READING AND WRITING SKILLS
BRAINSTORMING
 Group or individual creativity technique in
which efforts are put together to find a
conclusion on a certain topic.
 Ideas coming from members are important.
TYPES OF BRAINSTORMING
1. INDIVIDUAL BRAINSTORMING – you alone is
the one thinking.
2. GROUP BRAINSTORMING – can develop more
ideas than individual brainstorming.
TIPS ON BRAINSTORMING
1. Have a clear objective.
2. Record your ideas.
3. Never interrupt people’s idea.
4. Hold off criticism or judgement.
ADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING
1. It will encourage creative thinking.
2. All ideas are accepted.
3. Makes everyone part of the team.
4. It’s exciting and easy.
DISADVATAGES OF BRAINSTORMING
1. It only works when everyone has something to
say.
2. Without control, or leader present, the group
may take a long time to get solution.
3. Group with a large member will not be
effective.
4. People with high emotion are not allowed.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
 A graphic organizer is a visual and graphic
display that depicts the relationships between
facts, terms and/or ideas within a learning task.
 Are also sometimes referred to as knowledge
maps, concept-maps, story maps, cognitive
organizers, advance organizer or concept
diagrams.
TYPES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
1. Webs
2. Mind maps
3. Concept map
HOW TO USE GRAPHIC ORGANIZER?
 Helps students with the structure of a writing
project.
 Encourages students to make decisions.
 Helps students classify ideas.
 Allows students increase reading
comprehension.
 It’s easier to brainstorm.
 Using text and visual aids in the classroom
reaches a wide variety of learners.
 Creates a strong visual picture from the
students.
 Allows the students to see connections
between facts, information and terms.
 Commonly used for grades K through 12.
 Also effective for adult learners.
 The brain is more equipped to process images
rather than text.
TEACHING WITH GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Things that can be taught:
 Cause and effect
 Taking notes
 Comparing and contrasting concepts
 Organizing problems and solutions
 Organizational skills
 Vocabulary knowledge
CONCLUSION:
 Graphic organizer creates a strong visual picture
for the students.
 Can be used for all age groups.
 Encourages students to make decisions.
THE WRITING PROCESS
(Creating, Reading and Writing Outline)
An OUTLINE is a summary that gives the
essential features of a given text.
1. TOPIC OUTLINE
a. Arranges your ideas hierarchically, in
the sequence you want, and shows
what you will talk about. As the name
implies, it identifies all the little mini-
topics that your paper will comprise,
and shows how they relate.
b. Lists words or phrases.
 c. As many outline, remember that a  Make your outline reasonably specific,
division or subdivision cannot be particularly in your main headings.
divided into one part; therefore, if there  Check the outline for logic.
is an “A” there must be a “B”, and if  Check the outline for the proper order –
there is a “1” there must be a “2”. that is for a sensible sequence or
d. The wording within each division must organization of ideas.
be parallel. 5. EXAMPLE OF A TOPIC OUTLINE
e. An “OUTLINE” is a “blueprint” or I. Family Problems
“plan” for your paper. A. Custodial: Non – Custodial
2. YOUR OUTLINE PAGE MUST INCLUDE YOUR: Conflicts
a. Paper title B. Extended Family
b. Major points/arguments indicated by C. Adolescent’s Age
Roman numerals. II. Economic Problems
c. Support for your major points, indicated A. Child Support
by capital Arabic numerals. B. Women’s Job Training

EXAMPLE: C. Lower Standard of

Living
I. First level (main heading)
D. Possible Relocation
A. Second level
1. Poorer Neighbourhood
1. Third level
2. New School
2. Third level
III. Peer Problems
a. Fourth level
A. Loss of Friends
b. Fourth level
B. Relationships with Dates
B. Second level
II. First level (main heading) NARRATIVE STORY

3. FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN WRITING AN  Figure out what the prompt is asking.

OUTLINE  Plan out what you are going to write.
 The type of outline that should be used  Write your story.
depend on these; the length of your
PLAN
paper and the complexity of your
BEGINNING – setting, main character, problem
material, to name only two. When
preparing to write a long paper which MIDDLE – two attempts by the main character to solve
presents a lot of material and complex the problem that fail.
issues, you might like to make a
END – third attempt wherein the problem will be solve.
complete sentence outline that map
BE
out every detail of your argument and G C – Character
its evidence. If you are going to do a I
N
S – Setting
short, relatively uncomplicated paper, N
I
perhaps a brief topic outline would be N P – Problem
G
sufficient. Not the least important
factor in your choice of outline is your
M T – Transition
own preference. I
I – Idea
D
4. AN EFFECTIVE OUTLINE DL E – Events
F – Failure
 See that all the parts of the outline are E
E - Emotion
there—main headings and subordinate
headings.
 Use the proper outline form.
 T – Transition II. COHERENCE and COHESION – Coherence is the
E
I – Idea
N arrangement in logical manner (sentences).
D
E – Events Action
E – Emotion Cohesion is the connection of ideas at sentence
S – Solution
level.
PROBLEM – SOLUTION, PERSUATION AND CAUSE AND  SIGNAL DEVICES
EFFECT o TRANSITION – words that connect one

 A problem solution pattern divides information idea to another.

into 2 main sections, one that describes a  Time

problem and one that describes the solution.  Sequence

 Convince the reader to support a certain course  Space

of action.  Comparison
 Contrast
Problem Solution Section  Cause and effect
Section -potential
-aspects of the solution  Conclusion
problem
 ARRANGEMENT OF DETAILS
CAUSE AND EFFECT o CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER – sequence of
events
 Different causes and effect of various
o SPATIAL ORDER – geographical location
conditions.
o EMPHATIC ORDER – most to least
 Persuasive document
important/ least to more important.
DESCRIPTIVE WRITNG
 REPETITIONS
 Giving details; allows readers to experience  SYNONYMS
what you had  PRONOUN
 Must appeal to 5 senses and create imagery III. LANGUAGE USE

CONSIDER (Object) - Is one of the clearest indicators of a well –

written text.
 Colors
- It helps writers to effectively communicate
 Shapes
ideas without confusing the readers.
 Size
 Textures AN EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE IS:

(Person) - Specific
 Physical appearance - Concise
 Facial expressions - Familiar
 Attire - Correct
 Gesture - Appropriate
(Place) LEVELS OF LANGUAGE USE
 Man made world
INFORMAL/PERSONAL – slang, local expression,
 Natural world
text messaging (hey, sup, OTW, BRB, bes, Pet
 Imaginary world
(friend), G.NYT., SML, Yow, NIgga, Dude,
A WELL WRITTEN TEXT……………… KUTGW)

PROPERTIES STANDARD/ACADEMIC – widely accepted

words or phrases found in books, magazines
I. ORGANIZATION - clear statement of purpose,
and newspapers.
position, facts, examples, etc. it is achieved
BUSINESS/TECHNICAL – scientific terms,
when ideas are logically and accurately
jargons and special expressions.
arranged.
PRINCIPLES IN LANGUAGE USE/DICTION
 1. Use clear and concise sentences, usually about  QUOTATION MARK (“ “) to indicate direct
18 words long. quotations for titles of poems, short stories,
2. Avoid redundancies, clichés wordiness and chapters, essays, songs or episode of
highfalutin. television/show.
3. Although may be used, avoid overusing  APOSTROPHE (‘) to show possession, to show
“THERE” and “IT”, drop it. missing letters and number, to show of letters.
4. We precise vocabulary. Be accurate and  COLON (:) after independent clauses to
condensed. introduce elements.
5. Be consistent in pronoun’s point of view.  PARENTHESIS ( () ) to set off non-essential
6. Avoid sexist language. details.
7. Use appropriate level of formality  BRACKETS ( [ ] ) to set off clarifications inserted
in quotations.
OTHER TIPS:
 HYPHEN (-) to separate words or join words.
 JARGON (ie. “insider” terminology that may be
 DASH (–) to show sudden break of thought.
difficult for readers from other fields to
 SLASH (/) to separate words or to show
understand)
alternatives.
 CLICHES (which are expressions that are heavily
 SEMICOLON (;) to join independent clauses.
overused, such as “think outside the box” and
When or, yet, but or so are not present, to
“but the of the day”)
separate items in a series that contains
 EVERYDAY ABBREVIATIONS (eg. Photos, fridge,
commas.
phone, info.)
 ELLIPSIS (…) to indicate that words have been
 SLANG (eg. Cops, cool)
deleted from quoted.
 NOT GENDER NEUTRAL (eg. Firemen, mankind)
 COMMA (,) to signal pauses and shifts in
IV. MECHANICS
sentences.
- Focuses on the techniques of the structure.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
It determines errors on subject-verb
agreement, prepositions, tenses, the  Always use standard English.
grammar, spelling, capitalizations,  Avoid contraction (shouldn’t, gonna)
abbreviation, acronyms, the use of numbers  Avoid exclamation marks unless part of a
as part of the statement and the quotation.
punctuation marks.  Mention full name in first mention. Thereafter
 Avoid contractions and exclamation we use abbreviations.
points (unless part of a direct  Citations are used in academic and formal texts
quotation) but sparingly.
 Mention the full name before the  Used in business texts.
abbreviation.
CRITICAL READING AS LOOKING FOR WAYS OF
 Numbers from 0-10 must be spelled
THINKING
out.
The meaning of words may be implied in three ways:
PUNCTUATION MARKS
1. Text
 PERIOD (.) used after sentences, in
2. Reader’s context
abbreviations and as decimals.
3. Author’s context
 EXCLAMATION POINT (!) placed at the
TEXT – it is the original words of a piece of writing.
emphatic or forceful sentences.
 QUESTION MARK (?) placed at the end of a CONTEXT – the parts of a discourse that surround a

question and to note questionable items. word or passage and can throw light to its meaning.
SIMPLE READING COMPONENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

- Involves identifying and recognizing the 1. GETTING THE MAIN IDEA

meaning of a text. a. Involves identifying the general idea in a
- A type of reading where the reader analyzes text which may be explicity or implicity
and interpret the reading material to know stated.
if the it presents logical ideas and b. Main idea is usually found in the
connection of ideas. beginning, middle or end of the text.
- It gives the basic definition of a text. 2. SUMMARIZING
- Its central idea is the message being a. Includes recalling all pertinent
imparted. information and thinking how to
- It recognizes what a text says. compact them all in a summary.
- The reader absorbs and understands. b. Incorporate all important ideas and be
guided by the questions
CRITICAL READING
3. INFERRING
- Is a more advanced form and a higher level
a. Is a process by reader to understand an
of reading.
idea that the author does not state
- After recognizing what a text says, it reflects
explicity.
on what the text does by making
b. It is done by combining the reader’s
judgement.
knowledge and background with details
- Its certain goal is to recognize the author’s
and clues states by the author.
purpose in writing the material, understand
4. DRAWING CONCLUSION
the tone and persuasive elements in it and
a. Figuring out much more than what an
to recognize bias in the context.
author says directly.
- It recognizes what a text says reflect on
b. It is usually done after reading the
what the text does and infer on what the
whole text.
text means.
5. ANALYZING SEQUENCE
- The reader actively recognizes and analyzes
a. Considers the order or arrangement if
evidence in the text.
events present in the text.
CRITICAL THINKING 6. DETERMINING FACT FROM OPINION

- Involves a series of complex thought a. FACT – an idea that is already proven or

process without allowing you to make is obviously true.

reasoned judgements, assess the way you b. OPINION – an unverified idea

think and solve problems. 7. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

a. COMPARING – determining how things
FLOW OF CRITICAL THINKING
are the same.
b. CONTRASTING – determining how
Man vs. Fact Cause
supporting vs. and things are different.
details opinion Effect
8. UNDERSTANDING CAUSE AND EFFECT
a. Involves identifying the event that
causes another event.
Compare
Summary Sequence and 9. IDENTIFYING THE PROBLME AND SOLUTION
Contrast
a. Involves discussing issues and
identifying the solution.

Inference Conclusion Problem -

Solution
EXPLICIT (in the text) - Maybe thesis (explicit) or may be unstated
(implicit).
 Any idea that is stated.
 With explicit information, you see the text THE THREE CLAIMS
explained.
1. Claim of Fact
 Since you are looking for explicit information on
2. Claim of Policy
what is read, the explicit information will be
3. Claim of Value
written in the text. There is no need to look for
CLAIM OF FACT
clues. Just read. If the information is written,
then it is explicit.  Assets that something has existed, does exists
or will exists.
IMPLICIT (in my head)
 Debates whether it is true or false
 You have to think about it.
 It can be assertion of the past, present or
 Implicit information is understood but it is not
future.
stated. To find implicit information in what is
 A claim of fact posits whether something is true
read, you will have to think about what you
or untrue, but there must always be the
read, look for clues as you read.
potential for controversy, conflict and
 Implicit information is not written. But the idea
conversion.
is there. Implicit information is using what is
CLAIM OF FACTS WHEN WRITINF A PAPER
read to make an inference.
 Claims of fact must be specific as to time, place,
INFERENCES
people involved and situations.
 A statement about the unknown made based
 If it is a text, how thoroughly closely and
on what we know. It is an assumption we make
critically can you read it to determine its flaws
were something that is believed to be the based
and strengths?
on something else.
 Using descriptive and analytical writing, explore
 Evidence from the text plus background
every angle of your problem or claim of fact, to
knowledge is equal to INFERENCE.
assess its level of truth.
 Inferences drawn while reading are much like
 By limiting the scope of your study through
inferences drawn in everyday life.
specific claims of fact, you may avoid logical
 INFERENCE: Noun: a conclusion
fallacies.
 INFER: Verb: the act of drawing a conclusion.
 Write down at least one counter claim to your
HOW TO MAKE AN INFERENCE? claim of fact.

1. Read the text and find a clue. CLAIM OF POLICY

2. Analyze the clues (reading between the lines
strategy)
3. Decide what inference (what conclusion) is
justified based on text.
NOTE: Sometimes the operations can go backgrounds,
something there can be an inference given to you and
you have to decide what clues were given for someone
to have made that inference.
FORMS OF CLAIMS
CLAIM
- Also called “a proposition”
- Tells what you’re setting out to prove.
 A claim of policy is an essay consisting of an
argument that certain conditions should exist.
These essays advocate adaptation of policies of
courses of action because problems have arisen
that call for a solution.
 Claims of policy typically provide a solution or
another series of questions in response to the
claims of fact.
 Claims of policy are often procedural organized
plans.
 A counterclaim of policy posits that the problem
exists. It’s good to solve it a certain way but
 there is a better solution than the one you have
proposed.
CHARACTERISTICS…
 Typically provide a solution
 Often procedural
 Usually involves sub-claims of fact and values
 Involves convincing the audience that a
problem exists
 Considering opposing arguments
 Providing specific data that shows the benefit of
the claim
 “ought”, “should” and “must” is implied in the
claim
PROOF REQUIRES…
 Making proposed action clear
 Needs justification
 Plan must be workable
 Consider opposition
STEPS IN DEFENDING A CLAIM…
1. Make factual claim
2. Refer to values that support the claim
3. Introduce policy to show why the solution can
solve the problem
EXAMPLE:
1. Uniforms SHOULD be required at all public high
schools.
2. The death penalty SHOULD be abolished
because it does nothing to prevent murder.
3. Legislation SHOULD be passed to stop the scale
of cigarettes.
CLAIM OF VALUE
 Involve judgements, appraisal and evaluations
 Based on personal taste or practices and
morality.
 Argues whether something is good or bad.
 A statement about which is better, more
important, more desirable, more needed or
more useful.
EXAMPLE:
1. This is very good school.
2. It is more advantages for a Filipino child grow
up speaking Filipino instead of English.
3. Buying and fixing a house is better than building
a new one.
NOTE!
Before proceeding to claim of value define
every aspect of your own words, aided of
course by the sources and dictionary. Be aware
of connotative and denotative, implicit and
explicit meanings.
Make a list of the abstract words attached to
your topic and how they relate to your claim if
fact.
See how these definitions help categorize your
topic and put it in perspective.
Once you have your definitions, claims of value
are easier to understand because of the many
interpretations of those definitions.
Examine your topic in terms of the phrases “it is
better to…”, “it is unethical that…”, “it is wrong
to…”, “is more beautiful than…”.
Allow your prejudices to surface in order to
examine them.
Claims of value also involve “taste” in art,
literature, music, film, food, etc.
At this point, you can open up your topic by
comparing and contrasting your problem with a
similar one in another time and/or place.
When you “fight” with friends and colleagues
over intellectual issues, you are usually debating
claims of value.
What are the competing values around this
topic?
Is it good or bad in whose eyes?
Has the value been properly applied to the
claim of fact?
EXAMPLE:
1. You determined that the Mendez brothers
killed their parents with a shotgun in the claim
of fact, but the claim of value investigates all
the reasons, good and bad, for this act, in order
to establish intent and/or mitigating
circumstances.
HYPERTEXT
 Is text that links to other information
  By clicking on a link in a hypertext document, a
user can quickly jump to different content.
 Usually associated with web pages.
 Software programs that include dictionaries and
encyclopedias have long used hypertext in their
definition so that readers can quickly find out
more about specific words or topics.
 Today, the web is where the hypertext reigns,
where mostly every page includes links to other
pages and both text and image can be used as
links to more content.
WHY USE HYPERTEXT?
 Because in general, human learn better
associatetively. That is, we are better able
to figure out material if we are allowed to
move at our own pace, investigating that
which interests us, and simulating more
senses through multimedia.
 Also, hypertext operates very similar to the
way our brains do – in a series of networks
or association as opposed to a linear path.
HYPERTEXT software provides for the human
element in management of information…since
hypertext analyzes the way our minds normally
works (that is, not in a straight line but in
several dimensions at once).
HYPERTEXT can be considered a thought
machine. Some have claimed that the hypertext
idea is one of those crucial ideas in intellectual
history.
CITATION
- The way you tell your readers that certain
material in your words came from another
source.
ALLUSION
- Figure of speech that references a person,
place, things or even. Each of these
concepts can be real or imaginary.
INTERTEXT
INTERTEXTUALITY
- Is the shaping of a text’s meaning by
another text.
- It is the interconnection between similar or
related works of literature that reflect and
influence an audience’s interpretations of
the text.
- Is a literary device that creates an inter
“relationship between texts” and generates
related understanding in separate works.
INTERTEXTUAL FIGURES
- Include: allusion, quotation, plagiarism,
transition and parody.
EXAMPLE
- The Latin Vulgate version of the Bible is
related to the King James Version.
- Star Wars: The Force Awakens is intertext to
Star Wars “The Lost Jedi”.
INTERTEXT VS. HYPERTEXT
INTERTEXT – is the shaping of text’s meaning by
another text.
 ADVANTAGE:
o Focuses on the process of composition.
 To reveal intention, while
allowing the readers rule in
producing the meaning of a
text.
o Both reader and writer centered.
 Encompassing the entire
process by which a text comes
into being and is understood.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Require special knowledge
 On the part of the reader.
o Ignore the fact that a word or phrase
can mean something to a reader.
 Whether or not true reader
knows of that word or phrase
has already been by a previous
writer.
HYPERTEXT – is the text that links to other information.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Acts as a bridge.
 Between two basic, opposite
and complementing elements.
o Gives the learner a control.
  Allows the learner to navigate prior knowledge that these connections
and manipulate the content on are made.
cites.
CRITICAL REASONING AS A REASONING

