techniques


One of the most popular methods of harmonic current reduction involves the use of passive harmonic
filters. Passive harmonic filters use inductors and capacitors tuned to
block or absorb particular harmonic currents. A typical harmonic
current filter is shown in Figure 3. Harmonic filters generally require
careful application to ensure their compatibility with the power


system and all present and future non-linear loads. Harmonic filters
tend to be relatively large and can be expensive. Often, passive filters
cannot provide optimal harmonic current reduction without unwanted
side effects such as ringing transient response, unwanted resonances,


and overcompensation. Diode-rectifier loads, typical of computer
power supplies, often require very little 50 Hz power factor
correction capacitance relative to the level of harmonic currents
generated. As such, it is extremely difficult to provide a passive Figure 3. Passive Harmonic
Filter
harmonic filter that does not overcompensate at 60 Hz, causing a
leading displacement power factor.


Active harmonic filters

Active harmonic filters (see Figure 4) are becoming

commercially available. In principle, with sophisticated power
electronics, it is possible to produce a device that either provides

variable harmonic impedance to absorb some or all of the harmonic
currents generated by the non-linear load(s) or provides harmonic
currents of opposite polarity to cancel the non-linear load's harmonic
currents. To date, active filters have been very costly and are not


widely available.

Delta-Wye Transformers
Fig. 4. Active Harmonic Filter
Other harmonic current reduction techniques which have been


applied to computer loads involve the use of transformers to cancel certain

harmonic currents. In three-phase, four-wire power systems supplying
single-phase non-linear loads, delta-wye isolation transformers (see Figure
5) will cancel the balanced triplen harmonic currents (3rd, 9th, 15th, ...).
The triplen harmonics, being zero-sequence components, add instead of
cancel in the neutral of three-phase, four-wire power systems and are


responsible for neutral current being greater than the phase currents, even
with balanced loading. The triplen harmonics circulate in the delta of the
transformer with only the unbalanced portion present in the Fig.5. Delta-Wye Transformer
transformer input line currents.

Zigzag Grounding Filter(ZZF)

Another way to protect the step-down transformer and shared neutral conductor from triplen harmonics



is to cancel them near the load.Fig.6 shows a special zigzag grounding transformer that employs a three-phase
autotransformer to cancel 3rd or triplen harmonics.because all the triplen harmonic currents (zero sequence
currents) are added in the neutral and flowing from load-side back to source-side neutral,the parallel connected
autotransformer can provide a zero sequence current path and cancel the triplen harmonics.The basic harmonic
cancellation principle can be understood by looking at the transformer phase voltages:
va1=va2= Vm1Sin ωt + Vm3Sin3ωt + .....
vb1=vb2= Vm1Sin( ωt-1200) + Vm3Sin3(ωt -1200) + .....
vc1=vc2= Vm1Sin( ωt+1200) + Vm3Sin3(ωt +1200) + .....
where va1,vb1,vc1 are the three-phase primary winding voltages,and va2,vb2,vc2 are the secondary winding voltages.
With phase to neutral windings split and wound on two different legs of a three legged core, each pair on a leg is
reversed in polarity as shown in Fig 6(a) .Fig 6(b) is the phasor diagram showing the vector summation of the
phase winding voltages. By this method the balanced triplen harmonic voltages are cancelled in the phase
voltages,i.e.,


van = va1 - vb2 = 1.732 Vm1Sin( ωt+300) + 0 + 1.732 Vm5Sin(5 ωt-300) + .......
This equation shows that the triplen harmonic voltages are not present in the phase voltages,and the
triplen currents are trapped in the zigzag transformer windings. By adding more phase shifted zigzag
windings,with different phase angle and winding arrangements,the positive and negative sequence harmonic
currents such as 5th and 7th can also be cancelled.







Recently, these same techniques (multi-phase power sources) have been applied to computer
mainframes and other data processing equipment to reduce harmonic current distortion. Special isolation
transformers with multiple output windings have been devised to cancel particular harmonic currents. Typical
computer system requirements of balanced voltages to ground and a common ground reference require that the
multiple outputs be multiple wye outputs with a common neutral.


A dual-output transformer (see Figure 7) is constructed with two wye outputs having a 30-degree phase
shift. The delta primary allows cancellation of the balanced triplen
harmonic currents. The 30 degree phase shift between outputs provides
cancellation of the 5th, 7th, 17th, 19th, ... harmonic currents which are
balanced between the two outputs. For maximum harmonic current


cancellation, identical non-linear loads need to be connected to each

output. If the harmonic current content of the loads on each output is
not identical in amplitude and phase displacement relative to the
applied voltage, then less than total cancellation of the harmonic
currents is obtained. This configuration is particularly applicable to
mainframe applications where virtually identical loads can be


connected to each output. Figure 7. Dual Output Transformer.

