Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Structural health assessment of fire damaged building using

non-destructive testing and micro-graphical forensic analysis:
A case study
Ahmed Aseem, Waqas Latif Baloch, Rao Arsalan Khushnood*, Arslan Mushtaq
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: After fire exposure the reinforced concrete structures lose strength and durability. Mapping
Received 1 November 2018 the damage caused by fire exposure becomes extremely important to assess the
Received in revised form 27 May 2019 serviceability of a fire exposed building. This case study covers in brief the structural
Accepted 28 May 2019
health assessment of a fire damaged structure. To unravel the heating history various
techniques were adopted. Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods were employed to assess
Keywords: the residual durability properties. Similarly, core extraction tests were performed to
Non-destructive testing
evaluate the residual mechanical properties. Further, a framework was developed with the
Structural heath assessment
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
help of microstructural and thermal analyses to reasonably estimate the exposure
Microstructural analysis temperatures of various structural units. This methodology has efficiently predicted the
Compressive strength degraded quality of Reinforced concrete based on Microstructural Structural Analysis and
Non-Destructive Testing.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques have recently drawn significant importance for structural health assessment
(SHA) of reinforced concrete structures. The concrete structures undergo deformation, cracks, honeycombing and voids due
to service, fatigue loads, environmental conditions and other extreme events. These defects can further deteriorate the
integrity of concrete structures due to corrosion/damage of steel reinforcement and concrete itself. Various NDT techniques
have been established to monitor these defects and update the health of structure accordingly during the service life of
structure. Hobbs & Tchoketch Kebir [1] have used ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and impact rebound hammer (IRH) for
predicting compressive strength of concrete structure. Similarly, integrated techniques of non-destructive testing for bridge
health assessment have been implemented by Kilic [2] which included ground penetrating radar and interferometric radar
monitoring technology IBIS. NDT methodology in this manner can also be executed to assess structural health, integrity and
serviceability of concrete structures subjected to fire, earthquake, extreme events and other natural hazards. Cioni et al. [3]
used thermo-mechanical and microstructural analysis of reinforced concrete elements after fire along with UPV Method for
assessment of reinforced concrete structural elements. Elevated temperatures deteriorate the microstructure of concrete
and degrade its integral strength and therefore, such an analysis is a relevant comparison with UPV and other NDT methods.
Single NDT method alone is not sufficient and reliable enough to predict structural health and integrity of reinforced
concrete. Health assessment of concrete must be carried out by combination of non-destructive techniques [4]. Bingöl &

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arsalan.khushnood@nice.nust.edu.pk (R.A. Khushnood).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2019.e00258
2214-5095/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
2 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258

Çavdar [5] along with shih et al. [6] have recently used combination of ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound hammer
methods to estimate concrete strength but less study has been carried out to investigate the health of fire damaged
structures. This paper aims to develop health assessment framework by integrating non-destructive testing techniques
along with microstructural analysis for Reinforced Concrete (RC) building subjected to fire.

2. Case study

Awami Markaz building also known as industry facilitation centre (IFC) (Islamabad, Pakistan) was exposed to serious fire
in year 2017 which resulted in loss of life and property [7]. IFC is a six storey reinforced concrete frame structure. It was an
office building known as software technology building with a lot of paperwork along with Information Technology (IT)
equipments and day to day activity. The fire erupted from North East of building at ground level and expanded throughout
the building, with minimum damage to basement level. Fig. 1 represents the ground floor layout plan for IFC building. The
study was carried out to determine structural feasibility of six-storey structure. In order to meet this purpose, structural
health of various structural columns, shear walls and slabs was assessed. The assessment framework consisted of non-
destructive, destructive and microstructural analysis methods to evaluate the condition of RC element. The study also aims to
highlight the most reliable method for the above study.
The firefighters responded within two hours and fire was put off within four hours of fire eruption. It was observed that all
storeys above 2nd floor were severely damaged with significant spalling of concrete and excessive bending of steel
reinforcement/bars and members. All Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning Facility (HVAC) facility, IT equipments and
escalators/lifts were made non-functional and destroyed due to severe fire exposure. The deteriorating condition of top
stories is clearly depicted in Fig. 2 by excessive deflections in slab and punching shear failure around column perimeters
respectively.