 Identifying assertions
o Deep o Assertions are declarative sentence that
 Gives the readers on claim something is true about
opportunity to read on great something else.
depth. o It is a sentence that is either true or
 DISADVANTAGES: false.
o Getting lost o It is declaration.
 Through the ocean of
FOUR COMMON TYPES OF ASSERTION
information and
1. FACT – statement that can be proven
misinformation.
objectively by direct experience, testimonies of
o Problem with concentration
witnesses, verified observation or the results of
 As the learner moves through
research.
hypertext.
2. CONVENTION – a way which something is done,
o Unfamiliarity
similar to traditions and norms convention
 Icons and other graphic images
depend on historical precided laws, rules, usage
usually represent a function to
and customs. Thus, their truthfulness is verified
perform that maybe an
by how commonly held definition and beliefs
unfamiliar to a new user.
are interpreted.
 Little knowledge
3. OPINIION – based on facts, but difficult to
TYPES OF INTERTEXT objectively verify because of the uncertainty of

1. OBLIGATORY producing satisfactory proof of sadness.

a. When the writer deliberately includes a Opinions result from ambiguities.

comparison or association between two 4. PREFERENCE – based on personal choice,

or more texts without this pre- therefore they are subjective and cannot be

understanding or success to “grasp the objectively proven or logically attacked.

link”, the readers understanding of the FORMULATING COUNTERCLAIMS

text is regarded as inadequate.
To be an effective critical thinker, it is not
2. OPTIONAL
enough just to be able to identify claims and assertions.
a. Has a less vital impact on the
The ability to analyze an argument is essential to
significance of the hypertext. Means it
understanding the test more deeply. You must also
is possible to fins a connection to
learn how to analyze the counterclaims and evidence
multiple texts of a single phrase, or no
provided by the text being able to recognize and
connection at all.
formulate counterclaims in reactions to an argument is
3. ACCIDENTAL
a characteristic of a good optical reader.
a. When readers often connect a text with
another text, cultural practice or a COUNTERCLAIMS

personal experience without being any  Are claims made to rebut.

tangible anchor point within the original
text. The writer has no intention of
making an intertextual reference and it
is completely upon the reader’s own
 A previous claim.
 They provide a contrasting perspective to the
main argument by being able to locate and
provide counterclaims to an argument you
show a deep competence and familiarity with
 the writer’s topic. It shows that you are
examining different perfections and just
passively accepting the different perfections
and not just passively accepting the writer’s
claim.
 It shows that you thoroughly considered the
topic are willing to engage different viewpoints
from your own thus remaining objective.
 It also helps you clarify what your personal
position is on the topic.

DETERMINING TEXTUAL EVIDENCE

Evidence is defined as the details given by the

author to support his/her claim. The evidence provided
by the writer substantiates the text, it reveals and builds
on the position of the writer and makes the reading
more interesting.

Evidence is crucial in swaying the reader to your

side, a jury or judge, for example relief on evidence
presented by a lawyer before it makes a decision
regarding a case.

EVIDENCE CAN INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

 Facts and statistics

 Opinion form experts
 Personal anecdotes

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD EVIDENCE:

1. Unified
2. Relevant to the central point
3. Specific and concrete
4. Accurate
5. Representative/typical
  Contains values

ELEMENTS OF A SHORT STORY

1. SETTING

 Mood, social context, when and where

 Environment
21ST CENTURY LITERATURE FORM THE PHILIPPINES  Can be past, present, future
 Social norms
AND THE WORLD
2. CHARACTERS
LITERATURE – came from the Latin word “LITERATURA”
meaning writing and from “LITERATUS” which means  Person or any entity presented in a
learning. It covers both oral and written forms of works narrative/dramatic work.
which manifest expressive or imaginative quality, TYPES:
nobility of thoughts, timelessness and universality.
 PROTAGONIST – principal or lead character
KEY FEATURES OF LITERATURE  ANTAGONIST – opposing the protagonist. Also
called as villain.
 LITERATURE IS A FORM OF COMMUNICATION
 STATIC/FLAT – does not change the
Man’s inner thoughts, feelings, and conditions can be role/attitude
disclosed and revealed through the power of literature.  DYNAMIC – undergoes changes
 FOIL – use to stand in contrast
 LITERATURE IS AN ART
3. PLOT
Its beauty is a deliberate manifestation to create and
imagine. Highlight ideas of great importance and  Flow and sequence of events
significance. TYPES:
 TIMELESSNESS  EXPOSITION – introductory material
The significant truth about life that a literary work  FORESHADOWING – use of hints/clues what
reveals should not waive and dissipate as time passes will happen next
 INCITING FORCE – event/character that triggers
by.
conflict
 UNIVERSALITY  CONFLICT – opposition of forces that may set
forth the problems, issues
A work must have global applicability in which a work *EXTERNAL – outside forces (man vs. nature,
transcends across space. man vs. society, man vs. supernatural)
*INTERNAL – one’s self (man vs. self)
 UTILITY
 RISING ACTION - Series of events that builds
We can obtain relevant information to better from the conflict.
understand people, society and culture.  CRISIS - Occurs before or at the same time as
climax.
PROSE – form of literature that focuses on free flowing.  CLIMAX - Highest point of the story. Result of
the crisis.
NONFICTION PROSE – is literature that is written in
 FALLING ACTION - Events after climax which
ordinary, non – metrical language and communicates
close the story.
facts or opinions about reality
 DENOUMENT – Rounds out and concludes the
FICTION PROSE – is also written in ordinary, non- action.
metrical language, out of it is the product of the writer’s 4. POINT OF VIEW
imagination.
 Relates as the way how the story is
POETRY – on the other hand, uses metrical language told/narrated.
with lots of rhythm and rhyme to create word picture.
TYPES:
DRAMA – combines elements of prose and poetry into
 PARTICIPANT NARRATOT/FIRST PERSON –
plays that are usually intended to be performed on
usually marked by the use of “I”.
stage.
 SECOND PERSON/NON-PARTICIPANT –
SHORT STORY emphasize “you”.
 OBSERVANT – the narrator sees only
 500 – 15,00 words length the physical appearance
 Single event  OMNISCIENT – the narrator is an
 Beginning, middle and end outsider who knows/sees into the mind
 Fictional (unreal) of one of the character.
5. SYMBOLS
 Object which is used to represent ideas aside
from its literal meaning.
6. THEME
 Mainly the idea, realization.
ORAL TRADITIONS
- Also called as ORAL LORE.
CRUDE ON IDEOLOGY AND PHRASEOLOGY
- This lends credence to the belief.
- Self-culture before the influence of the colonies.
*Philippine Literature is the most precious literature in
the world.
ANIMAZIM – structure of supernatural being
FORMS OF LITERATURE
RIDDLES
o Statement, question or phrase having a double
or veiled meaning
o Put forth as a puzzle to be solved.
o A puzzling question; problem or matter.
*ROBERT PETSCH in 1899, first major modern attempt
to define the riddle.
*ROBERT A. GEORGES and ALAN DUNDES (1963) –
suggested that “a riddle is a traditional verbal
expression which contains one or more descriptive
elements; the referent of the elements is to be
guessed”.
- There are many possible sub – sets of the riddle
including charades, doodles and some jokes.
- Requires in genuinely and actual twirling for
their solution.
- A puzzle or joke in which you ask a question
that seems to be nonsense but which has a
clever or amusing answer.
PROVERBS
o Salawikain
o A short expression of popular words of wisdom
or a piece of advice.
o A simple and concrete saying, popularly known
and repeated that expresses a truth based on
common sense or experience.
TANAGA
o 7777 syllable
o Rhymes:
DUAL RYHME: AABB, ABAB, ABBA
FREESTYLE: AAAB, BAAA, ABCD
o An indigenous type of Filipino poem
o Written in Tagalog language
o A quatrain with seven syllables each with the
same rhyme at the end of each line
o No title
KASABIHAN
o Sayings
o Used in teasing or to comment on a person’s
actuations
AMBAHAN
o Traditional poetry of the Hannunoo Mangyans
of Oriental Mindoro which is normally inscribed
on bamboo
o Seven syllable metric lines
o Usually chanted
o Can be composed of more than four lines
MYTHS
o Is the traditional oral literature of the Filipino
people. This refers to a wide range of material
due to the ethnic mix at the Philippines
SPANISH PERIOD
SPANISH COLONIZATION
- Christianity was introduced
- Spanish language was taught as well as the
Roman alphabet for writing
- Serves as medium of communication
- Christian doctrine was introduced to early
Filipinos: prayers, novenas, stories about the
lives of saints
- It was didactic in nature
TWO DISTINCT CLASSIFICATIONS OF LITERATURE
1. RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
 Doctrina Christian (1593) written by Fray Juan
de Plasencia
- It contains prayers such as Pater Noster (Our
Father), Ave Maria (Hail Mary), Ten
Commandments, etc.
 PASYON – highlights the life, death, and
resurrection of Christ
 Lines are recited accompanied by music during
Lenten Season.
 The most popular was “ANG MAHAL NA
PASSION NI JESU CHRISTONG PANGINOON
NATIN” by Gaspar Aquino de Belen.
 SENAKULO – dramatization of the pasyon, it
shows the passion and death of Christ.
2. SECULAR LITERATURE (non-religious literature)
 AWIT – colorful tales of chivalry made for
singing and chanting
 KORIDO – metrical tale written in octosyllabic
quatrains
 PROSE NARRATIVES – written to prescribe
proper decorum
OTHER FORM OF SECULAR LITERATURE
1. Comedia de Capa y Espada or Moro Moro
 2. Karagatan
3. Duplo
4. Sarswela
NATIONALISTC/PROPAGANDA AND
REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD (1864-1896)
CHARACTERISTICS:
 Planted seeds of nationalism in Filipinos
 Language shifted from Spanish to Tagalog
 Addressed the masses instead of
“intelligentsia”
LITERARY FORMS:
1. PROPAGANDA LITERATURE
 Reformatory in objective
A. POLITICAL ESSAYS
 Satires, editorials and news articles
were written to attack and expose the
evils of Spanish rules
 DIARIONG TAGALOG – founded by
Marcelo H. Del Pilar
 LA SOLIDARIDA – editor in chief is
Graciano Lopez Jaena
B. POLITICAL NOVELS
NOLI ME TANGERE and EL
FILIBUSTERISMO – Jose Rizal’s
masterpieces that paved the way to
revolution.
2. REVOLUTIONARY LITERATURE
 More propagandastic than literary as it
is more violent in nature and demanded
complete independence for the country
(diretsang hinihingi ang kalayaan)
A. POLITICAL ESSAYS
 KALAYAAN – newspaper to the society,
edited by Emilio Jacinto
 TRUE DECALOGUE – Apolinario Mabini
 KATAPUSANG HIBIK NG PILIPINAS –
Andres Bonificio
 LIWANAG AT DILIM – Emilio Jacinto
AMERICAN COLONIZATION (1900-1942)
 Introduction of free public instruction for all
children of school age
 Use of English as medium of instruction in all
levels of education in public schools
JAPANESE OCCUPATION (1941-1945)
 The Japanese banned English newspapers.
(Except for the TRIBUNE and the PHILIPPINE
REVIEW)
 There was minimal freedom of speech and all of
the press
 The Japanese censored Filipino writers works
strictly
 Theaters were used to show English play
translated into Filipino.
 The weekly LIWAYWAY was placed under strict
surveillance until it was managed by Japanese
named ISHIWARA.
 Filipino literature was given break during this
period
FILIPINO POETRY
The common theme of most poems during
Japanese occupation was nationalism, country, love and
life in the barrios, faith, religion and the arts. Three
types of poems emerged during this period. THEY
WERE:
1. HAIKU – a poem of three verses that the Japanese
like. It was made up of 17 syllables divided into three
lines. The first line had 5 syllables, the second, 7
syllables, and the third, 5. The Haiku is allegorical in
meaning, is short and covers a wide scope in meaning.
2. KARANIWANG ANYO (usual form) – the usual
common form of poetry
3. TANAGA – like the Haiku, it’s short but has a measure
and a rhyme. Each consists of 17 syllables and it is also
has allegorical meaning
FILIPINO DRAMA
The drama experienced a lull during the
Japanese period because movie houses showing
American films were closed. The big movie houses were
just made to show stage shows. A few of play writers
were:
1. Jose Ma. Hernandez – wrote PANDAY PIRA
2. Francisco Soc Rodrigo – wrote SA PULA, SA PUTI
3. Clodualdo del Mundo – wrote BULAGA (an
expression in the game Hide and Seek)
4. Julian Cruz Balmaceda – wrote SINO BA KAYO?,
DAHIL SA ANAK, and HIGANTE NG PATAY
FILIPINO SHORT STORIES
The field of the short story widened during the
Japanese occupation. Many wrote short stories.
The best writings in 1945 were selected by a
group of judges composed of Francisco Icasiano, Jose
Esperanza Cruz, Antonio Rosales, Clodualdo del Mundo
and Teodoro Santos. As a result of this selection, the
following got the first three prizes:
FIRST PRIZE: Narciso Reyes with his LUPANG TINUBUAN
SECOND PRIZE: Liwayway Arceo’s UHAW ANG TIGANG
NA LUPA
THIRD PRIZE: NVM Gonzales’ LUNSOD NAYON AT
DAGAT – DAGATAN
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH (1941-1945) MAGAZINES RE-OPENED

Because of the strict prohibitions imposed by *Bulaklak

the Japanese in the writing and publishing of works in
*Ilang-Ilang
English, Philippine Literature in English experienced a
dark period. The few who dared to write did so for their *Sinagtala
bread and butter or for propaganda.
PALANCA AWARDS
CARLOS P. ROMULO won the PULITZER PRIZE
for his best sellers: I SAW THE FALL OF THE PHILIPPINES, *Award giving body in literature – Don Carlos Palanca
I SEE THE PHILIPPINES RISE and his MOTHER AMERICA Memorial Awards for Literature
AND MY BROTHER AMERICANS.
PERIOD OF ACTIVISM
The Commonwealth Literary Awards gave prizes
 Martial Law (the seed of activism)
to meritorious writers. Those who won were:
 The Bloody Placards (Makibaka)
1. LIKE THE MOLAVE – by Rafael Zulueta da Costa  Literary Revolution
(poetry)  Bomba Films
 The First Quarter Storm
2. HOW MY BROTHER LEON BROUGHT HOME A WIFE –
THE NEW SOCIETY
by Manuel E. Arguilla (short story)
THEME: DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY
3. LITERATURE AND SOCIETY – by Salvador P. Lopez
(essay)  Green Revolution’
 Family Planning
4. HIS NATIVE SOIL – by Juan Laya (novel)
 Proper Nutrition
POSTWAR AND CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE  Environment
 Drug Addiction
Include all literary works written and published  Pollution
in the Philippines from 1946.
POETRY
After the World War II, the Philippines had to
deal with the economy and the need for rehabilitation  Themes: patience, culture, nature and
surroundings
and reconstruction of infrastructure.
PLAY
Writers wrote fiction that focused on
courageous deeds as well as the sacrifices and suffering  Metropolitan Theater, Teatro Filipino, CCP,
in the lives of Filipinos. It was also common for writers UP Repertory
to write about the experiences of the Filipino people
under the Spanish and American rule and the Japanese
occupation. Other subjects and themes include:

*religious faith

*superstitious

*fantasy

*social problems

*poverty

*politics

*nationalism

NEWSPAPERS FLOURISHED

*Free Press

*Morning Sun

*Daily Mirror

*Evening News

*Bulletin
 3. EXPLOSIVE – sudden outburst. The feeling projected
is that of violence sternning from extreme anger,
sudden fear and other strong emotions.

