The Perfect Answer Biology Revision Guide - Edexcel IGCSE 9-1 - 1st Edition

The Perfect Answer
Revision Guide To…

Biology
Edexcel IGCSE
9-1
Triple Award
1st Edition
Copyright © 2019 Hazel Lindsey & Martin Bailey !1
Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey

For use by Abdul Basit back2basit@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.

Contents
1. The nature and variety of living organisms.......................................................3

a. Characteristics of living organisms ................................................................................3
b. Variety of living organisms............................................................................................. 3
2. Structure and functions in living organisms..................................................... 5
a. Level of organisation .....................................................................................................5
b. Cell structure ................................................................................................................. 5
c. Biological molecules ......................................................................................................6
d. Movement of substances into and out of cells ..............................................................8
e. Nutrition .........................................................................................................................9
Plants .........................................................................................................................................9
Humans ....................................................................................................................................10
f. Respiration ...................................................................................................................12
g. Gas exchange ............................................................................................................. 13
Plants .......................................................................................................................................13
Humans ....................................................................................................................................13
h. Transport .....................................................................................................................14
Plants .......................................................................................................................................14
Humans ....................................................................................................................................15
i. Excretion .......................................................................................................................18
Plants .......................................................................................................................................18
Humans ....................................................................................................................................18
j. Co-ordination and response .........................................................................................19
Plants .......................................................................................................................................19
Humans ....................................................................................................................................20
3. Reproduction and inheritance ..........................................................................23
a. Reproduction ............................................................................................................... 23
Plants .......................................................................................................................................23
Humans ....................................................................................................................................24
b. Inheritance ...................................................................................................................25
4. Ecology and the environment........................................................................... 30
a. The organism in the environment ................................................................................30
b. Feeding relationships ..................................................................................................30
c. Cycles within ecosystems............................................................................................ 31
d. Human influences on the environment ........................................................................ 31
5. Use of biological resources .............................................................................. 33
a. Food production ..........................................................................................................33
b. Selective breeding .......................................................................................................34
c. Genetic modification (genetic engineering) .................................................................34
d. Cloning ........................................................................................................................36
Copyright © Hazel Lindsey & Martin Bailey 2019. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission from Science with Hazel Ltd 

Note: Content in italics will not be examined on Paper 1
1. The nature and variety of living organisms
a. Characteristics of living organisms
The following characteristics all living organisms share:

- Movement
- Respiration
- Sensitivity (respond to surroundings)
- Control internal conditions
- Nutrition
- Excretion
- Reproduce
- Grow
b. Variety of living organisms
What does eukaryotic mean?

- Has membrane bound organelles e.g. Animal cell has mitochondria, ribosomes and a nucleus
What does prokaryotic mean?
- No membrane bound organelles
- E.g. bacteria and viruses
Both animal and plant cells contain:
- Nucleus - controls the activities of the cell
- Cell membrane - controls entry and exit of substances into the cell
- Cytoplasm - where chemical reactions take place
- Mitochondria - where aerobic respiration takes place - release energy
- Ribosomes - protein synthesis
Plant cell only:
- Vacuole - filled with cell sap contains dissolved sugars, and mineral ions
- Chloroplasts - carry out photosynthesis
- Cell wall - protects and supports the cell, made out of cellulose  

Virus Bacteria Protoctist Fungi
- Cell wall made of

- Cell wall
chitin
- No distinct - Variable
- Contain usual
- Protein coat
nucleus - instead - Can be similar to organelles -
surrounds DNA
Structure have a circular animal cells cytoplasm, cell
or RNA
chromosomes (protazoa) or membrane etc.
- Non-living
(nucleoid) and plant cells (algae) - Hyphae form a
often plasmid network called
mycelium
Unicellular or - Can be either
- Unicellular - Unicellular (most are - Can be either
multicellular
unicellular)
Pathogenic? - Always - Sometimes - Sometimes - Sometimes
- HIV (causes
AIDS)
- Chorella (have
- Influenza
- Pneumococcus chloroplasts,
- Cold virus
(causes
plant-like),
- Measles, mumps, pneumonia)
- Plasmodium - Mushrooms
Examples rubella
- Lactobaccilus (causes malaria)
- Mucor
- Tobacco mosaic bulgaricus (used
- algae
virus (prevents in yoghurt

- amoeba (more
chloroplast making)
animal-like)
production -
discolours leaves)
- Can only
reproduce inside
- Uses
another living cell
Extra notes saprotrophic

- Non-living - don’t nutrition
excrete, respire,
move, grow etc
What are the 5 kingdoms?

- Plants
- Animals
- Fungi
- Protoctists
- Bacteria
What does multicellular mean?
- Contains many cells
How is carbohydrate stored in a) animals and b) plants c) fungi?
a) As glycogen
b) As starch
c) As glycogen
Define saprotrophic nutrition
- The use of digestive enzymes to extracellularly break down dead matter
- Fungi (e.g mucor) have hyphae which form a network called mycelium
Define pathogen
- a micro-organism which causes disease

2. Structure and functions in living organisms
a. Level of organisation
What is a cell?
- Group of organelles working together to perform the same function
What is a tissue?
- Group of cells working together to perform the same function
What is an organ?
- Group of tissues working together to perform the same function
What is an organ system?
- Group of organs working together to perform the same function
What are the main organs in plants?
- Leaves
- Roots
- Stems
- Flowers
What are the 7 main organ systems found in humans?
- Reproductive system
- Circulatory system
- Digestive system
- Gas exchange system
- Nervous system
- Excretory system
- Endocrine system
List some organs found in the digestive system
- Oesophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Large intestine
b. Cell structure
What is a zygote?
- Single cell formed after fertilisation occurs
How is a 16 cell embryo formed?
- By mitosis (cell division)
- 2 cells —> 4 cells —> 8 cells —> 16 cells
What is differentiation?
- Process whereby cells become specialised e.g. nerve cells
What is a stem cell?
- A cell which has the potential to divide many times whilst remaining undifferentiated
(unspecialised)

What are the 2 types of stem cell?
- Embryonic
- Adult
What are embryonic stem cells?
- Found in early stage development of embryos
- Can differentiate into ANY type of cell
What are adult stem cells?
- Found in particular tissues
- E.g. bone marrow, lining of small intestine, skin
- Unable to differentiate into any type of cell
What is stem cell therapy?
- Use of stem cells to treat disease
- E.g. bone marrow transplants
Describe the use of stem cell therapy in the treatment of leukaemia
- Leukaemia - type of blood cancer
- Chemotherapy destroys both healthy AND cancerous cells
- Stem cell therapy supplies stem cells that can divide and differentiate and therefore replace
cells lost in chemotherapy
Advantages and disadvantages of embryonic stem cell therapy

- Ability to differentiate into ANY type of cell
- Could be used to treat Parkinson’s disease, diabetes etc
- BUT ethical issues with their use as they come from unborn foetuses
c. Biological molecules
What elements are found in carbohydrates?

- Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
What elements are found in proteins?
- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (and sometimes sulfur)
What elements are found in lipids (fats)?
- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
What is the structure of a lipid?
- 3 fatty acids
- 1 glycerol molecule
What are oils?
- Plant lipids
- Liquids at room temperature
What are proteins made up of?
- Long chains of amino acids
- There are 20 different amino acids
What are starch and glycogen made up of?
- Simple sugars joined together

Give some examples of proteins found in the human body
- Collagen and keratin found in skin and nails
- All enzymes
- Haemoglobin
What is the food test for starch?
- Add iodine
- Positive result: turns blue/black
What is the test for glucose?
- Heat with water and Benedict’s solution
- Blue solution turns brick red in the presence of glucose
What is the test for protein?
- Add Biuret reagent
- Positive result: purple
What is the test for fat?
- Add ethanol
- Add water
- Positive result: milky white emulsion
What is the role of genes?
- Control the activities of the cell
- Determine which proteins are made
Define enzyme
- Biological catalyst
- Speeds up a reaction
- Without being used up
Define metabolism
- Rate at which chemical reactions take place in the body
Key enzyme terms:
- Substrate - molecule an enzyme acts upon
- Active site - area on an enzyme where substrate attaches
Describe and explain the effect of too high temperature on enzyme activity
- Decreases activity
- Enzyme denatures and substrate can no longer fit the active site
Why does decreasing the temperature decrease enzyme activity?
- Lower kinetic energy
- Fewer collisions between enzymes and substrates
Why is it important that we control our internal temperature?
- Too high - enzymes denature
- Too low - enzymes work too slowly (little kinetic energy) and can’t catalyse chemical reactions
fast enough
Describe and explain the effect of too high or too low pH on enzyme activity
- decreases activity
- enzyme denatures and substrate can no longer fit the active site

d. Movement of substances into and out of cells
Define diffusion
- Net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Down a concentration gradient
What factors affect the rate of diffusion?
- Concentration gradient
- Surface area to volume ratio
- Diffusion distance
- Temperature
What factors increase the rate of diffusion?
- Steep concentration gradient
- High surface area to volume ratio
- Shorter diffusion distance
- Higher temperature due to increased kinetic energy of particles
Define active transport
- Net movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration
- Requires energy from ATP
Give examples of active transport
- Root hair cells absorbing mineral ions
- Movement of glucose through the lining of the small intestine
Define osmosis
- Net movement of water
- From an area of high water potential to low water potential
- Through partially permeable membrane
What happens to a plant cell placed in salty solution and why?
- Shrinks (flaccid)
- Cell membrane pulls away from cell wall (plasmolysis)
- Because higher water potential in cell compared with surrounding solution so water leaves the
cell by osmosis
What happens to a plant cell placed in pure water and why?

- Swells (turgid)
- Because higher water potential in surrounding solution compared with inside the cell so water
enters the cell by osmosis
- Cell wall prevents bursting
What happens to an animal cell placed in pure water and why?
- Bursts
- Because higher water potential in surrounding solution compared with inside the cell so water
enters the cell by osmosis
- No cell wall so bursts
Examples of large surface area to volume ratios for movement of substances
- Alveoli in lungs for absorption of oxygen
- Villi in small intestine for absorption of soluble products of digestion
- Root hair cells for absorption of mineral ions

e. Nutrition
Plants
What is the word equation for photosynthesis?

- Water + carbon dioxide (+ light energy) —> glucose + oxygen
What is the balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis?
- 6CO2 + 6H2O —> 6O2 + C6H12O6
What is a limiting factor?
- Factor in a reaction which is in shortest supply
- Lack of this factor is the reason why the rate of reaction no longer increases
What are the limiting factors of photosynthesis?
- Carbon dioxide
- Light intensity
- Temperature
- Increasing any of the above will increase the rate of photosynthesis until another factor
becomes limiting
Why is the rate of photosynthesis low in the morning?

- Temperature is the limiting factor
- Low temperatures inhibit enzyme activity
- Carbon dioxide levels are high
Why is the rate of photosynthesis high at midday?
- High temperature maximises enzyme activity
- Carbon dioxide is the limiting factor as it’s in the shortest supply
How is the leaf adapted for its role?
- Waxy cuticle - prevents evaporation of water and stops pathogen entry
- Upper epidermis - transparent to allow light to enter the leaf
- Palisade mesophyll - contains lots of chloroplasts for photosynthesis
- Air spaces in spongy mesophyll - allow gases to diffuse
- Xylem - allows entry of water and mineral ions by transpiration stream
- Guard cells - control opening and closure of stomata
- Stomata - allow carbon dioxide to enter, oxygen and water to leave
- Thin and broad (large surface area)
What does the plant use glucose for?
- Making cellulose cell walls
- Making proteins and DNA
- Making starch for storage
- Making sucrose for transport
Mineral ion Use Deficiency symptom
Nitrate Making amino acids and proteins Stunted growth
Magnesium Making chlorophyll Yellow leaves

Humans
Nutrient Role Food rich in nutrient Deficiency disease
Protein - Growth and repair of - Meat, fish, eggs,

- Kwashiorkor
muscles cheese
- Glucose - fruits and
vegetables
- Lactose - milk
- Sucrose - table
Carbohydrates sugar
- Energy store
- Starch (insoluble) -
potato, rice, wheat
- Glycogen - meat
- Cellulose - plant cell

walls
Lipids - Insulation and long- - Butter, cheese
term energy store
Water - Supports chemical

reactions inside cells
Fibre - Prevents
- Vegetables
constipation
Calcium - Strong teeth and
- Milk, cheese
bones
Iron - Healthy blood - Red meat - Anaemia
Vitamin A - Good vision - Fish liver oils, butter, - Night blindness

carrots
Vitamin C - Sticks together cells - Lemons, oranges - Scurvy - bleeding

lining the mouth gums
Vitamin D - Strong bones - Fish liver oils, made - Rickets

by skin in sunlight
How do energy requirements vary with activity levels?