3. Testing methods

The elevated fire temperature deteriorates the strength and condition of concrete. Hager [8] have experimented the
variation in concrete color subjected to temperature range of 100
C to 1000
C which have shown increase in intensity of red
and green color above 400
C. At these elevated temperatures, along with color changes, concrete is subjected to spalling due
to excessive pore pressure developed which is greater than tensile strength of concrete [9]. The selection of RC structural
column and shear walls for structural health evaluation was based on excessive spalling of concrete cover, change in concrete
surface color and critical location of columns. Apart from significant deteriorated columns, RC element with viable structural
health conditions were assessed to compare the results. The compressive strength of concrete is an important mechanical

Fig. 1. Ground floor layout plan for IFC building (2 column fitting).
 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258 3

Fig. 2. Excessive slab deflection/punching shear around column perimeter (2 column fitting).

property to evaluate the structural strength of concrete [10,11]. Impact rebound hammer (IRH) and ultrasonic pulse velocity
method (UPV) both predict the compressive strength of concrete.

3.1. Forensic analysis

Preliminary forensic analysis was carried out to find some evidence that could give hints about the temperatures. When
arriving to a fire damaged concrete structure it is important to start the investigation by conducting a general inspection and
making observations about the extent of the fire, e.g. size and spread pattern of the fire, visible damage, etc. In Table 1 some
useful temperature indicators that were used during the general inspection are summarized.
Drop of formation can be seen in the peripheral aluminum fixtures, which indicates an approximate exposure of above
650
C at the edges of the structure as shown in Fig. 3(a). Similarly, molten and deformed glass was found in rounded shape

Table 1
Effect of fire on common materials.

Substance Typical example Conditions Approximate temperature

(
C)
Paints Deteriorates 100
Destroyed 150
Polystyrene Thin-wall food container foam, light shades, handles, curtain hooks, radio Collapse 120
casing Soften 120 – 140
Melts and flows 150 – 180
Polyethylene Bags, films, bottles, buckets, pipes Shrivels 120
Softens and melts 120 – 140
Polymethylmeth Handles, covers, skylight, glazing Soften 130 – 200
acrylate Bubbles 250
PVC Cables, pipes, ducts, linings, profiles, handles, knobs, house ware, toys, Degrades 100
bottles Fumes 150
Browns 200
Charring 400 – 500
Cellulose Wood, paper, cotton Darkens 200 – 300
Wood Ignites 240
Solder lead Plumber joints, plumbing, sanitary, installations, toys Melts 250
Sharp edge rounded 300 – 350
Drop formation 350 – 400
Zinc Sanitary installations, gutters, down pipes Drop formation 400
Melts 420
Aluminum and alloys Fixtures, brackets, small mechanical parts Soften 400
Melts 600
Drop formation 650
Glass Glazing, bottles Sharp edge rounded 500 – 600
Flowing easily 800
Silver Jewelry, spoons, cutlery Melts 900
Drops formation 950
Brass Locks, traps, door handles, clasps Melts 900 – 1000
Drops formation 950 – 1050
Bronze Windows, fittings, doorbells, ornamentation Edges rounded 900
Drops formation 900 – 1000
Copper Wiring, cables, ornaments Melts 1000 – 1100
Cast iron Radiators, pipes Melts 1100 – 1200
Drop formation 1150 – 1250
4 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258

Fig. 3. Forensic analysis (1 column fitting).

near the 2nd floor perimeter column, as can be seen in Fig. 3(b) which indicates towards the glass being viscous at a certain
stage of fire exposure. Thus, an approximate exposure temperature of above 800
C can be associated in the middle portions
of the structure.

