2 Design

24 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
Architecture Design Symbols

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2
DESIGN
2.A. GENER AL
This chapter includes numerous functional aspects of a building
that are not normally considered as architectural engineering, yet
which still require skillful quantifying in terms of scientific principles
and whose proper size impacts other aspects of design. It proceeds
from the most ‘macro’ aspects of a building’s design such as catchment
potential to such ‘micro’ aspects as required window areas and fire
construction details.
2.B. LAND USE

A building’s relation to the land on which it is built often reach-
es well beyond the edges of its foundation. For all but residences this
includes such variables as the employability and buying power of the
local population, how far they will travel to use the facility, and those
aspects of the ground under and around the building that will be af-
fected by its construction and occupation.
2.B.1. Catchments
Often it is necessary to estimate the number of occupants or
economic entities that will use a building as a basis for design. Oth-
erwise the building may end up being either too large or too small for
its use. Such estimates involve analyzing a proposed building’s catch-
ment or geographic area from which its occupants will be drawn.
Example 1. The owner of a piece of commercial property who

plans to build a supermarket figures he can attract people living
up to 2¡ miles away. If local U. S. Census Bureau data says the
area contains 1,650 people per mi2 and U. S. Department of La-
bor data indicates that each resident in the area spends an aver-
age $1,413 per year on food and related items, what is the mar-
ket potential for such a facility in this area?
2B1 C≈AUI
C = total catchment or economic potential, ? $/yr
A = number of area units in catchment. Here, area unit is mi2. As
A=circle with radius of 2¡ miles, A=πr2=π (2.25)2=15.9 mi2. A
may also be a highly irregular area determined by halving the
distance to similar facilities in every direction.
U = number of occupancy units in each area unit. From U.S. Cen-
sus data, number of persons per square mile of area=1,650.
I = potential per occupancy unit. From U.S. Dept. of Labor data,
annual food and sundry expenses per person=$1,413/yr.
C ≈ 15.9¿1,650¿1,413 ≈ $37,000,000/yr
Example 2. A 400 lot development requires a new elementary

school. If 120 residences are already in the school district and local
census data indicates that 0.8 children per family are of grammar
school age, the school should accommodate how many children?
2B1 C≈AUI
C = total catchment or economic potential, ? students in district
A = number of area units in catchment. Here, area unit is one resi-
dence. Thus A =400+120=520 residences.
U = number of occupancy units in each area unit. Here, occupancy
unit is one family. Thus U=1 family per lot.
I = potential or input per occupancy unit. Here, I≈0.8 school-age
children per family.
C ≈ 520¿1¿0.8 ≈ 420 students
DESIGN 27
2.B.2. Market Potential

This is a planned occupancy’s feasible floor area, number of
identical units, or other spatial requirement. It is determined by find-
ing the total marketing potential of the occupancy, then subtracting
the market penetration rate of similar occupancies already in the
area. This is a useful criteria for such situations as determining the
optimal floor area of a downtown retail establishment, the number of
rooms a proposed hospital should have, whether a small city should
build an airport, and the like.
Example 1. A commercial property owner who plans to build a su-

permarket knows these facilities generate about $180 in annual
sales per ft2 of floor area. If this occupancy's market potential is
$37.1 million per year and its catchment contains 197,000 ft2 of
similar facilities, what is the supermarket’s optimal floor area?
2B2 M U ≈ P–C U
M = market (feasible floor area) potential of occupancy, ? ft2
U = output per unit area, annual sales per ft2. U=$180/yr.
P = catchment or market potential, $/yr, $37,100,000
C = floor area of competing facilities, if any, 197,000 ft2
M¿180 ≈ (37,100,000–197,000¿180) … M ≈ 9,100 ft2
Note: In the above formula, the term C U denotes the market penetra-
tion rate of other stores in the catchment, individually or collectively.
Example 2. A county school board knows that a new elementary

school should be designed for 420 pupils and the total floor area
for each pupil is about 65 ft2. For budgeting purposes, what is
the school’s most feasible floor area?
2B2 M U ≈ P–C U
M = market potential (feasible floor area) of occupancy, ? ft2
U = output per unit area (no. pupils/ft2), 1/65=0.015
P = catchment or market potential, 420 pupils
C = floor area of competing facilities, if any, 0 (none w/in catchment)
M¿0.015 ≈ (420–0¿0.015) ... M ≈ 28,000 ft2
2.C. ACCESS DR IVES

Virtually every building in America has an access drive.
Whether it is a double trail of compacted earth leading to a rural cot-
tage or a network of wide thoroughfares and parking lots leading to
the buildings in a suburban office park, an access drive serves as an
umbilical cord between the architecture and the outer world. Such
approaches usually lead to at least two portals in each building: the
main entrance (this may be a row of flagstones from a driveway to the
front door of a small house or a wide esplanade passing under a porte
cochere of a tall building), and the service entry (this may be a sim-
ple path from a turnaround to the back door of a residence or a mul-
tiple-truck-bay loading dock for a large factory). For many buildings
there is a third destination: parking. Indeed, even cottages must usu-
ally provide space for the occasional guest car. Thus in this context,
the term ‘access drive’ includes driveways, service roads and yards,
parking areas with access and exit lanes, alleys, and any two-lane pri-
vate road with speed limits up to 35 mph (which means they should
be designed for 40 mph). Although their design must necessarily deal
with all kinds of topographical features, drainage requirements, sub-
soil conditions, material selections, and construction methods, this
usually does not involve analysis of traffic flow, accommodation of
high-speed traffic, installation of traffic lights, construction of road-
way interconnections, or other design considerations associated with
city streets and public highways.
To design access roads well, an architect must not only be able
to visualize space —to see in the dimensions of X, Y, and Z— but must
also be able to visualize in the fourth dimension, the element of time
—because most roadway design criteria are based on movement
rather than the orthogonal dimensions of occupied space. For exam-
ple, imagine an auto moving at 40 mph through rolling terrain, accel-
erating along straight runs, bending into curves to the right and left,
straining toward crests, coasting into depths, encountering all kinds
of situations along the way through day, night, sun, rain, heat or cold:
it is this motion interacting with its confining surface geometry that
determines how those surfaces should be shaped to maximize the ve-
hicular occupant’s comfort and sense of safe shelter ‘indoors.’ Indeed,
there are optimal dimensions for such travel based on several well-re-
searched kinetic design factors known as horizontal curves, vertical
curves, cross-slopes, shoulders, and side-slopes. Each of these mo-
tion mandates is described below:
Horizontal curves. When a road turns to the right or left, each
such curve should have a minimum horizontal radius and its arc
DESIGN 29
should have a minimum angle based on a vehicle’s speed of travel. For

example, at 40 mph, if a curve’s horizontal radius is less than 508 ft,
the motorist will have to decrease speed rapidly to keep from being
pulled off the road by centrifugal force, and if the curve’s arc is less
than 7˚ the motorist will have to readjust the steering quickly after
having just done so at the head of the curve —and two cardinal rules
of roadway design are that a motorist should never have to make more
than one driving decision at a time, and multiple decisions should be
comfortably spaced on a time continuum. Thus the best horizontal
curve at a given driving speed is an appropriately wide arc of uniform
radius which requires the driver to adjust the steering once slightly
when entering the curve, and once slightly when exiting it at least
three seconds later. Thus a road should have no short-radius or ‘tight’
curves, compound curves, spiralled transitions, or broken-back curves
(two short curves with a short straight run between them). Where com-
pound curves are unavoidable due to landscape obstructions, the ra-
tio of adjacent curve radii should be at least 1:1.5.
Vertical curves. When a road passes over a rise or into a de-
pression, its longitudinal profile may be described by a vertical curve
of a certain radius and an arc of certain magnitude. A rise profile is
known as a crown curve, and a depression profile is a vertical sag
curve. If a crown curve’s radius is too small, the driver may experi-
ence a queasy airborne feeling and perhaps a sudden dangerous
change in frontal viewability. If a sag curve’s radius is too small the
driver may experience an uneasy rocking sensation, the road ahead
may look farther away than it really is, and the vehicle’s headlights
may not reveal the road ahead at night. For sag curves the minimum
stopping sight distance is generally 1˚ above the road’s slope where
it enters the curve, since this is the usual upper angle subtended by
a vehicle’s headlights. The most comfortable crown or sag curve is a
parabola, although this is rarely achievable in actual design. In fact,
over most vehicular environments it is usually easiest to cut and fill
any irregular terrain to create a continually planar road. As with hor-
izontal curves, vertical curves should not have spiral transitions,
compound radii, or broken-back curves.
An important dimension related to crown curves is minimum
stopping sight distance (SSD). This is the minimum length of a sight
line between the driver’s eyes and a point 6 in. above the road ahead
for a given speed of travel. This clear-visibility measure must be ex-
tended continually over every crest in the road, over any side-slopes
that pitch upward, over any other obstructions along the right side
of the road when it curves to the right, between the driver and any
traffic signs ahead, and from the intersection of any side road (such
Fig. 2-1. Horizontal curve data for access roads.

as a driveway or parking lot exit) in both directions of the main road. This
basic dimension may also be used to determine the safe location of
bus stops, mailboxes, fire hydrants, and numerous other roadway ac-
cessories. Another important crown curve factor is minimum passing
sight distance (PSD). This is the minimum length of a sight line be-
tween the driver’s eyes and an object 4.5 ft above the road (i.e. an
approaching vehicle) for a given speed of travel —or how much clear
roadway the driver needs to pass another vehicle safely. Passing
sight lines must also be maintained over shoulders, side-slopes that
pitch upward, and any obstructions along the left side of the roadway
when it curves to the left.
Cross-slopes. A road’s cross-slope is the slope of its surface
from one side to the other. On straight runs the ideal cross-slope is
a slightly rounded crest at the road’s center regardless of its width,
then a 3/16 to ¡ in/ft flat fall on each side of the crest to road edges
that are 1 in. above the shoulder. This profile sheds water from the
road’s surface, which minimizes settling and lateral displacement of
its base and keeps vehicles from hydroplaning on its surface when
wet. Cross-slopes exceeding ¡ in/ft significantly increase the chance
of skidding during icy weather in winter. At curves, the road’s crest
should continue straight until it meets the far edge, then for any
speed of travel the cross-slope may fall as much as ™ in/ft across
DESIGN 31
Fig. 2-2. Vertical curve data for access roads.

the whole road toward the inside curve in ice-susceptible areas and
up to 1 in/ft in warmer areas. Adequate lane widths are 11 ft for
straight driveways and short one-lane roads (up to 13 ft at curves), 12
ft for two-lane straight runs (up to 14 ft at curves), and 16 ft for al-
leys. Where two-lane roads are straight, they should have an addi-
tional 1-2 ft wide paved apron on the shoulder side to aid motorists
who want to pull off, and on curbless roads a painted white stripe
along the pavement’s edge is a very effective perimeter guide. Oth-
er road markings can be made with thermoplastic pavement marking
tape, a 90 mil tape with adhesive backing that comes in 30 ft rolls of
4, 6, and 12 in. widths. The tape may be white (for crosswalks and stop
bars), yellow (for cautionary markings), or blue (for handicapped
markings). It is economical and highly durable, can be cut with scis-
sors, and is easily applied. In addition to the usual traffic markings
this tape may be crafted into company logos, family crests, play-
ground layouts, and any other paved surface motifs.
Shoulders. A shoulder is a continuous area on each side of the
road that allows emergency stopping of vehicles, laterally supports
the road’s surface and base courses, resists intrusion of rainwater
and snowmelt, and allows depositing of plowed snow in winter. This
area should be hard enough to support an automobile tire’s weight
(bearing≥6 ksf), slightly sloped (1:12 pitch), and 10-18 ft wide. An
Fig. 2-3. Roadway profile.

attractive and firm construction for shoulders is turf grass planted in 4
in. topsoil spread on 4 in. crushed rock. Sewers and other utility lines
should be located under shoulders and not the roadway, for then
they can be accessed when necessary without tearing up the road and
the road can still be used during such work. Traffic signs, telephone
poles, mailboxes, refuse receptacles, and other street furniture are
usually located on shoulders, and are best clustered when possible to
create ample space between them for vehicles to pull over. Shoulders
are rarely located where guardrails are installed, as the latter are usu-
ally placed close to the road above steep embankments, outside sharp
curves, before and after bridges, and along bodies of water. A
guardrail’s ends should be flared and turn slightly back from the road
to minimize impaling of oncoming vehicles. These impact-attenuation
devices are also used to contain cars in parking lots, and designers of
vehicular areas should be quick to use them whenever possible.
Side-slopes. A side-slope is a continuous area along the outside
of each shoulder that greatly increases driver visibility, provides
space for errant vehicles, and sheds water away from the road and
shoulders. These areas should ideally be about 18 ft wide, be plant-
ed with grass or other ground cover, have no obstructions, and slope
at a 1:6 pitch to drainage ditches and topographical depressions.
Considering vertical requirements for roads, shoulders, and side-
slopes, the base of a side-slope is ideally about 52 in. below the crest
DESIGN 33
Fig. 2-4. Roadbed and guardrail construction.