- Age - older people need less food than young people as activity levels are lower
- Pregnant women need more food, iron, and calcium to support growing baby
Why is food needed?
- For growth and repair of tissues
- Fight disease
- Supply fuel needed to release energy
What is digestion?
- The break down of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble ones
- For absorption through the wall of the small intestine
What is mechanical digestion?
- Physical breakdown of food
- E.g. Teeth chew food, muscles in stomach churn food
What is chemical digestion?
- Enzymes act as biological catalysts and break down large, insoluble molecules into small,
soluble ones
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Where is bile made, stored, and released into?
- Liver, gall bladder, small intestine
What is the role of bile?
- Emulsifies - breaks down large lipid droplets into small ones to increase the surface area
- Neutralises hydrochloric acid
What is the role of hydrochloric acid (HCl)?
- Kills pathogens
What is the role of the stomach?
- Secretes HCl to kill pathogens
- Muscular walls churn food (mechanical digestion)
How does digestion start in the mouth?
- Mechanical breakdown of food by teeth
- Amylase released - digests starch into glucose
What is peristalsis?
- Contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles which push food along the gut
What is the role of maltase?
- To digest maltose into glucose
What is role of amylase?
- To digest starch into maltose
What is the role of lipase?
- To digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
What is the role of protease?
- To digest proteins into amino acids
Where is amylase made?
- Salivary glands, small intestine, pancreas
Where is lipase made?
- Pancreas, small intestine
Where is protease made?
- Pancreas, small intestine, stomach
How is the small intestine adapted for its function?
- Large surface area provided by villi and microvilli
- Lots of capillaries
- Thin wall - short diffusion distance
- Lacteals - absorption of fats
What is ingestion?
- When food enters the mouth
What is excretion?
- The removal of waste products of metabolism
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! 1

What is absorption?
- The movement of soluble food through the wall of the small intestine into the blood stream
What is egestion?
- The removal of faeces from the anus
What is assimilation?
- When small food molecules are used to build large ones
f. Respiration
What is respiration?
- Makes ATP (energy store)
- Releases energy
What is the energy in ATP used for?
- Contraction of muscles
- Cell division
- Building large molecules from small ones
- Active transport
What is the equation for respiration?
- Oxygen + glucose —> carbon dioxide + water + (energy)
What is the symbol equation for respiration?
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6H2O + 6CO2
What is aerobic respiration?
- Release of energy using oxygen
What is anaerobic respiration?
- Respiration without the use of oxygen
- Glucose incompletely broken down
Give 2 examples of anaerobic respiration
- Yeast
- Muscles cells during strenuous exercise
Summary of anaerobic respiration in yeast:
- Glucose —> ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ little energy)
- Ethanol - beer-making
- Carbon dioxide - helps bread dough rise
Summary of anaerobic respiration in muscle cells:
- Due to insufficient oxygen delivery to muscles e.g. when sprinting
- Glucose —> lactate (+ little energy)
- Oxygen debt builds up
What is an oxygen debt?
- Volume of oxygen needed to completely breakdown the lactate
What substance can be used to remove carbon dioxide?
- Soda lime

Hydrogen carbonate indicator colours:
- Atmospheric carbon dioxide (0.04%) = red/orange
- High levels of carbon dioxide = yellow
- Low levels of carbon dioxide = purple
g. Gas exchange
Plants
What is the role of the stomata?

- Allows carbon dioxide into the leaf and oxygen out
What is the role of diffusion in gas exchange in plants?
- Plants need oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
- These gases diffuse into the leaf through the stomata
- Respiration produces carbon dioxide, which can be used by the leaf for photosynthesis
- During the day, photosynthesis occurs much faster than respiration, so excess oxygen diffuses
out of leaves into atmosphere
How is the leaf adapted for gas exchange?

- large surface area to absorb light and carbon dioxide
- Thin and flat so short diffusion distance for carbon dioxide and oxygen
- Lots of chloroplasts containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis
How is the internal structure of the leaf adapted for gas exchange?
- waxy cuticle reduces evaporation of water
- Stomata can open to allow more carbon dioxide to diffuse in, and oxygen to diffuse out
- Spongy mesophyll layer contains air spaces to allow gas exchange in and out of the mesophyll
When does respiration occur in plants?
- both in the day and at night
Humans
How are the airways kept clean?

- Goblet cells secrete mucus
- Mucus traps the dirt/bacteria
- Cilia (cells with hairlike structures) waft the ladened mucus up to the mouth where it is
swallowed and destroyed by HCl in the stomach
What is ventilation?
- Movement of air into and out of the lungs
Describe the process of breathing in (inhalation)
- External intercostal muscles contract
- Ribs move up and out
- Diaphragm contracts and flattens
- Volume inside thorax increases
- Pressure decreases
- Air is sucked into the lungs

Describe the process of breathing out
- Internal intercostal muscles contract
- Ribs move down and in
- Diaphragm relaxes and become dome shaped
- Volume inside thorax decreases
- Pressure increases
- Air is forced out of the lungs
Compare inhaled and exhaled air
- Inhaled air contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than exhaled air
How are the alveoli adapted for gas exchange?
- Large surface area
- Good blood supply
- Thin walls - short diffusion pathway
- Moist - dissolve gases
Describe the effects of smoking on the body
- Cilia are paralysed - build up of mucus - smoker’s cough - infection - bronchitis
- Smoke damages alveolar walls - walls break down - decreased surface area for gas exchange -
emphysema
- Carcinogens - tumour growth - lung cancer
- Carbon monoxide combines irreversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells -
Carboxyhaemoglobin - less oxygen transported
h. Transport
Why can amoeba rely on diffusion for movement of substances into and out of the cell?
- Large surface area to volume ratio
- Short diffusion distance
Why do animals need circulatory systems?
- Surface area to volume ratio is too small
- Diffusion is too slow
- Circulatory system needed to transport oxygen
Plants
What is the role of the xylem?