3.2. Rebound hammer testing

Non-destructive rebound hammer test assess the compressive strength of concrete with the help of rebound index
which depends upon the rebound of spring-controlled mass and surface hardness of concrete. It is worth mentioning that
rebound number entirely depends upon surface condition of concrete and is not related to internal mechanical properties,
for which IRH alone is not sufficient enough to estimate structural strength. IRH has spring-controlled mass known as
plunger whose rebound will be dependent on material and position of impact due to gravity. The IRH test for ground floor
columns as highlighted in Fig. 1 was conducted as per ASTM C805 [12] standard by taking 16 readings from each tested
columns and slabs. In most cases, the concrete columns has covering of 3 in. plaster which was removed by chiseling to get
surface based concrete strength. Fig. 4 illustrates the IRH testing performed on fire burnt RC column. The location of rebar
was located before performing IRH test. A rectangular grid was prepared by avoiding the location of reinforcement to
estimate concrete compressive strength. All highlighted columns, slabs and shear walls in Fig. 1 were tested for rebound
hammer. It was observed that damaged concrete provided uneven/rough surface for testing. After making surface smooth
for hitting plunger, concrete spalled at locations where cracks were observed while performing rebound hammer test
reflecting lesser rebound numbers.

Fig. 4. Performing IRH test on fire burnt column (1 column fitting).

 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258 5

3.3. Ultrasonic pulse velocity method testing

Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) method is another NDT technique for estimating elastic modulus of concrete. Concrete
has heterogeneous material composition and ultrasonic waves are transmitted through a wide variety of particle sizes.
Therefore, ultrasonic wave frequency must match particle size for better diffusion in order to yield optimum results. The
preferred domain for ultrasonic waves for concrete is 20 kHz–100 kHz. UPV selected in this study was of 55 kHz. In ultrasonic
waves, compression waves referred as longitudinal waves provide picture of material property for which Helmholtz equation
is;
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Eð1  nÞ
Vp ¼   ð1Þ
rð1 þ nÞ:ð1  2nÞ
Any variation in ultrasonic velocity between transmitting and receiving transducer will reflect variation in integrity of
concrete which can be represented in terms of elastic modulus and concrete compressive strength. The ultrasonic wave
velocity in normal concrete is around 4.8 km/s [4]. For low velocity ranges, concrete has been degraded due to porosity,
honeycombing, decomposition of bond within concrete particles etc. All IRH tested columns and shear walls have been
tested with UPV on ground floor level, using indirect transmission method. As per ASTM standard C597-16 [13], direct
transmission method is recommended for which transducers are in line. However, the accessibility for edge columns at
buildings at different floor levels was not possible due to deteriorated health of building and safety reasons. Indirect method
was performed by varying distance between transducers and plotting values at multiple distance to yield single straight line
for calculation of velocity, which is in accordance with ASTM C597-16 [13]. Fig. 5 represents the location of transducers for
UPV test on ground floor column. The velocity of ultrasonic waves in steel is twice to that of concrete and therefore can yield
irregular results. For this purpose, reo-bar locator was used to find out location of longitudinal and transverse bars in
columns and transducers were placed on concrete surface by avoiding any location of longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement as represented in Fig. 5. The receiving transducer was moved at 400 interval greater than recommended
minimum distance by ASTM C597 [13] to record progressive time interval values. For UPV, multiple values were recorded for
each tested element using indirect transmissions and lesser values were attained where receiving transducer passes the
cracked regions of concrete. The presence of voids in damaged concrete force the ultrasonic waves to adopt the longer travel
path between two transducers due to which less UPV values were attained. The average velocity value was selected using
line-slope method.
The building has similar structural floor plan from first floor till fourth floor as shown in Fig. 1. The deteriorating effect of
fire was also spread on upper floor levels and second floor was also selected health assessment. On 2nd floor, 9 columns were
selected for IRH and UPV measurements. Similarly, shear wall and slab region have been tested for IRH and UPV tests. All
rebound hammer tested structural elements in the fire damaged building were also tested for ultrasonic pulse velocity tests.
The trend was observed for these two parameters i.e. IRH and UPV against concrete core compressive strength as shown in
Table 3. IRH represents surface hardness while UPV shows travel of compression waves within concrete heterogeneous
materials. Therefore, these two parameters can be used to predict concrete compressive strength. The residual compressive
strength of each sample must be known to develop a predictably model for fire damaged structure based on the two
parameters discussed above. Drilled cores sample extraction was carried out to determine residual compressive strength of
each tested structural element.

