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Positive Psychology and Transactional Analysis

Rosemary Napper

Abstract domain toward the end of the century, perhaps


This articles describes the author’s encoun- emerging in response to complexity theory and
ter with two “positive” psychologies— trans- quantum physics— and that is only to name a
actional analysis and positive psychology— few. It was said in my training that there are
and some of the similarities and differences over 400 named psychologies currently in exis-
in their founding, evolution, and branding. tence. And now, at the beginning of the twenty-
Because transactional analysis has remark- first century, a collection of research and ideas
able properties as a metalanguage, many loosely termed “positive psychology” (PP) is
positive psychology ideas can be considered beginning to permeate not only some existing
from a TA perspective and translated into approaches, but also politics, practices within
TA concepts. On the other hand, positive organizations and education, psychotherapy
psychology may be able to provide research and counseling, and even popular culture. This
evidence for concepts from transactional impact is not unlike the one transactional analy-
analysis. This comparison highlights the con- sis (T A) had in its heyday in the 1960s and
tradictions deeply embedded within transac- 1970s, and many of the ideas within positive
tional analysis theory between a philosophi- psychology echo notions for which transaction-
cal framework based on the empirical scien- al analysis provides useful maps and metaphors.
tific paradigm of the 1950s, which focuses on This article offers an overview of some of
“objectivity,” and a more contemporary con- the developments and range of ideas within
structivist philosophy, which focuses on positive psychology and suggests links with
“subjectivity.” transactional analysis. It does not attempt to cri-
______ tique coherently the positive psychology move-
ment, although some of my signposts for doing
History may view the twentieth century in so may be decipherable in this text. At the same
ways that we cannot yet imagine. It is likely to time, this article juxtaposes positive psycholo-
credit this era with the development of a myri- gy with transactional analysis in order to pro-
ad of psychological approaches growing out of vide some critique of the latter. If transactional
Freud’s late nineteenth-century work on hypno- analysis is to continue to develop internation-
tism and hysteria (from his studies with Char- ally in breadth as well as in depth, we need to
cot, 1885-1886) and hysteria and dreams (from pay attention to our strengths rather than put
his work with Breuer as articulated in Breuer & energy into our weaknesses and internal dis-
Freud, 1895). Bragg (1998) has suggested that putes about those. By attending to our strengths,
Freud had more impact on the world than any- we can continue to build on our excellent his-
one before or since. A longer-term view of the tory of integrating ides from other psychologi-
twentieth-century W estern world already puts cal domains into central transactional analysis
into perspective the fashionable ebbs and flows thinking.
of psychological frameworks: humanistic schools
arising out of experiences from W orld W ar II; M y Journey
cognitive and behavioral approaches gaining Noticing the increasing prevalence of the
popularity alongside the technological develop- term “positive psychology” and how some of
ments of the 1960s and 1970s, as humans gran- its ideas seemed to connect with transactional
diosely considered that they might be able to analysis, I attended and enjoyed the first British
control environment and society; a resurgence positive psychology conference in April 2007.
of notions of the unconscious, with a new focus At that meeting, there were some transactional
on the interpersonal and thus intersubjective analysis workshops presented by people who

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use but are not trained in transactional analysis, everyone can think, and thus they can decide to
and I noted for sale an early positive psycholo- change if they wish. This resonated for me then
gy text that included a somewhat limited and and does so now as a reasonable, if utopian,
old-fashioned section on transactional analysis philosophy on which to base an appreciation of
by Linley and Joseph (2004). The conference humankind’s individual and collective psy-
was organized by the Centre for Applied Posi- chology. As a late twentieth-century person
tive Psychology, which is linked to the Univer- originally trained in sociology, I am skeptical
sity of W arwick. about the basis of the classically empirical sci-
I also read a fair amount of positive psy- entific paradigm for studying human beings in-
chology literature and took part in a global tele- dividually or in groups. Therefore, the evolution
course in positive psychology with one of the of transactional analysis from Berne’s early
key contemporary teachers, who is based in the hopes for scientific observation to a more re-
United States. (Significantly, no one else in the cent trend toward constructivism and meaning
course seemed to have heard of transactional making fits well with my own frame of reference.
analysis!). In November 2007 I attended a con- Thus, the research basis of positive psy-
ference offering positive psychology for busi- chology is a challenge to some of my core be-
nesspeople organized by the University of East liefs, yet it seems to provide some of the very
London (UEL) (the first university in Britain to scientific observation that Berne might have
offer a master’ degree in positive psychology), wanted to find. W hat also strikes me are (1) the
to which the founder of positive psychology, similarities in development and in some of the
Martin Seligman, was invited. H e is based at ideas of transactional analysis and positive psy-
Pennsylvania State University in the United chology and (2) the differences and how some
States, and earlier in the week he had been of these might be of great value for us within
asked to speak to 1100 members of the British transactional analysis if they could be used to
Psychology Society. At all of these events, I build on and strengthen our work.
noticed two factors that I otherwise only ex-
perience around the best of transactional analy- W hat’s in a Name?
sis training and conferences: people adopting I have never understood why transactional
an “I’m OK, You’re OK” stance and demon- analysis is called transactional analysis. W hy
strating authenticity. not script analysis? Or the psychology of
W hy do I have such interest in positive psy- autonomy? I assume that part of the reason is
chology? As a coach, consultant, and facilitator that, at the time it was developed by Berne, it
using transactional analysis to realize the poten- was somewhat radical to suggest that interac-
tial of individuals, groups, organizations, and tions might provide insight into a person’s
communities, I find my working focus is at odds inner world, that the intrapsychic impacts the
with many of my psychotherapy colleagues and interpersonal, and that the other’s involvement
with authors who focus on the pathological invites another series of internal and interper-
aspects of being human in their efforts to bring sonal responses. Thus, the term “transaction”
about healing or a reorganization of the self. In (i.e., exchange) became part of the unique
my work, the contract is different. My focus is branding of transactional analysis. However, I
on what is already working and how the future think this has created problems for TA. “Trans-
could be at its best. This approach is essentially actional” is not an everyday word. If I had a
pragmatical and creates hope, which in itself is penny for every time someone has asked me
often considered the most important aspect of what it means, I would be rich! Its main asso-
counseling, therapy, and coaching . ciation, and literature, is from the financial
I was originally attracted to transactional world. Do a Google search on “transactional
analysis because, unlike many psychologies, it analysis” and see what you get. As for the word
contains concepts that focus on the healthy as- “analysis,” I guess that at the time Berne was
pects of individuals and groups and is built on writing, it represented both an attempt to un-
the positive assumptions that people are OK, derscore the scientific basis of the theory and