Another multiple wye-output transformer configuration is a

quad-output with the outputs phase-displaced in 15-degree increments as
shown in Figure 8. The delta primary provides cancellation of the
balanced triplen harmonic currents, while the 15 degree phase-shifts
between outputs provide cancellation of the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th,



19th, 29th, 31st, ... harmonic currents which are balanced across the four
outputs. Again, if the harmonic current content is not identical on all four
outputs, then less than total cancellation is obtained.

Figure 8. Quad-Output Transformer.

4. K-Factor Rating for Transformers

The primary effect of the power system harmonics on transformers is the additional heat generated by


the losses caused by the harmonic content of the load current. Other problems include resonance between the
transformer inductance and system capacitance,mechanical insulation stresses (winding and lamination) due to
temperature cycling and possible small core vibrations.
The additional heating caused by system harmonics requires load capability derating to remain within
the temperature rating of the transformer or use of special transformers designed for nonsinusoidal load currents.


Transformer life will be reduced as the result of operating above rated temperatures.
The primary loss components are winding losses, winding eddy-current losses and stray losses from
electromagnetic flux in areas such as windings , core,clamp assemblies and tanks. The losses due to the I2R
component will be due to conductor heating and the skin effect. Losses from the winding eddy-currents will
increase with the square of load current and the square of frequency. Other stray losses will also increase with


frequency although at a power slightly less than two.
Transformers directly supplying single-phase power supplies may require deratings of 30% to 40% to
avoid overheating. Underwriters laboratory (UL) recognised the potential safety hazards associated with using
standard transformers with non-linear loads and developed a rating system to indicate the capability of a


transformer to handle harmonic loads. The ratings are described in UL1561 and are known as transformer K-
Factors. K-Factor is weighting of the harmonic load currents according to their effects on transformer heating, as
derived from ANSI/IEEE C57.110. A K-Factor of 1.0 indicates a linear load (no harmonics). The higher the K-
Factor, the greater the harmonic heating effects:
K-Factor = ∑(ih)2h2,where Ih is the load current at harmonic h, expressed in a per-unit basis such that the total
RMS current equals one amp, i.e., ∑ (ih)2=1.0


One problem associated with calculating K-Factor is selecting the range of harmonic frequencies that
should be included. Some use up to the 15th harmonic, others the 25th harmonic, and still others include up to
the 50th harmonic. For the same load, each of these calculations can yield significantly different K-Factors
because even very small current levels associated with the higher harmonics, when multiplied by the harmonic
number squared (e.g., 502 = 2500), can add significantly to the K-Factor. Based on the underlying assumptions
of C57.110, it seems reasonable to limit the K-Factor calculation to harmonic currents less than the 25th

harmonic. Sample calculations are shown in the table below.

K-Factor Calculation for a Typical Non-linear Load

Ih (non-linear load
h (harmonic number) (Ih)2 ih= (Ih)/(∑ (Ih)2) 1/2 (ih)2 (ih)2h2
current)


1 100.0% 1.000 0.792 0.626 0.626

3 65.7 0.432 0.520 0.270 2.434
5 37.7 0.142 0.298 0.089 2.226
7 12.7 0.016 0.101 0.010 0.495
9 4.4 0.002 0.035 0.001 0.098


11 5.3 0.003 0.042 0.002 0.213

13 2.5 0.001 0.020 0.000 0.066
15 1.9 0.000 0.015 0.000 0.051
17 1.8 0.000 0.014 0.000 0.059
19 1.1 0.000 0.009 0.000 0.027


21 0.6 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.010

23 0.8 0.000 0.006 0.000 0.021
25 0.4 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.006
Total 1.596 1.00 6.33

In establishing standard transformer K-Factor ratings, UL chose ratings of 1, 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40, and
50. From a practical viewpoint, individual loads with K-Factors greater than 20 are infrequent at best. Office
areas with some non-linear loads and large computer rooms normally have observed K-Factors of 4 to 9. Areas



with high concentrations of single-phase computers and terminals have observed K-Factors of 13 to 17.
When multiple non-linear loads are powered from the same source, lower total harmonic current levels
may be expected due to phase-shifts and cancellations. In one study of commercial buildings, single phase loads
with current distortions of 104% THD (total harmonic distortion) resulted in only a 7% THD at the service
entrance when added with other loads in the building. Additional studies of typical loads are beginning to
provide information that should aid in the development of additional rules-of-thumb to use when direct load
measurements are not available.
 K-Factor transformers are designed to be operated fully loaded with any harmonic load having a K-
Factor equal to or less than its K-Rating. For example, a K-13 transformer can be fully loaded with any harmonic
load having a K-Factor up to K-13. If the load has a K-Factor greater than 13, then the transformer cannot be
safely operated at full load and would require derating.
K-Factor transformers differ from standard transformers. They have additional thermal capacity to