3.4. Drilled concrete core extraction for compression testing

The drilled core samples were extracted from 17 tested structural members as per ASTM C42 [14] standard. For columns
and shear walls, concrete cores were extracted at an average distance of 4 feet above the respective floor level. Steel
reinforcement was avoided during drilling and size of sample shall have optimum length to diameter ratio as per standard.

Fig. 5. UPV Transducer locations for indirect transmission (1.5 column fitting).
6 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258

Fig. 6. Drilled core extraction with concrete sample (2 column fitting).

All extracted samples in rough state were prepared with size of 3 in. diameter and 6 in. length. Trimming and capping was
performed on all extracted cores. The samples were capped as per ASTM C1231 [15] standard. The edges of samples were
padded after careful levelling using cutter, which were then tested for compression. Fig. 6 represents concrete core
extraction CR-13 showing 13th core extracted. For slab, tile work was removed to obtain concrete core sample with depth of
slab measured to be 1500 , sufficient enough to form concrete cylindrical sample. All prepared cylindrical concrete cores were
tested for residual compressive strength as listed in Table 3. The table shows six core samples from ground floor columns
represented as CG, nine core samples from second floor columns represented as C2, one core sample from second floor slab
represented as S2 and one core sample from second floor shear wall represented as SW2.
Concrete core compressive strength is the most important mechanical property to understand structural capacity,
integrity and health of any structural element. Based on above testing methods, ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound
hammer number were made dependent variables to predict concrete compressive strength by performing multiple
regression analysis. The experimental values of extracted cores for compression tests were used for performing such
analysis.

3.5. Microstructural analysis and interpolating exposure temperatures

Excessive temperatures during fire must have changed the mechanical and structural configuration of concrete within.
Microstructural analysis was thus performed on the concrete core samples with the lowest compressive strength found, and

Table 2
Mix design of reference concrete.

Reference Concrete Mix design

Components Quantity
Ordinary Portland cement (kg/m3) 417
Water content (kg/m3) 208.5
w/c ratio 0.5
Fine aggregate (kg/m3) 500
Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) 1043
plasticizer (% by binder) 1
Slump (mm) 105
Temperature at casting (o C) 23

Compressive strength progression (MPa)

7 days 17.63
14 days 20.30
28 days 26.72
 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258 7

were compared with microstructural images of a reference concrete. The reason behind picking the cores with lowest
strength was to get an adequate idea of the highest exposure temperature, which can help map the thermal damage. The
compressive strength of the unaffected cores (extracted from the columns not exposed to fire) was approximately equal to
26 MPa (4000 Psi). Thus reference concrete samples of similar strength were prepared, exposed to fire, and then micro-
structurally analyzed to develop a pictorial reference against exposure temperatures. This technique also helped to develop

Fig. 7. Micrographs of reference control formulation (a) 23
C (b) 200
C (c) 400
C (d) 600
C (e) 800
C (2 column fitting).
8 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258