of the road, a height which minimizes accumulating capillary mois-
ture in the road’s subsoil as well as road flooding during prolonged
rainy weather. Where roadside terrain slopes uphill, eliminating the
possibility of a shoulder or side-slope, a continuous drainage ditch
must be placed somewhere between the road edge and the base of
the rising terrain. Around road intersections, the intersecting shoul-
ders and side-slopes usually form a seam of drainage that in nonrur-
al areas may empty into a grated catch basin or storm sewer.
Regarding trees: although they are usually welcome along road-
ways, their falling leaves can make road surfaces slippery, and
branches over a road may create shadow patterns that can keep a
motorist from seeing a dark car approaching until it is near. The
faster a road’s design speed, the more dangerous these two problems
are. Thus the faster a road’s design speed, the farther from it should
be located any trees. A driveway or private lane designed for 10 mph
or less can have all kinds of trees hanging over it. A 20 mph one- or
two-lane road should have no treetrunks on its shoulders, and it may
have an occasional branch above the road where it is straight but
none where it is curved. A 30 mph road should have no treetrunks on
the side-slopes, may have branches above the shoulders but none
over the road, and should have no foliage above any stopping or
passing sight lines where the road curves. A 40 mph road should
have no foliage above any shoulder areas, stopping lines, or passing

sight lines along any part of the road.
Two additional traffic areas that often appear along access
roads are sidewalks and bicycle paths. Their surfaces are typically
concrete, asphalt, or gravel. Where new roads are built from scratch,
these pathways can be easily located along the edges of side-slopes,
well away from vehicular traffic. Street furniture, benches, and oth-
er park amenities may be located beside them instead of along roads.
Once an access drive is designed, it must be built so that its
surface geometry will be preserved for decades. Such construction
includes several layers, as described below.
Road topping. This is the material on which the vehicles travel.
It may be unpaved, rigid pavement, flexible pavement, cobbles, or
gravels of a variety of natural colors. Rigid pavement is basically re-
inforced concrete, which makes the strongest and longest-lasting
roads; but its thick slabs take relatively long to build and cure and
they require control joints. Flexible pavements are typically asphalt.
They require no formwork, are easily laid, take only 2-3 days to cure,
and do not require control joints. An asphalt topping may have two
layers: a 1-2 in. wearing course of small-size stone mixed with bitumen,
and a thicker substrate of coarser granulate. A thin asphalt wearing
course is often laid on concrete roads. Whether a topping is concrete
or asphalt, its primary properties are texture and thickness. The best
texture is tough and skid-resistant, which is made by using aggregates
of hard angular stones and curing for longer periods, and also by cut-
ting small rows of parallel grooves into the pavement. Toppings
should be as thick as is economically possible; because when a tire ac-
celerates or brakes against a road’s surface, the area on the tire’s
compressive side tends to bunch up while that on the opposite side
tends to pull apart, and this fatigue weakening is a major cause of
short life in thin roads. Thick toppings are also less likely to develop
cracks, which create exposed edges that break down, cause adjoining
areas to collapse, and allow water to enter the subbase.
Road base. This is usually a thin course that provides a good
knitting surface between the usually fine-aggregate topping and
coarse-aggregate subbase. A good base for asphalt roads is a 1 in.
layer of £ in. gravel mixed with loose sand.
Road subbase. This is a compacted layer of coarse aggregate
that provides structural support for the layers above. Its thickness
depends greatly on the bearing strength and stability of the subsoil
below. The best subbase by far is 4 in. crushed rock, because such
rocks due to their larger mass and sharp edges will knit together and
DESIGN 35
form a near-monolithic foundation which smaller stones cannot do.

The author can cite a personal road construction experience to verify
this. More than 20 years ago, when he had to locate the driveway for
his own house over a marshy area about 100 ft long, he piled truckloads
of 4 in. ‘crusher run’ into the roadbed area until this subbase was as
deep as 18 in. —because only then did the marshy subsoil finally sta-
bilize. Today this vehicular foundation is as solid as concrete, even
though a pond with its high water table lies only 20 ft away. If he had
used 1™ in. gravel —as his excavator had advised him to do— the
driveway would have developed all kinds of humps, fissures, and pot-
holes through the years and the pond would rarely be full.
Roadbed. Because most soils are slightly porous, they tend to
collect groundwater which makes them shift, expand, contract, sub-
side, and exhibit other forms of instability under roads. Thus road
subsoils must include whatever perforated drains it may take to keep
water from penetrating them and to remove any water that does en-
ter. Such drains should be at least 4 in. dia., be laid below frost lev-
el in 2 ft wide trenches, have 6 in. of 1™ in. gravel underneath them,
fall at least 1/8 in/ft, conjoin with other piping downstream, empty into
topographical depressions or groundwater recharge basins, and be
filled with 1™ in. gravel above to within 6 in. below grade.
Before a road is built, the top 12 in. of original soil should be re-
moved and set aside, then used as a salve to heal the exposed terrain
after construction, and all stumps and roots should be removed to 4 ft
below grade. Where a road crosses a stream, it should do so where the
streambed is stable and preferably straight and where the opposing
banks have a prominent elevation. The stream may flow through a cul-
vert whose diameter is sized to accept floodwaters from the watershed
upstream, or it may be bridged by a small structurally designed tres-
tle whose ends rest on foundation walls built into each bank.
In summary, a residential asphalt driveway should have a mini-
mum 3 in. topping of small-size stone on a 1 in. sandy gravel base on
a 6 in. subbase of 4 in. crushed stone. A two-lane private road may
have a 2 in. finish topping of small-size stone on a 4 in. substrate of
slightly larger stone on a 2 in. sandy gravel base on a 4-12 in. sub-
base of crushed stone, while most parking lots and service entries
would skip the finish topping. The best asphalt pavement is full-
depth asphalt, which is thinner yet stronger than pavements laid on
multiple granular courses and takes less time to build and cure; but
it costs considerably more. Concrete pavement typically has two lay-
ers, the lower being a 4-6 in. base of compacted gravel, and the up-
per being a reinforced slab of from 4 in. thick for residential drive-
ways to 8-10 in. thick for main access roads. For any paved road, high
bearing strength is provided by strong subsoils, well-packed bases
and subbases, thick toppings, and, with asphalt, the weight of the
roller used to surface the road. As for unpaved areas such as grav-
el, brick, cobblestone, etc., these are appropriate only for roads
whose design speeds are 10 mph or less.
The formula below may be used to find the optimal construction
for an access road given certain vehicle load and speed criteria.
Example 1. What is adequate construction for an asphalt service

yard/loading dock area behind a U. S. Post Building in Boise, Idaho?
2C1 s ≈ dt t+db b+dsb sb

s = strength coefficient of required road, indicates strength of road
construction for required vehicular bearing values and speed
of traffic flow. From below, s for service yard=2.40.
Type of road use s
Tract house driveway ... 1.20; Custom residential driveway 1.40
Employee or apt. pkg. lot, other 10 mph public auto travel .... 1.80
Entry/exit for above, other 20 mph public auto travel .... 2.10
Commercial service yard, other 10 mph large truck travel ... 2.40
Two-lane private road for all vehicles travelling 40 mph ... 2.90
dt = depth of road topping, in. Try 3 in. high-stability plant mix.
t = layer coefficient for road topping. From table below, t for
high-stability plant mix=0.44.
db = depth of road base, in. For asphalt paving, use 1 in. sandy
gravel.
b = layer coefficient for road base. b for sandy gravel=0.11.
dsb= depth of road subbase, ? in. Try 4 in. crushed stone, then
solve for its minimum depth.
sb= layer coefficient for subbase. sb for 4 in. crushed stone=0.14.
Pavement component  Pavement component 
Low-stability road mix ..... 0.20 Sandy clay .................... 0.10
High-stability plant mix ... 0.44 Sandy gravel ................. 0.11
Sand asphalt .................. 0.40 1.5 in. dia. gravel .......... 0.07
Sand .............................. 0.05 3-4 in. dia. crushed stone 0.14
2.40 ≈ 3¿0.44+1¿0.11+ds¿0.14 ... ds ≥ 7 in.
DESIGN 37
Example 2. What size culvert is needed under a residential drive-

way near Albany, NY, if the watershed is 54 acres of hilly terrain?
2C2 A ≈ 0.25 r R S 0.75

A = required sectional area of conduit, culvert, or waterway, ? ft2
r = runoff coefficient depending on type of terrain, as below:
Type of terrain r
Flat areas little affected by accumulated snow or severe floods .... 0.20
Rolling agricultural terrain, drainage area length 3-4¿width ....... 0.33
Uneven terrain, drainage areas notably wider than long .............. 0.50
Rough hilly terrain with moderate slopes .................................... 0.67
Steep rocky ground with abrupt slopes ....................................... 1.00
Paved areas draining into waterway ............................................ 1.33
Interpolate for combined or intermediate values. Here r=0.67.
R = maximum rainfall intensity for local area, in/hr. From Fig. 4-19,
R for Albany, NY, area≈3.5 in/hr.
S = area of watershed or surface to be drained, 54 acres
A ≈ 0.25¿0.67¿3.5¿54 0.75 = 11.7 ft2
A= 0.785 d = 11.7 ft2
2
... d = 3.86 ft ã 48 in. dia. culvert
TABLE 2-1: ACCESS R OAD DATA

VEHICULAR SPECIFICATIONS dimension, ft.
Typical turning radii for vehicles (to outer curb):
Passenger cars and small trucks (typical wheelbase=11 ft) ................. 24
Single-unit trucks and busses (typical wheelbase=20 ft) .................... 42
Semitrailer trucks (typical wheelbase=40 ft) ...................................... 40
Larger trailer trucks (typical wheelbase=45 ft) .................................. 45
Normal underpass ht. (allow 6 in. for resurfacing) ..................... 12.5-14.0
SURFACE GEOMETRY REQUIREMENTS Design speed, mph

Forecast volume of 0-60 vehicles per hr. 10 20 30 40
Pavement width, per lane, ft ........................... 11 12 12 12

Parking lane width alongside road, ft .............. — 8-10 8-10 8-10
Max. grade, ˚ slope ......................................... 12 10 7 5
Min. horizontal curve radius, ft ....................... 50 125 273 508
Min. horizontal curve arc, ˚ ............................. 17 13.5 9.5 7
Max. horizontal curve arc, ˚ ........................... 180 75 32 12.5
Min. vert. crown curve radius, ft .................. 950 2,150 4,250 7,160
Min. stopping sight distance, ft ..................... 50 125 200 275
Min. passing sight distance, ft ..................... 300 700 1,100 1,500
Min. clearance beyond edge of road, ft ............ 12 16 20 25
2.D. EXCAVAT ION

The design of buildings and their approaches often requires
considerable displacement of existing earth under and around the
eventual construction. The nature of this displaced volume invari-
ably influences the design of access drives, parking areas, pedestri-
an walks, water supply and sanitary mains, waste interceptors, and
other utility conduits as well as the building’s foundation, other sur-
faces and spaces located below grade, and every entrance from
ground level. Of particular relevance is the volume of earth to be ex-
cavated and its maximum depth of displacement.
To compute volumes of excavations whose ground surfaces,
whether flat or inclined, are fairly planar in nature, use the formulas
for geometric volumes in Fig. 2-5. If the surface is irregular, average
the surface with a flat plane as shown in Fig. 2-5a, then compute as
a simple volume. If the volume is complex, divide it into smaller and
simpler voids, then calculate the volume of each.
The earth being excavated to create the basement of a new residence

is needed for surrounding landscaping. If the excavated volume is
shaped as shown in Fig. 2-5.1 and its dimensions are L=28 ft, W=44
ft, H1=4 ft, H2=6 ft, H3=7.5 ft, and H4=9 ft, how many cubic yards
of earth are available? 1 yd3=27 ft3.
2D? V = applicable excavation formula from Fig. 2-5

As excavated volume is shaped as shown in Fig. 2-5 1, use
1 ã V = 0.25 L W (H1+H2+H3+H4)
V = volume of displaced earth, ? ft3
L = length of excavation, 28 ft
W= width of excavation, 44 ft
H1 = height of excavation at corner 1, 4 ft
H3 = height of excavation at corner 3, 7.5 ft
V ≈ 0.25¿28¿44¿(4+6+7.5+9) ≈ 8,160 ft3
8,160 ft3/27 ≈ 302 yd3
DESIGN 39
3
2
4 5
6 7
8 9
Fig. 2-5. Formulas for excavation volumes.
2.E. CIRCULAT ION