- Transports mineral ions and water from roots to flowers i.e. Up the shoot only
Describe the structure of xylem
- Hollow forming a continuous column - no cytoplasm
- Lignin gives the xylem strength and support
What is the role of the phloem?
- Transports sugars from leaves to growing regions/roots for storage i.e. Both up and down the
shoot
Describe the structure of phloem

- Sieve tubes with sieve plates in between
- Companion cells contains lots of mitochondria for release of energy

How do mineral salts enter the plant?
- Active transport
- From an area of low concentration (soil) to an area of high concentration (in the root hair)
- Requires energy
How is water absorbed by root hair cells?
- Osmosis
- From an area of high water potential (the soil)
- To an area of low water potential (root hair cell)
Describe the transport of water in a plant
- Enters root hair cell by osmosis
- Water molecules are attracted to each other
- Transpiration stream in xylem
- Transpiration out of the stomata
What is transpiration stream?
- The continuous column of water moving up the xylem from the roots to the leaves
What is the role of the transpiration stream?
- Transports mineral ions
- Keeps plant cells turgid
- Cools the plant
- Supplies water for the leaves for photosynthesis
Define transpiration
- The loss of water vapour from the surface of the leaf (stoma)
Describe and explain how rates of transpiration may be increased
- Hot - water evaporates faster
- Dry - increases the concentration gradient between the leaf and the surrounding air
- Windy - water is blown off the leaf increasing concentration gradient
Describe and explain how rates of transpiration may be decreased
- Cold - water evaporates slower
- Humid - small concentration gradient between the leaf and the surrounding air
- Still air - water is not removed from the surface of the leaf
Humans
List the components of the blood

- Plasma
- White blood cells (phagocytes and lymphocytes)
- Red blood cells
- Platelets
What does the blood transport?
- Oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body
- Carbon dioxide from other parts of the body to the lungs
- Nutrients from the gut to all parts of the body
- Urea from liver to kidneys

List substances transported in the plasma
- Carbon dioxide
- Urea
- Glucose
- Amino acids
- Hormones
How are red blood cells adapted for their function?
- Biconcave disc shape - large surface area for transport of oxygen
- Haemoglobin binds to oxygen forming oxyhemoglobin
- No nucleus - more space for haemoglobin
How does the body prevent pathogen entry?
- Skin acts as a barrier
- HCl in stomach destroys pathogens
- Hairs prevent entry
- Platelets clot the blood at the site of a wound
How do white blood cells attack invading pathogens?
- Phagocytes engulf pathogens
- Lymphocytes recognise antigens and produce antibodies which destroy pathogens
- Antitoxins made
How do lymphocytes destroy pathogens?
- Recognise antigens
- Make antibodies which destroy pathogens by:
- Causing bacteria to stick together
- Label pathogen so it’s easily recognisable by phagocytes
- Produce antitoxins
- Cause bacteria to burst
How does a vaccine work?
- Dead or weakened pathogen injected
- Lymphocytes recognise antigens and produce antibodies
- Memory cells made
- Produce antibodies much faster next time
Provide some examples of vaccines and their mode of action
- Dead pathogens e.g. whooping cough
- Weakened pathogens e.g. TB, measles
- Antigens e.g. influenza
What is the role of platelets?
- Platelets clot the blood at the site of a wound
- Soluble fibrinogen is connected to insoluble fibrin
Describe the movement of the blood around the body starting at the right atrium
- Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava
- Right atrium contracts forcing blood through tricuspid valve into right ventricle
- Blood enters the right ventricle and leaves via the pulmonary artery
- Blood flows to the lungs and becomes oxygenated
- Blood returns to the heart and enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vein
- Left atrium contracts forcing blood through bicuspid valve into the left ventricle
- Left ventricles contracts forcing blood into the aorta
- Oxygenated flows around the body and is used in respiration

How is our heart rate increased?
- Adrenaline increases heart rate
- When we exercise, muscles produce carbon dioxide
- Receptors in aorta and carotid artery detect this increase in carbon dioxide
- Electrical impulses sent to medulla
- Accelerator nerve raises heart rate
What does single circulation mean?
- Blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs and then to rest of the body
What does double circulation mean?
- Blood flows twice into the heart for every once around the body
What does the circulatory system consist of?
- Heart
- Arteries, veins and capillaries
- Blood
Why is the wall of the ventricles thicker than that of the atria?
- The ventricles have to pump the blood further
Why are the artery walls so thick?
- To withstand the high pressure of the blood flowing inside
Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker than that of the right ventricle?
- Blood from the right ventricle is only pumped to the lungs
- Blood from the left ventricle is pumped much further - around the whole body
What is the coronary artery?
- Blood vessel that supplies the heart with oxygen
Describe the structure of arteries
- Thick muscle and elastic fibre walls
- Narrow lumen
- High blood pressure
Describe the structure of the veins
- Thin muscle and elastic fibre walls
- Large lumen
- Lower blood pressure
- Semi-lunar valves prevent the back flow of blood
Describe the structure of the capillaries
- Thin walls - one cell thick
- Short diffusion distance
- Narrow lumen
What factors contribute to coronary heart disease?
- Heredity
- High blood pressure
- Diet - high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol
- Smoking
- Stress
- Lack of exercise

Explain why reducing the blood supply to the heart muscles cells can cause a heart attack
- Less oxygen
- Less aerobic respiration
- Anaerobic respiration
- Lactic acid
- Low pH
i. Excretion
Plants
Define excretion
- Removal of waste products of metabolism
What are the waste gas products from respiration and photosynthesis?
- Respiration: Carbon Dioxide
- Photosynthesis: Oxygen
How are waste gas products exported from the leaf?
- The stomata allow diffusion of gases out of the leaf from a high concentration gradient to a low
concentration gradient
Humans
What substances are excreted from the body?

- Urea from kidneys
- Carbon dioxide from lungs
- Sweat from skin
- Note: faeces is NOT excreted, it is egested
Define osmoregulation
- Control of water levels in the body
Explain how the structure of the blood vessels entering and leaving the glomerulus help to move
glucose into the Bowman’s capsule.
- Vessel entering is wider
- Increased pressure
- Ultrafiltration
What is ultrafiltration?
- The filtering of small molecules from the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule
- Glucose, ions, and urea (the glomerular filtrate) enter, protein stays behind as it’s too large to
pass through the basement membrane
What is selective reabsorption?

- Proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs small molecules back into the blood
- All of the glucose (by active transport)
- Some ions
- Some water
- No urea
What is the composition of urine?
- Ions
- Water
- Urea

Describe how glucose is reabsorbed back into the blood
- Active transport (requires energy)
- From low concentration in the nephron to a high concentration in the blood
Explain the effect of ADH on blood water levels
- Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus detect water content of blood
- ADH released from pituitary gland
- ADH makes walls of collecting duct more permeable
- More water is reabsorbed
- Urine is concentrated and yellow in colour
j. Co-ordination and response
What is homeostasis?
- Maintenance of a constant internal environment e.g. Water content, temperature
What is a stimulus?
- Change in the environment
Plants
What are auxins?