strength regression pattern of concrete. It made easier to correlate the evaluated strength from cores to the exposure
temperatures and helped map the thermal damage.
The hydration products that develop in a cement paste are structurally and compositionally complex. As per an estimate a
healthy cement paste consists of about 70% calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel, 20% portlandite (chemically known as calcium
hydroxide), while rest are a few minor components such as ettringrite and calcium aluminate monosulphate [16]. Some of
these phases are crystalline while some are amorphous. However, in case of a fire exposed concrete sample the amorphous
phases are aplenty compared to crystalline phases. The main binding agent i.e. CSH gel tends to decompose and loses its
structural integrity and binding properties with the rise in temperature which consequently affects the strength and
durability of concrete matrix [17]. Scanning electron microscopy has been used by several researchers to analyze the
decomposition of hydrates, development of cracks and the interfacial zone deterioration patterns of fire exposed concrete
[11,17,18]. Concrete is a two component system i.e. paste and aggregate, the boundary separating the two is known as
interfacial transition zone (ITZ). Generally defined as the weakest link in the concrete, further becomes fragile upon exposure
to temperature [12]. Microstructural analysis thus provides the perfect platform to evaluate, analyze and correlate the
detrimental effects of fire to concretes loss of strength and durability.
To properly characterize the extent of fire damage to the structure under consideration, a 4000 Psi normal strength
concrete (NSC) was formulated. Mix design is presented in Table 2. A total of 30 concrete cylinders were prepared
(400 diameter and 800 height). After the achievement of 28-days strength the concrete cylindrical specimens were exposed to
target temperatures up to 800
C. A heat ramp of 5
C/min was adopted to approach the various target temperatures i.e. 200,
400, 600 and 800
C. Further, to develop a viable comparison, residual testing regime was considered where the concrete
samples are allowed to cool down to ambience before any mechanical testing is performed. After the heat exposure, the
concrete samples were cooled to room temperature, and then were tested under compression. The compressive strength
found at each data point is an average of three concrete cylinders. Fragments were collected from the tested broken samples
as per the guidelines mentioned in ASTM E1723 [19] for the microstructural study. The adopted procedure enabled the
researchers to analyze the extent of microstructural decay of concrete obtained from the damaged structure and compare it
to the microstructural decay of the reference concrete. Furthermore, this interpolative technique helped to estimate the real
exposure temperatures that the IFC building had to endure by comparing the residual compressive strength results.
Fig. 7(a–e) presents the microstructural images of the reference NSC samples exposed to various targeted temperatures.
Fig. 7(a) shows a compact microstructure with healthy hydrates and there are no visible pores or cracks. Similarly, up till
200
C the microstructure seems compact as various stable hydrates such as CSH gel and CH are evidenced. However, as the
temperature rises further, massive changes in morphology are witnessed. After exposure to 400
C, the pores in hydration
products and surrounded structure can be observed as can be seen in Fig. 7(c). At 600
C the pores and cracks are further
widened with the CSH gel being nearly amorphous as indicated on the micrograph. Moreover, at 800
C the concretes
microstructure is regarded completely damaged due to the decomposition of CSH gel and the disintegration of other
hydrates.
As far the associated compressive strength results were concerned, the most obvious pattern was observed i.e. the loss in
strength as the temperature rises. The ambient strength of formulated concrete was 4069 psi. After exposure to 200
C, the
NSC samples retained 96% (3906 psi) of the initial ambient strength. This loss is mainly associated to the evaporation of freely
attached water and the development of minor-cracking. At 400
C, the retained strength was 84% (3417 psi), the loss in
strength is due to the increased pore area fraction and subsequent increase in cracks [11]. At 600
C, the cracks in the matrix
were doubled as evident from the micrographs shown in Fig. 7(d), with severe deterioration in CH and CSH gel structure and
a result the strength retention was about 67% (2726 psi). At 800
C, the residual retained strength was 31% (1261 psi), this
huge degradation of strength is attributed to severe hydrate decay, predominance of macro-cracks and increase in the overall
porosity [20]. The decrementing pattern of strength is shown in Fig. 8. To interpret the exposure temperature of various
concrete members (fire damaged structure) an inverse interpolative technique has been adopted. Regression analysis was
performed on the mechanical data achieved by exposing the formulated concrete, to develop a mathematical equation that
can effectively interpolate exposure temperature as an output. Regression analysis was performed using a statistical

Fig. 8. Compressive strength versus exposure temperature for reference concrete (1 column fitting).
 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258 9

software called Minitab, V17.1.0. The residual mechanical strength was considered as the predictor parameter with the
temperature being the response parameter. The accuracy of any such mathematical model depends on the coefficient of
determination (R2). The value of R2 is 0.975 for the suggested equation which indicates its ability to precisely interpret the
exposure temperatures. Eq. 2 presents a mathematical relationship based on experimental data and gives an accurate
prediction of exposure temperatures.