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

also to provide a critical contrast to psycho- chology of happiness,” which journalists and
analysis. Nowadays, to the lay person, “trans- some authors have seized on (e.g., a well-
actional analysis” often seems to imply dullness researched and well-written book about this is
and impenetrability. The combination does not Nettle, 2005). Not only is the right to the pur-
indicate a psychology. It is not surprising to suit of happiness enshrined in the U.S. Con-
find that many educated people have never stitution, it sells!— unless it touches anti-
heard of transactional analysis and find the American rebels! The positive psychologists
name unappealing, if not off-putting. W hile themselves, discussing this at conferences, are
Novellino’s (2007) recent critique of English’s well aware of how the American connotations
(2007) comments about cognitive transactional and the simplistic notions of the term “positive
analysis was partly about being overfocused on psychology” may be off-putting. (It is worth
marketing, there is the reality that a “brand” noting that Maslow used the term as a chapter
needs to communicate its values clearly and title in 1954.)
accessibly. And with hundreds of psychologies Both names— transactional analysis and posi-
to choose from, branding plays a significant tive psychology— seem to have some branding
part in affecting whether someone develops the problems, although I would suggest that posi-
motivation to become involved with a given tive psychology has more going for it in every-
theory and practice. day language than transactional analysis has
W ithin the field of organizational theories, ever had. In the world of commerce, brands are
the term “transactional” was used by Blanchard successful if they indicate five core values that
and Johnson (1981/1996) to describe ways are clearly associated with the brand name and
leaders work and think that are not “transfor- that are acted on consistently. W e might consi-
mational” of staff or services and so do not add der this as the character of the culture (Berne,
value. The term “transactional” is now often 1963). From my contact with the positive psy-
used in management settings and has come to chology world, I have found the core values to
mean “old fashioned” and “limited,” the “status be positive, meaningfulness, authenticity,
quo” and “no real change.” This is particularly strengths focused, evidence based, and applic-
ironic for transactional analysis because it is able. I will explore these further in this article.
often taught in management development pro- And what would we say our five core values
grams (usually by people who have not learned are in transactional analysis? I suggest there are
transactional analysis themselves and frequent- these basic assumptions: OKness, choice, au-
ly with theory that is out of date, if not inac- tonomy, open communication, and contracting.
curate). Consequently, it is not unusual to find But how well do we walk our talk? Game play-
a negative response to transactional analysis ing perhaps? Obfuscation? Possibly. Splits and
among managers and management and organi- contaminations? Integrating?
zational theorists.
Key authors and speakers within positive Origins and Development of Positive
psychology are also clear that its name can give Psychology
the wrong impression because of the emphasis The term “positive psychology” had an im-
on “positive.” It can imply a “Pollyanna,” com- mediate impact in the psychology world in
placent, happy-clappy pop psychology approach 1998 when Martin Seligman was president of
that avoids anything negative. As a result, the the American Psychological Association; the
depth of thinking, realism, and research that role included the privilege of setting up re-
prevails among many key positive psychology search into a project in which he was particu-
people may be overlooked because of what is, larly interested (Linley & Harrington, 2006).
for some, an off-putting name that has many Seligman had noticed that most post-W orld
meanings and associations in lay language. The W ar II mental health research had focused on
positive psychology cognoscenti wrangle over pathology, and he pledged funding to find out
alternatives, such as “the psychology of well- more about what makes for psychological well-
being,” while most steer away from “the psy- being. He was adamant that this investigation