- Plant hormones
What is a tropism?
- The response of a plant to a directional stimulus
List different types of tropism
- Phototropism - plant’s response to light
- Geotropism - plant’s response to gravity
Describe the roots and shoots response to light
- Roots - negative phototropism
- Shoots - positive phototropism
Describe the roots and shoots response to gravity
- Roots - positive geotropism
- Shoots - negative geotropism
What is a coleoptile?
- Simple plants used to investigate tropism
- Cereal seedling
What is a clinostat?
- Apparatus used to remove the effect gravity/light/water
Describe how a stem may bend towards the light
- Auxins concentrate on the side furthest from the light
- Causes cell elongation
- Stem bends towards light

Humans
What are the sense organs in a human?

- Eye - receives light energy
- Ear - receives sound and kinetic energy
- Muscle - receives kinetic energy
- Tongue - receives chemical energy
- Nose - receives chemical energy
- Skin - receives kinetic and heat energy
What is the difference between hormonal and nervous responses?
- Nervous involves electrical impulses, hormonal involves chemicals carried in the blood
- Nervous response faster, hormonal slower
- Nervous response short-lived, hormonal long-lived
- Nervous response very localised, hormonal wide-spread
What is the CNS?
- Brain and spinal cord
What is the list of responses in a nervous response?
- Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - CNS - motor neurone - effector - response
- Involves electrical impulses and synapses
What is the list of responses in a reflex action?
- Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - relay neurone - motor neurone - effector - response
- Involves electrical impulses and synapses
- E.g. Withdrawal of finger from hot object
What is a synapse?
- Gap between two neurones
- Neurotransmitter diffuses and binds to post-synaptic membrane
How is a reflex action different to a regular response?
- Reflex action is faster, involuntary, and involves relay neurone
What is an effector?
- Muscle (contracts) or a gland (secretes a hormone)
What is accommodation?
- Changes that take place within the eye
- Enable us to focus on objects at different distances
How does the eye focus on a nearby object?
- Ciliary muscle contracts
- Suspensory ligaments slacken
- Lens fat
- Light refracted strongly
How does the eye focus on a faraway object?
- Ciliary muscle relax
- Suspensory ligaments taut
- Lens thin
- Light refracted less strongly

How does the pupil constrict in bright light and why is this necessary?
- Circular muscles contract
- Radial muscles relax
- Pupil constricts
- Protects the retina from the bright light
How does the pupil dilate in dim light and why is this necessary?
- Circular muscles relax
- Radial muscles contract
- Pupil dilate
- Allows more light to enter the eye
What is refraction?
- When light changes direction when it enters a new medium
What is the role of:
- Choroid - stops light bing reflected inside the eye
- Cornea - refracts light
- Lens - refracts light
- Conjunctiva - protects eye
- Sclera - tough outer casing - protects eye
- Retina - contains photoreceptors (rods (dim light) and cones (detect colour)) which are sensitive
to light
- Iris - contains radial and circular muscles which control the size of the pupil
- Pupil - allows light to enter the eye
- Suspensory ligament and ciliary muscles - control the shape of the lens
- Optic nerve - takes electrical impulses from the eye to the brain
- Blind spot - where the the optic nerve enters the eye
What is the role of the skin?
- Sense organ for pain, touch and pressure
- Tough outer layer
- Controls heat loss
- Barrier - prevents entry of pathogens
- Prevents water loss
Explain what happens when your body temperature is too high
- Hairs lay flat - less insulating air trapped close to the body
- Vasodilation (arterioles dilate) - more heat radiated
- Sweat evaporates and cools the body
Explain what happens when your body temperature is too low
- Hairs stand up - more insulating air trapped close to the body
- Vasoconstriction (arterioles constrict) - less heat radiated
- Shiver - contraction of muscle releases heat
What is the effect of adrenaline on the body?
- Prepares the body for ‘flight or fight’
- Pupils dilate - allows more light to enter the eye
- Hairs stand up on end - to appear more intimidating
- Breathing rate increases - to allow more oxygen into the body
- Heart rate increases - to deliver more oxygen around the body
- Blood diverted from gut to muscles

How is blood sugar level decreased?
- Pancreas secretes insulin
- Insulin converts soluble glucose into insoluble glycogen
Where is testosterone made and what is its function?
- Testes
- Stimulate secondary sexual characteristics e.g. voice deepening, sperm production, pubic hair
Where is oestrogen made and what is its function?
- Ovaries
- Stimulates secondary sexual characteristics e.g. hips widening, breast growth, pubic hair
- Repairs uterus lining
- Inhibits FSH production, stimulates LH production
Where is progesterone made and what is its function?
- Initially corpus luteum, later in pregnancy the placenta
- Maintains uterus lining
Where is FSH made and what is its function?
- Pituitary gland
- Matures eggs in ovaries
- Stimulates egg and sperm production
Where is LH made and what is its function?
- Pituitary gland
- Causes ovulation (egg release from ovary)
- Stimulates sperm production

3. Reproduction and inheritance
a. Reproduction
Summary of sexual reproduction:

- 2 parents needed to make gametes (sex cells - sperm and eggs)
- Sperm and egg fuse at fertilisation
- Zygote formed
- Divides by mitosis to form embryo
Summary of asexual reproduction:
- 1 parent only
- No gametes
- No fertilisation
- Cells from parent divide by mitosis and then breakaway to form new organism which is identical
to parent (clone)
Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
sex cells produced yes no
fertilisation takes place yes no
variation in oﬀspring yes no
helps survival in: changing environment stable environment
What is fertilisation?
- Fusion of male (sperm) and female (egg) gamete
- Zygote formed
- Undergoes mitosis
- Embryo formed
Plants
Give examples of asexual reproduction in plants

- Strawberry runners
- Tubers
Describe the process of taking a cutting
- A piece of a plant’s stem is cut off
- Dipped in rooting powder
- Transferred to soil
What is pollination?
- When pollen from the anther lands on the stigma
What is self pollination?
- When pollen from the anther lands on the stigma in the same flower
What is fertilisation?
- When pollen fuses with the egg in the ovary