PT  ¼  585:8  þ  0:2989 RCS    0:000105 RCS2  R2 ¼ 0:975 ð2Þ

Where,
PT: Predicted temperature
RCS: Residual compressive strength
R2: Coefficient of determination

3.6. Thermo-gravimetric analysis

The main risks concerning a fire exposed structure are stability and integrity. The failure of these parameters generally
occurs because of changes in chemical composition and structure of the element due to cracking or thermal deteriorations.
The thermal analysis methods, like DTA/TGA can be helpful for evaluating these changes and can help predict the fire
behavior of materials or as a supportive data for interpretation of the results [21]. In this investigation, we examined the
three DTA/TGA curves of the attained concrete samples. The test enables us to understand the phase and mass change of
specimen over various temperature ranges. The specimen were subjected to the thermal treatment at a heat rise rate of 5
C/
min. The maximum exposure temperature was 900
C. The behavior of samples with a thermal history (exposed to fire) was
compared with curves of formulated normal strength concrete for reference.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity

Rebound hammer based rebound number and ultrasonic pulse velocity values were compared for all tested locations as
shown in Table 3. S21 represents first slab tested on 2nd floor. Similarly, SW21 represents the first shear wall tested on 2nd
floor. CG represent columns on ground floor and C2 represent columns on 2nd floor with subsequent numbers. The
compressive strength from concrete core extraction is also tabulated to study the actual residual strength of all samples, and
a clear difference lies as seen in Fig. 9 which is discussed later in this section. Ultrasonic pulse velocities also decreases in
deteriorating condition of the concrete and their trend has been studied as seen in Table 3. CG1 and CG3 have least
compressive strength while CG5 and C22 have highest compressive strength and their fire exposed temperature is predicted
using mathematical model discussed in Section 2. Columns having least compressive strength must have been exposed to
higher temperatures. The columns CG1 and CG3 are located in the vicinity of fire eruption region i.e. North East of the

Table 3
Data achieved by performing NDT and interpolation.

Tested Average rebound Rebound UPV Compressive Over-estimated Predicted exposure temperature based on
element number (Rn) hammer (km/s) strength strength% by IRH w.r. mathematical model (
C)
surface from core t core %
hardness extraction
based
strength

Psi MPa Psi MPa

CG1 24.5 2236 15.4 0.1 365 2.5 512.6 680.9
CG2 28 2924 20.1 0.3 1015 7 188 781.0
CG3 26.25 2626 18.1 0.2 695 4.8 277.8 742.8
CG4 29.25 3210 22.1 0.36 1787 12.3 79.6 784.6
CG5 43 6456 44.5 3.46 2884 19.9 123.8 574.4
CG6 34 4336 29.9 1.6 2480 17.1 74.8 681.3
C21 28.75 3153 21.7 0.35 1682 11.6 87.5 791.5
C22 48.25 7954 54.8 4.5 2973 20.5 167.5 546.3
C23 28.6 3124 21.5 0.35 1707 11.8 83 790.0
C24 27.6 2813 19.4 0.3 1072 7.4 162.4 785.5
C25 29.75 3300 22.7 0.40 1893 13 74.3 775.3
C26 28.25 3056 21.1 0.35 1711 11.8 78.6 789.8
C27 29.5 3262 22.5 0.39 1867 12.9 74.7 777.8
C28 28.5 3083 21.2 0.34 1568 10.8 96.6 796.3
C29 27.75 2830 19.5 0.25 868 6 226 766.1
S21 31 4532 31.2 0.31 1853 12.8 144.5 779.1
SW21 29.5 3253 22.4 0.38 1828 12.6 77.9 781.3
10 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258

Fig. 9. Compressive strength of concrete based on Rebound Number and core (1 column fitting).