INTRAPERSONAL – self

ORAL COMMUNICATION INTERPRESONAL – may kausap

HOW IT LOCATION FUNCTION

PRONOUNCED NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
a Over the head Produces the
voice  It’s a process
e cheekbone Cleanses the  Occurs between two or more people (speaker
voice and receiver)
i Between the It gives brilliance  Can be expressed through written or spoken
eyebrow to the voice
words, action (non-verbal) or both spoken
o Center back of Improves the
words and non-verbal
the head tonal quality of
the voice SPEECH – exchange of verbal messages
u Center top of Refinement of
the head the voice ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. SPEAKER – the source of information or

message.
COMMUNICATION 2. MESSAGE – the information, ideas or thoughts
conveyed by the speaker in words or in action.
 Medium is the message (by McLuhan) 3. ENCODING – process of converting the message
 From the Latin word “communique” which into words or actions.
means to share 4. CHANNEL – the medium or the means, in which
 A process of sharing and conveying messages or the encoded message is conveyed.
information form one person to another within 5. DECODING – the process of interpreting the
and across channels, contexts, media and decoded message.
culture. (McKornel) 6. RECEIVER – the recipient of the message.
*PERSUADE by heart 7. FEEDBACK – the reactions, responses, or
information provided.
*CONVINCE by mind 8. CONTEXT – the environment where
communication takes place.
5 TYPES OF VOICE 9. BARRIER – the factors that affect the flow of
communication.
1. Normal (Low key level (assurance) and High key level
(asking) “MEANING is not found in WORDS, but is CREATED by
PEOPLE.” *keep as a reminder.
2. Thin (falceto)
COMMUNICATION MODELS
3. Full (orotund) round mouth
ARISTOTLE’S LINEAR COMMUNICATION MODEL
4. Chesty (aspirate)
Aristotle, a great philosopher initiative the
5. Breathy (whisper) earliest mass communication model called “Aristotle’s
MANNER OF DELIVERING MESSAGE Model of Communication”. He proposed model before
300 B.C who found the importance of audience role in
 Effusive communication chain in his communication model. This
 Expulsive model is more focused on public speaking than
 Explosive interpersonal communication.
VOICE INTENSITY – loudness or intensity refers to the ARISTOTLE’S RHETORIC CPMMUNICATION MODEL
effect of the sound on the ear

FORMS OF INTENSITY SPEAKER SUBJECT PERSON

(message (message) ADDRESSED
1. EFFUSIVE – gradually but firm. It retains emotion. sender) (message
recipient)
2. EXPULSIVE – firmly but rapidly. It suggests
decisiveness, rigor and sincerity
SPEAKER SPEECH AUDIENCE EFFECT
SHANNON – WEAVER COMMUNICATION MODEL 5. COURTESY – respecting the culture, values and
(1949) beliefs of the receivers. Being courteous creates
positive impact ALL THE TIMES.
- Known as the mother of all communication 6. CLEARNESS – use of simple and specific words
models. to express ideas. Focuses on the single objective
- A linear with five elements. when giving a speech.
- Lacks of feedback. 7. CORRECTNESS – grammar usage eliminates
- If no feedback, understanding of the message is negative impact and increases the credibility
not assured. and effectiveness of the message.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Emotional barriers
Use of jargon (unfamiliar words)
Lack of confidence
Noisy environment
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS – TRANSACTION
MODEL VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Refers to an interaction in which words are used

to relay a message.

Used words to express ideas which can be easily

understood by the person you are talking to.

ABCEV in Verbal Communication

Appropriateness – the language that you use should be

appropriate to the environment or occasion.

Brevity – speakers who often use simple yet precise and

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS – EXPANDED MODEL powerful words are found to be more credible. Avoid
fillers (mga paningit words kapag kinakabahan like ahhh
ganernn) and insubstantial expressions which do not
add to the message.

Clarity – the meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may

be interpreted differently by a listener; hence, it is
essential for you to clearly state your message and
express your ideas and feelings.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Ethics – words should be carefully chosen in
consideration of the gender, roles, ethnicity,
 Control (behavior)
 Social Interaction preferences, and status of the person you are talking to.
 Motivation
Vividness – words that vividly or creatively describe
 Emotional Expression
things or feelings usually add color and spice to
 Information Dessimination (sharing of
communication.
information)

7 C’s OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. COMPLETENESS – complete communication is Refers to an interaction where behavior is used

important. Communication should include
everything.
2. CONCISENESS – not that short but making it
direct and straight to the point. Insignificant or
redundant information should be eliminated.
3. CONSIDERATION – consider relevant
information about the receiver. Mood and
needs. Background and race. Preference and
status. Education.
4. CONCRETENESS – supported by facts. Figures.
Real – life examples and situations.
to convey and represent meanings. All kinds of human
responses that are not expressed in words are classified
as nonverbal communication.
Examples of nonverbal communication are
stares, smiles, tone of voice, movements, manners of
walking, standing and sitting, appearance, style of attire,
attitude towards time and space, personality, gestures,
and others.
MASTERY OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IS
IMPORTANT FOR SEVERAL REASONS:
  It enhances and emphasizes the message of
your speech, thus making it more meaningful,
truthful, and relevant.
 It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and
perceptions without you saying a word.
 It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep
them engaged in the speech.
 It gives the audience a preview to the type of
speaker you are.
 It makes you appear more dynamic and
animated in your delivery.
 It serves as a channel to release tension and
nervousness.
 It helps make your speech more dramatic.
 It can build a connection with listeners.
 It makes you a credible speaker.
 It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a
monotonous delivery.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION is the sending
and receiving of message across languages and cultures.
It can flow smoothly and become very interesting for a
cross – cultural group.
THE DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
STAGE 1: DENIAL – the individual does not recognize
cultural differences.
STAGE 2: DEFENSE – the individual starts to recognize
cultural differences and is intimidated by them,
resulting in either a superior view on own culture or an
unjustified high regard for the new one.
STAGE 3: MINIMIZATION – although individuals see
cultural differences, they bank more on the universality
of ideas rather than on cultural differences.
STAGE 4: ACCEPTANCE – the individual begins to
appreciate important cultural differences in behaviors
and eventually in values.
STAGE 5: ADAPTATION – the individual is very open to
world views when accepting new perspectives.
STAGE 6: INTEGRATION – individuals start to go beyond
their own cultures and see themselves and their actions
based on multifarious cultural viewpoints.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENT INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATIONS
 Flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels
of uncertainty.
 Reflectiveness or mindfulness.
 Open – mindedness
 Sensitivity
 Adaptability
 Ability to engage in divergent thinking (or
thinking creatively) and systems – level thinking
(or thinking how each one in a system or
organization influences each other)
 Politeness
SPEECH CONTEXT AND STYLES
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT!!!
1. INTRAPERSONAL – this refers to communication
that centers on one person where the speaker
acts both as the sender and receiver of
message. “The message is made up of your
thoughts and feelings. The channel is your
brain, which processes what you are thinking
and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that
as you talk to yourself, you discard certain ideas
and replace them with others.” (Hybels and
Weaver, 2012, p.16)
2. INTERPERSONAL – this refers to communication
between and among people and establishes
personal relationship between and among
them. Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that
“the inter part of the word highlights how
interpersonal communication connects people…
when you engage in interpersonal
communication, you and another person
become linked together… the personal part
means that your unique qualities as a person
matter during interpersonal communication.”
TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL
DYAD – communication that occur between
two people.
SMALL GROUP – this refer to communication
that involves at least three but not more than
twelve people. All participants can freely share
ideas in a loose and open discussion.
PUBLIC – this type refers to communication that
requires you to deliver or send the message
before or in front of a group.
MASS – this refer to communication that takes
place through TV, radio, newspaper, magazine,
books, billboards, internet, and other types of
media.
SPEECH ACTS
o First proposed by John Langshaw Austin in 1962
and was developed by John Rogers Searle in
1969.
o It is based on the premise that WORDS
CANNOT ONLY CONVEY INFORMATION but,
they CAN ALSO CARRY OUT ACTIONS.
o Austin and Searle are concerned with what the
speakers means by his/her utterance (intention)
rather than what the utterance means in a
language.
o Performed by a way of an utterance with
intended action.
The performance of a speech act is in
accordance to the rules in using linguistic elements:
phonology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics.
SYNTAX – way in which words were put together
PHONOLOGY – study of speech sounds used in a
language
SEMNATICS – study of words and meanings of phrases
in language
PRAGMATICS – study of what words mean in a situation  To convince (mind)
 To entertain
LOCUTIONARY ACT  To actuate
 What is said by speaker BASIC TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
 The actual words said by the speaker
(utterance)  According to preparation (speech to be read)
 The utterance act  According to specialization (after dinner speech)
 Sentence have grammatical structure and a  According to purpose (informative)
literal meaning  According to occasion (formal, informal)

ILLOCUTIONARY ACT ART OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

 What is meant by speaker  Comedian

 The speaker’s intention of what is to be  Entertainment
accomplished by the speech act.
*this two are the speaker’s characteristic in oral
FIVE CATEGORIES OF ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS communication

1. ASSERTIVE – representations of reality. The

speaker expresses belief about the truth of a
proposition.
2. DISERTIVE – used by speaker who attempts to
get the addresses to carry out an action.
3. COMMESIVE – commit a speaker to some future
actions. Utterances that commit a speaker to
some voluntary actions.
4. EXPRESSIVE – utterances expressing
psychological attitudes. Reveals speaker’s
emotions towards a particular proposition.
5. DECLARATION – the speaker brings about
immediate changes in the state of affairs solely
in virtue of utterances. Foundation of human
civilization.

PERLOCUTIONARY ACT

 Known as the effect of the utterance, seeks

change in behaviour, thoughts and feelings of
the addressee.
 Resulting act of what is said.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY

1. Nomination
2. Restriction
3. Turn – taking
4. Topic control
5. Topic shifting
6. Repair
7. Termination

PUBLIC SPEAKING

 An act of oral communication with purposes

 Accountable to the people

IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

 Trains people to think

 Trains people to be physically awake
 Boosts week charisma
 Makes one a keen observer
 Compels one to be a wide reader

PURPOSES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

 To inform
 To persuade (heart)

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
THE NATURE OF ORGAIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
Organization and management is twin terms
that exist side by side with each other, each one needs
and supports the other. Organizations will be inert and
useless if there is no management that will steer it;
management will be hollow and meaningless if there’s
no organization to manage.
In the real world of administration, organization
and management are essential elements through which
human actions and objectives are carried out and
accomplished. In a manner of speaking, organization
and management become a means to an end.
ORGANIZATION
Organizations are defined differently by
different authors. There are, however, certain essential
elements that can be discerned from them. In other
words, organizations consist of people who, more or
less, share common objectives or purpose. The
behaviour of the organization is directed towards the
attainment of these objectives. The members who
compromise the organization work jointly in groups and
cooperate together in interdependent relationships.
This suggests that organizations structure and integrate
their activities. Furthermore, organizations use
knowledge and techniques to accomplish their goals.
PARTS OF A SYSTEM ACCORDING TO KAST and
ROSENZWEIG:
1. Organization itself
2. Goals and values;
3. Technical subsystem (knowledge and skills
required to do the task);
4. Psycho-social subsystem (composed of
individual and group interaction); and
5. managerial subsystem
Organizations help us to accomplish goals which
otherwise would be much more difficult, if not
impossible, to achieve on an individual basis.
Organizations, like public organizations, business
enterprises, hospitals, church and military, serve the
multifarious and growing needs of the people and
society. For most of us, organizations provide a means
of livelihood, a vehicle to develop our career, and a
source of pride. Others even develop a strong
attachment and commitment to their organization that
they’d say they are ‘married’ to their jobs there.
Organizations can be formal or informal are “a
Formal organizations system of coordinated activities of
a group of people working cooperatively toward a
common goal under authority and leadership” (Scott
and Mitchell as cited in Nigro 1989).
Organizations can be formal or informal. Informal
organizations, while they exist side by side with formal
ones, are “undocumented and officially unrecognized
relationships between members of an organization that
inevitably emerge out of the personal and group needs
of employees” (Stoner and Freeman, 1989). They are, as
described by Herbert A. Simon, “the interpersonal
relationships in the organization that affect decisions
within but either are omitted from the formal scheme
or are not consistent with it” (cited in Stoner and
Freeman, 1989).
Bureaucracy Government relies on the formal
organizations, more popularly known as bureaucracy,
to carry out its functions and perform its role in society.
Much of government activities are carried out by these
organizations which are of varying sizes and functions,
scattered all over the country, but all around by a
common mission and purpose – that is, to protect and
promote the welfare of the people. The familiar usage
of bureaucracy has become associated with and often
interchanged with government.
MANAGEMENT
Management, on the other hand, involves the
coordination of human and material resources toward
the attainment of organization’s goals (Kast, 1974). In
any organization, absolute harmony is hard to attain
and, perhaps, unrealistically achievable. What is more
realistically bound to happen is for some conflict to
arise. Thus, it is the task of management to integrate
the varied elements, be these cooperative or conflictive,
into a complete organizational undertaking.
Managers – people who are responsible for
integrating, coordinating, and directing activities of
others – then have to bring together the organization
staff, money, materials, time and space into an
integrated and effective system to achieve
organizational objective. Managers get things done by
working with people and physical resources to realize
the goals of the organization; they coordinate and
integrate the work and activities of others (Kast, 1974).
Because most organizations work in a larger
environment where other organizations, institutions,
groups of people, demands, pressures, changes,
developments, and so on, exist, it behooves the
organizations and their managers to relate with the
external environment if they have to be effective and
assure their existence and relevance.
 Management, according to Kast, has the
following elements:
1) toward objectives,
2) through people,
3) via techniques and,
4) in an organization.
In a short, management is getting the tasks
done through people and techniques toward the
attainment of objective within the organizational
setting.
MANAGEMENT FUNCTION
 Planning
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Directing
 Coordinating
 Reporting
 Budgeting
PLANNING
Is an organizational management activity that is
used to set priorities, focus energy and resources,
strengthen operations, ensure that employees and
other stakeholders are working toward common goals,
establish agreement around intended outcomes/results,
and assess and adjust the organization's direction in
response to a changing environment. It is a disciplined
effort that produces fundamental decisions and actions
that shape and guide what an organization is, who it
serves, what it does, and why it does it, with a focus on
the future. Effective strategic planning articulates not
only where an organization is going and the actions
needed to make progress, but also how it will know if it
is successful.
ORGANIZING
Is the function of management that involves
developing an organizational structure and allocating
human resources to ensure the accomplishment of
objectives. The structure of the organization is the
framework within which effort is coordinated. The
structure is usually represented by an organization
chart, which provides a graphic representation of the
chain of command within an organization. Decisions
made about the structure of an organization are
generally referred to as organizational design. The
matching of organizational form, such as structure,
reporting relationships, and information technology,
with the organization’s strategy is what you called
decision.
STAFFING
After an organization's structural design is in place,
it needs people with the right skills, knowledge, and
abilities to fill in that structure. People are an
organization's most important resource, because people
either create or undermine an organization's reputation
for quality in both products and service In addition, an
organization must respond to change effectively in
order to remain competitive. The right staff can carry an
organization through a period of change and ensure its
future success. Because of the importance of hiring and
maintaining a committed and competent staff, effective
human resource management is crucial to the success
of all organizations.
DIRECTING
Directing or Direction function is said to be the
heart of management of process and therefore, is the
central point around which accomplishment of goals
take place. A few philosophers call Direction as “Life
spark of an enterprise”. It is also called as on actuating
function of management because it is through direction
that the operation of an enterprise actually starts. Being
the central character of enterprise, it provides many
benefits to a concern which are as follows: It Initiates
Actions - Directions is the function which is the starting
point of the work performance of subordinates. It is
from this function the action takes place, subordinates
understand their jobs and do according to the
instructions laid. Whatever are plans laid, can be
implemented only once the actual work starts. It is
there that direction becomes beneficial.
It Ingrates Efforts
- Through direction, the superiors are able to
guide, inspire and instruct the subordinates to work. For
this, efforts of every individual towards accomplishment
of goals are required. It is through direction the efforts
of every department can be related and integrated with
others. This can be done through persuasive leadership
and effective communication. Integration of efforts
brings effectiveness and stability in a concern.
Means of Motivation
- Direction function helps in achievement of
goals. A manager makes use of the element of
motivation here to improve the performances of
subordinates. This can be done by providing incentives
or compensation, whether monetary or non - monetary,
which serves as a “Morale booster” to the subordinates
Motivation is also helpful for the subordinates to give
the best of their abilities which ultimately helps in
growth.
It Provides Stability
- Stability and balance in concern becomes very
important for long term sun survival in the market. This
can be brought upon by the managers with the help of
four tools or elements of direction function judicious
blend of persuasive leadership, effective
communication, strict supervision and efficient
motivations. Stability is very important since that is an
index of growth of an enterprise.
Coping up with the changes
- It is a human behaviour that human beings
show resistance to change. Adaptability with changing
environment helps in sustaining planned growth and
becoming a market leader. It is directing function which
is of use to meet with changes in environment, both
internal as external. Effective communication helps in
coping up with the changes. It is the role of manager
here to communicate the nature and contents of
changes very clearly to the subordinates. This helps in
clarifications, easy adaption and smooth running of an
enterprise.
Efficient Utilization
- Direction finance helps in clarifying the role of
every subordinate towards his work. The resources can
be utilized properly only when less of wastages,
duplication of efforts, overlapping of performances, etc.
doesn’t take place. Through direction, the role of
subordinates become clear as manager makes use of his
supervisory, the guidance, the instructions and
motivation skill to inspire the subordinates. This helps in
maximum possible utilization of resources of men,
machine, materials and money which helps in reducing
costs and increasing profits.
COORDINATION
Coordination Mooney (1953) defines
coordination as & the orderly arrangement of group
effort to provide unity of action in the pursuit of a
common purpose. Coordination is the process of
synchronizing activities of various persons in the
organization in order to achieve goals. It is undertaken
at every level of management.
Reporting Accountability reporting is primary
intended to help management better measure
performance against target, whereas, insight reporting
is focused on providing information to help
management better understand the business and react
tactically and strategically.
A budget is one of your best tools for reaching
your goal. It’s a plan of what money you expect to
receive and how you expect to spend it.
A good budget is characterized by the following:
Participation: involve as many people as possible in
drawing up a budget.
Comprehensiveness: embrace the whole organization.
Standards: base it on established standards of
performance.
Flexibility: allow for changing circumstances.
Feedback: constantly monitor performance.
Analysis of costs and revenues: this can be done on the
basis of product lines, departments or cost centers.
ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC
SECTORS
Organization and management in the public sector
may share many similarities with those in the private
setting. For instance, both practice division of labour,
have an internal organization structure, recruit
personnel, give direction and assign tasks to employees,
etc.
Public and Private Administration Criteria Public
Administration
1. Relations to environment - subject to public scrutiny;
public demand and expectations; political pressures
Private Administration - Less exposed to public
inspection; internal processes are kept from public;
response to public guided by market dynamics
2. Accountability - Accountable to the public;
transparency in transactions is expected.
3. Measure of performance - general public satisfaction
is the gauge in the improvement in the quality of life 
profit is bottom line
4. Nature of goods and services - open to all, availment
based on one’s ability to pay
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Organization Development (OD)
Organizational development, OD for short, is an
approach to planned organizational change. It is a long-
term and, oftentimes, complicated effort to bring the
organization to a higher level of functioning and at the
same time, improve the performance and sense of
satisfaction of the members of organization. While OD
includes structural and technological changes, its main
focus is on changing people and the nature and quality
of their working relationships, in short, the
organizational culture.
To achieve this, OD zeroes in on improving the
problem-solving and self-renewal processes of the
organization. Problem-solving process refers to the
methods by which organizations deal with problems
and situations they face. Renewal process allows
managers to adjust to environmental changes by
adapting their problem-solving style and goals in a way
that will be most suitable to given situations. Because
organizational development involves the whole
organization, support of top management is essential.
Another way of saying this is that OD can only take
place with the blessings of the top hierarchy or high-
ranking officials in the organization (Stoner and
Freeman, 1989).
MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)
It is computer-based information system that
provides accurate and timely information to those
needing them. MIS is highly important for the effective
performance of the managerial functions. MIS facilitates
planning, decision-making and control, and enables the
organization to carry out these functions more
effectively and efficiently (Stoner and Freeman, 1989). It
is not surprising that with the increasing sophistication
of computer technology today, newer systems that can
aid public managers in their job will be developed.
Total Quality Management by Dr. William Edward
Deming documented both public and private
organizations in their attempt to respond to changes as
brought about by the advances in computer and
communications technology and trade liberalization and
globalization.
O and M Studies
As a field of study, public administration has always
been concerned with improving our understanding of
public organizations, commonly known as bureaucracy,
and their effective management. Because much
government activities are carried out by the
bureaucracy, it is important to investigate how these
public organizations work and operate. The knowledge
gained can help those working in government manage
their agencies more effectively.
The interest in studying the organization and
management of public organizations and institutions
will not wane. Government has always relied upon its
agencies and institutions to carry out its activities and
the concern for improving government will undoubtedly
involve looking into how these organizations function,
their interrelationships with each other and the external
environment.
Public administration
O and M varies in their approaches and focus. In the
United States, the focused were on the formal
structures, functions, and processes of the
administrative organizations of government. The focus
on the internal aspects of public administrative system
and the concomitant values of efficiency, economy, and
effectiveness with which the organizations function and
operate is characteristic of the traditional public
administration.
Concepts on System Approach
• A system is an organized unitary whole composed of
two or more independent parts, components or
subsystems and delineated by identifiable boundaries
from its environmental suprasystem. (F. Kast and J.
Rosenzweig, 1979).
• A system can be looked as having inputs, processes,
outputs and outcomes.
Inputs: Resources (in terms of manpower, money,
materials, equipments and facilities)
Conversion Process
o Planning
o Organizing
o Motivating
o Controlling
Output Products and services to the market
Feedback - Influences from the government
 Society
 Economics and
Technologies
Outcomes Enhanced quality life or productivity for
customers (with results meaningful and measurable)
IMPACT is the change in the standard of living of the
target group or within the target area from the program
(UN, 1978)
1. Self-reliance;
2. Self-sufficiency;
3. Socially responsible;
4. Economically independent and politically dynamic;
5. Better quality of life
O and M studies focused on structural concerns such as
hierarchy, line of authority, division of labor, staff-line
functions; span of control, records keeping, unity of
command, and the like.
Subsequent studies in organization and management
branched out to other concerns, using the behavioural
perspective or the human relations model. These
studies focused less on the formal structure and more
on the human dimension and informal groups and
interactions within organizations.
Other approaches to studying organizational
phenomena tried to integrate the elements of classical
and neoclassical theories such as the open-systems,
decision-making and industrial humanism models
Other works on organization have been marked by their
quest for innovative approaches (e.g., more flexible
organizational forms, more participative processes, and
more client-oriented) in managing organizations as well
as concern for the impact of government policies and
activities on the people and society. These are
emphasized, for example, by the New PA.
Other organization studies are more perspective in
character in that they recommend specific and concrete
measures to improve organizational performance.
These studies deal with practical administrative issues
and offer solutions to solve them. These studies are
what you call applied studies or research and are
sometimes referred to as management studies.
A popular example of applied organization studies that
we can cite is the reorganization of the bureaucracy. A
study of the existing structure, functions, and
procedures is conducted with the view to identifying
concrete measures that will improve the conduct of
government and public affairs.
For the Filipino public administration scholars, the
challenge probably lies not only in discovering new
frontiers in the discipline but, more importantly
perhaps, in defining a public administration model that
brings in the Filipino perspective and the realism of
Philippine experience.