When occupants arrive at a building, they leave any cars,
trucks, motorcycles, and bicycles or other vehicles they have been
riding, then move along various pathways toward occupiable spaces
in the building. These circulation areas may be horizontal or vertical
as well as indoors or outdoors, and each has certain spatial criteria
and often directional data that determine its optimal design.
2.E.1. Parking
Vehicular parking may be perpendicular, angled (usually 45-
60˚), or parallel to curbs. The final orientation is an interface be-
tween the street and drivers, passengers, and contents on one side
and approaches to building entrances on the other. In both direc-
tions, all access routes must be designed in terms of adequate widths,
turning radii, vertical transitions, and sight lines. Typical parking
area dimensions are listed below. These include no allowances for
columns in interior parking areas or for front and rear aisles in
garages. Desirable angle-parking widths are 12 ft for delivery trucks,
13 ft for moving vans, and 14 ft for busses. Lengths for large vehicles
vary greatly according to their size, as follows:
Frontal or angle Parallel
VEHICLE pkg. area, ft pkg. area, ft
Standard sedans and station wagons ..... 9¿19 8¿24
Compacts ........................................... 8.5¿17 8¿22
Subcompacts ........................................ 8¿15 8¿20
Vans and pickup trucks ...................... 9.5¿19 8¿24
Accessible design ............................... 13¿20 —
TABLE 2-2: DESIR ABLE PAR KING R AT IOS

BUILDING TYPE SERVED Ratio of parking area to gross floor area
Apartments, condominiums ............................................................ 0.4-0.7
Assembly halls, churches, theaters .................................................. 1.4-1.9
Hotels and motels: served primarily by autos .................................... 1.0-1.4
Served primarily by other transportation ................................... 0.2-0.6
Offices: served primarily by autos ................................................... 0.9-1.1
Served primarily by mass transit ............................................... 0.3-0.6
Shopping centers .......................................................................... 2.0-2.3
DESIGN 41
How many acres should a 220-car parking lot have if local streets are
used to enter one half and inner access roads for the other half?
2E11 Area in ft2: A = 300 S+400 C

2 Area in acres: 43,560 A = 300 S+400 C ... Ω
2
A = area of parking, ? ft or acres
S = number of cars served by street access, 220¿™=110
C = number of cars served by inner access roads, 220¿™=110
43,560 A = 300¿110+400¿110 … A = 1.77 acres
2.E.2. Sidewalks
Sidewalks are commonly made of reinforced concrete, asphalt,
and brick or stone pavers. One’s total depth of wearing course, bed-
ding or binder course, and subbase is usually 10-12 in., and its sur-
face should pitch at least 1/8 in/ft toward the street if one is along-
side. Minimum widths are 3 ft for private walks, 4 ft for park walks, 5
ft for suburban walks, and 8 ft for city walks. Each should have a 1.5
ft wide viewing corridor when next to buildings and a 2 ft wide area
for utility poles and other urban furniture when alongside streets.
Typical curb heights are 5-8 in. Nice sidewalk designs include broad
curves and varying widths as well as park benches, kiosks, large en-
trance aprons to adjacent buildings, rows of trees with grated bases,
and as much adjacent lawn and flowerbed area as possible.
A city sidewalk has a maximum projected flow of 1,200 people/hr.

If its street side has parking meters, telephone poles, and other
street furniture and its facade side has store windows, what is the
sidewalk’s optimal width?
2E2 W ≈ 3+F+V+0.0025 P
W = optimal width of sidewalk, ? ft
F = width of street furniture on pavement, if any, ft. Allow 2 ft.
V = viewing corridor for storewindows, etc, if any, ft. Allow 1.5 ft.
P = projected pedestrian flow, 1,200 people/hr.
W ≈ 3+2+1.5+0.0025¿1,200 ≈ 9.5 ft
2.E.3. Signage
Signage is bulletin-like information appearing along a vehicu-
lar or pedestrian pathway; this includes everything from highway bill-
boards to floor indicator buttons inside an elevator. When one ap-
proaches such a display, his or her eyes subtend a narrow vertical
angle whose sides align with the tops and bottoms of the sign’s let-
tering. For a person with 20/40 vision to read such lettering, this an-
gle should not be less than 0.167˚, including oblique approaches, and
the approaching speed and reaction time of any motorist should be
considered. Figure-ground contrast is important, and upper-and-low-
er case lettering is easier to read than upper case only.
Example 1. The name of a building is to be mounted on the rear

wall of its entrance lobby. If the letters must be readable from
the entrance door 46 ft away, how high should they be?
2E31 H ≥ 0.035 D
H = height of readable letters, upper/lower case, ? in.
D = distance between viewer and sign, ft. D=46 ft.
H ≥ 0.035¿46 ≥ 1.61 in.
Example 2. The owner of a roadside restaurant plans to erect a sign

in view of approaching travelers driving at 55 mph. How tall should be
the sign’s title so an oncoming driver can read its words, slow down
safely, and enter the restaurant’s driveway just beyond the sign?
2E32 0.10 ◊+0.004 ◊2 ≈ H ≥ 0.035 D

H = required height of upper-and-lower case lettering in order to
be read from a certain distance away, ? in.
◊ = initial velocity of motorist, 55 mi/hr. 1 mph=1.47 ft/sec.
D = distance between sign and a stationary observer, ft. Not ap-
plicable.
0.10¿55+0.004¿55 2 ≈ H ≈ 18 in.
Note: If the signage contains more than 6 words (such as directions,
business features, etc.), multiply H by 1.5 for every 6 additional
words to give the motorist time to read the whole message.
DESIGN 43
2.E.4. Slopes and Ramps

Almost every vehicular or pedestrian area outdoors should have
a slight slope of at least 1%, or 1/8 in. fall/ft, in one direction, primarily
to shed water. This is true even for areas that appear level to the eye.
Also, floors below finished grade should slope at least 1/8 in. fall/ft to-
ward some kind of drain. If a sloping surface is narrow and inclines at
an angle greater than 4% (≈™ in. fall/ft), it is usually considered a
ramp. These are found most frequently in parking garages, outside
building entrances, and in public hallways where service carts and oth-
er small vehicles are used. In large commercial buildings, ramps are an
excellent means of moving many people or vehicles gently up or down,
a spectacular example being the quarter-mile long helix in the Guggen-
heim Museum in New York. Any ramp whose incline exceeds 10˚ re-
quires a nonslip surface and handrail on at least one side. This is a good
idea for all ramps. The algebraic terminology for slopes or ramps is
% grade = 100 ¿ height of slope

length of slope
If pitch (rise/run)=1/12 in/in., grade=8.33%, â=4.77˚

If pitch (rise/run)=2/12 in/in., grade=17.6%, â=10.0˚
Fig. 2-6. Ramp details.
Example 1. If a ramp extends from a building entrance to the

ground 6'-2" below, how long should it be, including any landings?
2E41 L = 12 H+5 |0.2 H|

L = minimum length of ramp including landings, ? ft
H = total height of ramp, ft. 6'-2"=6.17 ft.
L = 12¿6.17+5 |0.2¿6.17| = 80 ft
Example 2. What is the radius of a three-quarter circular driving

ramp for a parking garage whose floor-to-floor height is 12'-0"?
Fig. 2-7. Parking entrance ramp.

Step 1. Find the ramp’s length.
2E42 100 H = S (L–12)
H = height between of ramp, 12.0 ft
S = slope of ramp, %. From Table 2-1, maximum grade of roofed and
curved parking access ramp=12%
L = minimum length (horizontal projection) of ramp, ? ft
100¿12 = 12 (L–12) ... L ≥ 112 ft
Step 2. Find the radius of the ramp at its inside curb.

L = 6.28 R C
L = minimum length of ramp, 112 ft
R = minimum radius of ramp, inside dimension, ? ft
C = circle fraction of ramp, three-quarters=0.75. If ramp inscribes
an arc of A˚, C=A/360=0.00278 A.
112 = 6.28¿R¿0.75 … R ≥ 23.8 ft
Example 3. On a topographic map of a hillside homesite, the con-

tours average 28 ft apart and the contour elevation interval is 5
ft. Is this grade gentle enough for a driveway?
DESIGN 45
2E43 L å = 100 H
L = length (horizontal projection) between start and end of slope, ft.
Average horiz. interval of topographic contours=28 ft
å = slope of terrain, ? % grade
H = height (vertical projection) between start and end of slope, ft
Elevation interval of contours=5 ft
28¿å = 100¿5 … å = 17.9%
From Table 2-3, allow. slope for driveway = 1-12%
17.9 not ≤ 12 ã NG
Note: The driveway may be given a gentler slope by orienting it di-
agonally across the topographic contours.
TABLE 2-3: SLOPE & R AMP SPECIFICAT IONS

ALLOWABLE GRADES
TYPE OF SURFACE Allow. grade, %
Appears level to the eye; also sidewalks ................................................. 0-4
Pedestrian ramps .................................. 4-8.33; Side incline ........... 4-16.7
Parking areas: Roofed access ramps: curved . 1-12; Straight .................. 1-20
Unroofed access ramps: curved ............ 1-6; Straight ................... 1-10
Driveways: dry ......... 1-12; wet ................. 1-10; Icy ........................... 1-4
Roads, little or no winter ice ..................... 0-12; w/ winter ice ............ 0-8
Grassy recreation areas ........................................................................ 1-3
Slopes, gentle grades suitable for construction .................................... 4-10
Slopes: grassy .......................................... 1-25; w/ ground cover ..... 0-50
Ground sloping away from buildings ..................................................... 2-50
Drainage areas, unpaved or large paved ... 1 min.; Small paved ....... 0.3 min.
Drainage ditches and culverts .............................................................. 2-10
Sewers: 4-8" dia..... 2-15; 8-12" dia............ 0.6-7; 12" or more dia........ 0.4-4
REQUIRED DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION Requirement
Max. slope, walks .................................... 1:12; Fixed assembly seating 1:5
Max. length, if slope is 1:12 to 1:16 ........... 30'; If slope is 1:16-1:20 .... 40'
Min. clear width: to 10 occupants ........... 2'-6"; To 50 occupants ...... 3'-0"
50 occupants or more .................................................................. 3'-8"
Landings ... req. at top & bottom if slope≥1:16; Landing widths .. 5'-0" min.
Length, top & bottom landings .... 6'-0" min.; Interm. landing .. 5'-0" min.
Vertical distance between any 2 landings ............................... 5'-0" max.
Door swings cannot reduce any minimum dimension by more than 3™"
Handrails, projection from walls ...... 3™" min.; Space btwn. walls 1™" min.
Thickness ................................... 1¡ to 2; Height ........ 2'-10" to 3'-2"
Handrails required on both sides if ramp slope≥1:16 & length≥6'-0"
Surface ............................ must be rough or nonslip material (friction≥0.6)
2.E.5. Stairs
A staircase must satisfy the muscles more than the eye. The
primary ‘motion mandate’ for one’s design is its ratio of riser to tread
—or as the noted art theorist Rudolf Arnheim put it, “the ratio of la-
borious lifting versus victorious advancing.” 2-1 Indeed, usually the
more laborious the lifting, the higher a staircase’s risers; while the
more victorious the advancing, the longer its treads.
Fig. 2-8. Staircase details.

The number and size of steps in a straight run staircase de-
pends primarily on its floor-to-floor height and its length. If one of
these dimensions is known, the other may be found. Full-floor stairs
divided into two half staircases with a landing in between may take up
more area, but they are safer and the landing may be enlarged to in-
clude a telephone desk, reception area, restroom foyer, or other oc-
cupancy relating to both floors. Also important is the horseshoe stair-
case, a compact arrangement of steps that is useful where horizontal
space requirements are minimal. In it the normal flat half landing is
divided into 4 wide equal steps separated by risers, allowing 2 steps
to be subtracted from the length of each staircase half, which saves
space without constricting circulation.
DESIGN 47
With spiral or winding stairs, the higher the risers, the fewer the
steps and the tighter the spiral revolves; but tight spirals are usual-
ly dangerous to descend.
Example 1. If a residential staircase has 7 in. risers, 10 in. treads,

and a floor-to-floor height of 8’-11", what is its optimal length?
Step 1. Find the number of risers in the staircase.