building, while columns CG5 and C22 are located on the opposite side i.e. North West of the building. The compressive
strength values clearly demonstrates that North East side of building has more devastating fire affect as compared to North
West.
Rebound hammer based concrete compressive strength and concrete core compressive strength are plotted against
rebound number in Fig. 9 which represents compressive strength for tested columns and shear walls. The compressive
strength values are over-estimated by rebound hammer as compared to core testing as rebound hammer assesses the
strength values based on surface hardness. The thick plaster of 3 in. would have absorbed greater heat protecting the
concrete surface within plaster from cracking and spalling initially. However, the greater heat exposure temperatures might
also have made columns porous by deteriorating hydrates and silica gel enabling lesser UPV values. In contrast to this, the RN
was not greatly reduced as fire couldn’t affect the concrete surface directly due to presence of thick plaster. Rebound number
purely gives estimation of strength on the outer boundary of structure and is unable to predict integrity/health inside the
structure. The fire must have damaged the internal integrity of bond within concrete aggregates and therefore IRH alone
itself is not an accurate predictor of compressive strength.
The similar trend has been studied for rebound hammer based concrete compressive strength and core compressive
strength against the respective UPV values of each tested sample. UPV as discussed in Section 3 gets reduced due to presence
of voids and anomalies in concrete. The degradation of concrete due to fire will be recorded in terms of lesser values of UPV.
The compressive strength using rebound hammer testing and core extraction (compression testing) is represented against
UPV values for respective column or shear wall in Fig. 10. It is to be noted that compressive strength seems to be increasing
with increase in ultrasonic velocity. A linear increasing relation exist between UPV and compressive strength. In Fig. 10, the
slope of line is steeper around UPV values of 0.25-0.4 km/s while it gets moderate after 0.5 km/s. After 2 km/s UPV value, IRH
shows increased slope for compressive strength representing good quality of concrete based on surface [22]. However, the
actual compressive strength from core varies significantly (lesser value) and doesn’t follow steeper slope. This relation
represents that fire burnt columns doesn’t possess enough compressive strength and there is not significant increase after
greater values of UPV.

Fig. 10. Compressive strength for tested columns and shear walls (1 column fitting).
 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258 11

The graph also predicts that compressive strength value depends upon rebound number and UPV. UPV and IRH
parameters will be affected due to degraded quality of concrete. Therefore, these two variables can be used to predict the
concrete compressive strength indirectly. These two dependent variables have been used for multiple regression analysis
based on 16 data sets and known values of residual concrete core compressive strength as described in Table 3. The values for
slab were not used for developing the relation as testing positon by Rebound Hammer differs for slab as compared to rest of
tested structural elements. The value of average rebound number is set as dependent variable RN and UPV as dependent
variable UV. The least squares point estimates yield multiple regression equation for concrete compressive strength CCS as;
CCS ¼ 388:7RN  1417:3UV  9080:8 ð3Þ
The relative error for estimating compressive strength for an individual structural element using regression Eq-3 against
core compressive strength comes out to be in a range of - 4.2 MPa to +2.5 MPa (- 612 psi to +360 psi). Therefore, average
compressive strength can be estimated using dependent variables of UPV and rebound number as Non-Destructive
Evaluation (NDE). However, destructive testing was performed in this study to develop relation using regression model.
Fig. 11 represents the similarity between concrete cores based compressive strength and regression model based
compressive strength pointing towards a good match with data points. There is a variation between two models around UPV

Fig. 11. Compressive strength based on concrete core and regression model (1 column fitting).

Fig. 12. Micrograph for sample CG1 showing massive deterioration to microstructure (1 column fitting).
12 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258

values of 1 km/s to 2.5 km/s because of absence of sufficient data points in this region. The burnt structural elements didn’t
attain enough UPV values because of the degraded quality of concrete and the maximum relative difference between
regression model and core strength lies in this region. The regression model will need more data points to make model
smooth in the mentioned region but still provides a fair estimate of compressive strength. Therefore, multiple regression
model can be developed based on above methodology for any structure which is under health evaluation to predict the
concrete compressive strength. However, it should be noted that actual design strength of all structural elements must be
same to develop such a model.
The stories till ground floors showed massive degradation in concrete compressive strength for columns from 26 MPa
(4000 psi) as shown in Table 3. Most of the columns have lost 60–80 % of compressive strength and have shown very low UPV
values. The building lies in seismic zone 2B of Pakistan which is considered seismically active zone, and is therefore a critical
structural concern. The retrofitting of such structure involves higher risk and no such measures were adapted.