tolerate the heating effects of the harmonic currents. Beyond that, well-designed K-Factor transformers will also
minimise the winding eddy current losses through the use of parallel conductors and other winding techniques.
The K-Factor indicates the multiple of the 50 Hz winding eddy current losses that the transformer can safely
dissipate: Transformer load losses consist of winding I2R losses plus stray losses. Using UL1561 test methods,
stray losses are assumed to be primarily winding eddy current losses for transformers 300 kVA and smaller. For


example, a transformer having winding I2R losses of 2000 watts and 50 Hz stray losses of 100 watts would, with
a K-20 rating, be required to dissipate the 2000 watts of I2R losses plus 20 times the 50 Hz stray losses of 100
watts for a total load loss of 4000 watts without exceeding the maximum winding temperature rise. The result is
a larger, more expensive transformer.
For K-Factor transformers, UL also requires that the neutral terminal and connections be sized to


accommodate twice the rated phase conductor size (double the minimum neutral capacity) of standard
transformers. Standard transformers, i.e., those not marked with a K-Factor rating, may have some tolerance to
non-linear loading, but their capability is unknown to the user and is not certified by a third party such as UL.
Currently, marking a transformer with a K-Factor rating is not required by UL. Due to a conservative design or


application, some unmarked transformers may therefore have enough extra thermal capacity to tolerate
additional harmonic load heating. This is particularly true for 800C; or 1150C; rise transformers built with 2200 C
insulation materials which can safely withstand a 1500C winding temperature rise.
Additional over-current protection should be considered for all transformers supplying non-linear loads.
The National Electrical Code allows primary-only over-current protection at 125% of the transformer's primary
full load amps. With three-phase transformers, the triplen harmonics are cancelled in the delta winding and do


not appear in the input current. The output current and transformer loading is greater than is apparent from the
input current. Therefore, the transformer can be overloaded without the primary over-current protection ever
tripping. Adding transformer secondary over-current protection helps, but it still does not protect the transformer
from the heating effects of harmonic currents. The use of supplemental protection in the form of winding
temperature sensors can be used to provide alarm and/or system shutdown in case of overload, excessive
harmonic current, high ambient temperature, or inadequate cooling.
The use of derated standard transformers instead of K-Factor transformers carries some disadvantages.

First is the issue of managing the derating when the transformer nameplate indicates greater capacity. Initially,
the transformer may be operated at the reduced loading, but in the future, the loading may be increased without
considering the intended derating. Second, if smaller over-current protection is used to intentionally limit the
loading, nuisance tripping may occur due to the transformer inrush current. Larger over-current protection may


be required for the oversized (derated) standard transformer resulting in larger conductor requirements with the
associated higher feeder costs. Third, transformers designed specifically for non-linear loads minimise losses due
to the harmonic currents. They operate with the non-linear loads more efficiently and generate less heat that
needs to be dissipated.
Because transformers are the power system component most affected by non-linear loads, they were the


first to receive a harmonics capability rating system. K-Factor ratings are based on the heating effects of
harmonics and are not necessarily applicable to other power system components. If harmonic rating systems for
other components are needed, they will have to be developed by other methods, e.g., THD, crest factor, or some
new and component-specific weighting of harmonic currents.

4. Magnetic


Synthesiser for
Power Quality
Conditioning

One of the most successful

three-phase power
conditioning products of the
last 15 years is a unique



product based on a three-

phase ferroresonant circuit,
known as a magnetic
synthesiser .The schematic
diagram of the first-
generation magnetic
synthesiser is shown in Figure
9. Fig.9 Magnetic Synthesiser Schematic Diagram
 A simplified block diagram of the magnetic synthesiser is shown in Figure 10. The heart of the
magnetic synthesiser is the pulse transformer network, which consists of six interconnected saturating pulse
transformers whose outputs are combined to produce the output sine waves in a manner similar to that of a step-
wave inverter. The pulse of each saturating transformer is determined by the construction of the transformer
(core geometry and windings), which establishes the available volt-seconds. The magnetic synthesiser pulse


transformers are designed to saturate in 1/12th of the fundamental period. At any instant in time, five of the six
pulse transformers are in saturation. When one transformer core saturates, the transformer's impedance switches
from a higher impedance state to a lower impedance state which causes a reversal of voltage on another
transformer. This natural
saturation sequence is


depicted in Figure 11. The
numbers inside of the pulses
refer to the saturating
transformer winding (shown
in the magnetic synthesiser


schematic of Figure 9) that
produced it. For example,
pulse 3B is produced by the
"B" winding of the TX3. Figure 10. Magnetic Synthesiser Block Diagram