2E51 If straight run: H=R˜ …Ω
2 If equal segments: H=R˜S
3 If horseshoe staircase: H = R ˜ S+4 R
H = floor-to-floor height of staircase, 8’-11"=8¿12+11=107 in.
R = height of each riser, in. R may have to be adjusted after find-
ing ˜, then if T (=tread width; see Step 2 below) is known, 70≤T
R≤77. If not, adjust R or T. R=7.0 in.
˜ = no. of risers. This must be a whole number. If not, make ˜ the
next larger or next smaller whole number, then recompute R
according to the selected formula.
S = no. of equal staircase segments if staircase is divided into
halves, thirds, etc. with landings between segments, ? units.
As staircase is a straight run, S is not applicable.
107 = 7.0 ˜ … ˜ = 15.3 ã 15 or 16 risers
Try 15 risers
Recomputing R … 107/15 = 7.13 in.. = 71/8 in.
Check T R … 7.13¿10 = 71.3 ã 70 ≤ 71.3 ≤ 77 ã OK
Step 2. Find the length of the staircase, not including any landings.
L = T (˜–1)
L = horizontal length of staircase or staircase segment, ? in.
T = width of tread, 10 in. 70 must≤T R≤77. T R=7.13 x 10=71.3ã
OK. If not OK, adjust R or T.
˜ = no. of risers. From Step 1, ˜=15 risers.
L = 10 (15–1) = 140 in. ã 11’-8"
Example 2. If the above staircase is divided in half with a landing,

what is its horizontal length?

2E51 If straight run: H=R˜
2 If equal segments: H=R˜S …Ω
3 If horseshoe staircase: H = R ˜ S+4 R
H = floor-to-floor height of staircase, 8’-11"=107 in.
R = ht. of each riser, in. If T is known, 70≤T R≤77. R=7.0 in.
˜ = no. of risers, ? units. This must be a whole number.
S = no. of equal staircase segments if staircase is divided, w/ landings
between segments. Staircase is divided in half; thus S=2 units.
107 = 7.0¿˜¿2 … ˜ = 7.64 ã 7 or 8 risers
Try 8 risers
Recomputing R … 107/8¿2 = 6.69 in.
Check T R … 6.69¿10 = 66.9 ã 70 not ≤ 66.9 ≤ 77 ã NG
Try 7 risers
Recomputing R … 107/7 x 2 = 7.64 in.
Check T R … 7.64¿10 = 76.4 ã 70 ≤ 76.4 ≤ 77 ã OK
Step 2. Find the length of the staircase, not including any landings.
L = T (˜–1)
T = width of tread, 10 in. 70≤T R≤77. If not, adjust R or T.
L = 10 (7–1) = 60 in.ã 5’-0"
Example 3. If the above staircase is a horseshoe staircase, what

is its horizontal length?

2E51 If straight run: H=R˜
2 If equal segments: H=R˜S
3 If horseshoe staircase: H = R ˜ S+4 R …Ω
H = floor-to-floor height of staircase, 8’-11"=107 in.
R = ht. of each riser, in. If T is known, 70≤T R ≤77. R=7.0 in.
˜r = no. of risers, ? units. This must be a whole number..
˜s = no. of equal staircase segments if staircase is divided into
halves, thirds, etc. with landing between the segments. As a
DESIGN 49
horseshoe staircase has 2 equal halves, S=2 units.

107 = 7.0 ˜¿2+4¿7.0 … ˜ = 5.64 ã 5 or 6 risers
Try 5 risers
Recomputing R … 107 = R¿5¿2+4 R ã R = 7.64 in.
Check T R … 7.64¿10 = 76.4 ã 70 ≤ 76.4 ≤ 77 ã OK
Step 2. Find the length of the staircase, not including landings.

L = T (˜–1)
T = width of tread, 10 in. 70≤T R ≤77. If not, adjust R or T.
L = 10 (7–1) = 40 in.ã 3’-4"
TABLE 2-4: T YP ICAL STAIRCASE DIMENSIONS

STAIRCASE COMPONENT Dimension, in.
Treads: straight run, Code for private occupancies (less than 10) .. 9.00 min.
Code for public occupancies; comfortable for private occupancies 10.0 min.
Winding or spiral, Code or comfortable for all occupancies ..........
6.00 min. at any point, 9.00 min. at 12 in. from narrow end
Risers: straight run, Code for public occupancies ..................... 4.00 to 8.00
Code for private occupancies (less than 10) ........................... 8.00 max.
Comfortable for all occupancies ........................................... 5.75 to 7.50
Difference between largest & smallest rise or run .......................... 3/8 max.
Width, clear: private occupancies (less than 10 occupants) .............. 30 min.
50 or less occupants ................................................................ 36 min.
More than 50 occupants ........................................................... 44 min.
Landings, length ................................ width of stairs or greater to 48 max.
Width .............................................................. no less than stair width
Door swing .................... cannot reduce landing width by less than 0.5 W
Vertical distance between landings .......................................... 144 max.
Handrails: projection from walls .................................................... 3™ max.
Thickness ............................................................................... 1.25 to 2
Space between walls .................................................................... 1.50 min.
Height above nosings .............................................................. 30 to 34
Rails on public stairs to 88 in. wide ................... required on both sides
Rails on wider public stairs ............ intermediate rail every horiz. 88 in.
Trim projections from wall ........................................................... 1.50 max.
Headroom, vertical clear above treads at all points ......................... 80 min.
2.E.5.a. Number of Steps

A staircase with two half flights of equal length and a halfway land-
ing is 11'-3™" high. How many risers should each half flight have?
2E5a H≈7˜
H = floor-to-floor height of staircase or staircase section, in.
11'-3™"=(11¿12+3)/2=67.5 in.
˜ = optimal number of risers in staircase, ? units
67.5 ≈ 7 ˜ … ˜ ≈ 9.6 ã 9 or 10 risers
2.E.5.b. R iser Heig ht

If a granite staircase in a city park has 18 in. wide treads, what is
the optimal riser height?
2E5b 2.7 R ≈ 24–[(T–8) (T–2)]0.5

R = optimal ht. of each riser, ? in. R should≤5.75 and≥7.50 in.
T = optimal width of each tread, 18 in. T should≥10.0 in.
2.7 R ≈ 24–[(18–8) (18–2)]0.5 … R ≈ 4.20 in.ã 5.75 in.
2.E.5.c. Tread W idth

What is the optimal width of a staircase riser that is 711/16 in. high?
2E5c R T ≈ 74
R = optimal height of each riser, in. 711/16 in.=7.69 in.
T = optimal width of each tread, ? in. T may vary by±0.25 in.
7.69¿T ≈ 74 … T = 9.6 in.ã 95/8 in.
DESIGN 51
2.E.6. Escalators
An escalator is a wide revolving chain, with each step a link, that
is fitted into an inclined truss that bridges the upper and lower levels.
One can deliver many riders quickly without their having to wait. Es-
calators require ¤ the floorspace of elevators to deliver the same pas-
senger loads, need no pits or penthouses, and can traverse tall floor-
to-floor heights; but above two levels riders prefer elevators. Ceiling-
to-floor dimensions are typically 4'-0", excluding finish, due to the ma-
chinery under the combplates at each end of the moving stairs. Esca-
lators should be located in direct lines of circulation and offer riders
dominant views of destinations, be installed in pairs (crisscross
arrangements are best), and avoid forced walkarounds at landings (al-
though some stores prefer walkarounds because they make customers
walk through merchandise). Risers are 8 in. and step slopes are 30˚.
Fig. 2-9. Escalator details.
A department store escalator has an estimated peak traffic load

of 6,000 persons per hour. What size should the escalator be?
There are 4 standard escalator designs:

Tread Min. land-
Width & step speed Capacity size ing area
32 in. wide at 90 ft/min 5,000 persons/hr 16¿24 in. 8 ft2
Min. size exceeding traffic load = 32 in. wide at 120 ft/min.
2.E.7. Elevators
An elevator is basically a box on a cable that rises and falls in a
hollow shaft. One is required in any building more than three stories tall
or with more than 3,000 ft2 of area on each floor. Each has an outer
shaft door and an inner cab door, and each door may be single slide (SS,
right or left), double slide (DS, right or left), or center-opening (CO, 1 or
2 pair). Wider openings permit simultaneous loading and unloading. The
box, or cab, is a fire-resistant cage whose interiors may be finished with
almost any material, including ceiling coves for illumination. Each cab
should have clearly visible floor signage, easily usable controls, and ex-
haust fans. Shafts should be isolated from sleeping, office, and other
quiet areas; landings should have barrier-free access and clearly visi-
ble signage on each floor; and the lobby should include a control panel,
building directory, and pay phone. All elevator components require ac-
cess for inspection and maintenance.
Good performance includes minimum waiting time, rapid loading
and unloading, brief travel time, comfortable acceleration and decel-
eration, and automatic leveling at landings. Modern designs include
exposed cabs with glass walls for observing surrounding areas while
the cab is moving, inclined shafts (the one in the Gateway Arch in St.
Louis varies from near-vertical at the bottom to near-horizontal at
the top), and Ferris wheel-type parking garages.
There are two kinds of elevators: traction and hydraulic. Each,
as well as service elevators and dumbwaiters, is described below.
Traction
A traction elevator hangs from cables that pass over a motor-
driven cylindrical sheave with the cab suspended on one side and a
large counterweight on the other, then when the cab goes up the
counterweight goes down. The sheave and its motor are located in a
well-ventilated penthouse with an overhead trolley beam directly
above the shaft. Penthouse floor area≈2¿shaft area. A machine
room is located either next to the penthouse or on any floor next to
the shaft. The shafts, penthouse, pit, and landings are all major spa-
tial components in the building and usually comprise more than 10
percent of its cost.
Ω Versatile: can be used in buildings of any height. Long life, low
maintenance. Require relatively little power to operate.
¸ Higher initial cost than hydraulic elevators. Traction elevators
require more interior space, larger structural systems, and tall
penthouses which may be unsightly.
DESIGN 53
Fig. 2-10. Elevator details.

Hydraulic
This cab’s underside has a telescoping rod plunger that oper-
ates like a hydraulic jack. Thus this elevator has a smaller shaft,
shallower pit, and no penthouse. Small ‘holeless’ type hydraulic ele-
vators have the plunger mounted on the cab’s back.
Ω Absence of cables, drums, elaborate controls, and motor makes them
less expensive. Desirable where penthouses are undesirable.
¸ Slow cab velocities. Costs considerably more to operate than
traction elevators. Not feasible for heights above 60 ft.
Service Elevators
Also known as freight elevators, each cab is typically built of
heavy gauge steel with a multilayered wood floor, padded walls, and
guarded ceiling light fixtures. Design is based on size of load, method
of loading, speed, and type of doors. Material flow studies should be

made where these elevators are installed, and each should have easy
access to loading docks or service entrances.
Dumbwaiters
In these small elevators the cab is often compartmented by
shelves, doors are usually vertical biparting (half goes up, half goes
down), loading levels may be at floor or counter height, and control is
usually by call-and-send intercom between two floors.
TABLE 2-5: ELEVAT OR SPECIFICAT IONS 1

TYPE OF ELEVATOR (STANDARD RECTANGULAR CABS)
PASSENGER SERVICE DUMB-
DIMENSION Traction Hydraulic (Trac. or Hyd.) WAITER
Capacity, lb.................... 1,200-4,000+ 1,200-4,000+ 2,500-20,000 to 500

Design live load, lb/ft2 .............. 120 120 varies —
Design area/person, ft2 ............... 2 2 2 —
Velocity, ft/min. ................... to 400+ 100 max. 50-200 45-100
Cab width (W ), in.
Capacity≤2,000 lb. ....... 54 min. 54 min. — 24-42
Capacity≥2,000 lb. ....... 68 min. 68 min. 60-144 —
Opening width, in. .... 36 min., 42 desir. 42 to 54 W–4 W–4
Shaft width, in. .................... W+22 W+24 W+20 W+14
Gate depth, in. ................... 20 typ. 20 typ. 18 typ. 14 typ.
Cab depth (D ) ....................... 51-63+ 52-66 84-240 30 or 36
Shaft depth, in. .................... D+33 D+15 D+15 D+19
Cab ht. (H), in. ................... 100 typ. 100 typ. 94 min. 30-48
Opening height, in. ................... 84 84 84 min. H+2
Max. rise (geared elev. only) ft. .. 300 2 60 300 30
Penthouse height, ft. ............ 34-36 12 24 14
Pit depth, ft. .......................... 11-13 3 44 6 2.5
ELEVATOR CAPACITY FACTOR

BUILDING TYPE Capacity factor BUILDING TYPE Capacity factor
Office, single-purpose occupancy 0.33 Apartment ............................ 0.15

Office, diverse occupancy .......... 0.22 Hotel ................................... 0.38
Hospital ................................... 0.12 Parking garage ...................... 0.16
1. Specifications are for standard cabs. Custom cabs may have any dimensions,
but they are more expensive.
2. Maximum rise for gearless elevators is unlimited.
3. Deeper if cab travel exceeds 400 ft/min.
4. This does not include the depth of boring for the plunger.
DESIGN 55
2.E. 7.a. Lobby Area