Generally speaking, the studies made by the Institute

during those years were “characteristically inward-
oriented” and focused on organization structures,
functions, processes, and procedures, concluded by
recommendations to apply management tools and
techniques that have been employed in the United
States. The studies dealt with wide ranging practical
issues concerning internal structure, building space,
work simplification, salary scale, employee morale, line
of authority, line and staff functions, and so on.

Even as the researches continued to adhere to this

“inward-looking orientation”, other patterns emerged.
Research investigations already included the local
governments-their organizations, functions, and
management- and not just concentrating on the
national government offices and institutions

Studies also began to cover the relations between the

bureaucracy and the public at large, as exemplified by
the researches on public accountability and program
implementation. This “outwardlooking orientation” and
interest on social relevance of public administration
became more pronounced in the studies following the
declaration of martial law and onwards to the ‘80s
(Reyes, 1995).

Many of the organization studies conducted by the CPA

that the time precisely fitted into the scheme of
upgrading the administrative capability of the
government. They were a direct and relevant response
to the need and call for efficient, economical, and
effective government. These studies were of the applied
type and addressed practical problems in internal
administrative structure, functions, and processes

They also offered concrete measures to improve the

system. In a sense, the studies filled the role of
providing the government with ideas and solutions to
improve government operations and performance and,
thus, make it more capable in accomplishing its task of
nation building and national development.

Thus far, it is apparent that the bulk of organization

studies before were more oriented towards dealing
with practical issues in Philippine public administration
than building theoretical knowledge about public
organizations.

This much was noted by Cariño when she reviewed the

researches undertaken by the College. According to her,
as cited by Reyes, a little less than three percents of
studies made between 1952 and 1972 could be
considered as theoretical works. Reyes also reiterates
this observation in his article.

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
UNIVERSE- a large unimaginable expanse of GAS,
STARS, DUST CLOUDS and consist of PLANETS and
GALXY.
STRUCTURE
1. 71.4% - DARK ENERGY (a source of anti-gravity,
causes the universe to expand)
2. 24%- DARK MATTER (matter that has gravity but does
not emit light)
3. 4.6%- ATOMS also called as BARYONIC MATTER
(ordinary matter consisting of protons, electrons, and
neutrons: atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and
other bodies)
COMPOSITION
*Three most abundant elements in the universe
>Hydrogen
>Helium
>Lithium
STARS- the building block of galaxies and is born out of
clouds of gas and dust in galaxies.
PROTOSTAR- the hot core of a future star as
thermonuclear reactions set in. It is also an early stage
in the formation of the star resulting from gravitational
collapse of gases.
GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE- the contraction of an
astronomical object due to the influence of its own
gravity. It is a fundamental mechanism for structure
formation in the universe.
STELLAR INTERIORS- are like furnaces where elements
are synthesized or combined/fused together. Most stars
such as the sun belong to the so called “main sequence
stars”. In the cores of such stars, hydrogen atoms are
fused through thermonuclear reactions to make helium
atoms.
THERMONUCELAR REACTIONS- of or relating to the
changes in the nucleus of atoms that happen at
extremely high temperature. It is a nuclear fusion
reaction responsible for the energy produced by the
stars.
*MASSIVE MAIN SEQUENCE STARS burn up their
hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our sun
burn up hydrogen in about 10 billion years.
*There are gazillions of galaxies in the Universe.
KINDS OF GALAXIES
Some galaxies are very small with only a few million
stars, while others could have as many as 400 billion
stars, or even more.
There are 3 kinds of galaxies: SPIRAL, ELLIPTICAL and
IRREGULAR. The only difference between the three is
what shape they are.
BIRTH, REVOLUTION, DEATH, AND REBIRTH OF STARS
*The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or
as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in the
accompanying planetary system.
Based on recent data:
*the universe is 13.8 billion years old
*the diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but
should be at least 91 billion light-years (1 light year =
9.4607 x 10¹² km)
*its density is 4.5 x 10¯³¹ g/cm³
GALAXY- is a cluster of billions of stars and cluster of
galaxies form superclusters. In between the clusters is
practically an empty space.
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
BIGBANG THEORY
*The universe is expanding, and originated in infinitely
tiny, infinitely dense pint called singularity. And there
was violent explosion which caused the inflation and
expansion of the universe.
*The currently accepted theory of the origin and
evolution of the universe.
*Postulates that the universe is 13.8 billion years old.
*The universe expanded from a tiny, dense and hot
mass to its present size and much cooler.
The BIGBANG THEORY rest on 2 ideas: GENERAL
RELATIVITY and the COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE.
-In Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, gravity is
thought of as a distortion of space-time and no longer
described by a gravitational field in contrast of the Law
of Gravity of Isaac Newton. General Relativity explains
the peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury and the
bending of light by the sun and has passed rigorous
tests. The cosmological principle assumes that the
universe is homogenous and isotropic when averaged
large scales.
NON-SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT
 *Ancient-Egyptians believed in many Gods and Myths
which narrate that the world arose form an infinite sea
at the first rising of the sun.
*The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a
creator God Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark
and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain
and then vomited the stars, sun and moon.
*In India, there is the narrative that Gods sacrificed
Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes, and
mind became the sky, earth, sun and moon respectively.
STEADY STATE MODEL (1948) (Proposed by Bondi,
Gould, Hoyle)
*The universe expanded but do not change in density.
*It is also called as INFINITE UNIVERSE.
*It maintains that new matter is created as the universe
expands thereby maintaining its density.
*Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection
with the discovery of the cosmic.
OSCILLATING THEORY
*The universe is expanding for a time and then to its
contradiction due to gravity.
EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE ACCORDING TO THE BIG
BANG THEORY
- From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until 10-
43 second later, all matter and energy in
universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state. It
then underwent extremely rapid, exponential
inflation until 10-32 second later after which
and until 10 seconds from time zero, conditions
allowed the existence of only quarks, hadrons
and leptons (tiniest particles).
- Then Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and
produces protons, neutrons, atomic nuclei, and
then hydrogen, helium, and lithium until 20
minutes after time zero when sufficient cooling
did not allow further nucleosynthesis.
- From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling
universe entered a matter-dominated period
when photons decoupled from matter and light
could travel freely as still observed today in the
form of cosmic, microwave background
radiation.
- As the universe continued to cool down, matter
collected into clouds giving rise to only stars
after 380,000 years and eventually galaxies
would from after 100 million years from time
zero during which through nucleosynthesis in
stars, carbon and elements heavier than carbon
were produced.
- From 9.8 billion years until the present, the
universe became dark-energy dominated
underwent accelerating expansion. At about 9.8
billion years after the big bang, the solar system
was formed.
IMPORTANT NOTES!!!!
EARTH- the third rock from the sun
SUN- is at the outer limb of galaxy (not at the
center)
GALAXY- there are billions of galaxy in our
universe
*Stars energy comes from combining light
elements into heavier elements by fusion or
“NUCLEAR BURNING” (nucleosynthesis).
*Forming of Helium (He) from Hydrogen (H)
gives off lots of energy.
*Nucleosynthesis requires very high
temperature. The minimum temperature for H
fusion is 5 x 1066 C.
SOLAR SYSTEM
 The solar system is located in the Milky
Way galaxy. A huge disc and spiral-
shaped aggregation of about at least
100 billion stars and other bodies.
 Its spiral arms rotate around a globular
cluster or bulge of many, many stars, at
the center of which lies a supermassive
black hole.
 This galaxy is about 100 million light
years across (1 light year = 9.4607 x 10 12
km)
 The solar system revolves around the
galactic center once in about 240
million years.
 The Milky Way is part of the so-called
“Local Group of Galaxies”, which in turn
is part of the Virgo supercluster of
galaxies.
 Based on the assumption that they are
remnants of the materials from which
they were formed, radioactive dating of
meteorites, suggests that the Earth and
solar system are 4.6 billion years old on
the assumption that they are remnants
of the materials from which they were
formed.
LARGE SCALE FEATURES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 Much of the mass of the solar system is
concentrated at the center (sun) while angular
momentum is held by the outer planets.
 Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the
same plane.
 All planets revolve around the sun.
 The periods of revolution of the planets
increase with increasing distance from the sun;
the innermost planet moves fastest, the
outermost, the slowest.
 All planets are located at regular intervals from
the sun.
SMALL SCALE FEATURES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 Most planets rotate prograde (counter
clockwise)
 Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials
with high melting points such as silicates, iron,
and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin or no
atmosphere, higher densities, and lower
 contents of volatiles-hydrogen, helium, and
noble gases.
 The outer four planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune are called “gas giants” because of
the dominance of gases and their larger size.
They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere,
lower densities, and fluid interiors rich in
hydrogen, helium and ices (water, ammonia,
methane).
ORIGIN OF THE SYSTEM
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 In the 1700’s Emmanuel Swedenburg,
Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace
independently thought of a rotating gaseous
cloud that cools and contracts in the middle to
form the sun and the rest into a disc that
become the planets.
 The nebular theory failed to account for the
distribution of angular momentum in the solar
system.
ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS
 Buffon’s (1749) sun-comet encounter that sent
matter to form planet.
 James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that
would have drawn from the sun matter that
would condense to planets.
 T.C Chamberlein and F.R Moulton’s (1904)
planetisimal hypothesis involving a star much
bigger than the sun passing by the sun and
draws gaseous filaments from both out which
planetisimal were formed.
 Ray Lyttleton’s (1940) sun’s companion start
colliding with another to form a photo-planet
that breaks up to form Jupiter and Saturn.
 Otto Schimiat’s accretion theory proposed that
the sun passed through a dense interstellar
cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous
envelope that eventually became the planets.
However, it cannot explain how the planets and
satellites were formed. The time required to
form the planets exceeds the age of the solar
system.
 M.M Woolfson’s capture theory is a variation of
James Jeans’ near-collision hypothesis. In this
scenario, the sun drags from a near proto-star a
filament of material which becomes the planets.
Collisions between proto-planets close to the
sun produced the terrestrial planets;
condensations in the filament produced the
giant planets and their satellites. Different ages
for the sun and planet is predicted by this
theory.
 Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s compositional
studies on meteorites in the 1950s and other
scientists work on these objects led to the
conclusion that meteorite constituents have
changed very little since the solar systems’ early
history and can give clues about their
formation. The currently accepted theory on
the origin of the solar system relies much on
information from meteorites.
PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESES – (CURRENT HYPOTHESIS)
 About 4.6 billion years ago, in the orion arm of
the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas and
dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium
starts to contract due to the gravity.
 As most of the mass move to the center to
eventually become a proto-sun, the remaining
materials from a disc that will eventually
become the planets and momentum is
transferred outwards.
 Due to collision, fragments of dust and solid
matter begin sticking to each other to form
larger and larger bodies from meter to kilo
meter in size. There proto-planets are
accretions of frozen water, ammonia, methane,
silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock
and mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and
helium.
 High-speed collisions with large objects destroys
much of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus in
retrograde rotation.
 Collision of the Earth with large object produces
the moon. This is supported by the composition
of the moon very similar to the Earth’s Mantle.
 When the proto-sun is established as a star, its
solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and
volatiles form the inner planets beyond Mars to
form the gas giants leaving behind a system we
know today.
PLANETS
MERCURY
 In Roman Mythology, mercury is the God of
commerce, travel and thievery, the Roman
Counterpart of the Greek God Hermes, the
messenger of the Gods. The planet received this
name because it moves so quickly across the
sky.
 Mercury is a small planet which orbits closer to
the sun.
 Has no moon.
 Its surface is very hot. It features a barren,
crater covered surface.
 The daytime temperature is scorching reaching
over 4000 C.
 At night, its temperature is dropping to 180 0 C.
 Low surface gravity.
VENUS
 Named after the Roman Goddess of love and
beauty.
 Is the brightest object in the sky.
 No moons.
 “MORNING STAR” – at sunrise it appears in the
east.
 ËVENING STAR” – its sunsets in west
 Venus and Earth are close together in space and
similar in size, which is the reason Venus called
as “Earth’s Sister Planet”.
 Has more volcanoes than any other planet.
 Temperature: about 4600 C.
  Atmosphere: composed of carbon dioxide.
EARTH
 The name Earth is an old English and German
name which is simply means “soil”.
 Earth is the third planet form the sun.
 Has one moon.
 Only planet that has liquid water on its surface.
 Only planet in the solar system that has life.
 THE EARTH IS FRAGILE – its surface is split into
plates (tectonic plates) which float on a rocky
mantle (the layer between the surface of the
Earth, its crust and its hot liquid core). The
inside of the Earth is active and earthquakes,
and volcanoes and mountain building takes
place along the boundaries of the tectonic
plate.
 The Earth is larger than Mercury, Venus and
Mars.
 The Earth differs from all the other planets
because it has such a wide diversity of life and
intelligent beings. This has only been possible
because of the Earth’s atmosphere which has
protected the Earth and allowed life to flourish.
MARS
 Named after the Roman God of War.
 It is also called as “Red Planet” because it is
covered with rust – like dust.
 Fourth planet from the sun.
 Has 2 moons.
 Mars looks a lot like our home though instead
of blue oceans and green land. Mars is home to
an ever present red tint. This is due to a minimal
called iron oxide that is very common on the
planet’s surface.
 Mars has many massive volcanoes and is home
to Olympus moons, the largest volcano in our
solar system. It stands 21 km high and 600 km
across the base.
 Has a very thin atmosphere made mostly of
carbon dioxide.
 1200 C on winter nights to 250 C in the summer.
JUPITER
 Called after ancient Roman sky-God Jupiter,
known to the Greeks as Zeus.
 Is the largest planet in our solar system. (more
than 1300 Earth could fit inside it)
 Has 63 moons. The first 4 largest moons of
Jupiter are called “GALILLEAN MOON”, but 46 of
them are much smaller ranging.
 Is the stormiest planet in the solar system.
 JUPITER’S GREAT RED SPOT – permanent but
ever-changing whirlpool of storms and was first
seen by Robert Hooke (1864).
 The first gas giants.
 It is made up of hydrogen, helium, methane,
ammonia. The cloudy sphere has a bright belt
on it which changes their shape.
SATURN
 Was named after the ancient Roman God of
Agriculture.
 Second largest planet in our solar system.
 It has 62 moons.
 Is the largest planet that can be seen without
using a telescope. The rings however, can only
be seen using a telescope.
 The rings were first seen by Galileo in 1610
through a telescope.
 The rings are made up of millions of ice crystals,
same as big as houses and others as small as
specks of dust.
 Is very light as it is made up of more hydrogen
than helium so it is less dense.
 Saturn is a peaceful planet! Storm around the
atmosphere at 800 km/h.
URANUS
 Was named after the Greek God of the Sky.
 Was the first planet discovered by telescope.
 Has 27 moons.
 Coldest planet
 Was first seen by William Hesrchel in 1718
during a survey of the sky using a telescope.
 Rolls like a barrel rather than spinning like Earth
and the other planets in our solar system.
 One of the gas giants, the four planets which
are entirely composed of gas. (Jupiter, Saturn,
Neptune)
 Uranus’ atmosphere is mostly hydrogen but it
also contains large amounts of gas called
methane. Methane absorbs red light and
scatters blue light so a blue-green methane
haze hides the interior of the planet form view.
NEPTUNE
 Is named after Roman God of the Sea.
 Is the farthest planet from the sun.
 Has 13 moons.
 Is a great ball of hydrogen and helium.
 In the same year that Neptune was first seen
1846. Its first moon was also spotted and
named TRITON. Triton is a most unusual moon
since it orbits Neptune opposite direction of
Neptune’s own rotation on its axis.
 Is a large, water planet with a blue hydrogen-
methane atmosphere and faint rings.
 Suffers most violent weather in our solar
system.
 Storms have been spotted swirling around its
surface and freezing winds that blow about ten
times faster than hurricanes on Earth making it
the windiest planet in the solar system.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT ALLOW LIFE TO EXIST
1. TEMPERATURE
 Life is limited to a temperature range of -15 0 C
to 1150 C. Because of its distance from the sun,
Earth has a temperature range of 0 0 C to 1000 C,
which allows life to exist. The length of day and
night also contribute to temperatures that can
sustain life.
2. PRESENCE OF LIQUID WATER MINOR NUTRIENTS (trace elements)