To see how the interconnec-
ted transformer windings produce the sine-wave output, trace the path through the saturating transformer
windings for any output phase voltage.
For example, to produce the output voltage between phases A and B, the path is through the windings
of TX4, TX1A, TX2B, TX3B, TX2A, and TX5, which are the same pulses shown to produce output voltage
phase A-B in Figure 11. The pulse heights correspond to the sine-wave function: that is, sine 30 is 0.5 times the


peak, sine 60 is 0.866 times the peak, sine 90 is 1.0 times the peak, etc. For a sine-wave output, the pulse heights
of each winding of TX1, TX2, and TX3 are 0.5 times the desired peak output voltage whereas the pulse heights
of TX4, TX5, and TX6 are 0.866 times the desired peak output voltage. The resulting output voltage waveform
contains less than 4% total harmonic distortion.
Ferroresonance is used to ensure that the saturating pulse transformer cores go into hard saturation for a
broad range of input voltage conditions. Energy oscillates between the main capacitor bank (C1) and the pulse
transformer cores (TX1 to TX6). Unlike single-phase ferroresonant circuits, the value of the capacitance is not a

critical factor to determine the output voltage. The amount of capacitance is based on a minimum energy storage
capability to ensure saturation of six cores. As a matter of practical design, multiple parallel-connected
capacitors are used. An additional 10 to 20% capacitance is included in the unit for redundancy, which allows for
some capacitor failures without affecting unit performance.


Three non-linear chokes (TX7, TX8,

TX9) are used to isolate the pulse transformer,
waveform synthesising network from the utility
source. The variable impedance of the non-


linear chokes allows the regulated pulse

transformer network to operate at a voltage
level different from the input voltage source.
The variable impedance of the chokes
essentially converts the variable voltage utility
source into a current source which drives the


saturating pulse transformer network. The

frequency of the input power source is relied
upon to drive the saturation sequence timing
and thus determines the output voltage
frequency. Because the saturating pulse
transformer network is based on constant volt-
second pulse areas, changing the input
frequency (which alters the "seconds") has a



direct effect on the output voltage level.

For example, reducing the input frequency by
1% causes the output frequency to be reduced
by 1% and the output voltage to be reduced by
about 1.2%. However, from a practical point of
view, any reasonable variations in frequency,
even on standby generator operation, are less
than +/-3 Hz, which results in an output voltage Fig.11 Output Waveform Synthesis
variation of only 6%.
The output of the pulse transformer network is a regulated three-phase voltage. A zigzag (grounding)
transformer (TX10) is used to derive the output neutral. The zigzag transformer is so named because of the
vector representation of the transformer windings that "zig" and "zag." Two equal windings on each phase are
interconnected such that the impedance of the transformer from phase to phase is high while the impedance from


the derived neutral to any phase is very low. The neutral is used for grounding purposes and to supply output
line-to-neutral loads. The pulse transformers have isolated primary and secondary windings with multiple
electrostatic shields between them to provide electrical isolation and common mode noise rejection. The
synthesiser derives a neutral and maintains the input-to-output electrical isolation of a separately derived system
as defined by the National Electrical Code. The electrical isolation is maintained even when the unit is equipped


with an optional bypass circuit because a 4-pole switch is used to switch the phase and neutral conductors.
The remaining magnetic elements (TX11 to TX16) of the magnetic synthesiser are connected with
capacitor banks C2 and C3 to form two sets of three-phase series-resonant filters (harmonic traps). One set is
tuned to filter the 2nd harmonic and the other is tuned to filter the 3rd harmonic. These traps are not used, as may
be expected, to filter the output voltage waveform under normal operation. Under normal operation, the


synthesised sine-wave output voltage waveform (see Figure 5) does not contain any significant levels of 2nd or
3rd harmonic voltages. The lowest significant harmonic voltage in the synthesised output voltage waveform is
the 11th harmonic. However, at start-up, before the saturation sequence is established, the harmonic traps are
needed to force the synthesiser into the desired saturation sequence. It was determined (and disclosed as part of


the first patent) that any saturation sequence other than the desired sine-wave saturation sequence contained
significant levels of either the 2nd or 3rd harmonic frequency. By suppressing these harmonics, the synthesiser is
forced to start up with a sine-wave output.


 ==============