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would be firmly research based and so not as- steered funding toward researching the neuro-
sociated with popular or humanistic psycholo- science of well-being, and he seems personally
gies; he wanted it to have credence rooted in committed to using positive psychology for the
science. This brings to mind Berne rebellious benefit of society.
turning away from preceding frameworks and W hen I began training in transactional analy-
his emphasis on empirical observations. sis, the potential for social action and social
In the past 9 years, a number of research justice was central to my choice of this social
psychologists— initially in the United States but psychology. It is why after training as a trans-
increasingly in other parts of the developed actional analysis psychotherapist I undertook a
world— have turned their attention to many dif- second round of training in organizational TA
ferent facets of human well-being in an attempt and went on to qualify in the organizational and
to learn how this originates and can be devel- educational fields. I want to see the value of
oped further. There is a strong focus on the transactional analysis ideas permeate everyday
applicability of research findings to the real life, as it does with Diane Salter’s and Karen
world, and it is notable that positive psycholo- Pratt’s work in South Africa and George Kohl-
gy conference workshops often have themes rieser’s (2006) work in hostage negotiations
related to education, organizations, counseling and organizations. I am disappointed at how of-
and psychotherapy, and health. Transactional ten there seems to be a pecking order within
analysis is often applied to the first four of transactional analysis that puts psychotherapy
these fields, although the literature and perhaps at the top. For example, when I was in India, I
practice is dominated by psychotherapy, at was told by at least a few Indian transactional
least in English-speaking countries. analysts that they do not want to continue to be
Positive psychology has grown quickly in known as focusing on poverty and social un-
under 10 years, just as transactional analysis rest. The Indian transactional analysis commu-
did between Berne’s first article on ego states nity is proud of how in the past few years, the
in 1957 and the publication of Games People roles of counselor and psychotherapist have
Play in 1964 (with its serialization in the wom- grown and developed, along with the economy,
en’s magazine, Cosmopolitan). The difference call centers, and stress in response to increasing
is that Games, Berne’s first pop psychology disruption of more traditional patterns of living.
book, symbolized the beginning of the decline I felt saddened that these imported ways of
of transactional analysis, at least in the United working with individuals have overtaken his-
States, where it had worked to avoid the estab- toric and systemic ways of working with fami-
lishment and universities. lies and communities (see, for example, Drego,
In contrast, positive psychology is rooted in 1983 on using the oral tradition in Indian vil-
academic research, and Martin Seligman and lages) to deal with difficulties (such as shift
others are invited to talk with prime ministers working to global timetables that had been im-
and presidents about the potential for positive posed by the dominating W estern world). From
psychology to impact education and health sys- my experience of what local people had to con-
tems. Seligman (2007) talked at the UEL con- tribute at the 2004 International Transactional
ference of wanting to see a positive psychology Analysis Conference in Bangalore, there are
approach to economics, politics, and education many ways of working from which we in the
schooling. In fact, in the summer of 2007, he W est can learn.
and his colleagues brought about the training of A key element in the success of positive psy-
900 teachers in the United Kingdom and the chology is what Seligman (2007) refers to as
United States focusing on what makes young “disconfimability.” He is careful to dissociate
people flourish as well as on life satisfaction positive psychology from the humanistic psy-
and resilience. The master’s and doctoral pro- chologies, in particular, probably aware of the
grams at Pennsylvania State University are connections between the best of them but con-
structured so that people can and do attend cerned about the lack of evidence for human-
easily from all over the world. Seligman has istic concepts in general and the questionable

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

thinking, practices, and behaviors within some there is rarely real danger, although the brain is
of the humanistic movements at the further still wired to respond as if there were. Some
reaches (including, historically, transactional suggest that modern-day stress is due to the fact
analysis, according to anecdotes and also Jor- that the brain is not able to switch off these
gensen & Jorgensen, 1984). Thus, credibility is functions quickly enough; consequently, we are
central to positive psychology, and in a short flooded with adrenalin and other chemicals,
time, this has helped it to establish a well- some of which have addictive qualities.
regarded reputation and an increase in research Snyder and Lopez (2007) suggest that some
and application along with entry into govern- Eastern thought and philosophies also influence
ment and public service across the English- and are compatible with positive psychology.
speaking world. These include ideas of enlightenment and the
cycle of life from Confucianism, Taoism, Bud-
Exploring the Roots of Positive Psychology dhism, and Hinduism, which emphasize virtues
Although the field of positive psychology and transcendence, in particular, through col-
was launched by Seligman in 1998, the roots lectivity and the virtues of compassion and har-
are ancient and begin with Aristotle and his mony. In recent years, cognitive behavioral
notions of eudaimonic well-being (“daimon” psychology has also aligned itself with the
means true nature and has recently been rein- concept of “mindfulness,” which is rooted in
troduced as a popular idea in Phillip Pullman’s Eastern traditions. It is notable that this notion
novels and the film The Golden Compass). has also been picked up in positive psychology
Aristotle considered happiness vulgar and conferences (Boniwell, 2007).
thought that not all desires are worth pursuing; Considering such Eastern and W estern philo-
although some may produce pleasure, this does sophy might enhance contemporary transac-
not produce well-being. He considered realiz- tional analysis if we had better communication
ing one’s potential to be the human goal, and channels among ourselves internationally. For
true happiness comes from leading a virtuous example, there were excellent opportunities to
life (Boniwell, 2006). Snyder and Lopez consider the connections between Hinduism
(2007) trace the history of hope from ancient and transactional analysis at the 2004 Interna-
Greece via Judeo-Christian developments into tional Transactional Analysis Conference in
the Renaissance, the scientific revolution of the Bangalore, India. In the United Kingdom there
Enlightenment, and the ensuing industrial revo- are at least two transactional analysis trainers
lution. For them, hope fuels positive psychology. who are significant contributors to a master’s
Interestingly, there was a key book published degree program in mindfulness. Positive psy-
prior to Seligman’s and others’ pronounce- chology itself seems to have created an infra-
ments about psychology not yielding enough structure for debate among a wide variety of
knowledge of what makes life worth living. It practitioners and a way of publicizing itself
was Flow: The Psychology of Happiness by through both the academic and popular press.
Csikszentmihayli (1992). Clarke (1996) incor- Despite our belief in the value of open commu-
porated the idea of flow in a 1996 workshop to nication, we in transactional analysis do not
describe the “I’m OK, You’re OK” (I+U+) life seem to have managed such a level of debate.
position. She contrasted it with fight (I+U-), For example, not all transactional analysis prac-
flight (I+U-), and freeze (I-U-) and linked these titioners receive The Script newsletter or the
life positions with paleomammalian or instinc- Transactional Analysis Journal, some complain
tual parts of brain functioning, which evolu- about difficulties in getting their ideas pub-
tionary psychology suggests receives a stimulus lished, and it is not unknown to hear trainers
a fraction of a second before the later-developed proudly proclaiming that they do not read the
cerebral cortex where we (“everyone can”) TAJ or criticizing it as boring or inaccessible.
think and flow. These “instinctive” reactions
are not only OK but extraordinarily valuable Approach to Life
when there is danger. However, in modern life It is readily apparent that much of positive