Describe the features of an insect pollinated flower that help it attract insects
- Large petals
- Coloured petals
- Scent
- Nectar
Describe the features of a wind pollinated flower
- Exposed stamens
- Feathery stigma
- Small petals
- Small pollen grains - easily carried by the wind
Describe the events that lead to seed formation
- Pollen lands on stigma
- Pollen tube grows down style into ovary
- Male gamete (pollen) fuses with female gamete (egg)
- Ovule becomes seed
- Ovule wall becomes seed coat
- Ovary becomes fruit
What conditions are needed for germination?
- Water
- Oxygen
- Warm temperatures
What is germination?
- Food store is used up
- Radicle grows down
- Plumule grows up towards light and starts photosynthesis
Humans
Describe the structure and function of the male reproductive system

Structure Function
- Passes urine out of the body from the bladder

Penis - Allows semen to enter into the vagina of a woman during
sexual intercourse
- Contained in the scrotum

Testis
- Produces sperm and testosterone
- Sperm passes through the sperm duct where it mixes with

Sperm Duct
fluids produced by the sex gland
Sex Gland - Produces semen (provides sperm cells with nutrients)
- Exports urine or semen from the body

Urethra - Ring of muscle in the urethra prevents mixing of urine and
semen

Describe the structure and function of the female reproductive system
Structure Function
- Connects the ovary to the uterus

Oviduct - Lined with ciliated cells to push the ovum towards uterus for
fertilisation
- Contains female gametes (ova) which mature and develop

Ovary
when FSH is released
- Muscular structure with a soft lining

Uterus
- Fertilised egg cell implanted there to develop into a foetus
- Ring of muscle at lower end of uterus

Cervix
- Keeps foetus in place during pregnancy
Urethra - Tube that passes urine out of the body
- Muscular tube that the male’s penis enters during sexual in-
Vagina
tercourse
Describe the passage of sperm in the female human

- Semen (contains sperm and fluid from seminal vesicles) is ejaculated into the vagina
- Sperm swim through uterus to oviduct
Where does fertilisation take place?
- Oviduct
Explain how an 8 cell embryo is formed
- Sperm and egg made by meiosis
- Fertilisation in oviduct
- Zygote implants in uterus wall
- Divides by mitosis
Define gamete
- A sex cell e.g. sperm or egg
What is the role of the placenta?
- Provides embryo with oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood
- Releases progesterone in late pregnancy
What is the role of the amnion/amniotic fluid?
- Protects foetus from physical impact
b. Inheritance
What is a genome?
- The entire DNA of an organism
What is a gene?
- Section of DNA which codes for a protein
Where are genes found?
- In chromosomes within the nucleus

What is a nucleotide?
- Sugar, phosphate, base (G, C, A or T)
Describe base pairing
- Adenine (A) - Thymine (T)
- Cytosine (C) - Guanine (G)
Describe the structure of DNA
- 2 strands
- Coiled to form double helix
- Strands linked by paired bases
- Adenine to thymine, guanine to cytosine
Describe the structure of RNA
- Single stranded
- Contains uracil base instead of thymine
What is a codon?
- 3 bases of mRNA which correspond to a specific amino acid or stop codon
What is an anticodon?
- 3 bases on a tRNA molecule which corresponding to the codon of an mRNA molecule
What are the 2 main stages of protein synthesis?
- Transcription
- Translation
What happens during transcription?
- Occurs in nucleus
- DNA unwinds in nucleus
- Base pairs exposed on template strand
- RNA nucleotides pair up with template bases
- mRNA is formed and leaves nucleus
- mRNA enters cytoplasm
What happens during translation?
- mRNA attaches to ribosome
- mRNA codon pairs with complementary tRNA anticodon
- Each tRNA is bound a specific amino acid
- Amino acids join to form a protein
- tRNA is recycled
- At the end of the chain a stop codon terminates translation
What is an allele?
- Different form of the same gene which gives rise to different characteristics
- E.g. B = brown eyes, b = blue eyes
Define homozygous
- Having two copies of the same allele
Define heterozygous
- Having two different copies of the same allele

Describe genotype
- The alleles an organism has
Define phenotype
- The physical appearance of an individual
Define recessive
- Allele only expressed if the dominant allele is not present
Define dominant
- Allele expressed even if only one is present
Define codominance
- If two alleles are expressed in the same phenotype
Genetic Crosses - Punnet Squares (ALWAYS SET OUT YOUR ANSWER LIKE THIS)
E.g. a mother is recessive and has blond hair, and a father is heterozygous, and brown haired.
Calculate the probability of their children having blond hair.
Mother Father
Phenotype Blond Brown
Genotype bb Bb
Gametes b or b B or b
Punnett Square:
Father
B b
b Bb bb
Mother
b Bb bb
50% blond
50% brown

E.g. Draw a punnet square to show how sex is inherited in humans
Mother Father
Phenotype Female Male
Genotype XX XY
Gametes X or X X or Y
Punnett Square:
Father
X Y
X XX XY
Mother
X XX XY
50% male
50% female
What is a pedigree diagram?

- Shows how a genetic condition is passed from generation to generation
- Possible to work out which is the dominant allele
- Can then work out genotype of each person/animal in the pedigree
What is a carrier?
- Someone who has a gene for a disease but does not suffer from any symptoms
Define haploid
- Contains 1 set of chromosomes e.g. 23 in humans
Define diploid
- Contains 2 sets of chromosomes e.g. 46 in humans
Define clone
- Genetically identical cell/organism
Give examples of when mitosis occurs
- Growth, repair
- Cloning
- Asexual reproduction
Main steps of mitosis:
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase

Feature Mitosis Meiosis
number of cell divisions 1 2
number of daughter cells

2 4
formed
number of chromosomes in
diploid haploid
cells formed
type of cells formed body cells sex cells
genetic variation in cells formed none variation
How is variation within a species brought about?