 Earth’s temperature range allows water to exist  Molybdenum

in liquid form.  Cooper
 00 C is the freezing point of water and 100 0 C is  Boron
the boiling point of water.  Manganese
 Water is regularly available.  Iron
 Landforms allow water to run from high to low  Chlorine
elevations and replenish as the seasons change.  Nickel
 Zinc
3. COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
 The Earth’s atmosphere thickness traps heat
and protects it from the Sun’s harmful UV 1. Has cells
Radiation.
 It also protects it from small to medium sized 2. Grow and Develop
meteorites.
3. Cellular Organization
 It contains gases including nitrogen, oxygen,
argon and carbon dioxide. (NOArCO2) 4. Lifespan

EXOSPHERE TIMELINE ON THE HISTORY OF THE CELL…

THERMOSPHERE 1665 - Robert Hooke described cells in his book

“MOCROGRAPHIA”.
MESOSPHERE
1674 – Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw
bacteria some 9 years later.
STRATOSPHERE
1833 – Brown described the cell nucleus in cells of the
TROPOSPHERE orchids.

1838 – Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.

EARTH 1840 – Albereht Von Roeliker realized that sperm cells

and egg cells are also cell.

1856 – N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell

penetrated an egg cell.
4. ENERGY SOURCE
1857 – Roelikes described mitochondria.
 With a steady input of either light or chemical
1858 – Ruddf Virehow (Physician, Pathologist, and
energy from the sun, cells can perform the
Anthropologist) expounded on his famous conclusion:
chemical reactions necessary for life
(photosynthesis) omnicellula, a cellula, that is cells develop only from
 These give us food sources including plants and existing cells. {cells come from pre-existing cells}
animals.
1879 – Flemming described chromosome behavior
5. NUTRIENTS during mitosis.

 All solid planets and moons have the same 1883 – Germ cells are haploid, chromosome Theory of
general chemical make up so nutrients are Heredity.
present.
 Planets with a water cycle or volcanic activity 1898 – Golgi described the Golgi Apparatus.
can transport and replenish the chemicals
1926 – Svedberg developed the first analytical
required by living organisms. (vitamins)
ultracentrifuge.
MAJOR NUTRIENTS
1938 – Belirens used differential centrifugation to
 Carbon separate nuclei from cytoplasm.
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen 1939 – Siemens produced the first commercial
 Nitrogen transmission electron microscope.
 Phosphorus
1941 – Coons used fluorescent labeled antibodies to
 Potassium
detect cellular antigens.
 Sulphur
 Calcium 1952 – Gey and co – workers established a continuous
 Magnesium human cell line.
1953 – Crick, Wilins and Watson proposed structure of
DNA Double-helix.

1955 – Eage systematically defined the nutritional needs

of animal cells in culture.

1957 – Meselson, Staht and Vinograd developed density

gradient contrifrugation in ceslum chloride solutions for
separating nucleic acids.

1965 – Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium

Cambridge instruments produced the first commercial
scanning electron microscope.

1976 – Sato and colleagues published papers showing

that different cell lines require different mixtures of
hormones and growth factors in serum-free media.

1981 – Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced,

mouse embryonic stem cell line established.

1987 – Creation of first knock out mouse which contains

an artificially introduced mutation in their cells.

1998 – Mice are cloned from somatic cells.

2000 – Human genome DNA sequence draft.

OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS!!!!!!!!!

COSMOS – another term for universe

ANDROMEDA GALAXY – Closest galaxy to the Milky

Way

150 MILLION KM – Sun-Earth distance

PROXIMA CENTAURI – Second closest star form the

Earth

MAIN SEQUENCE STAR – Stars that fuse hydrogen

atoms to form helium atoms in their cores

STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS – Elements like carbon

were produced

10 BILLION YEARS – A medium size star like sun will last

240 MILLION YEARS – Period of revolution of Solar

System around the globular cluster of Milky Way.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH
(Pinaghalo ko na ang 1 and 2 kasi related naman siya
hahahaha)
RESEARCH
- The word “research” is one of the most over-
used expressions on individual students.
- Research is a “key to progress” there can be no
progress without research if not all human
endeavours.
- Is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing
and interpreting information in order to
increase our understanding of a phenomenon
about which we are interested or concerned.
- Is a systematic and objective (unbiased)
creation of knowledge.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
 Add to existing knowledge.
 Improve practice
 Inform policies
 Solve problems
STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identify and develop your topic.
2. Find background information.
3. Use catalogues to find books and media.
4. Use indexes to find periodical articles.
5. Find additional interne resources.
6. Evaluate what you find.
7. Cite what you find using a standard format.
TITLE – main problem of the study
RESEARCH TOPIC
The first challenge of any researcher is the
identification of a research topic. A research topic or
problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer
in the form of scientific inquiry. Topics or problems are
general questions about relations among variables, or
characteristics of the phenomenon which a researcher
needs to undertake.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPIC OR PROBLEM
The following are the things that may be
considered before starting the research activity:
1. Prevailing theories or philosophy.
2. Observations, intuitions or a combination of
both.
3. Different subjects taken and from them identify
a problem that interest a student – researcher
most.
4. Fields of interest or specialization or event from
related fields.
5. Existing problems in the
classroom/school/campus/university which are
may want to solve are good sources of research
problems.
6. Existing needs of the community or society.
7. Repetition and extention or investigations
already conducted or may be an off-shoot of
studies underway.
8. Related studies and literature.
9. Advice of authorities or experts from funding
agencies.
10. Offshoots of friendly conversations.
11. Incidental from interesting topics of professors
during the course meeting/session.
12. Wide readings/ critical film viewing
13. Gray areas
SELECTING THE RESEARCH TOPIC
In choosing a research problem, be guided by
the following criteria:
1. It should be something new or different from
what has already been written about.
2. It must be original.
3. It should be significant to the field of study or
discipline.
4. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity.
5. It should be of researcher’s interest and
researcher must be with the topic.
6. It should be a modest one for a beginner to be
carried on within a limited period of time.
7. It should be clear, not ambiguous.
8. It should be specific, not general.
9. It should consider the training and personal
qualifications of the researcher.
10. It should consider the availability of data
involved in the study and the methods and
techniques to be employed in gathering them.
11. It should consider the financial capacity of the
researcher to support the project.
12. It should consider the time factor involved in
the undertaking.
SELECTED GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF A
RESEARCH TITLE
1. The title must contain the following elements:
a. The subject matter or research problem
b. The setting or locale of the study
c. The respondents or participants
involved in the study; and
d. The time or period when the study was
conducted (If the title becomes too long
because of these elements, the
timeframe or period may be omitted
except in evaluation studies)
2. The title must be broad enough to include all
aspects of the study but should be brief and
concise as possible.
3. The use of terms as “Analysis of”, “A study of”,
“An Investigation of” and the like should be
avoided. All these are understood to have been
done in research.
 4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be considered as basis for revealing the problem
be written in invented pyramid. technical and personal.
5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all
words in the title should be in capital letters.
6. If possible, the title should not be longer than  TECHNICAL CRITERIA
15 substantive words. o Significant to chosen
7. Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much field/advancement of science or
information. specialization
8. To shorten the title, delete the terms o Pioneering or novel
“assessment” or “evaluation” if these are
o Originality
already emphasized in the text.
o Arouse intellectual curiosity
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TITLE o Relevance to degree
o Availability or manageability of data
 A title should give readers information about o Availability of instruments
the contents of the research and is preferable  PERSONAL
to one that is vague or general. o Interest
 Titles do not need to be stuffy or dull but they
o Training
should generally give readers some idea at the
o Expertise
outside of what the research paper will contain.
o Financial capacity
 Choose a title that is a phrase rather than a
o Time factor involved in the project
complete sentence.
 Select the straightforward title over other kinds. VARIABLES
 Use no punctuation at the end of the title.
 Do not underline the title of research or enclose A variable varies and has values. The values of
it in quotation marks, instead, use a word variables under study are the research data. Are
processing program or printer that permits these variables? Chair, shape of table, tweet,
italics. Use them in place of underlining. shirt style?

Based on experience, problem awareness could be CLASSIFYING VARIBALES ACCORDING TO SCALES OF

developed among students of research. Students are MEASURE
confronted with many problems within their reach
 NOMINAL SCALE
which can be used as opportunities to formulate
o Characterized by data that conflict of
potential research topic. All of these researchable areas
names, labels, or categories only.
or concerns lend themselves to investigation. The
 ORDINAL SCALE
inquisitive and imaginative minds of students may bring
o Involves data that may be arranged in
forth interesting and worthwhile research topics.
some order but differences between
Technological changes constantly bring forth new
data values either cannot be
problems and new prospects for research.
determined.
Educational motivations, classroom lectures,  INTERVAL SCALE
classroom interaction, class discussion, seminar report o Is data for which we can determine
and out-of-class exchange of ideas with fellow students meaningful amounts of differences
and professor suggest many stimulating problems to be between data. However, there is
solved. Tap all these resources and in a minute, one will inherent zero starting point.
identify a feasible research topic. (Birrnet. al 2005, p.10)
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH
After the student has identified the problem, which
Research is imply a systematic and refined
may have come from the following sources –
technique of thinking, employing specialized tools,
specialization, observations, institutions or both, subject
instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more
offerings of the course, occupation, events, related
adequate solution of a problem than would be possible
fields, theories, practices/needs or may be offshoot or
under ordinary means.
extension of previous studies, replication of studies,
form funding agencies or research sponsors, habits and BEST, gives a summary of the more important
interest, authorities, friendly conversations, characteristics of a good research as follows:
advisers/professors, other teachers, in lectures or
seminars, from technological changes, class discussions,  Research gathers new knowledge data from
interactions, professional journals, or personal curiosity, primary or first-hand source.
the student can now state the research problem.  Research is expert, systematic and accurate
investigation.
The researcher has to settle first the problem of
selecting the problem to research on. The following may
  Research is logical and objective, applying every
possible test to verify the data collected and the
procedures employed.
 Research endeavours to organize data in  FABRICATION
quantitative terms, and express them as o Is making up data or results and
numerical measures. recording or reporting them.
 Research is carefully recorded and reported.
 FALSIFICATION
RESEARCH IS: o Is manipulating research materials
equipment or processes, or changing or
1. Systematic emitting data or results such that the
2. Controlled research is not accurately represented
3. Empirical in the research record.
4. Analytical  PLAGIARISM
5. Objective, unbiased and logical o Is the appropriation of another person’s
6. Employs hypothesis ideas, processes, results or words
7. Employs quantitative or statistical method without giving appropriate credit.
8. Original work
9. Done by an expert Research misconduct does not include honest, error or
10. Accurate in investigation, observation and differences of opinion.
description
DATA MANIPULATION
11. Patient and unhurried activity
12. Requires an effort – making capacity  Researchers who manipulate their data in ways
13. Requires courage that deceive others are violating both the basic
values and widely accepted professional
RESEARCH PROBLEM – SOLVING
standards of science-failure to fulfil all three
There may not be a There is always a
problem, only interests problem to be solved. obligations.
in answering a question  They mislead their colleagues and potentially
or query. impede progress in their field or research.
A research problem is A problem to be solved  They undermine their own authority and
more rigorous and is less rigorous and less trustworthiness as researchers.
broader in scope. broad.
The research problem is The problem to be MISLEADING DATA
not necessarily defined solved has to be defined
specifically. specifically and  Can also arise from poor experimental design or
identified definitely. careless measurements as well as from
improper manipulation.
 When a mistake appears in a journal article or
SETS OF OBLIGATIONS OF A RESEARCHER TO
book, it should be corrected in a note, erratum
ADHERE TO PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS
(for a production error/additions/corrections)
1. An obligation to honour the trust that their
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
colleagues place in them.
2. An obligation to themselves. Irresponsible 1. Respect
conduct in research can make it impossible 2. Honesty
to achieve a goal. 3. Responsible
3. An obligation to act in ways that serve the 4. Legality
public. 5. Confidentiality
6. Openness
PLAGIARISM – is the act of using the ideas or words of
7. Carefulness
another person without giving appropriate credit.
8. Objectivity
SELF PLAGIARISM – the verbatim copying or reuse of 9. Competency
one’s own research 10. Integrity