Vol. 39, No. 1, January 2009 65


ROSEMARY NAPPER

psychology is imbued with a moral position that the engaged life is particularly about ac-
emphasizing virtue, but then the values explicit tivity and intimacy, whereas the pleasant life is
in transactional analysis and other humanistic perhaps involved with withdrawal, ritual, and
psychologies also lead beyond philosophy to a pastiming.
moral stance with regard to being human. The meaningful life includes and goes be-
Seligman (2003) put forward a hypothesis that yond being engaged with others because it in-
suggests there are three approaches to living: volves gaining meaning out of contributing in
• The pleasant life some way to a greater social whole. This picks
• The engaged life up on the importance of belonging (Moiso,
• The meaningful life 1998), homonomy (Tudor, 2003), and autono-
These imply an ascending order of virtue. All my involving interdependence and the stories
are considered to provide a sense of well-being, we tell ourselves about our individuality, oth-
with the second and third providing greater life ers, and the quality of life.
satisfaction over time. W ithin transactional
analysis, the concept of “physis” (Berne, 1972) The Value of Positive Emotion
is imbued with aspiration and dynamism and W hile the overall balance of positive to
implies that growth and development are in- negative emotions has been shown to contri-
evitable and desirable. And while Berne did not bute to people’s subjective well-being and opti-
expand much on this concept, there is a sense mal functioning, Frederickson (2005/2007) ar-
of what he found virtuous in all his writings. gues that people should cultivate positive emo-
Clearly, the notion of these three approaches tions in themselves and those around them not
to life could be thought of in the transactional just as an end state, but also as a means to
analysis terms of life script and might provide achieving psychological growth and improved
useful insights into categorizing scripts. The psychological and physical well-being over time.
banal script described by Berne (1972) has Unlike negative emotions, which are associated
some links with the pleasant life. W ithin trans- with specific action tendencies, positive emo-
actional analysis writing about scripts or life tions are vague, underspecified, and triggered
plans, since Cornell (1988) and up until and in- by personal meaning. Frederickson argues that
cluding Newton (2006), there has been a shift positive emotions are not to be confused with
to more realistic thinking about the more posi- positive sensory experiences or positive moods.
tive and useful aspects of scripting that under- As with negative emotions, they are fleeting
pin our strengths and talents in the wider world. and in response to some personally meaningful
This is in contrast to a sole focus on the patho- circumstance.
logical aspects of script or Berne’s earlier im- Not only do positive emotions appear to
plications that autonomy is being free of all operate as signals to approach or continue in
scripting. These ways of thinking about script some way, but Frederickson’s (2005/2007)
can lead us to ask our clients the following “broaden and build” (p. 217) theory and re-
kinds of questions: In what way do they find search suggests that positive emotions do more
their lives pleasant? How are they engaged with than this in broadening people’s thought-action
and stretching their strengths? In what ways do repertoires (while negative emotions narrow
they gain meaning out of being alive and con- these to those quick and decisive actions that
tributing to their wider world? may be needed to adapt to threatening environ-
The engaged life can also be thought of with- ments). They build their enduring resources in
in transactional analysis as transactional within order to play, explore, savor, and integrate.
two-way relationships that satisfy the hungers Tudor (2007a) suggests that transactional
of contact, stimulus (including incidence and analysts should use active verbs rather than
sexuality) structure, and recognition, whereas nouns (which have a distancing effect) to de-
the pleasant life suggests a more one-way and scribe what we do and our purpose and goals.
passive receiving of the strokes that “feed” The list just mentioned (i.e., play, explore,
these hungers. Time structuring might suggest savor, and integrate) describes many of the