If a 12-story apartment has 8,400 ft2 of rentable floor space on
each level, what size are its lobby and upper floor landings?
2E7a1 Lobby: L Œ = 5 c A ˜
2 Upper floor landings: L Œ = 5 c A
L = min. lobby or landing area, ? ft2
Œ = occupancy load of floorspace served, ft2/occ. From Table 2-6,
Œ for apartment=250 ft2/occ.
c = elevator capacity factor. From Table 2-5, c for apt.=0.15.
A = net area of each floor, 8,400 ft2
˜ = no. floors served by elevator from its main floor lobby, 12 floors
Lobby: L¿250 = 5¿8400¿0.15¿12 … L ≥ 302 ft2
Upper floors: L¿250 = 5¿8,400¿0.15 … L ≥ 25.2 ft2
2.E. 7.b. Cab Area
An eight-story office building whose space is leased by several

businesses has 6,870 ft2 of rentable space on each level. If the
building has two elevators, what is the optimal size of the cabs?
Step 1. Find the optimal area of each cab

2E7b 226 E C ≈ c ˜ A
E = no. of elevators, 2 units
C = estimated minimum area of elevator cab, ? ft2
c = elevator capacity factor. From Table 2-5, for a diverse-occu-
pancy commercial building, c=0.22.
˜ = no. of floors in building, 8
A = net area of each floor, 6,870 ft2
226¿2¿C ≈ 6,870¿8¿0.22 … C ≥ 27 ft2
Step 2. Find the cab’s width and depth. Solve as below, or select from a cat-
alog an elevator whose cab area exceeds C above.
d ≈ 0.84 C 0.5 w ≈ 1.18 C 0.5
w = estimated width of cab, ft

d = estimated depth of cab, ft
C = area of elevator cab, from Step 1, 27 ft2
w ≈ 1.18¿27 0.5 ≈ 6.1 ft
d ≈ 0.84¿27 0.5 ≈ 4.4 ft
2.E. 7.c. Shaft Area
What is the optimal size of the elevator shaft in the above problem?
2E7cw ws ≈ wc+24
d ds ≈ dc+33
ws = inside width of elevator shaft, ? in.
wc = width of cab, in. 6.1 ft=73.2 in.
ds = inside depth of elevator shaft, ? in.
dc = depth of cab, in. 4.4 ft=52.8 in. Cab should have about 7
in. space in front and 26 in. in back.
ws ≈ 73.2+24 ≈ 97 in.
ds ≈ 528+33 ≈ 86 in.
Shaft area ≈ 97¿86/144 ≈ 58 ft2
2.E.7.d. Velocity
During peak hours an elevator typically has a net velocity of
about ¡ its optimal velocity due to the numerous stops it makes.
How fast should an elevator travel in a building that is 240 ft tall?
2E7d ◊ ≈ 1.6 H+350

◊ = optimal velocity of elevator, ? ft/min.
H = height of building, 240 ft
◊ ≈ 1.6¿240+350 ≈ 730 ft/min
DESIGN 57
2.F. OCCUPANCIES
Each architectural space has an optimal floor area depending on
how many people use it and what they are doing. Examples are two
sleeping in a bedroom, 12 seats in a residential dining room, and 400 in
a public auditorium. Such optimal areas are known as occupancy loads.
The values listed in Table 2-6 may vary somewhat according to the ac-
tivity of the occupants and function of the building.
Fig. 2-11. Computing floor areas.
In Fig. 2-11, General Areas include lobbies, hallways, elevators,

stairs, rest rooms, custodial and mechanical rooms, chimneys, shafts,
and interior walls measured to the inner faces of exterior walls. Net
Areas include all occupied floorspaces and related storage measured
from the outer faces of walls enclosing general areas to the inner
faces of exterior walls. Gross Area=Net Area+General Area+exteri-
or wall thickness. Grossing Factor (also known as Floor Space Index
or F.S.I.) indicates a building’s ratio of usable space to total space;
this equals (Net Area+General Area)/Net area. Also useful is Build-
ing Efficiency, which equals 100%¿net floor area/gross floor area.
The grossing factors in Table 2-6 do not consider vertical circulation:

these values are slightly less for one-story buildings and slightly
more for buildings with elevators. Grossing factors also vary slightly
according to crowding tolerances of certain populations in different
parts of the country. For example, a lobby area that may feel com-
fortable to 20 people in downtown Manhattan may feel cramped to the
same number of people in suburban Santa Barbara.
Knowing the optimal sizes of interior spaces before initiating
design enables the architect to
Ø Perceive the relative sizes of spaces and groups of spaces as
well as logical circulation relationships between them.
Ø Estimate the number of floors and area of vertical circulation.
Ø Estimate a building’s size before design.
Ø Relate the proposed building volumetric and likely footprint to
the property for purposes of preliminary site analysis.
TABLE 2-6: T YP ICAL OCCUPANCY LOADS, PAGE 1

Net area per Grossing
OCCUPANCY occupant, ft2 factor, ft2
Apartment ................................................................ 250 ............... 1.3
Assembly areas, w/o individual seats (churches, chapels, court rooms,
reviewing stands, stadiums) ..................................... 7 ............... 2.5
Assembly areas, w/ individual seats (auditoriums, theaters, lecture halls):
Movable seats ... 10, 2.4; Fixed seating .................... 11 ............... 2.2
Standing room ....................................................... 5 ............... 1.5
Theater stage apron (min. 6¿28 ft): total area .......... 250 ................. 8
Theater stage (28 ft proscenium width, 25 ft working depth, 50 ft total
width): total area ............................... 1,500, but varies ............... 1.5
Lobby and other public areas ................................. 10 ............... 1.2
Ticket booths, each ............................................... 30 ............... 1.8
Athletic & entertainment: billiard rooms ...................... 60 ............... 1.5
Bowling alleys ... 75, 1.3; Dance floors .................... 12 ............... 1.5
Gymnasiums and skating areas ............................... 50 ............... 1.4
Decks surrounding ice rinks ............................. 15 ............... 1.4
Locker rooms: locker areas .................................... 35 ............... 1.6
Showers and toilets .......................................... 25 ............... 1.6
Training areas, first aid, towel service ............... 10 ............... 1.6
Conference chambers, meeting rooms ........................... 15 ............... 2.0
Drinking establishments: seating, inner circulation, and bar area:
Taverns and bars ... 18, 1.3; Night clubs .................. 25 ............... 1.3
Food service: cafeterias: seating and inner circulation ... 14 ............... 1.5
Serving, vending, disposal .................................. 6 ............... 1.5
Kitchen, food storage, administration ................... 9 ............... 1.5
DESIGN 59
TABLE 2-6: T YP ICAL OCCUPANCY LOADS, PAGE 2

Net area per Grossing
OCCUPANCY occupant, ft2 factor, ft2
Food service: luncheonettes: eating & inner circulation ... 12 ................ 1.3
Serving, vending, disposal ........................................ 6 ................ 1.3
Kitchen, food storage, administration ........................ 7 ................ 1.3
Restaurants: seating and inner circulation .................... 14 ................ 1.5
Serving, vending, disposal ........................................ 6 ................ 1.5
Kitchen, food storage, administration ........................ 9 ................ 1.5
Hotels and motels: private areas ... 120, 1.4; Lobby ........ 10 ................ 1.4
Hospitals, per bed unit: infirmary areas ....................... 125 ................ 1.6
Psychiatric ... 165, 1.6; Administration .................... 20 ................ 1.5
Diagnostic and treatment ....................................... 50 ................ 1.5
Services (food, maintenance, staff) .......................... 45 ................ 1.3
Institutions (children’s homes, sanitariums, nursing homes):
Administration, lounge areas, services .................... 60 ................ 1.5
Sleeping areas: infants .. 40 & 1.6; Children .. 70 & 1.5: Adults ... 100 & 1.4
Industrial, work station and storage: shops ................. 200 ................ 1.4
Laboratories ......................................................... 140 ................ 1.5
Libraries: open reading rooms, per user ....................... 35 ................ 1.5
University graduate reading rooms, per user ........... 60 ................ 1.4
Stack space, per bound volume ............................ 0.08 ................ 1.3
Service space ...................................................... 25% of reader space
Museums: exhibit areas, per max. visitors ...................... 15 ................ 1.2
Reception (lobby, museum shop, waiting) ................ 20% of exhibit area
Administration areas, per staff member ................. 150 ................ 1.3
Exhibit preparation ... 20% of exhibit area; Exhibit area .... varies widely
Offices: private, management ...................................... 150 ................ 1.3
Semiprivate & open, nonmanagement ..................... 120 ................ 1.3
Service (lounge, coffee) ............................................ 3 ................ 1.5
Rest rooms: men or women ............................ 100 ft2+1.2 ft2 per occupant
Retail: ground floor .. 30 & 1.4; Upper floors .. 50 & 1.2; Basement .. 20 & 1.3
Schools: day-care nurseries: seating & play areas ......... 40 ................ 2.0
Kindergarten, seating & play areas, shops, vocational .... 50 ................ 1.8
Reading rooms ... 40, 1.6; Lecture halls ................... 12 ................ 1.6
Small classrooms, seminar rooms ............................ 20 ................ 1.6
Large classrooms ... 15, 1.6; Instructional labs ......... 70 ................ 1.6
Shops and vocational rooms ................................... 50 ................ 1.6
Dorms, sleeping and lounge areas .......................... 100 ................ 1.6
Service areas: loading and breakdown area, per bay .... 400 ................ 1.4
Security office, per employee .................................. 80 ................ 1.4
Security entrance: door, landing, steps .................. 100 ................ 1.0
Trash holding room, per building occupant ............. 0.3 ................ 1.5
Stairs ................................. 50 ft2+1 ft2 per occupant per floor, but varies
Storage, personal ................................................. 40 ft2, but varies widely
General ....................... 20 ft2+0.1 ft2 per occupant per floor, but varies
Transportation: auto parking, per car .......................... 180 ................ 1.7
Passenger loading platforms ........... 1.5¿full vehicle unloading capacity
Example 1. If a cider factory has a net floor area of 8,200 ft2 and
a gross area of 11,700 ft2, what is the building’s grossing factor?
2F1 g Anet = Anet +Agro

g = grossing factor of building or occupancy, ?
Anet = net floor area of building or occupancy, 8,200 ft2
Agro= gross floor area of building or occupancy, 3,460 ft2
¿8,200 = 8,200+3,460 …  = 1.42
Example 2. If a suburban library has a net floor area of 24,100 ft2

and a gross area of 28,500 ft2, what is the building’s efficiency?
2F2 é Agro = 100 Anet

é = efficiency of building or occupancy, ? %
Agro = gross floor area of building or occupancy, 28,500 ft2
Anet = net floor area of building or occupancy, 24,100 ft2
é¿28,500 = 100¿24,100 … é = 84.6%
Example 3. A proprietor wants to open a cafe on the ground floor

of a building located on the corner of a downtown intersection.
From the pedestrian traffic at the corner he estimates he can
draw a maximum 170 customers for lunch during two sittings. If
the available floor area is 2,400 ft2, what is the optimal floor area
for the cafe and how much space will remain for leasing?
2F3 A =  Œ F v
A = optimal floor area of occupancy, ? ft2
 = grossing factor of occupancy. From Table 2-6,  for food ser-
vice: luncheonettes=1.3.
Œ = occupancy load. 170 people/2 sittings=85 people
F = floor area/occupant, ft2. From Table 2-4, Food service: lun-
cheonettes=12+6+7=23 ft2 floor area/occupant.
v = vertical circulation factor. If area has only one floor, v≈0.9;
if two or three floors, v≈1.0; if building has elevators, v≈1.1
DESIGN 61
to 1.3 (value increases as no. of floors increases). v=0.9.