- Genetics (e.g. hair colour)
- Environmental conditions (e.g. reduced growth due to poor diet when young)
- Or a combination of both
What is a mutation?
- A rare, random change in the genetic material that can be inherited
How may gene mutations occur?
- Duplication
- Deletion
- Substitution
- Inversion
What effect can mutation have?
- A mutation may lead to a change in DNA
- Different DNA code may lead to different amino acids forming different proteins
- Therefore altering the phenotype of an individual
- BUT most mutations have no effect on phenotype
- In some cases they have a small effect
- Only rarely do they have a significant effect
How is the chance of mutation increased?
- Ionising radiation (gamma, x-rays, UV)
- Mutagens e.g. Chemicals in tobacco
Define evolution
- All organisms alive today, and many more which are now extinct, evolved from simple life forms
which first developed more than 3.2 billion years ago
Describe the mechanism of Natural Selection

- Variation within a species due to mutation
- Individuals better adapted more likely to survive and reproduce
- Alleles passed onto offspring
- Repeats over many generations
How may bacteria become resistant to antibiotics?
- Some bacteria have mutations which make them more likely to survive
- The bacteria reproduce and pass on these favourable alleles to future bacteria
- Soon the whole population of bacteria is resistant to the antibiotic 

4. Ecology and the environment
a. The organism in the environment
Define ‘environment’
- The total non-biological components of the ecosystem e.g. water, soil, air
Define ‘habitat’
- The place where a specific organism lives
Define ‘population’
- All the organisms of a particular species found in an ecosystem
Define ‘community’
- The population of all species found in a particular ecosystem
Describe how a quadrat can be used to sample an ecosystem
- Place quadrat randomly using a random number generator
- Count how many of each species are present
- Repeat
Define biodiversity
- The variety of plant and animal species in an ecosystem
What is are biotic factors?
- Biological (living) factors e.g. Predation, parasitism, food availability, nesting sites, disease
What are abiotic factors?
- Non-biological (non-living) factors e.g. Temperature, pH of soil, light intensity, number of
daylight hours
b. Feeding relationships
Define ‘producer’
- Plants which photosynthesise to produce food
Define ‘consumer’
- Animals which eat plants or other animals
What is a decomposer?
- Organisms which decay dead material and help to recycle nutrients
Define parasite
- An animal which lives inside another animal gaining food and causing harm to host animal
Define predator
- An animal which eats another animal
What is a trophic level?
- The different stages of a food chain
What is a pyramid of numbers?
- They represent the number of organisms at each trophic level, irrespective of their biomass

What is a pyramid of biomass?
- They represent the total mass of organisms in each trophic level, irrespective of their number
What is biomass?
- The total amount of living material in an organism
What is a sample?
- When you take a smaller representative part of a population
Explain why only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next
- Not all of the plant is eaten (in the case of producer --> primary consumer)
- Some parts are indigestible (in the case of producer --> primary consumer)
- Some form excretory products e.g. Sweat, urine
- Respiration leads to loss of carbon dioxide and water
- Maintenance of steady body temperature (e.g. In cows)
c. Cycles within ecosystems
Carbon cycle
- Carbon dioxide is absorbed by green plants in photosynthesis
- Carbon used to make glucose and proteins
- Plants respire releasing carbon dioxide
- Plants eaten by animals and carbon becomes part of their bodies
- Animals respire releasing carbon dioxide
- Plants and animals die and are decomposed by microorganisms
- Microorganisms respire
- Combustion of fuels releases carbon dioxide
Nitrogen cycle
- Nitrates in the soil are absorbed by root hairs cells by active transport
- Nitrates used to build plant proteins
- Plants die, decompose, and are converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria
- Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates to nitrogen
- Nitrogen fixing bacteria are present on root nodules of beans and peas and convert nitrogen
gas into nitrates which are added to the soil
- Lightning and the Haber Process are other sources of nitrogen
d. Human influences on the environment
Describe the effects of leached sewage and excess fertilisers on the environment
- Eutrophication
- Fertilisers and sewage are washed (leached) into rivers
- Water plants grow quickly - algal bloom
- Competition for sunlight
- Plants die
- Bacteria feed on the dead plants
- Bacteria use up all the oxygen in respiration
- Fish die as not enough oxygen

What effect does the enhanced greenhouse effect have?
- Global warming
- Ice caps melt
- Sea levels rise
- Low lying land floods
- Loss of biodiversity
- Extreme weather
- Change in bird migration patterns
Give examples of greenhouse gases
- Methane (cows, rice paddy fields)
- Water vapour
- Carbon dioxide (burning fossil fuels)
- Nitrous oxide
What effect do CFCs have on the environment?
- Damage ozone layer
Where do CFCs come from?
- Aerosols, fridges
What effect does acid rain have?
- Destroys limestone buildings, kills trees, and makes ponds too acidic leading death of fish
How is acid rain made?
- Acidic impurities in crude oil —> sulphur oxide —> sulphuric acid
- Nitrogen and oxygen react in car engines —> nitrogen oxides —> nitric acid
What effect does carbon monoxide have on the body?
- Combines irreversibly with haemoglobin so less oxygen is transported
What effect does deforestation have on the environment?
- Habitats are destroyed
- Soil erosion —> leaching of minerals —> eutrophication
- Soil erosion —> flooding —> land slides
- Disturbance of evapotranspiration
- Burning of trees/cutting down trees —> releases carbon dioxide —> global warming

5. Use of biological resources
a. Food production
How do glasshouses and polythene tunnels increase crop yield?

- Allow natural light in during summer, and can provide artificial light in winter
- Provide warmer environment than outside due to trapping heat energy (infrared radiation) and
reducing convection
- Can be heated electronically if it’s too cold outside
- Provide humid atmosphere to reduce water loss by transpiration
What effect does increasing carbon dioxide and temperature have on crop yield in glasshouses?
- Increasing carbon dioxide —> increases rate of photosynthesis —> increases yield
- Increasing temperature —> increased growth and photosynthesis —> increases yield
How do fertilisers increase crop yield?
- Replaces lost nitrates and minerals in the soil
- Nitrates required for protein synthesis in plants
Why do farmers use pesticides?
- Kill specific pests that would otherwise damage crop
- Improve yield
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides?
Advantages Disadvantages
Eﬀective at controlling pests Expensive
Readily available Persistent - may decompose slowly
stored in the tissues of living organisms

(Bioaccumulation) and becomes more
Easy to use
concentrated along a food chain
(Biomagnification)
Toxic and not specific - kill other insects
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using biological control?

Advantages Disadvantages
Non-toxic Never fully removes pest
Introducing alien species into an environment can

Targets specific pest only
have undesired results
Self-sustaining slow
What is the role of yeast in the production of bread?