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

goals of classical transactional analysis, and we flourishing. For example, the famous research
have metaphors (e.g., the Free or Natural Child study into nuns’ mortality indicated that those
and the integrating Adult ego states) that ex- who expressed the most positive emotions in an
pand on these notions, which are embedded in autobiographical piece in their twenties lived
transactional analysis. 10 years longer than those who expressed the
Frederickson (2005/2007) identifies positive least positive emotions (Danner, Snowdon, &
emotions as (1) joy, a high activation state that Friesen, 2001).
creates the urge to play, push the limits, and be “Flourishing” describes a state of optimal hu-
creative; (2) interest, which creates the urge to man functioning in positive psychology and is
explore, take in new information and experi- contrasted with pathology and also with lan-
ences, and expand the self in the process; (3) guishing. Research into how much positivity is
contentment, a low activation state that creates needed to counterbalance negativity has been
the urge to sit back and savor current life and carried out by video observation of interactions
circumstances and integrate these into new and their long-term effects (Snyder & Lopez,
views of the self and the world; (4) love, which 2005, 2007). If only this had been done with
is an amalgam of the aforementioned three ex- transactional analysis concepts of transactions!
perienced within the contexts of safe and close Every speech act was coded into (1) positive
relationships, creating in the process recurring (support, encouragement, appreciation) or nega-
cycles to play with, explore, and savor our tive (disapproval, sarcasm, cynicism); (2) in-
loved ones. Frederickson also reviews other quiry (questions aimed at exploring or examin-
emotions that can be positive when authentic, ing a position) or advocacy (arguments in favor
such as pride, elevation, and gratitude. of the speaker’s viewpoint); and (3) self (refer-
These ways of functioning have some paral- ring to the speaker, the group present, or the
lels with functional ego state theory, perhaps company it forms part of) or other (if referenc-
most clearly with Temple’s (2004) research- ing an individual or group that was not part of
based investigation into functional fluency and the company). The results show the complexity
the five positive modes. Frederickson (2005/ of the dynamics involved. High-performing
2007) makes the case in her research that these teams had the highest ratio of positivity to
ways of functioning, which result from positive negativity and the broadest range of inquiry to
emotions, build physical and social resources, advocacy. M edium performance teams showed
social bonds and attachments, social support, less of both and did not show behavioral flexi-
and intellectual resources (including creativity bility that helped them to be resilient in the face
and theory of mind) as well as fuel brain devel- of adversity; rather, they tended to calcify with
opment, knowledge and intellectual complexi- extreme negativity and ended up languishing in
ty, self-insight, and thus, potentially, the altera- a cycle centered on self-absorbed advocacy. In
tion of worldviews. She emphasizes that the transactional analysis we might think of this as
importance of these personal resources that a racket system. Finally, low-performance teams
accrue during states of positive emotion is their were stuck in this loop from the start and came
durability: They outlast the transient emotional to a dead stop.
states that led to their acquisition and can be Further research was carried out on the ratio
drawn on in subsequent difficult emotional of positivity to negativity. It turns out there is a
states. Further and wide-ranging research shows precise ratio of 3.2:1 (positive to negative re-
that positive emotions fuel psychological re- sponse) for flourishing individuals and 2.3:1
siliency and “bounce back,” and it may be that (positive to negative response) for languishing
resilient people use positive emotions to individuals (Frederickson, 2005/2007, p. 233).
achieve effective coping strategies, such as hu- Likewise, Gottman’s longitudinal studies (as
mor, creative exploration, relaxation, optimistic cited in Snyder & Lopez, 2005, 2007) of mar-
thinking, amusement, and hope, all of which riage focused on positive and negative speech
can create positive emotions in oneself and oth- acts and emotions. Gottman suggested that it
ers. The outcome may be an upward spiral of was possible to predict which marriages would