4.2. Scanning electron microscopy & interpolation of various exposure temperatures

Based on the compressive strength data achieved by core extraction, fragments from tested concrete cores with the least
compressive strength were picked for microstructural analysis. The micrograph shown in Fig. 12 represents sample CG1. The

Fig. 13. DTA/TGA curves for fire exposed samples: (a) CG4 (b) C28 (c) S21.
 A. Aseem et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00258 13

deterioration of hydrates, severe cracking and porosity can be witnessed. The morphology of CSH gel is badly deteriorated
while other major hydrates cannot be identified. The presence of cracking indicates the severity of exposure temperature. In
comparison to the microstructural study carried out on the formulated control concrete, it can be seen that the morphology
of CG1 sample matches that of micrograph shown in Fig. 7(e). The apparent microstructural damage of CG1 sample even
supersedes the microstructural decay of concrete exposed to 800
C. It can be inferred by thoroughly examining the
micrograph and comparing it, that the exposure was far beyond 800
C. Thus the microstructural analysis carried out to
develop a comparative framework helped interpret the microstructural decay and also helped estimate the exposure
temperatures. Based on the compressive strengths evaluated from the extracted cores, exposure temperatures were
estimated using the mathematical model presented in Eq-2. This mathematical relationship developed based on regression
analysis from actual data can help to estimate the concrete compressive strength loss and enables to extrapolate the
exposure temperatures. The evaluated estimated exposure temperatures are presented in Table 3. For instance, the
micrograph of sample CG1 help us infer that the thermal deteriorations to microstructure are beyond 700
C.

4.3. Thermal analysis

Fig. 13 presents TGA/DTA curves of samples CG4, C28, S21 alongside reference concrete sample. Small fragments from the
representative concrete specimens were collected, crushed and powdered before 150 mg sample was used for the test. The
presence of calcareous aggregates in both the concrete types made the thermal analysis comparison worthy. The first peak on
DTA in the region of 100–120
C corresponds to the loss or expulsion of evaporable water. The continuous decline in mass till
200
C, indicated by the TGA curve is attributed to loss of water available in CSH gel and ettringrite [23]. This dehydration
continues till 400
C as the CSH gel still contains some physically and chemically attached water. The second dominant peak in
DTA curves occurs around 450–500
C which is due to the decomposition of portlandite (CH) [23]. This curve is clear in the
reference concrete, however, is diminished in the samples with a thermal history (fire exposed). Similarly, the mass loss in higher
in this region for the reference concrete samples as indicated by the TGA curves. The fire exposed samples have partially lost
some hydrates and as a result the peaks found aren’t well defined nor is the mass loss excessive [23]. The last dominant peak in
the DTA is in the region of 700–750
C and is associated with the decomposition of carbonates. Further, the reduction of these
peaks also indicates the temperatures these samples were exposed to. The disappearance or reduction of the peaks in samples
(CG4, C28, S21) corresponds to the partial or complete decomposition of some phases like ettringrite, portlandite (CH) or calcium
silicate hydrate (CSH) gel. The disappearance of these hydrates can be associated to exposure temperature of at least 600
C.

5. Conclusion

The results of experiment in this study shows that IRH and UPV can be used as reliable tool to predict the mechanical
strength of concrete structure subjected to fire. However, this study has also used concrete core extraction to develop
concrete compressive strength relation based on IRH and UPV. Microstructural study based on scanning electron microscopy
and thermal analysis of fire damaged samples also represents degraded quality of concrete. Severely deteriorated samples as
per microstructural study matches well with lesser values of concrete compressive strength.

Declaration of interest

None.

Conflict of interests

The authors affirm that there is no conflict of interests relating to the publication of this paper.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge National University of Science and Technology (NUST) and National Engineering Services
Pakistan (NESPAK) in facilitation of carrying out research.

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