A = 85¿23¿1.3¿0.9 = 2,290 ft2
Leasable floor area = 2,400–2,290=110 ft2
This area may be used for a newsstand, vending machines, etc.
Example 4. What is the optimal area for a two-bay service loading

facility in a commercial office building that houses 800 employees?
The facility includes a loading and breakdown area, security en-
trance with a small office for one guard, and a trash holding room.
2F4 A = A1+ A2+…+AZ

A = net floor area of occupancy, ? ft2
A1, A2, … AZ = floor areas of each space. Here the grossing factor
is ignored as the problem involves net area only.
From Table 2-6:
Space Optimal floor area
Loading and breakdown area ........................ 400¿2=800 ft2
Security entrance ....................................... 100+80=180 ft2
Trash holding area .................... 0.3¿800 employees=240 ft2
A = 800+180+240 = 1,220 ft2
2.F.1. Effective Floor Area

After estimating the optimal area of each occupied space in a
building, the architect should determine its effective floor area.
Knowing this before initiating detailed design enables one to:
Ø Estimate a building’s cost before design.
Ø Determine architectural fees and budgets for the project.
Ø Establish the format of the drawings, including scale of plans,
number of pages, etc.
Knowing the optimal and effective floor areas of a building in
advance gives the architect a good general grasp of the total design
situation. Otherwise, any conceptual mistakes made during initial de-
sign are often carried through the total design process where they
may wreak mysterious havoc all the way.
1 .5 ¿X AREA
Two-story areas (1)
1 .0 ¿X AREA
Livable spaces (2)
Circulation areas
Storage, utility, &
mechanical areas
Chimneys below roofs
Dormers (3)
Bay windows (4)
0.67 ¿X AREA
Unfinished rooms
Garages
Roofed balconies (5)
Screened porches (6)
Mech. penthouses (7)
Recessed porches (8)
Colonnades
0.5 ¿X AREA
Covered recesses (9)
Covered entries (10)
Carports
Courtyards, atriums
Covered walks
N UMBERS IN DRAW IN G REFER TO
Pergolas EQUIVALEN T FL OOR AREAS
LIST ED TO T HE LEFT AN D BEL OW
0.5 ¿X AREA
Open shafts (11), terraces, decks (19), uncovered entries, unfinished
basements, attics with access, outdoor pools, pipe
tunnels, utility pits.
0.25 ¿X AREA
Chimneys above roof (12), cornices (13), parapets (14), belvederes, pi-
lasters (15), exterior recesses (16), roof overhangs (17), small outdoor
steps (18), gardens, crawlspaces, foundations (20)
Heights in excess of 2 stories count as 0.5 floor area per story
Fig. 2-12. Effective floor areas.
DESIGN 63
2.F.2. Mechanical Equipment

Mechanical equipment areas are one of the most important
spaces in a modern building, because without them and the equip-
ment they contain, the building couldn’t function. This is especially
true of any architecture that may contain a proliferation of comput-
erized controls, which not only will increase the spatial requirements
for their central components but will also impose more stringent de-
mands on their access and servicing. The design features that make
these spaces optimally usable, and the building ultimately more func-
tional, are listed below:
Ø A main outdoor entry/emergency exit with direct access to a
sidewalk or service area. This entry should have lockable dou-
ble doors that are approachable by ambulance, and its floor
should ramp slightly downward on the outdoor side to a street
curb.
Ø A mudroom-style entrance lobby large enough for several peo-
ple, an adjacent large closet or storage area, and possibly se-
curity facilities. Nearby should be two rest rooms with lockers
and showers, an office/control room, first aid area, and an am-
ple and well-concealed garbage disposal area.
Ø A second entry/emergency exit on the side of the mechanical
equipment area opposite the main entry. Between these en-
tries should be a well-illuminated aisle at least 5'-0" wide. All
passageways in the utility area should have adequate headroom
below any ceiling-mounted pipes or other mechanical con-
veyances, and no tripping hazards such as pipes or other ob-
structions should be located on or near the floor.
Ø System flow charts and other regulatory information mounted
beside each piece of mechanical equipment, with a fire extin-
guisher or other fire suppression device mounted nearby in
clear view.
Ø Clear labels on all equipment, panels, wiring, piping, and duct-
ing. All penetrations of wiring, piping, and ducting through sur-
rounding walls, floors, and ceilings should be tightly and neatly
sealed.
Ø Painted floors, walls, and distribution networks. The latter
should be color-coded. Walls and ceilings should have no visi-
ble spray-on insulation or other exposed applications, and no
unsightly details such as loose hangers or torn insulation
should appear.
2.G. OPENING AREAS

Every residential entry door must be at least 6'-8" high and be-
tween 3'-0" and 4'-0" wide, open at least 90˚, have a minimum clear width
of 2'-8" when fully open, and any additional leaves must be between 2'-
0" and 4'-0" wide. Each commercial entry door must be as wide in ft as
its occupancy load divided by 50, and each should contain a transpar-
ent viewing area of at least 200 in2 or have an adjacent sidelight. Area
requirements for other building openings are described below.
2.G.1. W indow Area

A building’s windows and skylights must be large enough to al-
low in adequate light and fresh air; or else sufficient artificial light-
ing and fresh airflow from climate control equipment must be provid-
ed for all indoor spaces. Windows with wide areas, high sills, and high
headers maximize light penetration, while ribbon windows provide
uniform light entry into interior spaces.
Example 1. How much total window area should a 21¿15 ft living

room have?
2G11 Ag ≥ 0.10 Af
Ag = minimum area of unobstructed glazing, excluding frame, ? ft2
Af = floor area served by glazing, ft2. 21¿15=315 ft2.
Ag ≥ 0.10¿315 ≥ 31.5 ft2
Example 2. If the floor of a leanto greenhouse is 14'-0" wide and

38'-8" long, how much openable glass should it have?
2G12 Ag ≥ 0.05 Af
Ag = minimum area of openable glass, including frame, ? ft2
Af = floor area served by openable glass, ft2. 14.0¿38.7=542 ft2.
Ag ≥ 0.05¿542 ≥ 27.1 ft2
DESIGN 65
2.G.2. Attic Vent Area

Attic vents must be installed in pairs and be located as far as
possible from each other. Under a gable roof, the vents are best lo-
cated just under the peaks at each end. In sloping roofs with cathe-
dral ceilings, continuous eave vents must be installed outside the ex-
terior walls at the bottom of each roof and continuous ridge vents lo-
cated along the peaks in all but warm dry climates.
If the unoccupied attic under the gable roof of a residence mea-

sures 44¿28 ft, how large must be the eave vents at each end?
2G2 Av ≥ 0.0067 Af
Av = minimum open area of vents, excluding obstructions, ? ft2
Af = floor area of attic, ft2. 44¿28=1,230 ft2.
Av ≥ 0.006¿1,230 ≥ 8.21 ft2
2.G.3. Crawlspace Vent Area

Crawlspaces under wood or any other kinds of floors must have at
least 4 corrosion-resistant vents located in the top of the wall around
each enclosed foundation, a net free open vent area of at least 1.5 ft2
per 25 lf of wall, and actual openings of between ¡ and ™ in. These
vents should be installed in opposite walls, near corners, and in each
orthogonal direction; and any intervening party walls must have an
equal number of vents aligned with the vents in the parallel outer walls.
Where these conditions cannot be met with the minimum number of
vents, more vents should be installed.
The crawlspace of a 44¿28 ft residence requires how much open

vent area in its exterior wall?
2G3 Av ≥ 0.02 P
Av = minimum open area of vents, excluding obstructions, ? ft2
P = perimeter length of foundation wall, ft. 2 (44+28)=144 ft.
Av ≥ 0.02¿144 ≥ 2.88 ft2
2.H. C OL OR C O M P OS IT I ON
Johannes Itten, the noted professor of color theory at the Bau-
haus in the 1920s, stated that there are at least six basic contrasts
by which any two colors when seen together can evoke a harmonious
effect. These contrasts are:
Hue: one color vs. another.
Value: dark v. light.
Intensity: bright v. dull.
Complementary: red v. green, yellow v. violet, orange v. blue
Cold-warm: fiery red-orange-yellow v. glacial blue-green.
Extensional: small areas v. large. 2-2
Add to these contrasts several other chromatically related cri-
teria such as clarity vs. obscurity, smooth vs. rough, and glossy vs.
dull, and it is easy to see why the colors of a constructed environ-
ment can —aside from all other aspects of design— render a space
as delightful or unbearable. Thus every designer should know his or
her ‘chromatic grammar’ when it comes to composing in color, rather
than leaving such matters to chance or whim.
To cite Johannes Itten again… “A meat market may be decorat-
ed in light green and blue-green tones, so that the various meats will
appear fresher and redder … For a christening one would never
choose dark blue or dark green, but deliberately prefer light delicate
colors … It would be wrong to plant blue larkspur against a brown
wooden fence, or yellow flowers against a white stone wall, because
these backgrounds would detract from the color effect … Salesrooms
where the colors of goods are to be appreciated should always be
done in neutral grays.” 2-3 A few more guidelines:
Ø Cool pale colors tend to promote relaxation and shorten the
passing of time; thus they are good for areas of repetitive
work. Warm bright colors tend to promote activity and height-
en one’s awareness of time; thus they are better for entertain-
ment and romantic settings. Cool colors tend to make warm
conditions more tolerable, while warm colors do the same for
cold conditions.
Ø Advancing colors (red-yellow) usually make objects look larger;
receding colors (green-violet) usually make things look smaller.
Ø Red is the color of activity, orange of conviviality, yellow of
cerebration, green of nature, blue of repose, violet of regality.
The example below outlines a method of selecting a color
scheme for an interior space based on Itten’s color theory.
DESIGN 67
Fig. 2-13. Harmonious color relationships.
What is a harmonious color scheme for a factory that makes wood-

en tables and chairs?
Background Color (walls and ceiling)

Step 1. Dominant conceptual color ... wood ã pale orange-yellow
Step 2. Hue compliment of 1 (from Fig. 2-13) ............. blue-violet
Step 3. Select pale shade of 2 as background .. pastel blue-violet
Accent Color (trim, signage, etc.)

Step 1. Warmth of 1 (from Fig. 2-13) .................................. warm
Step 2. Cold/warm compliment of 4 .. cool (green, blue, or violet)
Step 3. Select dark shade of 5 for accent color ..... forest green
2.J. PLAN GEOMET RY

In architectural design it is common practice to develop the var-
ious spaces according to a geometric motif or module of some kind.
Aside from portraying the essence of the architecture and lending an
artistic character to the plans, such patterning infuses a sense of or-
der to the matrix of spaces, harmonizes disparate forms and details, in-
creases dimensioning efficiency, indicates optimal layouts for mechan-
ical system networks, and simplifies construction. Geometric motifs are
as important to architects as musical scores are to composers, and
most architectural compositions would be chaotic without them.
2.J.1. T he Square
The square module is typically a checkerboard grid whose lines
are equally spaced, such as 16 in. apart with every third line being a
dominant 4'-0" construction module. From this may evolve minor mod-
ules of 2'-0" (lumber lengths), 8" (concrete blocks), or 4" (bricks) which
further organize design and simplify construction. Rectangular, rhom-
boidal, and even parallelogramic modules may also be employed.
Fig. 2-14. Construction geometry of the square.
DESIGN 69
2.J.2. T he Hexagon
When circular bodies of uniform size are close-packed in a plane,
their most efficient arrangement is a hexagonal pattern. An excellent
example of this is the bee’s honeycomb, in which each hex-cell is the
result of equal pressure applied to each face as the bee on each side
strives to make its own little compartment as large as possible, which
allows each cell to hold more honey than any other space while re-
quiring less material to enclose. This of course has significant archi-
tectural implications, an organic fact which was not lost on Frank Lloyd
Wright, as evidenced by his beautiful hexagonal plans for the Hanna
House in California and Palmer House in Michigan. Although
Fig. 2-15. Construction geometry of the hexagon.

the contiguous hex-cells can vary greatly in size, such patterns are
best underlaid by a uniform hexagonal grid as a way of imparting sim-
plicity and economy to their construction.
Several other important geometric shapes are related to the
hexagon. For example, each regular hexagon is comprised of 6 equi-
lateral triangles, in which any 2 adjoining ones form a rhombus or di-
amond. And when a hexagonal pattern is extended in three directions,
each cell becomes a garnet-like rhombic duodecagon: a 12-sided reg-
ular polygon in which every face is a rhombus formed by two equi-
lateral triangles with a side in common.
2.J.3. T he Octagon
When octagonal geometry is used to create architectural pat-
terns and shapes, the results possess the construction simplicity of
the square and the movement fluidity of the curve; thus they are easy
to build and efficient to use. Indeed, in the 1850s in America a popular
residence was the octagon house, whose stock plan was known for its
spacious rooms, economic use of materials, and ample views of the sur-
rounding landscape through its 8 exposures as well as the 8-sided
cupola on top. Its rooms also received more daylight and were easier
to ventilate. And many a Victorian house was adorned by octagonal tur-
rets, octagonal porches, octagonally chamfered posts, and other ‘8-
square’ configurations, all of which were easily generated by the oc-
tagonal scale on a carpenter’s framing square. The author also em-
ployed this geometry in his own residence, in which he built octagonal
doorframes, an octagonal seating area in the living room, and octago-
nally arranged casework in the kitchen as shown below.
Fig. 2-16. Use of the octagonal motif

One may dimension any part of an octagon quickly by using the
numerical ratios in Fig. 2-17a. Some of these ratios are inaccurate by
nearly 1.0%, which is negligible in perception and construction.
What are the dimensions of each part of the octagonal seating

arrangement shown in Fig. 2-17 if the seating’s outer and inner di-
ameters are 134 in. and 70 in.?
DESIGN 71
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-
Fig. 2-17. Construction geometry of the octagon.
Step 1. Find the outer side length from the proper octagonal ratio:
2J38 side ã 1.0 = outer side length ã 134 (1.0) = 55.8 in.
dia. 2.4 134 in. 2.4
Step 2. Find the inner side length from the same ratio as in Step 1:
2J38 side ã 1.0 = outer side length ã 70 (1.0) = 29.2 in.
dia. 2.4 70 in. 2.4
Step 3. Find the seating edge radius from the proper octagonal ratio:
2J3- corner radius ã 1.0 = seat edge radius ã 64 (1.3) = 55.8 in.
dia. 2.4 (134–70) in. 2.4
2.J.4. T he Golden Section