Vol. 39, No. 1, January 2009 67


ROSEMARY NAPPER

flourish with an early ratio of 4.9 positive utter- how participants clamor for an antidote to a de-
ances for every 1 negative utterance. This sort pressing yet familiar analysis of what has gone
of research is important when considering wrong. Reviews of many psychological ap-
stroking and the balance between positive and proaches have continuously emphasized the
negative conditional strokes as well as the im- importance of hope in the process of change.
portance of positive unconditional regard. Al-
though the term “strokes” is not specifically Signature Strengths
used in Gottman’s work, this research seems to The notion of individual strengths is a core
provide evidence for the outcomes of positive strand of thinking in positive psychology and
and negative strokes. was considerably boosted by the research arm
of the Gallup organization (Buckingham &
The Reality of Positive Thinking Patterns Clifton, 2001) when they took an interest in and
One of the most useful findings to emerge provided funding for research in this area (which
from positive psychology is how negative events has applications in all aspects of life). As a
and feelings can improve through in-depth result of the interest provoked by the notion of
analysis and learning from them. However, an strengths, several strengths inventories have
analytical approach to positive emotions and been developed (Linley, 2008), some of which
events may take away from their positivity and can be found online. These have provided con-
capacity to enhance and begin to incite nega- siderable research data derived from over 2
tivity. Instead, savoring positive times is more million interviews (Buckingham & Clifton,
helpful in creating current positive feelings and 2001, p. 8). Buckingham and Clifton describe
accessing the brain states most conducive to strengths as talents and as a “recurring pattern
effectively being in the world. This may seem of thought, feeling or behaviour [that] is endur-
counterintuitive and is at odds with transaction- ing and can be productively applied” (p. 20).
al analysis, where anything and everything can They also suggest that what might seem a frail-
be analyzed. Using this positive psychology ty may incorporate strength. An example of this
research suggests that it may be better not to might be dyslexia as it was reframed by David
analyze the transactions involved in a positive Boies, the lawyer in the antitrust suit against
stroke or how a bull’s-eye transaction operates. Microsoft (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001, p. 42);
Rather, savoring it again and again as a snap- he suggested that it leads to mistrusting long
shot in the memory may be more enhancing.. and complicated words and so those with dys-
This indicates that analyzing positive experi- lexia may develop a facility for using plain
ences may, in itself, trigger negative thinking English.
and emotional responses because analyzing Various lists of “character strengths” have
raises the possibility of critiquing, which can resulted from research into optimal develop-
slide into criticizing. ment. These range from 24 strengths on Selig-
Investigating how optimism is learned is part man’s (2006) signature strengths questionnaire
of the work that Seligman (1991) did prior to (known as VIA, for the Values in Action Insti-
the emergence of positive psychology as a field. tute, the foundation researching this area) to 34
It is built on ideas about learned helplessness themes on the Clifton Strengthsfinder profile
that he had researched in the 1980s. These can (Rath, 2007), which was funded and promoted
be linked with transactional analysis ideas by Gallup and is constantly being developed
about passive behaviors and scripting or learn- and refined. The Centre for Applied Positive
ing involving a Victim position. The winners’ Psychology (CAPP) in the United Kingdom
triangle (see Choy as modified in Napper & seems now to be taking a different tack from
Newton, 2000, p. 9.8) is one attempt to create these two methods of profiling strengths so as
something of positive strategies within transac- to incorporate more of a personal construct no-
tional analysis. W hen teaching about the drama tion by asking people who want to explore their
triangle (Karpman, 1968) in a T A 101 or in strengths to self-define strengths. (Their tool for
management development work, I see clearly doing so will be published in the future.)

68 Transactional Analysis Journal


POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

The lists of strengths found in these two con- rituals that try to cultivate it
texts read like a list of virtues. They are some- These criteria could be construed within
times referred to as “themes” or “talents,” and transactional analysis as relating to script, espe-
in my view they are culturally biased toward a cially when considering ideas in TA about cul-
U.S.-oriented individualistic society. Nonethe- tural scripting (e.g., Drego, 1983) and the de-
less, they are proving inspiring to individuals velopment of notions about life plans and posi-
and radical in application with schools and tive scripting (Cornell, 1988; Newton, 2006).
organizations. There is also some interesting The result of the VIA selection criteria are
work being done on staff recruitment that con- 24 strengths organized under six core virtues
siders the strengths required for specific jobs (summarized from Seligman, 2003, pp. 137-
and invites applicants who have such strengths 161):
to apply. W hen such a process is used, often Strengths of wisdom and knowledge
interviewees decide for themselves during the • Creativity
job interview whether they really want the post. • Curiosity
The phrase “signature strengths” is often used • Love of learning
with the kinds of inventories just described. It • Open-mindedness
implies that each individual has a unique blend • Perspective
of strengths, although it turns out that the five Strengths of courage
most dominant are the most significant. The • Authenticity
original research of VIA involved a literature • Bravery
search across cultures and religions for uni- • Persistence
versal values and virtues. Inspired by this and • Zest
the lack of existing empirical tools, a classifica- Strengths of humanity
tion of strengths emerged in the VIA research. • Kindness
This list of strengths does not, as yet, have an • Love
underlying theory of “good character,” al- • Social intelligence
though “natural conversations” (i.e., everyday Strengths of justice
conversations) tend to include specific terms • Fairness
for character strengths rather than abstract vir- • Leadership
tues. The criteria for selection as a strength • Teamwork
(Petersen, 2006a, 2006b) include: Strengths of temperance
• Ubiquitous— recognized across cultures • Forgiveness/mercy
• Fulfilling—contributes to broadly construed • Modesty/humility
happiness and satisfaction • Prudence
• Morally valued in its own right and not for • Self-regulation
tangible outcomes it might produce Strengths of transcendence
• Does not diminish others and elevates oth- • Appreciation of beauty and excellence
ers who witness it, producing admiration, • Gratitude
not jealousy • Hope
• Has obvious antonyms that are negative • Humor
• Trait like • Religiousness/spirituality
• Measurable It is interesting to note a similarity between
• Distinct, conceptually and empirically this list and Tudor’s (2003) writing about the
• Has paragons— is strikingly embodied in neopsyche. He focuses on an integrating Adult
some individuals ego state that is organismic, vibrant, and pulsa-
• Has prodigies— is precociously shown by ting and that incorporates qualities that extend
some young people beyond Berne’s notions of ethos, pathos, and
• Can be selectively absent logos to include a list of qualities that Tudor
• Has enabling institutions in that it is the suggests may be extendable. Elsewhere, Tudor
deliberate target of social practices and (2007b) describes homonomy and strengths