*BOTH TYPES OF PLAGIARISM ARE CONSODERED TO TYPES OF RESEARCH

BE UNACCEPTABLE PRACTICE IN SCIENTIFIC
1. Basic research
LITERATURE.
2. Applied
RESEARCH MISCONDUCT 3. Library
4. Field
The means of fabrication, falsification, or 5. Laboratory
plagiarism in proposing, performing or reviewing
research or in reporting research results. CHAPTER II
RRL – description, variable (what is your problem?)
RRS – same study (upgraded, 2nd paragraph), similarities
of studies form the past (1st paragraph)
SYNTHESIS – some studies (summary)
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK – what would be the
process, what would be the solution to the problem
DEFINITION OF TERMS – lexical definition or operation
definition
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK – theory applicable in
research with illustration
CHAPTER III (Methodology)
 Restate the purpose and the research question
 Population and sampling
 Instrumentation
 Procedure and timeframe
 Analysis plan
 Validity and reliability
 Limitation of the study
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH
Case study research was the framework utilized
to conduct this study. Case study is defined as an
exploration of a “bounded system”. Case study research
takes place overtime through detailed, in depth data
collection involving multiple sources.
SAMPLE SELECTION AND DATA COLLECTION
The most appropriate sampling strategy. In case
study, research is the most common form, which is
called purposeful sampling (Patton, 1980)
Participant observation is a major avenue for
data collection in case study research. This data
collection gives a firsthand account of the event being
studied.
Field notes are an important aspect of data
collection in case study research. The researcher should
be able to shift from wide angle lens to a narrow angle
lens, focus on a single person or event.
Interviews are also a source of data collection.
In case study research (Merriam, 1988), several things
should be included in effective interviews.
The researcher should make clear his motives
and purposes for the research study. The respondents
should be protected through the use of pseudonyms.
The value of interviews depends on the
interviewer’s knowing enough about the topic to ask
meaningful questions. The most common way to record
interview is to tape-record the interview. Occasionally,
interviews are videotaped. Also researchers, takes notes
during the actual interview.
Appendices can be found at the end of the
research document.
APPENDIX A represents administrators and teacher
interview protocol.
APPENDIX B presents a list of questions for student
interview protocol.
APPENDIX C lists of students’ survey question.
APPENDIX D represents the parent information letter
for students who participate in the study.
APPENDIX E represents the permit consent form.
APPENDIX F is the student information letter for
participating students.
APPENDIX G is the student assent form.
POPULATION DESCRIPTION (example)
 The population description for this study
included all those in Saturn, middle school
which are involved in the mentoring program.
This population include administrators, teachers
and students.
SAMPLE DESCRIPTION (example)
 The administrator interviewed was the school
principal, Mrs. Randolf. This was a purposeful
sample selection. The principal was purposefully
selected because she was the initial school
contact. And it was through her that permission
was granted to conduct the study. Student
sampling included twenty – two students
enrolled in this mentoring program. This was a
purpose sample description of students who
were currently enrolled in the class.
INTSRUMENTATION (example)
 The interview protocol for administrators and
teachers is attached to this study as Appendix A.
APPENDIX A show the eight established
questions used when the researcher conducted
initial interviews with administrators and
teachers.
Prior to these interviews, the researcher
informed the administrators and teachers the
purposes of the research study.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES AND SELECTIONS OF
SUBJECT (example)
 Procedures for this study began with the
researcher’s filling an IRB and receiving
clearance to conduct the study, initial phone
contact was made with administrator in the
school were the study was to be conducted. An
appointment was made to make first visit in
which the researcher obtained permission from
the school administration to conduct the
 research study. During first visits into the school
setting, permission slips and information letters
were given to all subjects involved in the study.
VALIDITY
 Validity must be assessed in terms of
interpreting the researcher’s experience.
 Rateliffe concludes there is no universal way of
guaranteeing validity; there are only “notions of
validity”
o INTERNAL VALIDITY refers to how one’s
research findings match real events.
o EXTERNAL VALIDITY concerned with
the extent to which data results can be
applied to other situations. This issue
centers on whether one can generalize
from a single case.
RELIABILITY
 Refers to the extents a researcher’s findings can
be replicated.
 Is based on the assumption there is one single
reality.
 Lincoln and Guba (1981) suggest thinking about
“dependability” or “consistency” of results
obtained from the data.
TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH IN DIFFERENT
AREAS
1. APPLIED RESEARCH
a. Designed to solve practical problems of
the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge’s sake.
b. Its goal is to improve human condition.
c. It is used to find solutions to everyday
problem develop technologies and
current illnesses.
2. BASIC RESEARCH
a. Also referred to as fundamental or pure
research.
b. Driven by a scientists’ curiosity or
interest in a scientific question.
c. Main motivation is to extend man’s
knowledge not to create or invent
things.
d. Designed to add to an organized body
of scientific knowledge and does not
necessarily produce results of practical
value.
3. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
a. Refers to the systematic investigation or
statistical study of relationship among
two or more variable without
necessarily determining cause and
effect.
b. Seeks to establish a relation or
association between two or more
variables that do not readily lend
themselves to experimental
manipulation.
4. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
a. Refers to research that provides an
accurate portrayal of a class or a
particular individual situation or group.
b. Also known as statistical research.
c. These studies are a means of discussing
new meanings describing what exists,
determining the frequency, with which
something occurs.
d. Deals with everything that can be
counted and measured and which has
an impact on people or communities.
5. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
a. Refers to the investigation of a culture
through an in-depth study of the
member of the culture.
b. It involves the systematic collection,
description and analysis of data for
development of theories of cultural
behaviour.
c. Attempts to understand what is
happening naturally in the setting and
to interpret the data gathered so
implications could be formed.
i. TWO APPROACHES TO
ETHNOGRAPHY
1. Realist, researcher
provides an objective
account of the
situation.
2. Critical, researcher
shows his advocacy for
marginalized group or
attempts to empower
the group by giving it
voice.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANT
- Defined as a market research method that
causes on obtaining data through open-ended
and conversational communications.
- This method is not only about “what” people
think but also “why” they think so.
- Allows for in-depth and further proving and
questioning of respondents based on their
responses, where the interviewer/researcher
also tries to understand their motivation and
feelings.
- The result of a qualitative method is more
descriptive and inferences can be drawn quite
easily from the data that is obtained.
- Originated in the social and behavioural science.
- It is more communicative and descriptive.
CHARACERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Context and meaning
2. Naturally occurring setting
 3. Human instruments UNSTRUCTURE – using open ended questions.
4. Emerged design
STRUCTURED – using close ended question
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESOGN QUESTIONS:
SEMI – STRUCTURED – both open and close ended
1. What do I want to know? questions.
2. Why I want to know it?
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
3. What assumptions in research and knowledge?
4. What assumptions am I making? Data are collected through the researcher’s
5. What type of data would answer this question? immersion in the natural setting of research.
6. How much data I need?
7. How will you collect data? OBSERVATIONAL EVALUATION
8. Who will I need to collect data for?
The researcher observes and record both verbal
9. How will you access and recruit these
and non-verbal behaviour of a person.
participants?
10. How will you analyze your data to answer your QUESTIONNAIRE
question?
11. What particular ethical issues do I need to More formal way of gathering facts.
consider?
DATA ANALYSIS AND PROCEDURES
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
1. CODING – reads the data, marks segments
1. CASE STUDY within the data, each one of which is labelled
a. Study of an individual or a group of with a “code” – a word or phrase that suggests
persons during a specific period of time. how the associated data segments address the
2. ETHNOGRAPHY research objectives.
a. An interactive study. 2. RECURSIVE ABSTRACTION – summarizes the
3. CONTENT ANALYSIS sets of data.
a. A detailed and systematic examination. 3. CONTENT OR DISCOURSE ANALYSIS – counts
4. PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY words or phrases, or coincidences of tokens
a. Focused on understanding the within the data.
underlying meaning of the experiences. 4. COMPUTER ASSISTED QUALITATIVE DATA
5. GROUNDED THEORY ANALYSIS SOFTWARE – uses programs in
a. The researcher aims to glean a general editing, revising and coding which allow for
abstract theory. work sharing.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SAMPLING GENERIC STEPS TO FOLLOW IN DATA ANLYSIS

PROCEDURES
1. CRITERION SAMPLING
a. Selection is based on specific 1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
characteristics. 2. Read through all the data.
2. PURPOSEFUL RANDOM 3. Begin detailed analysis with coding process.
a. Selection of participants who have been 4. Use the coding process to generate a
purposively selected. description of the setting or people as well as
3. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING categories or themes of analysis.
a. Selection is based on availability and 5. Decide how the description and themes will be
willingness of participants. presented.
4. HOMOGENOUS SAMPLING 6. Make an interpretation of data –lessons,
a. Selection is based on the participant’s meanings, suggestion for new question that
similarity in experience. need to be asked.
5. MAXIMUM VARIATION
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
a. Selection is intended to attain more in-
depth views form a big number of 1. ONE TO ONE INTERVIEW
participants. a. Conducting in-depth interviews is one
6. INTESITY SAMPLING of the most common qualitative
a. Selection is intended to sample the research methods.
same characteristics over and over b. It is a personal interview that is carried
again. out with one respondent at a time.
c. This is purely a conversational method
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
and invites opportunities to get details
INTERVIEW in depth from the respondent.
 d. One of the advantages of this method
provides great opportunity to gather
precise data about what people believe
and what their motivations are.
e. If the researcher is well-experienced
asking the right questions can help
him/her collect meaningful data.
f. If they should need more information,
the researcher should ask such follow
up questions that will help them collect
more information.
g. These interviews can be performed face
to face or on phone and usually can last
between half an hour two hours or even
more.
h. When the in-depth interview is
conducted face to face, it gives a better
opportunity to read the body language
of the respondents and match the
responses.
2. FOCUS GROUPS
a. Commonly used qualitative methods,
used in data collection.
b. Usually includes a limited number of
respondents (6-10) from within your
target market.
c. Aims to find answers to the why, what
and how questions.
ADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUPS
 You don’t necessarily need to interact
with the group in person.
 Can be sent online survey on various
devices and responses can be collected
at the click of a button.
HOWEVER,
 An expensive method as compared
to the other qualitative research
method.
 Used to explain complex processes.
 Very useful when it comes to
market research of new products
and testing new concepts.
3. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
a. The most in depth observational
method that studies people in their
naturally occurring environment.
b. Requires the researchers to adopt to
the target audiences’ environments
which could be anywhere from an
organization to a city or any remote
location.
IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Green and Bloome (1997) confronted with the
question what counts as ethnography made a useful
distinction between ethnography of education and
ethnography in education.
They claimed that the ethnographer of
education (usually a sociologist or anthropologist) seeks
to understand what counts as education for members of
a particular group, while the ethnographer in education
(usually an education “insider” often a teacher) is
concerned with the social and cultural dynamics of a
school or classroom. Ethnographic studies of learning
and knowledge in education ask the question what
counts as knowledge and learning in classroom to
teachers and students. An example would be how
teaching styles match the learning styles of students.
They concluded that ethnographic practice like
any set of social and cultural practices – are ways that in
a site act and react to each other pursue an agenda;
including research agenda. An example would be how
students react to the evaluation of their academic
performance.
QUALITATIGVE RESEARCH IN TECHNICAL
COMMUNICATION
Qualitative methodologies are also effective for
technical communication which determines the
effectiveness use of technology in the workplace to
ensure smooth flow of communication.
Focus groups are used to probe deeper research
results in order to describe or illustrate current
practices in technical communication which can take
the forms of Email, fax, messaging, video and voice
conferencing and extranet, jargons and graphics.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Braun and Clanke (2013) claimed that a
qualitative research paradigm in psychology has been
emerging. Qualitative ideas and approaches have been
part of psychology since its inception in the second half
of the 19th century. The early 20th century marked
behaviourism and the second half, the cognitive
revolution of quantitative methods employed within a
positivist, experimental paradigm dominated the
discipline.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. CORRELATIONAL
a. Studying relationship
2. EXPERIMENTAL
a. Manipulating conditions and studying
effects.
3. DESCRIPTIVE
a. Describing characteristics
4. DESCRIPTIVE RESERACH
a. Aims to describe the facts and
characteristics of a given population or
area of interest factually and accurately.
 concentrate and produce an excellent research
paper.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Listen to your teacher for proper
1. OBSERVATIONAL METHODS directions.
a. Used to document and describe animal 2. Select a topic within your field of
and human behaviour in a natural or interest.
artificial environment. 3. You elaborate on the topic by doing
2. CASE STUDIES initial exploratory research and use
a. Involves an in-depth study of an reputable sources that support your
individual or a small group of problem.
individuals. 4. You must be precise and clear with your
3. SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN problem statement.
a. Involves administering a survey to a 5. Gather data and information to answer
sample or the entire population of all posed questions.
people to describe the attitudes, 6. Organize the data, analyze the findings
opinions, behaviours or characteristics and formulate the conclusions and
of the population. recommendations.
i. USE IT WHEN… 7. Prepare the draft of the research
1. Describing trends report, revise as needed and present
2. Determining individual the final paper.
opinions about policy
issues
3. Identifying important
beliefs and attitudes of
individuals.
4. CROSS – SECTIONAL STUDY
a. Used it when the researcher collects
data at one point in time. The purpose
is to examine current attitudes, beliefs,
opinions or practices.
b. Compare two or more groups in terms
of attitude, beliefs, opinions or
practices.

PARTS OF METHODOLOGY (Quantitative Research)

1. RESEARCH DESIGN
a. Specific procedures involved in the
research process: sampling, data
collection, and data analysis.
2. THE SAMPLE
a. Involves determining which group of
people will study, who, specifically,
these people are, and how many of
them you will need to involve.
3. THE INSTRUMENT
a. Refers to the questionnaire or data
gathering tool to be constructed,
validated and administered.
4. INTERVENTION
a. Describe what happens in comparison
group.
5. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
a. Describe whose permission will be
sought and arrangements to make to
administer instruments.

GUIDELINES IN SELECTING RESEARCH TOPICS

- Selecting a topic may be quite confusing.