Since ancient times architects have searched for a ‘divine ra-
tio’ that would marry comfort and beauty in architecture. Indeed, Vit-
ruvius said 2,000 years ago that such a proportion “must have the ex-
act measure of the members of a well-shaped human body.” 2-4 In
modern times the most refined advocate of this geometry has been
Le Corbusier, who in 1948 invented Le Modulor, a series of numbers
in which the ‘well-shaped body’ is 72 in. tall, the ‘divine ratio’ is 0.618,
and the other numbers were obtained by repeatedly multiplying or
dividing 72 by 0.618 or 2.0. The divine ratio is easily generated from
a square, and it appears often in natural phenomena.
Fig. 2-18. T he Logarithmic Spiral:

How Nature builds her architecture.
However, some consider Le Modular to be faulty insofar as the
human body cannot be idealized by any one dimensional paradigm —
that such smoothing of the bell-shaped probability curve is akin to
making one size pair of pants for everyone and expecting each indi-
vidual to be comfortable wearing them. But the noted art theorist
Rudolph Arnheim said of this: “When the statistician ‘smoothes’ a
curve, he is not cheating but trying to clean the intrusions of the low-
er orders off the higher one.” 2-5 Moreover, if the average height of
an adult human is 66 in. compared to Corbu’s ‘ideal’ height of 72 in.,
a space that is slightly larger than average is better than one that is
a little smaller because perceptual loose-fitting is more habitable
than cramping. A more serious criticism of Le Modular is that its
DESIGN 73
numbers do not economize building construction in our modern in-

dustrial society, at least not in America. However, in efforts to solve
this problem, this author added to Le Modular’s RED and BLUE
columns PINK and PURPLE columns as shown in Table 2-7, then
rounded all large numbers to multiples of 2, to create a Modified Mod-
ular that not only is an excellent means of sizing occupied spaces but
also contains the common American building modules of 16, 24, and
48 in. The result? A system that marries comfort and beauty with
American construction practice. This union may not be perfectly
compatible in every respect, but it is certainly better than any effort
that tries to create comfort, beauty, and comfort in architecture that
is essentially random.
TABLE 2-7: T HE MODIFIED MODULAR

MODULAR DIMENSIONS, BASED ON HUMAN HEIGHT OF 72 IN.
PINK RED BLUE PURPLE
1 , 2, 3, 5
4 ....................... 8 ..................... 18
14 ................... 6.5 (6) ................ 13 ..................... 30
24 .................. 10.5 (10) ............... 21 (20) .............. 48
38 ..................... 17 (16) ............... 34 ..................... 78
62 .................. 27.5 (28) ............... 55 (54)
100 .................. 44.5 (44) .............. 89 (88)
72 .................... 144
MODULAR UNIT OR ACTIVITY Average adult dimension, in.
Front-to-rear distance, person at counter or table ................................... 17

Shelf reach distance, front of body to front of shelf ............................... 30
Leg room access width, as between sofa and coffee table .................... 13, 17
Eye level of seated adult, above floor ................................................ 44, 48
Toilet compartment area .................................................................. 30¿54
Counter task area for one: table, desk, vanity, workstation, etc. .. 14¿24 min.
Access area along sides or back of above, width or depth .......... 10, 14, 17
Toe clearance ........................................................... 3 high, 4 deep, 5 wide
Frontal reach of seated person .. 17 normal, 24 extended, 34 bending forward
Width of walking or seated person ... 24 at shoulders, 21 at thighs, 17 below knees
Aisle width, residential ................. 38; Commercial (ADA min.=60 in.) ..... 62
Seat size: dining chair............ 17¿17; Sofa cushion ....................... 24¿24
Bed size: one .. 38 wide, 72 or 78 long; Two ........ 54 or 62 wide, 72 or 78 long
Heights: seat ... 17; Coffee table .. 13; Storage, bottom to top ............. 17-78
Table .. 28, 30; Seated torso ... 34; Between seat & under table ........... 8
Door & window header ............ 78; Counter 34, 38; Coathanger rod .. 72
Window sill or wall partition in front of or beside seated adult ....... 34, 48
Window sill or wall partition in front of or beside standing adult .. 44, 55, 62
When using the Modified Modular to dimension habitable

spaces, one does not need to use exact numbers, as tolerances up to
about 2% allow for flexible use without diminishing the system‘s per-
ceptual advantages. One may also create a Modular for an individual
of any height by replicating his or her height by 0.618 to obtain the
RED series, doubling these numbers to obtain the BLUE series, then
obtaining the Pink and Purple columns by proportion from Table 2-7.
What are optimal dimensions for a residential dining area for six?
Fig. 2-19. Use of the Modified Modular.

Solution. Consult Table 2-7 for the proper dimensions for each mod-
ular activity in the area under consideration, draw in plan or section
the dimensions as shown in Fig. 2-19, then add the numbers in both
axes to find the area’s dimensions as below:
L = 21+17+14+24+24+14+17+21 = 12'-8"
W = 38+17+14+10+14+17+21 = 10'-11"
This does not include area for furniture placed against the walls.
DESIGN 75
2.K. FIRE SAFET Y

Next to structural failure, fire is the most serious threat to a
building and its occupants. Thus a comprehensive fire control program
should be well thought out for every building, as described below:
Design the building to resist fire. All columns, girders, beams,
and floor slabs should be clad in structural fireproofing that is thick
enough to prevent structural damage from heat and flames until fire-
fighters arrive. Each 1,000 ft2 of suspended ceiling and 2,000 ft2 of
open area should be separated by firestopping, and all interior fur-
nishings and finishes should be fire-resistant whenever possible, es-
pecially in commercial spaces. Before specifying an interior finish, it’s
a good idea to take a tiny piece of the material outside the office, set
it afire, and take a whiff of the fumes. This simple act of enlightenment
could save a few lives someday.
Design spaces so everyone can escape. Every occupied area
should have two exit paths, each of which should be wide enough to
carry the full occupancy load, and exit doors should provide rapid dis-
persal outdoors. Stairways should be enclosed, fireproof, and wide
enough to allow firefighters to move in while occupants move out. As
fires often quickly disable electrical circuitry and ventilation systems,
emergency lighting along exit routes should be battery-operated, and
public alarm systems and fire-control ventilation should be activated
by two emergency generators located well apart from each other. Rest
rooms are equivocal places in case of fire: their tiled surfaces are fire-
proof and the water may be used to put out fires, but they are areas
of negative air pressure and thus draw in combustion gases. Other
fire-resistant measures are locating refuge areas in tall or large build-
ings, maintaining onsite water sources, and locating buildings away
from flammable surrounds (lumberyards, forests in arid regions, etc.).
Install alarms. These include sensors that detect fires and com-
bustible gasses, premises signals that warn occupants of danger and
indicate escape routes, remote signals that notify the local fire de-
partment, and activators that operate fire controls until firefighters
arrive. As fire alarm systems are usually electrically operated, their
design is described in Sec. 6.C.5.b., Fire Signal Wiring.
Install proper fire suppression methods. This includes identi-
fying a building’s Hazard Class, checking local codes for special re-
quirements, and verifying available water supplies. Hazard Classes
are listed in Sec. 5.F.2.b. Common fire suppression methods are:
Plumbing fixtures. Hose bibbs, faucets, toilets. These may be
used to extinguish small ordinary fires, especially in small buildings. Lo-
cate hose bibbs so all areas can be reached with a 50 ft hose, mount
heavy-duty hose hangers beside them, and install stop-and-waste valves
on exterior hose bibbs in regions of subfreezing winter weather.
Standpipes and sprinklers. This includes standpipes, firehose
racks, and sprinkler heads. As these are plumbing systems, their de-
sign is described in Sec. 5.F. Fire Suppression.
Portable extinguishers, CO2, Foams, Halon alternatives. These
gases or liquids tend to smother unusual types of fires. They are also
covered in Sec. 5.F.
Studies indicate that 75% of all building fire deaths are caused
by smoke and gas inhalation. Pushed outward by the expanding heat
of flames, these fumes spread via convective air movement and dif-
ferential atmospheric pressure to horizontal areas well beyond their
source, often faster than a person moving at a brisk walk. In tall
buildings the stack effect greatly increases their deadliness in verti-
cal directions. The production of such gasses also depletes the oxy-
gen supply. Although oxygen usually comprises about 21% of air, its
reduction to 16% diminishes human muscular skill, to 10% leads to
faulty judgment and rapid fatigue, and to 6% results in collapse. It is
of little solace to trapped occupants that oxygen levels lower than 7%
usually do not support combustion. Thus smoke control in buildings
is as important as suppressing fire. Common methods include HVAC
systems with fire-control overrides which in case of fire readjust
dampers and activate exhaust fans that draw accumulating smoke
and gasses out of affected interior areas. But recently, due to a
greater understanding of pyrodynamics and the development of sen-
sor-activated computer controls, two important new smoke control
strategies have evolved, which could be called pressure sandwiching
and roof reservoiring. Each is described below.
Pressure sandwiching. This strategy involves installing a net-
work of well-placed smoke sensors and damper controls throughout a
building’s HVAC ducting, then wiring them to computerized host con-
trols that (1) shut down the supply air to any zone where fire is de-
tected, (2) turn on the zone’s exhaust fan to create a negative air pres-
sure there, (3) supply all adjacent zones with maximum incoming air,
and (4) close the exhaust fans from adjacent zones to create a posi-
tive air pressure in these areas. Then a “pressure sandwich” is creat-
ed that tends to confine the smoke to its zone of origin where its ex-
haust fan may more easily remove it from the building. These systems
can be programmed to create the proper pressure relationships in
any combination of zones, and are therefore useful in multi-story
buildings and floor areas with many compartmentalized zones.
DESIGN 77
Fig. 2-20. Fire-resistance ratings of building constructions
Fig. 2-21. Smoke removal via pressure sandwiching.

Roof reservoiring. This strategy involves converting the upper
portion of a large open interior area into a large inverted container
by (1) locating high-volume exhaust fans in the area’s roof or upper
walls, (2) designing all minor spaces around the central area to have
at least partially open ceilings, and (3) mounting louvers low in the
building’s peripheral walls. Then when a fire erupts anywhere in the
building, the initial thermodynamic movement of the lighter-than-air
hot gases activates the central exhaust fans and opens the nearest
peripheral louvers, which sends the accumulating hot gases swirling
upward through the affected area’s ceiling openings while cooler
heavier air fills the area’s lowest regions; then the hot gases rise un-
til they are reservoired against the large central area’s roof where
they are drawn outdoors by the nearby exhaust fans. Thus the dan-
gerous gases stratify well above the habitable regions of the build-
ing, then are dispersed in a manner that keeps their temperature
down so they will not ignite the building’s upper areas. A vital part of
this strategy is a network of sprinkler heads that keeps the gases
cool enough so they won’t ignite the roof construction yet warm
enough to maintain their buoyancy. The sprinkler system must also
be carefully designed: the heads must be closer than required by
code, discharge densities must be higher, pendant sprinklers must
be mounted above all minor spaces, sidewall sprinklers must cover all
columns and exhaust fans, and upright sprinklers must be located
under the central area roof. The exhaust fans must also be sized
precisely according to several equations that compare the
DESIGN 79
Fig. 2-22. Smoke removal via roof reservoiring.

building’s upper volume with an anticipated fire’s smoke plume mass
flow rate in order to keep the lowest strata of hot gasses at least 6
ft above occupied areas until all occupants are safely evacuated
and/or the fire department arrives. At the same time the fans must
not be so strong that they create turbulence in the hot air which
could disrupt its stratification. Finally, a redundant number of sprin-
kler heads and exhaust fans must be installed in case some fail, the
utility must install a standby power system, and an emergency gen-
erator must be available to operate fire pumps, vocal notification
alarms, and emergency exit lighting. On the good side, computer sim-
ulations in spaces with roof reservoiring indicate that even after a
fire has burned uncontrolled for 30 minutes, the lowest strata of
smoke will still be 14 ft above the main level, thus maintaining safe
breathing and visibility for evacuating occupants and entering fire-
fighters. 2-6
Although roof reservoiring requires very careful design of its
componentry, it is the best fire suppression strategy yet devised for
large shopping malls, indoor athletic arenas, and other buildings with
large central areas surrounded by many smaller spaces.
2.K.1. Fire Exits