Vol. 39, No. 1, January 2009 69


ROSEMARY NAPPER

that are about being in community. In a keynote • Organismic valuing (authenticity, in touch
speech, Erskine (2008) also emphasized rela- with self)
tional aspects. He wrote about how relational • Psychological well-being (fulfillment)
processes are about cooperation, which de- • Subjective well-being (happiness)
pends on our interpersonal connections and in- • Vitality (positive energy)
volvement. He described how our shared ex- He reports, as do many other positive psy-
perience has led to the development of certain chologists, that focusing on both performance
qualities, including tolerance, humility, com- strengths and personality strengths improves
passion, conscientiousness, curiosity, gracious- and increases performance, while focusing on
ness, creativity, and optimism. All of these, weaknesses (as much performance appraisal
when embedded in cooperation, create the op- tends to do) triggers a decrease in competency.
portunity for change. W hen I initially heard W ithin transactional analysis, this is familiar to
Erskine’s speech, I was struck by the resonance us in terms of stroking theory. Linley also sug-
between his list and the positive psychology gested that a volume control may be needed
notions of strengths, although when I asked him with strengths in order to use them optimally
about this later, he indicated that he had not and, he stressed, authentically. Linley indicated
been aware of the focus in positive psychology that others in positive psychology have sug-
on strengths. gested that positive recognition of personality
In my own work, I have found it useful to use strengths increases self-esteem (i.e., uncondi-
Schmid’s (1992/2006) concept of roles to stimu- tional strokes), positive recognition of perfor-
late individuals to investigate the strengths they mance strengths increases competency (i.e.,
have forged during their life journey. He posits conditional strokes), and a combination of the
that personality develops solely out of relation- two is essential to increase confidence.
ships, and any relationship involves inhabiting However, as Linley’s definition of “strength”
a role. He clusters these roles into arenas of highlights, the emphasis in positive psychology
private, professional, and organizational, to which is perhaps still heavily influenced by a focus on
Mohr (G. Mohr, personal communication, 8 the individual (perhaps a faint echo of the indi-
August 2004) has added community. I find that vidualized happiness stressed in the U.S. Con-
it is through both the authentic expression and stitution). W hile this highlighting of happiness
vitality in these roles and also out of the has also been a refrain within transactional
clashes, contaminations, confusions, and con- analysis, consideration of the political and so-
flicts between these roles that people often cial contexts that may promote a lack of hap-
identify how their particular strengths were piness have not been a significant strand in the
developed and forged. transactional analysis literature, despite the fact
Linley (2007) defines a strength as “a preexist- that it is referred to as a social psychology and
ing capacity for a particular way of behaving, contains writings on organizations, societies,
thinking, or feeling that is authentic and ener- and groups. Perhaps this is because Berne’s
gising to the user, and enables optimal func- work provoked investigation by the U.S. House
tioning, development and performance.” These Un-American Activities Committee in the 1950s
words immediately bring to mind transactional and he subsequently took an apolitical stance
analysis descriptions of an ego state as “a con- with regard to social justice (demonstrated by
sistent pattern of feeling and experience direct- the lack of emphasis on such issues in his writ-
ly related to a corresponding consistent pattern ing). However, in the past decade or so there
of behavior” (Berne, as cited in Stewart & Joines, has been an increase in awareness of our inter-
1987, p. 15). In practice, many transactional connectedness as a result of issues such as
analysts nowadays explain ego states as a con- global warming. At the same time, professional
sistent pattern of thought, feeling, and behavior. transactional analysts have been giving more
In his presentation at UEL, Linley (2007) consideration to the relevance of our theories
suggested that strengths use and strengths knowl- for living in communities. If Linley’s definition
edge are associated with: (quoted earlier) had been extended to include

70 Transactional Analysis Journal


POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

energizing not just the user or self but also oth- in education (Huppert et al., 2007). Interesting-
ers and the community, what difference would ly, in the 1960s Berne saw the same broad
this make to the notion of strengths? scope for transactional analysis. However, his
aversion to academic institutions meant that the
Interventions and Applications credibility of both the thinking and applications
Positive psychology has borrowed many of of transactional analysis in a wide range of set-
ways of working with individuals and groups tings has not developed with the acceleration,
from other modalities, such as solution-focused breadth, depth, and financial resources that
brief therapy (MacDonald, 2007) and apprecia- positive psychology has had in the past few
tive inquiry (Cooperider & W hitney, 2005), years. Positive psychology is now firmly loca-
just as transactional analysis has often bor- ted within universities, and the references for
rowed techniques from elsewhere (e.g., gestalt this article demonstrate the amount of literature
chair work, constellations for exploring family — much of it in from academic presses— that
history and imago, psychodrama processes in has been published in the past 3 years. One re-
groups, etc.). However, one criticism of posi- sult of such credibility is that while in London
tive psychology is that it has not yet developed in 2007, Seligman apparently met several times
a methodology, and the research focus has not with Prime Minister Gordon Brown to discuss
yet included interventions. But this work seems how positive psychology could be embedded in
to be in progress. M eanwhile, the work in edu- public policy.
cation and with strengths has been picked up In his presentation at the University of East
and used on several continents, and the appli- London Conference on positive psychology in
cations are being researched for effectiveness. 2007, Linley made a case for positive psycholo-
There are many areas of research and appli- gy as an approach, rather than as just a body of
cation within positive psychology that I have research about happiness and human strengths.
not addressed here, partly because of space. Fundamental to this approach is the nature of
The positive psychology literature is broad the questions being asked, and while this is not
ranging, with a focus on everyday life and a new approach— for example, neurolinguistic
ordinary contexts and situations as a reaction to programming has posited this frame for a long
the focus on extremes and abnormality in much while, and solutions-focused approaches also
of psychology. There are positive psychology work this way— the perceived credibility of
writings on such subjects as aging (in Huppert, positive psychology means that this sort of
Baylis, & Keverne, 2007); the value of setting questioning is permeating places that can affect
goals (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, societies in a way that has not happened before.
2006); economics and happiness (Bruni & Por- Such questions include:
ta, 2005); marriage and friendship (Peterson, • W hat is working?
2006); applications to leadership, recruitment, • How can we learn from what worked before?
and staff selection; and coaching (Diener-Biswas • Am I being the best I can be?
& Dean, 2007). Another area of research is so- • W hat has been my best experience of the
cial comparison (Popovic, 2005), which is of- last week?
ten investigated using thought experiments in Fox Eades (2008), in her practical positive
positive psychology. These indicate how as hu- psychology book for teachers, suggests the use
man beings we compare ourselves to others of what she calls the “www question,” that is,
within particular dimensions and how, in only what went well? Perhaps the most powerful
some aspects of life, we will do so favorably or questions of this nature, although not rooted in
unfavorably and with an emotional response. positive psychology as such, are suggested by
This has resonance with the life positions Block (2001) and can be used with a 1-10 scal-
within transactional analysis. ing response at the beginning of any event or
Positive psychology is being researched and process (meeting, learning, counseling, consul-
written about and its outcomes applied in coun- tancy) and repeated at any point to highlight
seling and psychotherapy, in organizations, and change:

Vol. 39, No. 1, January 2009 71


ROSEMARY NAPPER

• How valuable an experience do you plan I find one of the most appealing strands of
this to be? transactional analysis thinking to be the con-
• How engaged do you plan to be? structivist approach (Allen & Allen, 1997;
• How much risk are you willing to take? Newton, 2006; Summers & Tudor, 2000).
• How interested are you in the quality of From that perspective, being “right,” and hav-
experience of those around you? ing evidence to prove one’s position, becomes
irrelevant, and holding on to a position of “my
Conclusion thinking is OK and yours is not” becomes
W ithin transactional analysis there have been transformed into a different kind of debate, with
calls for more research over the past few years, the knowledge that the future is uncertain and
in large part because that was the twentieth- everyone psychologically will inevitably hold
century scientific paradigm. Y et Kuhn (1970) a different subjective meaning with regard to
pointed out nearly half a century ago that there any word, object, or process. However, it is
has been a scientific revolution, and experi- important to note that Law also demolished
mental and research-based science is a method- such relativism for the benefit of the British
ology of the past. Despite the emphasis on em- transactional analysis trainers in terms of its
pirical research, some of what is under the philosophical premises!
positive psychology umbrella are hypotheses Nonetheless, my own pragmatic approach is
awaiting the underwriting and in-depth research to borrow from what research there is when it
(e.g., notions about the three ways of living). is useful to do so, and positive psychology pro-
However, because there is a considerable body vides some satisfying links with transactional
of research findings related to positive psy- analysis, offers some empirical evidence for
chology, there is an aura of credibility about it those who find this important, and posits some
that, wittingly or otherwise, positively affects new ideas that we can usefully take on board.
its impact in the world. Transactional analysis In turn, perhaps transactional analysis can offer
does not have this, although it could certainly positive psychology some areas for research
borrow some positive psychology research find- and some practitioners among whom to do re-
ings to support transactional analysis concepts. search, particularly in the area of methodology.
W hat transactional analysis does have are One of the riches of transactional analysis is its
powerful maps and metaphors that communi- breadth, from behavioral and cognitive ways of
cate well across diverse cultures and all levels working to psychodynamic and self-psychology
of educational background. Perhaps we need to approaches. Rather than fight about the right-
recognize that we missed the boat in the 1960s eousness of any nuances of these, let us cele-
and 1970s in terms of research, even though brate the richness of transactional analysis and
Berne and many after him created constructs communicate its value in all areas of contem-
that impact individuals in finding new and porary life.
different perspectives on themselves and their
work, learning, lives, and societies. Does it Rosemary Napper is a Teaching and Super-
really matter if there is any empirical data to vising Transactional Analyst in the organiza-
provide “truth” behind the constructs? Perhaps tional and educational fields and also a Certi-
the answer to this question is “yes,” but only if fied Transactional Analyst in the counseling
we are considering marketing transactional field. She is director of TAworks (www.TAworks.
analysis to people who have faith in empiri- co.uk), a training establishment in Oxford,
cism. Stephen Law (2007), the British philo- United Kingdom, that provides transactional
sopher, gratifyingly tore empiricism’s rationale analysis training and supervision in all four
to shreds for the B ritish Institute of Trans- fields. She also provides services as a coach
actional Analysis (ITA) trainers by showing and consultant to individuals and organiza-
that the creationists have as much logic as do tions. She can be reached at 42 Cowley Road,
Darwinists from the frame of reference of Oxford OX4 1HZ, United Kingdom; e-mail:
empiricism! Rosemary.Napper@TAmatters.com .

72 Transactional Analysis Journal


POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

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