- Yeast respire using sugars
- Yeast respires (aerobically at first, then anaerobically) producing carbon dioxide
- Carbon dioxide makes bread rise
- When baked, gas bubbles expand to give bread its texture

How is yoghurt made?
- Heat milk to 80-90 C to pasteurise it, then cool back down to approx 35 C
- Bacteria added (lactobacillus)
- Leave for 6 hours at the optimum temperature for the bacteria
- Anaerobic respiration converts lactose —> lactic acid
What is a fermenter
- A vessel containing microorganisms used for fermentation
What are the suitable conditions within a fermenter?
- Nutrients - a controlled supply to feed microorganisms
- pH - kept constant at optimum level by adding acid or alkali as necessary
- Air supply - provides oxygen necessary for aerobic respiration
- Temperature - controlled to increase rate but prevent overheating and denaturing
- Agitation - microorganisms constantly stirred to give more exposure to nutrients and reduce
temperature
What is fish farming?

- Lots of fish kept together in tanks/enclosures
- Water quality constantly monitored to provide optimum conditions
- Waste products constantly removed
- Diet carefully controlled
- Fish isolated from predators to protect them
- Sorted by size to prevent bigger fish eating smaller fish of the same species
- Fish with desirable characteristics selectively bred
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of fish farming
- Farm commercialised species e.g. cod, salmon, tuna,
- Advantages - can control temperature, oxygen levels, diet, kill pests, selective breeding
Programmes can improve the quality of the fish
- Disadvantages - higher risk of disease as the fish are so close together, antibiotics are used to
treat disease as may enter the food chain, pollution due to faeces, pesticides highly toxic to
other species
b. Selective breeding
Describe selective breeding in plants

- Humans choose plants with desirable characteristics (e.g high yield, disease/pest resistance)
- Cross pollinate select plants
- Plants with desirable characteristics are bred
- Process repeats over many generations
Describe selective breeding in animals
- Humans choose individual animals with desirable characteristics (e.g more milk production,
better quality fur)
- Make them breed (or use artificial insemination)
- Offspring with desirable characteristics are bred
- Process repeats over many generations
c. Genetic modification (genetic engineering)
What are the advantages of using embryo cloning rather than selective breeding?
- Cloning is faster and produces genetically identical offspring
- More offspring are produced with cloning
- No need for two parents in cloning

What is genetic engineering?
- When genes are altered in microorganisms to code for the desired products
What enzymes are used in genetic engineering?
- Restriction enzymes - cuts DNA at a specific point
- Ligase - join the cut ends of DNA back together
What is a vector?
- A vector is anything used to transfer biological material e.g. A plasmid is used to transfer genes
in genetic engineering or a mosquito that transfers plasmodium to humans when it bites them
Explain how plasmids and viruses can be used as vectors in genetic modification
Plasmid:
- Small circular pieces of DNA
- Isolated from bacteria
- Desired gene inserted into plasmid to create recombinant plasmids
- Recombinant plasmids inserted back into bacteria
Virus:
- Bacteriophage are a type of virus
- Desired gene inserted into bacteriophage
- Bacteriophage attaches to cell wall of bacteria
- Injects its genetic material (DNA)
- Desired gene taken up by bacterial DNA
Describe how large amounts of insulin can be genetically engineered
- Cut out insulin gene using restriction enzyme
- Cut open plasmid in bacteria using same restriction enzyme
- Stick insulin gene into plasmid using DNA ligase (recombinant plasmid)
- Plasmid is the vector
- Place in fermenter
Give specific uses of genetically modified plants
- Extend shelf life
- Frost resistant
- ‘Golden rice’ rice containing beta carotene that prevents night-blindness
- Resistant to herbicides (weedkillers)
- Modified tobacco plants produce hepatitis B antigens - potential use in manufacturing vaccines
- Modified tobacco plants and soybeans produce antibodies to fight disease
What are the benefits of genetically modified plants?
- Increased salt tolerance
- More complete nutrition e.g. Contains a good balance of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
vitamins and minerals
- Increased resistance to pathogens
- Increased tolerance to heat and drought
Define transgenic organism
- Genes are transplanted from one species to another

d. Cloning
Describe the process of micropropagation

- Use small parts of plants (explants)
- Place on sterile agar
- Add nutrients, minerals and hormones
- Control humidity and light levels
What are the advantages of micropropagation?
- Large numbers of genetically identical plants are produced quickly
- At any time of the year
Define clone
- Genetically identical individuals
Describe the process of adult cell cloning (e.g in Dolly the Sheep)
- Take mature body cell of animal being cloned and remove diploid nucleus
- Get egg cell and remove nucleus (enucleation)
- Insert adult cell nucleus into empty egg cells
- Fuse with an electric shock
- Place inside uterus of surrogate of same species
- Mitosis occurs
How can cloned transgenic animals be used to produce human proteins?
- This would make it possible to produce large numbers of genetically identical animals
- These animals could then make human proteins
Provide an example of using transgenic animals to make human proteins
- Trypsin damages liver and lungs
- AAT is a human protein which stops trypsin attacking the liver and lungs
- Some people don’t make enough AAT
- Transgenic sheep are genetically engineered to produce AAT in their milk

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The Perfect Answer

Revision Guide To…

Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey

1. The nature and variety of living organisms.......................................................3

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1. The nature and variety of living organisms

a. Characteristics of living organisms

The following characteristics all living organisms share:

What does eukaryotic mean?

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Virus Bacteria Protoctist Fungi

- Cell wall made of

chromosomes (protazoa) or membrane etc.

- Measles, mumps, pneumonia)

virus (prevents in yoghurt

Extra notes saprotrophic

What are the 5 kingdoms?

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Advantages and disadvantages of embryonic stem cell therapy

What elements are found in carbohydrates?

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What happens to a plant cell placed in pure water and why?

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What is the word equation for photosynthesis?

Why is the rate of photosynthesis low in the morning?

Mineral ion Use Deficiency symptom

Nitrate Making amino acids and proteins Stunted growth

Magnesium Making chlorophyll Yellow leaves

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Nutrient Role Food rich in nutrient Deficiency disease

Protein - Growth and repair of - Meat, fish, eggs,

- Cellulose - plant cell

Water - Supports chemical

Vitamin A - Good vision - Fish liver oils, butter, - Night blindness

Vitamin C - Sticks together cells - Lemons, oranges - Scurvy - bleeding

Vitamin D - Strong bones - Fish liver oils, made - Rickets

How do energy requirements vary with activity levels?

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What is the role of the stomata?

How is the leaf adapted for gas exchange?

How are the airways kept clean?

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What is the role of the xylem?

Describe the structure of phloem

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List the components of the blood

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