The floor plan of an L-shaped building that is 80 ft. wide and 112
ft long requires two fire stairs. How far apart should they be?
2K1 D ≥ 0.5 L
D = minimum distance between centers of exit doors, ? ft
L = maximum diagonal length of floor plan, ft. (L2+W2)0.5=
(802+1122)0.5=138 ft.
D ≥ 0.5¿138 ≥ 69 ft
2.L. ACCESSIBILIT Y
Certainly modern spaces should accommodate the visually im-
paired and people confined to wheelchairs. But they should also be
comfortable to a child, a pregnant woman pushing a stroller, a custo-
dian managing a service cart, or a retiree carrying a bulky suitcase on
wheels. Thus accessible design, rather than being ‘design for the
handicapped,’ represents more of a shift from a collective design men-
tality to one that considers the unique nature of every individual. All
such ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1988) accommodations
should be subtle and unobtrusive, and they should be an objective
from the earliest stages of design. Although the guidelines below are
intended for the disabled, they are advisable for any occupancy.
Typical wheelchair dimensions. Total length=42", width=25",
seat ht.=19", armrest ht.=29", pusher handle ht.=36", turning ra-
dius=30", eye level of seated user=3-6" to 4-3", minimum clear knee
ht.= 2'-3". Use more detailed data when available.
Building access. ADA parking spaces (13'-0" wide including a 5'-
0" access aisle) should be located near each entrance. Locate bol-
lards between pedestrian and vehicular areas, avoid curbs, and in-
stall grooved pavement or other tactile surfaces to aid the visually
impaired. Min. vertical clearance=9'-6", min. aisle width=5'-0", min.
pitch=1/100 both ways, max. cross-slope=1/50, max. ramp slope=
1/12 (any floor pitch exceeding 1/16 is a ramp). Ideal pitch from
street to entry≈1: 20 upward.
Entries. Electronically activated doors are advisable; as the
DESIGN 81
Fig. 2-23. ADA design specifications.
lateral pull required to open many commercial entry doors is too

strenuous for most disabled occupants. Minimum clear opening
width=2'-8". Bi-parting doors are VG; revolving doors are NG unless
very wide. Landings should be 5'-0" out from the door on the pull side
with 2'-0" to the side of the jamb, and 4'-0" deep on the push side with
1'-0" to the side of the jamb. Exterior landings should be slip-resis-
tant (friction≥0.6), pitch 1/8 in/ft down from the door, and be shield-
ed from rain and wind. Where two or more doors are located in series,
minimum clear length between doorswings and thresholds=4'-0".
Maximum threshold heights=™" with maximum 1: 2 pitch on both
sides. Wheelchair occupants should have clear access from inside
the entry to an elevator in multistory buildings.
Public circulation. This should be simply organized and allow for
cognitive mapping by the visually impaired. Floor elevation changes
should not exceed ¡ in. except at thresholds, carpets should be low-pile
high-density fiber without underlayments, and interior doors should be
3'-0" wide and have lever knobs. Where gratings are unavoidable in ac-
cess areas, openings should be maximum ™" wide í to direction of
movement. Water fountains should be high/low units with spout heights
of 4'-0" and 2'-10", and they should be centrally located in a 2'-0"
deep¿12'-0" long alcove. Elevators should be identified with 2" high
raised numerals with Braille notation alongside.
Wheelchair-confined occupants. A circular or T plan area (see
Fig. 2-23) that allows wheelchairs to turn around should be in one toilet
stall per public restroom, in the commons area of each public restroom
and residential kitchen, in front of one closet in each lodging and insti-
tutional bedroom, and along every 50'-0" of hallway. A 2'-8" wide knee-
space access for wheelchairs should be under each water fountain, van-
ity, counter, eating, writing, and other horizontal work area. Max. height
of thermostats, fire alarms, vending machine levers, public telephone
coin slots, towel holders, and cup or soap dispensers=4'-6". Min. clear
floor area in front of above items=2'-0"¿4'-0".
Seating. 1 ADA (wheelchair) seating area must be provided for as-
sembly areas of 4-25 seats, 2 for 26-50, 4 for 51-300, and 6 for 301-500
seats. Each such area must be level, be minimum 2'-9"¿4'-0" (front or
rear access) or 2'-9"¿5'-0" (side access), and have a 3'-8" clear access
aisle from the entrance portal. Eating and lounge areas should have
2'-6" clear behind or beside every seat and 4'-0" clear on one side of
each table. Conference room entry doors should have low peepholes or
sidelights with curtains. All public area seats should have armrests.
Bathrooms. Min. public toilet stall sizes are 7'-8"¿5'-0" for side
entry, 4'-8"¿5'-0" plus 3'-6" wide access aisle for front entry, and
5'-6"¿4'-0" for renovated stalls. Urinal rims should be 1'-6" high with
DESIGN 83
flush controls at 3'-8". Vanities should be 2'-0" deep, 2'-10" high with
2'-3" clear underneath, and any exposed under-sink plumbing should
be padded/insulated. Min. mirror heights=3'-4" at lower edges and
6'-2" at upper edges. Min. clear between residential lavatory/toilets
and tub/showers=2'-6". A 1'-5" wide seat at the shallow end of the tub
allows easy wheelchair transfer into the tub and provides a shelf for
toiletries and towels. Install high and low soap dishes large enough to
hold shampoo, and provide a handheld shower spray. Grab bars should
be 1¡ to 1™" dia. and 1™" clear from walls. Roll-in showers require wa-
terproofing under the whole bathroom floor and at least 1" up the wall.
Advisable stall shower area=3'-0"¿5'-0". Residences should have one
bath designed to ADA specifications.
Signage. This should be visual and cognitive: large sizes, pro-
truding or indented shapes, different figure/ground textures. Opti-
mal ht. of center of sign=5'-0" for pedestrians.
Counters, vanities, work surfaces. Advisable dimensions are
2'-7" ht., 8'-0" length, 2'-0" depth, and 2'-3" clear height below. High
counters should have 3'-0" wide cutouts at lower levels.
Lodging facilities. A number of guest rooms must be equipped
for the functionally impaired as listed in Table 2-8. This includes ac-
cessible sleeping and dressing areas, roll-in showers, and features
for occupants with impaired hearing. Closets should have double or
bifold doors (not doors with tracks) as well as high/low shelves and
hanger rods.
Storage areas. These should be located within easy reach of
wheelchaired occupants, be flexible and well-illuminated, and prefer-
ably not have cabinet doors with wide swings.
TABLE 2-8: ADA GUIDELINES FOR LODGING FACILIT IES

ROOMS EQUIPPED WITH ACCESSIBLE ELEMENTS
Accessible Rooms w/ Rooms w/ hearing-
NO. OF ROOMS rooms roll-in showers impaired features
1-25 ..................... 1 ................. 0 ........................ 1

26-50 ..................... 2 ................. 0 ........................ 2
51-75 ..................... 3 ................. 1 ........................ 3
76-100 ..................... 4 ................. 2 ........................ 4
100-150 ..................... 5 ................. 3 ........................ 5
151-200 ..................... 6 ................. 4 ........................ 6
201-300 ..................... 7 ................. 5 ........................ 7
301-400 ..................... 8 ................. 6 ........................ 8
401-500 ..................... 9 ................. 7 ........................ 9
1. This includes notification devices, visual alarms, and special telephones.
2.M. WAST E HANDLING

As surely as yesterday’s homes had a coal bin and canning pantry
in the basement, tomorrow’s residences will have a waste processing area
where residents diligently collate their garbage into numerous compart-
ments —not so much out of respect for the environment, but to make
money the old-fashioned way. Indeed, these little quarries could form
the foundation of a vast enterprise whose total revenues may someday
comprise a sizable percentage of our nation’s gross national product. A
few corporations have already become the Lewis and Clarks of such ven-
tures —as they engage in shredding, pulping, grinding, crushing, baling,
and incinerating waste. Their balance sheets indicate that such efforts
can be lucrative indeed.
A Victorian house being converted into a three-family residence

has a waste collating room, or old-fashioned ‘recycling center’, in
its basement. If 11 people plus an average 1 guest live here, what
is the studio’s optimal area? What should the room contain?
Fig. 2-24. Waste collating area.

2M A ≈ 7 ˜+50
A = estimated floor area of waste collating area, ? ft2
˜ = no. of occupants supplying waste. 11+1=12 people.
A ≈ 7¿12+50 ≈ 130 ft2
DESIGN 85
Facilities: A room about 12¿12 ft in size as in Fig. 2-24. 28 in.

deep counter with integral 6 in. splash along the back and janitor’s
sink with H/C water, hose bibb HB with adjacent hose rack HR for
washing counter and floor, cabinets with adjustable shelves over
counter. Open under-counter area with at least 9 recycling bins for
Newspapers Cardboard Other papers
Metals Glass Plastics
Textile fibers Compost ‘Other outgoing’
Floor. 6 in. reinforced concrete slab (allows for manual com-
paction on surface) with 6 in. integral curb. Floor slopes 1/8 in/ft to-
ward central 4 in. screened drain.
Electric. Two 20 amp appliance circuits in wall above counter.
Illumination. Windows for daylighting, 70 fc cove lighting under
shelf over counter, 100 fc ceiling fixture.
Ventilation. Openable windows, 100 cfm exhaust fan in wall be-
hind incoming waste storage.
Other. Drawer compactor with charcoal air filter. Furnace with
rotatable cage hearth and jacketed flue for rejected heat conversion
to hot water (located outside entry).
Entry. 3'-6" double solid core door with strongbox lock to dis-
courage theft.

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24 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING

Architecture Design Symbols

2.B. LAND USE

Example 1. The owner of a piece of commercial property who

Example 2. A 400 lot development requires a new elementary

2.B.2. Market Potential

Example 1. A commercial property owner who plans to build a su-

Example 2. A county school board knows that a new elementary

2.C. ACCESS DR IVES

should have a minimum angle based on a vehicle’s speed of travel. For

Fig. 2-1. Horizontal curve data for access roads.

Fig. 2-2. Vertical curve data for access roads.

Fig. 2-3. Roadway profile.

Fig. 2-4. Roadbed and guardrail construction.

have no foliage above any shoulder areas, stopping lines, or passing

form a near-monolithic foundation which smaller stones cannot do.

Example 1. What is adequate construction for an asphalt service

2C1 s ≈ dt t+db b+dsb sb

2.40 ≈ 3¿0.44+1¿0.11+ds¿0.14 ... ds ≥ 7 in.

Example 2. What size culvert is needed under a residential drive-

2C2 A ≈ 0.25 r R S 0.75

TABLE 2-1: ACCESS R OAD DATA

SURFACE GEOMETRY REQUIREMENTS Design speed, mph

Pavement width, per lane, ft ........................... 11 12 12 12

2.D. EXCAVAT ION

The earth being excavated to create the basement of a new residence

2D? V = applicable excavation formula from Fig. 2-5

Fig. 2-5. Formulas for excavation volumes.

2.E. CIRCULAT ION

TABLE 2-2: DESIR ABLE PAR KING R AT IOS

2E11 Area in ft2: A = 300 S+400 C

A city sidewalk has a maximum projected flow of 1,200 people/hr.

Example 1. The name of a building is to be mounted on the rear

Example 2. The owner of a roadside restaurant plans to erect a sign

2E32 0.10 ◊+0.004 ◊2 ≈ H ≥ 0.035 D

2.E.4. Slopes and Ramps

% grade = 100 ¿ height of slope

If pitch (rise/run)=1/12 in/in., grade=8.33%, â=4.77˚

Example 1. If a ramp extends from a building entrance to the

2E41 L = 12 H+5 |0.2 H|

Example 2. What is the radius of a three-quarter circular driving

Fig. 2-7. Parking entrance ramp.

Step 2. Find the radius of the ramp at its inside curb.

Example 3. On a topographic map of a hillside homesite, the con-

TABLE 2-3: SLOPE & R AMP SPECIFICAT IONS

Fig. 2-8. Staircase details.

Example 1. If a residential staircase has 7 in. risers, 10 in. treads,

Step 1. Find the number of risers in the staircase.

Example 2. If the above staircase is divided in half with a landing,

Step 1. Find the number of risers in the staircase.

Example 3. If the above staircase is a horseshoe staircase, what

Step 1. Find the number of risers in the staircase.

horseshoe staircase has 2 equal halves, S=2 units.

Step 2. Find the length of the staircase, not including landings.

TABLE 2-4: T YP ICAL STAIRCASE DIMENSIONS

2.E.5.a. Number of Steps

2.E.5.b. R iser Heig ht

2E5b 2.7 R ≈ 24–[(T–8) (T–2)]0.5

2.E.5.c. Tread W idth

Fig. 2-9. Escalator details.

A department store escalator has an estimated peak traffic load

There are 4 standard escalator designs:

Fig. 2-10. Elevator details.