However, the following guidelines may help you
 PAGBASA AT PAGSUSURI b. HALIMBAWA:
i. Nobela
PAGBASA ii. Akdang pampanitikan
- Proseso ng pag-aayos, pagkuha at pag-unawa 5. DISKRIPTIB
ng anumang uri at anyo ng impormasyon o a. Tekstong nagtataglay ng kaukulang
ideya na kinatawan ng mga salita o simbolo na impormasyon sa katangiang pisikal ng
kailangang tingnan at suriin upang maunawaan isang tao, lugar, bagay o pangyayari. Ito
ay isa sa apat na maaaring kasanayang ay isa sa mga pinakamadaling hanapin
oangwika na mahalaga sa pakikipagtalastasan. sapagkat ito ay sumasagot sa tanong na
- Masasabi din ang pagbasa ay ang pinakapagkain “ano”.
ng utak. b. HALIMBAWA:
i. Mga akdang pampanitikan
PAGSUSURI ii. Mga lathalain
6. PROSIDYURAL
- Ang ebalwasyon, pagsusuri, o paglilitis ay ang
a. Isang uri ng tekstong nagsasaad ng
proseso ng paghihimay ng isang paksa upang
pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga partikular
maging mas maliit na mga bahagi; upang
na hakbang upang maisakatuparan ang
makatanggap ng isang mas mainam na
anumang Gawain.
pagkaunawa rito. Ang tekniko ay ginamit sa pag-
b. HALIMBAWA:
aaral ng matematika at lohika bago pa man ang
i. Mga resipi
panahon ni Aristotle (384-322 B.K.), bagaman
ii. Mga panuto o guide
ang analisis ay isang pormal na konsepto o diwa
7. NAYRESYON
na halos kamakailan lamang umunlad.
a. Uri ng tekstong sumasagot sa tanong na
- Ang kahalagahan ng pagsusuri ay upang
“paano” at “kalian”.
malaman mo kung ano ang ibig sabihin ng
b. HALIMBAWA:
binabasa mo o upang lubos mong maunawaan
i. Mga akdang pampanitikan
ang binabasang teksto.
8. EKSPOSISYON
IBA’T-IBANG URI NG PAGSULAT BATAY SA TEKSTO a. Uri ng tekstong nagbibigay
impormasyon tungkol sa mga analisis ng
1. IMPORMATIB mga konsepto. Sinasagot ang tanong na
a. Uri ng tekstong nagbibigay ng bagong “paano”.
kaalaman, pangyayari, paniniwala at 9. REPERENSYAL
impormasyon. Karaniwang nakaayos ito a. Uri ng tekstong naglalahad ng
sa paraang sikwensyal at ipinaliliwanag pinaghanguan ng mga kaalaman.
nang maayos ang mga kaalaman.
b. HALIMBAWA: KAHALAGAHAN NG PAGBASA
i. Mga talang pangkasanayan
 Isang kasanayang kinakailangan linangin.
ii. Mga balita
 Ang paniniwalang pinanggagalingan ng lahat ng
c. URI:
kaalaman at impormasyon ng isang tao.
i. Pag-uulat
 Isa sa limang pangkasanayang pangwika.
ii. Pagpapaliwanag
 Pagkilala at pagkuha ng mga ideya at kaisipan sa
2. ARGUMENTATIB
mga nakalimbag na simbolo.
a. Uri ng tekstong naglalahad ng posisyon
 Proseso ng pag-unawa sa mga mensaheng nais
ng isang manunulat sa kaugnay na
ibahagi ng may-akda sa nagbabasa ng kanyang
usapin na dapat pagtalunan.
sinulat.
Tumutugon ang mga ganitong akda sa
tanong na bakit. KAILANGAN SA PAGBASA
b. HALIMBAWA:
i. Ang editoryal  Ang pagbasa ay may kaugnayan sa linggwistika.
3. PERSWEYSIB  Kailangan ng malusog na pangagatawan, isipan
a. Isang uri ng akdang layon ay at kamalayang damdamin upang maunawaan
mangumbinsi o manghikayat. ang binabasa.
b. HALIMBAWA:  Ang pagbabasa ay isang prosesi na
i. Propaganda nangangailangan ng mataas na kaisipan,
ii. Mga patalastas konsentrasyon at focus.
4. NARATIBO  Kailangan ang taga-sulat at ang tagabasa ay may
a. Naglalahad o nagkukwento ng ugnayan.
pangyayari ayon sa kronolohikal na  Kailangan malinaw ang paningin sa pagbabasa.
ayos.
  Kailangan ang pagkakaroon ng interes at
kaalaman sa binabasa.
KAHALAGAHAN NG PAGBASA
 Nadadagdagan ang kaalaman
 Napapayaman ang kaalaman at napapalawak
ang talasalitaan.
 Nakarating sa mga pook na hindi pa narating.
 Nahuhubig ang kaisipan at panindigan.
 Nakakakuha ng mga mahahalagang
impormasyon.
 Nakatutulong sa mabibigat na suliranin at
damdamin.
 Nagbibigay ng inspirasyon at nakikita ang iba’t-
ibang antas ng buhay at anyo ng daigdig.
LAYUNIN NG PAGBASA
 Magkaroon ng kalinawan ang pag-iisip tungkol
sa mga bagay na di malinaw sa kaalaman.
 Magkaroon ng kapayapaan sa buhay dahil sa
kaalaman sa iba’t-ibang larangan.
 Magkaroon ng pagbabago sa paniniwala o
kaugalian.
 Magkaroon ng bukas na isipan.
PROSESO SA PAGBASA
Ayon kay William S. Gray, ang “ama ng
pagbasa”, ang mga sumusunod ay ang mga proseso sa
pagbasa:
1. PERSEPSYON – pagbasa sa alda o pagkilala.
2. KOMPREHENSYON – ang pag-unawa sa
pagbasa.
3. ASIMILASYON – ang pagsasama-sama at pag-
uugnay ng mga kaalaman mula sa binasa at sa
mga dating kaalaman.
4. RAEKSYON – ang hinuha sa binasa. Ito ay
parang intelektwal na ang bumabasa ay
nagpapasya sa kawastuhan at lohika ng binabaa
ay humahanga sa estilo at nilalaman ng
nababasang akda.
BILIS AT KAAYUSAN SA PAGBASA
Ito ay dapat ayon sa layunin ng bumabasa. Ang
bumabasa na may layuning matuto at matandaan ang
binasa ay nakapagbabasa ng dalawang daan at limampu
(250) hanggang tatlong daan at limampu (350) na salita
bawat minute.
Samantalang apat na daan (400) hanggang
pitongdaan (700) salita bawat minute kapag nalilibang
sapagkat wala naman siyang kailangan tandaan sa
binasa.
URI NG PAGBASA
1. MASUSING PAGBASA – tinataglay nito ang
pagiging mapanuri at kritikal na pagbasa.
2. MASAKLAW NA PAGBASA – taliwas ito sa
masusing pagbasa sa halip na pabaha-bahaging
pagbasa ng isang teksto, ito ay isang pag-aaral
sa pangkalahatang nilalaman ng binasa.
3. TAHIMIK NA PAGBASA – gamit dito ay mata
lamang. Hindi ito ginagamitan ng bibig kaya di
lumilikha ng anumang tunog.
4. MABAGAL NA PAGBASA – sapat na panahon
ang dapat sa pagbasang ito. Umaayon ito sa
pag-aaral ng gramatikang Filipino.
a. AYON SA LAYUNIN:
i. Masusi
ii. Masaklaw
b. AYON SA PARAAN:
i. Tahimik
ii. Pasalita
iii. Mabagal
iv. Mabilis
5. MABILIS NA PAGBASA – scanning ito sa ingles
na tumutukoy sa pagluha at pagpili ng mga
pangunahin at tiyak na detalye ng pangkaisipan
sa akdang binasa. Ang pinaraanan at
pinakambilis na pagbasang magagawa ng isang
tao ay tinatawag namang “skimming”.
ANTAS NG PAGBASA
1. PRIMARYANG ANTAS – pinakamababang antas
ng pagbasa at pantulong upang makamit ang
literasi sa oagbasa. Kinapapalooban ng
pagtukoy sa tiyak na datos at ispesipikong
impormasyon gaya ng; petsa, setting, lugar o at
mga tauhan.
2. MAPAGSIYASAT NA ANTAS – sa antas na ito
nauunawaan na ng mambabasa ang kabuuang
teksto at nakapagbibigay ng mabilisan ngunit
makabuluhang paunang rebyu sa isang teksto
upang matukoy kung kakailanganin at kung
maaari itong basahin nang mas malalim.
Maaaring gamitin ang skimming sa antas na ito.
Tinitignan ng mambabasa ang:
a. Titulo
b. Heading
c. Subheading
3. ANALITIKAL NA ANTAS – ginagamit ang
mapanuri o kritikal na pag-iisip upang
malalimang maunawaan ang kahulugan ng
teksto at ang layunin o pananaw ng manunulat.
Bahagi ng antas na ito ang;
a. Pagtatasa sa katumpakan
b. Kaangkupan
c. Kung katotohanan o opinyon ang
nilalaman ng teksto
 Sinasangkot nito ang mga batayang tanong na
“ano”, “kailan”, “saan”, “sino” at “paano”.
ANG MGA KAILANGAN ISAGAWA NG ISANG
LAYUNIN: magpaliwanag sa mga mambabasa ng
MAMBABASA SA ANALITIKAL NA PAGBASA
anumang paksa na matatagpuan sa tunay na
 Tukuyin kung saang larangan nakapaloob ang
daigdig.
teksto.
MGA HALIMBAWA:
 Ibalangkas ang teksto batay sa kabuuang
o Biyograpiya
estruktura o kung paano ito inayos ng may-
o Impormasyong matatagpuan sa dyaryo
akda.
o Ensayklopedya
 Tukuyin ang suliranin na tinatangkang bigyang-
o Almanac
linaw ng may akda.
o Papel pananaliksik
 Unawain ang mahahalagang terminong ginamit
o Mga journal
ng may-akda tungo sa pag-unawa ng kabuuang
o Siyentipikong aklat
teksto.
o Balita sa dyaryo
 Sapulin ang mahahalagang proposisyon ng may
akda. TEKSTONG DESKRIPTIBO
 Alamin ang argument ng may-akda.
Pagpapahayag ng impresyon o kakintalang likha
 Tukuyin sa bandang huli kung nasolusyonan o
ng pandama sa pamamagitan ng pang-amoy,
nasagot ban g may-akda ang suliranin ng teksto.
panlasa, pandinig. Itinatala ng sumusulat ang
 Tukuyin kung saang bahagi ng teksto nagkulang,
paglalarawan ng mga detalye na kanyang
nagkamali o naging lohikal ang pagpapaliwanag
nararanasan.
ng may-akda.
Ito ay naglalayong magsaad ng kabuuang
SINTOPIKAL NA ANTAS larawan ng isang bagay, pangyayari o kaya

- Binuo ni Movitimer Adler mula sa salitang naman ay magbigay ng isang konseptong biswal

“syntopicor”. ng mga bagay-bagay, pook, tao at kahalagahan.

- Uri ng pagsusuri na kinapapalooban ng LAYUNIN: makapagpamalas sa isip ng

paghahambing sa iba’t-ibang teksto. tagapakinig o mambabasa ng isang malinaw at

buong larawan.
LIMANG HAKBANG TUNGO SA SINTOPIKAL NA
KAHALAGAHAN: mas malawak na
PAGBASA
maiintindihan ng mambabasa ang mga imahe
1. PAGSISIYASAT – kailangang tukuyin agad ang na nais ipaisip o iparating ng manunulat. Mas
lahat ng mahahalagang akda. malawak din na maipagana ang imahinasyon ng
2. ASIMILASYON – tinutukoy ang uri ng wika at mambabasa.
mahahalagang terminong ginamit. PARAAN NG PAGLALARAWAN:
3. MGA TANONG – tinutukoy ang mga o Batay sa pandama
katanungang nais mong sagutin. o Batay sa obserbasyon
4. MGA ISYU – lumilitaw ang isyu kung kapaki- URI NG PAGLALARAWAN
pakinabang at makabuluhan ang nabuo mong o KARANIWAN
tanong.  Nagbibigay ng impormasyon
5. KUMBERSASYON – ang pagtukoy sa ayon sa pangkalahatang
katotohanan batay sa sintopikal na pagbasa. pagtingin o pangmalas.
TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO  Ang damdamin at opinyon ng
tagapagsalawarawan ay hindi
Tinatawag ding eksposisyon.
dapat isinasama.
Naglalayong magpaliwanag at magbigay
 Gumagamit lamang ito ng mga
impormasyon.
tiyak at karaniwnag salitang
 panlarawan at itinatala ang mga upang maging mabuti ang pamagat, kailangang taglayin
bagay o ang mga particular na ang mga sumusunod:
detalye sa payak na paraan.
 Maikli
o MASINING
 Kawili-wili o kapana-panabik
 Nagpapahayag ng isang buhay  Nagtatago ng lihim o hindi nagbubunyag ng
na larawan batay sa damdamin wakas
at pangmalas ng may akda.  Orihinal o hindi palasak
TEKSTONG NARATIBO  Hindi katawa-tawa, kung ang komposisyon ay
wala namang layunin na magpatawa
Ang tekstong naratibo ay karaniwang
 May kaugnayan o naangkop sa paksang diwa ng
kronolohikal o nakabtay sa tekstong literi,
komposisyon.
madalas naman ang paggamit ng flashback.
o Mahalaga ang paksa o diwa
Bagama’t karaniwa’y katotohanan at
 Kung gaano kahalaga ang isang
impormasyon ang nilalaman ng tekstong
naratubing diskurso, gayundin
naratibo, maaari rin naman sumulat ng tekstong
naman ang paksa niyon.
naratibo, nagsasalaysay ng mga pangyayaring
Tandaang ang isang akdang
pawing kathang isip lamang.
nauukol sa isang walang
Ang tekstong naratibo ay ginagamit din sa mga
kwentang paksa ay nagiging
ulat na naglalahad ng mga aktibidad ng isang
walang kwentang akda. Nasa
kumpanya o organisasyon, testimonya ng saksi
orihinaidad ang buhay ng isang
sa isang krimen o pangyayari, o record ng mga
narasyon.
obesrbasyon ng isang doctor, puna o mungkahi
 Iba’t-ibang ayos ng
ng guro sa report card ng estudyante.
pagkakasunod-sunod ng isang
LAYUNIN: makapagbigay impormasyon o
narasyon.
makapag-ulat tungkol sa pangyayari batay sa
i. Simula…gitna…wakas
tamang pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga detalye sa
ii. Gitna o dakong wakas…
isang maayos, maliwanag at masining na
simula…wakas
pamamaraan.
iii. Wakas…simula…tunay
MGA PAKSA SA PAGBUO NG NARATIBONG
na wakas
KOMPOSISYON
o Isang kaakit-akit na simula
o May sariling karanasan
 “Noong unang panahon”.
o Nasaksihan/napanood
Bukod sa pamagat, to ay ang
o Napakinggan/nabalitaan
pang-akit din sa mga
o Nabasa
mambabasa. Nagsisilbi itong
o Likhang isipan
pwersang tumutulak sa mga
MGA KATANGIAN NG ISANG MABISANG
mambabasa upang ipagpatuloy
NARATIBONG KOMPOSISYON
ang pagbabasa.
o May mabuting pamagat
o Kasiya-siyang wakas
 Orihinal
 “Sila ay namuhay ng masaya sa
 Kapanapanabik
habang panahon”. Dapat
 Makahulugan
maging kawili-wili upang
 Maikli
makintal ang bias ng narasyon.
Ito ay panawag pansin ng pagsulat ng narasyon,  iwasan ang prediktabol na
kung hindi mabuti ang pamagat, malamang na walang wakas.
magkakainteres na basahin ang teksto. Samakatuwid,  Lagyan ng twist na makatwiran
ang narasyon.
  Iwasan ang paligoy-ligoy, isunod a. Inilalatag ng sumulat ang kaniyang
agad ang wakas. pananaw ukol sa kanyang proposisyon.
 Iwasan ang pangangaral sa
PARAAN NG PANGANGATWIRAN
wakas.
Ang paghahain ng mga pangangatwiran sa
TEKSTONG ARGUMENTATIBO
tekstong argumentatibo ay mayroong apat na paraan.
Naglalahad ng paniniwala, pagkukuro o Ang mga ito ay ang:
pagbibigay ng pananaw patungkol sa isang
1. PAGSUSURI
mahalaga o maselang isyu.
a. Iniisa isa ang mga bahagi ng paksa
LAYUNIN:
upang ang mga ito ay masuri nang
o Mahikayat ang mga mambabasang
husto.
tanggapin ang mga argumentong 2. PAGTUKOY SA MGA SANHI
inilalahad sa pamamagitan ng mga a. Inuugat ang mga naging sanhi ng mga
pangangatwiran. pangyayari.
o Mapatunayan ang katotohanang 3. PAGBUOD
ipinapahayag nito. a. Sinisimulan sa maliliit na patunay tungo
Ang ganitong uri ng teksto ay kadalasang sa paglalahad.
sumasagot sa tanong na “bakit”. b. Maaaring gawin sa pamamagitan ng
BAHAGI NG TEKSTONG ARGUMENTATIBO pagtutulad.
4. PASAKLAW
1. PANIMULA
a. Sinisimulan sa pangkalahatang
a. Kailangang maging mapanghikayat sa
pangangatwiran o kaalaman at iisa-
paraang mahusay na mailahad ang
isahin ang mga mahahalagang punto.
pangkalahatang paksang tatalakayin at
ang proposisyon. COHESIVE DEVICE
i. Ang PROPOSISYON ay isang uri  Ang mga panghalip
pahayg na naglalaman ng isang
 Gampanin nitong higit na pagandahin ang
opinyon na maaaring
anumang teksto
pagtalunan.
 Dalawang paraan sa paggamit ng cohesive
ELEMENTO NG PANGANGATWIRAN device (anapora at katapora)
o ANAPORA – ang paksa ang nauunang
PROPOSISYON – pahayag na inilalahad upang
pagtalunan o pag-usapan. ginagamit sa pangungusap bago ang
panghalip.
ARGUMENTO – paglalatag nang mga dahilan at
o KATAPORA – kabaligtaran ng anapora,
ebidensya upang maging katwiran ang isang
sapagkat ang panggalan ay nasa hulihan
panig.
dahil nauunang banggitin ang
2. KATAWAN panghalip.
a. Lahat ng argument ukol sa inihaing
MALING URI NG PANGANGATWIRAN
proposisyon ay kailangang
organisadong maihanay sa katawan ng 1. ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM

tekstong argumentatibo. a. Isang nakakahiyang pag-atake sa

b. Mahalagang may malawak na kaalama personal na katangian o katayuan ng

ang manunulat ukol sa isyung katalo at hindi sa isyung tinatalakay.

tinatalakay nang sa gayon ay magtaglay 2. ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM

ng bigat ang mga pangangatwiran. a. Pwersa o awtoridad ang gamit upang

3. KONKLUSYON maiwasan ang isyu at tuloy maiplano

ang argument.
 3. ARGUMENTUM AD MISERCORDIAM
a. Upang makamit ang awa at pagkampi
ng mga nakikinig o bumabasa.
b.
4. NON-SEQUITOR
a. Sa ingles ay ibig sabihin ay “It doesn’t
follow”. Pagbibigay ito ng konklusyon.
5. IGNORATIO ELENCHI
a. Ginagamit ito ng mga Pilipino lalo na sa
mga usaping barberya.
a. Mga kasangkapan at kagamitan na
kailangan.
3. METODO
a. Serye ng mga hakbang na isasagawa.
4. EBALWASYON
a. Naglalaman ng mga pamamaraan kung
paano masusukat ang tagumpay.
MGA TIYAK NA KATANGIAN NG WIKANG MADALAS

6. MALING PAGLALAHAD GAMITIN SA TEKSTONG PROSIDYURAL

a. Dahil lamang sa ilag sistema at - Nasusulat sa kasalukuyang panahon

sitwasyon, nagbibigay na agad ng isang - Gumamit ng tiyak na pandiwa
konklusyong sumasaklaw sa - Gumagamit ng malinaw na pang-ugnay at
pangkalahatan. cohesive device
7. MALING PAGHAHAMBING - Mahalaga ang detalyado at tiyak na
a. Karaniwang tinatawag na usapang deskripsiyon.
lasing.
KAHALAGAHAN AT MGA HAMON SA MAKA-
8. MALING SALIGAIN
PILIPINONG PANANALIKSIK
a. Nagsisimula sa maling akala na siyang
naging batayan. 1. Patakarang pangwika sa Edukasyon

9. DILEMMA 2. Ingles bilang lehitimong wika

a. Naghahandog lamang ng dalawang 3. Internasyonalismo ng Pananaliksik

opinyon. 4. Maka-Ingles na pananaliksik sa iba’t-ibang

larang at disiplina
KATANGIAN AT NILALAMAN NG MAHUSAY NA
TEKSTONG ARGUMENTATIBO MGA GABAY SA ETIKAL NA PANANALIKSIK

 Mahalaga at napapanahong paksa. 1. Pagkilala sa pinagmulan ng mga ideya sa

 Maikli ngunit malaman at malinaw na pagtukoy pananaliksik.

sa tesis sa unang talata. 2. Boluntaryong pastisipasyon ng mga kalahok.

 Malinaw at lohikal na transisyon sa mga bahagi 3. Pagiging kumpidensyal at pagkukubli sa

ng teksto. pagkakakilanlan ng kalahok.

 Maayos na pagkakasunod-sunod ng talata ng 4. Pagbabalik at paggamit sa resulta ng

mga ebidensya. pananaliksik.

 Matibay na ebidensya para sa argument. PAGPILI NG PAKSA AT PAGGAWA NG EPEKTIBONG

TEKSTONG PROSIDYURAL PAMAGAT SA PANANALIKSIK

Uri ng paglalahad na kadalasang nagbibigay ng Ang pagpili ng paksa ay ang magiging

impormasyon. pundasyon ng ating gagawing pananaliksik. Ang paksa

LAYUNIN: makapagbigay ng sunod-sunod na ay ang pangunahing ideya sa gagawing pag-aaral. Sa

direksyon at impormasyon piling paksa iikot ang nilalaman ng ating pamanahong

papel/term paper/research at ito ang magiging batayan
BAHAGI NG PROSIDYURAL
sa pagkuha ng mga ilalagay na datos. Mahalagang
1. INAASAHAN O TARGET AWTPUT pagplanuhan nating mabuti ang paksang nais nating
a. Kung ano ang kalalabasan ng proyekto. pag-aralan o saliksikin. Sa pagpili ng paksa mahalaga
2. MGA KAGAMITAN ding makapagbigay tayo ng ating gagawing pamagat
king saan dito papasok ang mga saklaw at limitasyon ng
ating gagawing pag-aaral. Sa pagpili ng paksa, may mga BALANGKAS
dapata isaalang-alang upang maisakatuparan ng maayos
- Pinaka-kalansay ng akda
ang gagawing pananaliksik.
- Nagbibigay ideya sa kabuuan ng sulatin.
1. KASAPATAN NG DATOS – kinakailangang may
TATLONG KATEGORYA
sapat na impormasyon na tungkol sa napili
1. DIBISYON – bilang Romano (I, II, III)
mong paksa.
2. SUB-DIBISYON – malaking titik ng alpabeto (A,
2. LIMITASYON NG PAG-AARAL – ang deadline o
B, C)
ang oras kung hanggang kalian lamang pwedeng
3. SEKSYON – bilang (1, 2, 3)
gawin ang iyong pananaliksik.
a. SUB-SEKSYONAL – maliliit na titik (a, b,
3. KALAYAANG PINANSYAL – may mga paksang
c)
masyadong magastos at mabigat sa bulsa.
4. KABULUHAN NG PAKSA – hindi sapat na ito ay URI NG BALANGKAS

napapanahon lamang, dapat ito ay 1. PAKSANG BALANGKAS (Topic Outline) –

makatutulong din sa iba pang mananaliksik. bumubuo ng mga pariralang siyang
5. INTERES NG MANANALIKSIK – may kasabihan pinakapunong ideya.
tayo na kapag gutso mo ang isang bagay lahat 2. PANGUNGUSAP NA BALANGKAS (Sentence
ay gagawin mo para makuha ito. Outline) – bumubuo ng mga pangungusap na

MGA HANGUAN NG PAKSA deklaratibo at interogatibo.

1. Sarili AYOS NG BALANGKAS

2. Dyaryo at magasin 1. BALANGKAS DESIMAL

3. Mga awtoridad, guro at kaibigan 1 ______________________________
4. Internet 1.1.1 ___________________________
5. Aklatan 1.2 ____________________________

EPEKTIBONG PAMAGAT SA PANANALIKSIK 1.2.1 ___________________________

2. BALANGKAS ROMANO AT ARABIKO
 Paglilimita ng paksa
I. ___________________________
 Paglilimita ng panahon
A. _______________
 Kasarian
1. ___________
 Edad
a. _________
 Uri o anyo
b. _________
 Lugar
2. _______________
 Pangkat o grupo
II. _____________________________
KOMBINASYON para mas maging tiyak o particular ang
III. _____________________________
ating paksa, maaari pa nating pagsama-samahin ang
PAGHAHANDA NG TENTATIBONG BIBLIOGRAPIYA
mga batayan.
BIBLIOGRAPI O TALASANGGUNIAN
1. Paksa + Pangkat + Lugar + Panahon
2. Paksa + Anyo + Pangkat + Lugar + Panahon - Listahan ng mga ginagamit na sanggunian;
mababasa rito ang pangalan ng ga may-akda o
PAGDIDISENYO AT PAGGAWA NG EPEKTIBONG
aumang ginamit na reperensya, publikasyon at
PAMAGAT PARA SA PANANALIKSIK
lugar at petsa ng pagkakalimbag.
 Dapat ito ay maging malinaw, madaling
- Matatagpuan dito ang pangalan ng
maiintindihan, tuwiran at maging tiyak.
awtor,nauuna ang apelyido, pamagat ng
 Hindi bababa ng sampung salita, hindi tataas ng
aklat/magasin/pahayag, lugar ng
dalawampu.
pinaglimbagan, taon ng pagkalimbag at pahina.
 Sumasagot sa tanong na “saan”, “kanino”,
KAHALAGAHAN NG BIBLIOGRAPIYA
“kalian” at “paano”.
  Nagbibigay ng magandang impresyon sa
binubuong pag-aaral.
 Maiiwasang magduda sa nilalaman ng
isinasagawang pananaliksik ang mambabasa.
 Magagawang hanapin ng sinumang mambabasa
ang ginagamit na sanggunian.
 Madaling balikan ngh mananaliksik ang
sangguniang ginamit kung muli niyang
kakailanganin.
 Maiiwasan ang isyu ng plagiarism.

KARD KATALOG

- Mga dokumento na nakalagay sa isang parang

kabinet na may 16 na maliliit na drawar,
lalagyan.

URI NG KARD KATALOG

1. Kard ng Paksa
2. Kard ng Awtor
3. Kard ng Pamagat

NILALAMAN NG KARD

1. Pangalan ng awtor
2. Pamagat ng libro
3. Lugar ng publikasyon, publisher at petsa ng
pablikasyon
4. Ilang pahayag tungkol sa nilalaman o paksa
5. Ang call number ng libro
6. Ang seksyon sa laybrari kung saan ito makikita

PAGBUO NG BIBLIOGRAPIYA

MLA – Modern Language Association

- Ukol sa mga disiplina o asignatura sa

humanities, tulad ng wika at panitikan,
philosophy at art.

APA – American Psychological Association

- Ginagamit kung ang pananaliksik ay ukol sa

disiplina o asignatura sa social sciences –
history, political science at anthropology.
 na sa pagsasayaw. Pinaniniwalaan na
ang wika ay nag-uugat sa mga tunog na
nalikha sa mga ritwal na nagbabago at
nalalapatan ng kahulugan.

KOMUNIKASYON AT PANANALIKSIK
6. YO – HE – HO
WIKA a. Batay sa paniniwala na ang tao ay

- Ang wika ay isang sistema ng komunikasyon sa natutong magsalita bunga ng kaniyang

pagitan ng mga tao sa pamamagitan ng mga paggamit ng pwersa sa pagbuhat ng

pagsulat o pasalitang simbolo. (Noah Webster isang mabigat na bagay.

1974) 7. TA – TA
a. Ang kumpas o galaw ng tao na
KATANGIAN NG WIKA
ginagawa sa particular na okasyon.
 Masistemang balangkas 8. BIBLIKAL
 Sinasalitang tunog a. Iisa lang ang wika noong unang
 Pinipili at isinasaayos panahon ngunit naghangad ang tao na
 Arbitrary higitan ang kapangyarihan ng Diyos,
 Giangamit nagtayo sila ng tore at ginuho ito ng
 Nakabatay sa kultura Diyos at ginawang magkakaiba ang
 Dinamiko kanilang wika.
MGA TEORYA UKOL SA WIKA KAHALAGAHAN NG WIKA
1. DING – DONG  Instrumento ng komunikasyon
a. Ang bawat bagay sa mundo ay may  Nag-iingat at nagpapalaganap ng kaalaman
kasama.  Nagbubuklod ng bansa
2. BOW – BOW  Lumilinang ng malikhaing pag-iisip
a. Ginagaya ng mga tao ang mga tunog sa
Samantala sa uses of language, binanggit ni Frank
likha ng kalikasan o hayop.
Smith ang kanyang mga sumusunod na puna:
3. POOH – POOH
a. Ang mga tao ay lumulikha ng mga likas 1. Higit na napag-aaralan ang wika sa mga tunay

na tunog at pakahulugan sa mga ito na karanasan sa komunikasyon.

upang mapahayag ang tindi ng kanyang 2. Ang kasanayan sa isang tungkuling pangwika ay

damdamin gaya ng sakit, galit, tuwa, hindi nangangailangan ng kasanayan sa iba pa.

pangamba at iba pa. 3. Hindi lamang isang tungkulin/gamit pangwika

4. YUM – YUM ang nagagamit sa ibang pagkakataon, maaari

a. Nagsasaad na ang tao at tumutugon sa ring dalawa o mahigit pa.

pamamagitan ng pagkumpas sa 4. Kailangan ng nagsasalita ang tagapakinig at

alinmang bahay na nangangailangan ng kailangan ng nagsusulat ang mambabasa.

aksyon. 5. Isa lamang alternatibo ang wika (pasalita o

5. TARARA – BOOM – DE –EY pasulat) upang higit na mabisa ang

a. May mga ritwal na ginagamit ang mga komunikasyon ng wika at ng iba pang

sinaunang tao. Halimbawa nito ay sa alternatibo tulad ng pagsasakilos, pagkumpas,

pakikidigma, pagtatanim, pag-aani, at ekspresyon ng mukha.

pangingisda at iba pa. Ang mga MONOLINGGWAL – taong nakakapagsalita ng isang

isinasagawang ritwal ay may kaakibat wika lamang
BILINGGWAL – taong marunong magsalita ng dalawang
wika
POLYGLOT – higit sa tatlong wika ang kaya niyang isalita
 Enero 12, 1987, hinirang ni Pangulong Quezon
ang mga kagawad na bubuo ng Surian ng
Wikang Pambansa alinsunod sa tadhana ng
Seksyon 1 Batas Komonwelt Bilang 184 sa
pakakasusog ng Batas Komonwelt Bilang 333.
Ang mga nahirang na kagawad ay ang mga

LOKAL AT MAPANGHIKAYAT NA PAGSUSULAT sumusunod:

1. Jaime C. Veyra (Visayang Samar)
Kasaysayan ng pag-unlad ng wikang Pambansa sa
Tagapangulo
Pilipinas
2. Cecilio Lopez (Tagalog), Kalihim at
 1935 sa Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas, nagtadhana Punong Tagapagpanggap
ng tungkol sa wikang pambansa, “ang kongreso 3. Santiago A. Fonacier (Ilokano) Kagawad
ay gagawa ng mga hakbang tungo sa 4. Filemon Sotto (Visayang Cebu)
pagpapaunlad at pagpapatibay ng isang wikang Kagawad
pambansa na batay sa isa sa umiiral na 5. Felix Salas Rodriguez (Visayang
katutubong wika” (Seksyon 3, Artikulo XIV) Hiligaynon) Kagawad
 Oktubre 27, 1936, itinagubilin ng Pangulong 6. Casimino Perfecto (Bikol) Kagawad
Manuel L. Quezon sa kanyang mensahe sa 7. Hadji Batu (Muslim) Kagawad
Asemblea Nasyonal ang paglikha ng isang Surian 8. Lope Santos (Tagalog)
ng Wikang Pambansa na gagawa ng isang pag- 9. Jose Zulueta (Pangasinan)
aaral ng mga wikang katutubo sa Pilipinas, sa 10. Zoilo Hilario (Kapampangan)
layuning makakapagpa-unlad at makakapag- 11. Isidro Abad (Visayang Cebu)
patibay ng isang wikang panlahat.  Hunyo 18, 1937, pinagtibay ang batas ng
 Nobyembre 13, 1936, pinagtibay ng Batasang Komonwelt Blg. 333, na nagsususog sa ilang
Pambansa ang batas Komonwelt Bilang 184 na seksyon ng batas ng Komonwelt Blg.184.
lumikha ng isang surian ng Wikang Pambansa at  Nobyembre 9, 1937, bunga ng ginagawang pag-
itinatakda ang mga kapangyarihan at tungkulin aaral at alinsunod sa tadhana ng batas
niyon. Komonwelt Blg. 184 ang Surian ng Wikang
 Ang mga naging Gawain at tungkulin ng Surian Pambansa ay nagpatibay ng isang resolusyon na
ng Wikang Pambansa ay ang sumusunod: roo’y ipinapahayag na ang Tagalog ay siyang
o Pag-aaral ng mga pangunahing wika na halos lubos na nakatugon sa mga hinihingi ng
ginagamit ng may kalahating milyong Batas Komonwelt Blg. 184, kaya’t itinagubilin
Pilipino man lamang. niyon sa Pangulo ng Pilipinas na iyon ang
o Paggawa ng paghahambing at pag-aaral pagtibayin o bilang saligan ng wikang
ng talasalitaan ng mga pangunahing pambansa.
dayalekto.  Disyembre 30, 1937, bilang pag-alinsunod sa
o Pagsusuri at pagtiyak sa ponetika at tadhana ng batas Komonwelt Blg.184 sa
ortograpiyang Pilipino. pamamagitan ng kautusang tagapagpanggap
o Pagpili ng katutubong wika na siyang Blg.134 ay ipinahayag ng Pangulong Quezon ang
magiging batayan ng Wikang Pambansa wikang pambansa na batay sa Tagalog.
na dapat umaayon sa:  Abril 1, 1940, sa pamamagitan ng kautusang
 Ang pinakamaunlad at tagapagpanggap Blg. 263 ay binigyang
mayaman sa panitikan pahintulot ang pagpapalimbag ng isang
 Ang wikang tinatanggap at diksyonaryo ay gramatika ang wikang
ginagamit ng napakaraming pambansa, at itinakdang mula Hunyo 19, 1940
Pilipino ay pasisimulan ng ituro ang wikang pambansa
 ng Pilipinas sa lahat ng paaralang-bayan at
pribado. Pagtuturong pambayan na maghanda,
kalakip ang pagpapatibay ng pangulo ng
Pilipinas ng mga kinakailangang tuntunin at
patakaran sa pagpapa-unlad ng kautusang ito.
 Abril 12, 1940, pinalabas ng kalihim Jorge
Bacoba ng pagtuturong pambayan ang isang
kautusang pangkagawaran ito’y sinundan ng
isang sirkular (Blg. 26, serye 1940) ng panugot
ng Edukasyon Celedonio Salvador.
pagtuturo ng wikang pambansa ay sinimulan
mula sa mataas at paaralang normal.
 Hunyo 7, 1940, pinatibay ang batas Komonwelt
Blg. 570 na nagtatadhana bukod sa iba pa na
ang pambansang wika ay magiging isa na sa
mga wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas simula sa Hulyo
4, 1940.
 Marso 26, 1954, nilagdaan ng Pangulong Ramon
Magsaysay ang proklama Blg. 186
nagsususog sa proklama Blg. 12 serye 1965, na
sa pamamagitan nito’y ililipat ang panahon ng
pagdiriwang ng linggo ng wikang pambansa
taun-taon simula ika-13 hanggang ika-19 ng
Agosto. Nakapaloob sa panahong saklaw ang
pagdiriwang ng kaarawan ng Pangulong
Quezon.
 Agosto 13, 1959, pinalabas ng Kalihim Jose
Romero ng Kagawaran ng Edukasyon ang
kautusang pangkagawaran Blg. 7 na nagsasaad
ng kailan ma’y tutukuyin ang wikang pambansa
ang salitang Pilipino ay siyang gagamitin.
WIKANG PANTURO
 ARTIKULO XIV, SEKSYON 6
o Pinagtibay ng saligang batas
kailangan paunlarin ang medium na
opisyal ng kimunikasyon
o Filipino
OPISYAL NA WIKA
 Filipino at Ingles
 Artikulo IV, seksyon 7
o Official language: Filipino
o Second language: English
 Lingua Franca – tulay sa komunikasyon sa bansa
 Lingua Franca ng daigidig – Ingles
BILINGGWALISMO – ang bilinggwalismo ay tumutukoy
sa dalawang wika. Isang pananaw sa pagiging bilinggwal
ng isang tao kung nakakapagsalita siya ng dalawang
wika nang may pantay na kahusayan sa UP pinagtibay
ng dating Presidente Salvador P. Lopez ang tinaguriang
malayang bilinggwalismo.
HUNYO 19, 1974 – ang Kagawaran ng Edukasyon at
Kultura ay naglagda sa pamamagitan ng kautusang
pangkagawaran Blg. 25 serye 1974, pagpapatupad ng
Ang
patakarang edukasyon bilinggwal. Halimbawa nito ay
kung ang tao ay mahusay magsalita ng wikang Ingles at
Filipino siya ay maaaring tawaging bilinggwal.
REGISTER BILANG BARAYTI NG WIKA
GENESIS 11:1-9 Tore ng Babel
 DAYALEK – barayti ng wikang ginagamit ng
particular na pangkat ng mga tao mula sa isang
particular na lugar tulad ng lalawigan, relihiyon
na o bayan.
 IDYOLEK – indibidwal na paraan ng paggamit ng
wika (walang magkaparehong wika ang
dalawang tao)
 SOSYOLEK – nabubuo batay sa dimensyong
sosyalc(hal. Wika ng mga beki at conyos)
 ETNOLEK – mula sa etnolinggwistikong grupo.
Pinagsamang etniko at dayalek.
 REGISTER – ito ang barayti ng wika kung saan
inaangkop ng isang nagsasalita ang pormal na
tono (magalang na pananalita) at di pormal na
tono
 PIGDIN AT CREOLE – umuusbong na wika o
tinatawag sa Ingles na nobody’s native language
o katutubong wika na di pag-aari ninuman.
na SPANISH + ZAMBOANGA’S LANGUANGE =
PIDGIN
CREOLE – kinagisnang pidgin
HOMOGENOUS NA WIKA
Ito naman ay tumutukoy o nagsasabing ang
“wikang pormal” ay iba sa mga naimbentong wika’t mga
salita. Ang mga homogenous na wika sa katunayan ay
nabuo at patuloy na nabubuo’t ginagamit ng mga tao sa
pangkasalukuyan.
Ang homogenous na wika ay nangangahulugan
na may mga salitang magkakapareha ngunit dahil sa
mga paraan ng pagbabaybay at mg intonasyon o punto
ay nagkakaroon ng bagong kahulugan ang mga salita.
Kung pag-aaralan, dahil sa pagkakahati sa pulo
ng ating lugar dahil ang ating bansa ay archipelago,
kinasasakupan tayo ng pagkakaroon ng iba’t-ibang uri o
baryasyon ng wika.
May mga salitang iba’t-iba ang ating baybay sa
kanila pero sa pangkalahatan naman ay iisa lamang ang
tinutumbok na pakahulugan.
HALIMBAWA: Gamot ay tambal sa Cebu
Gamot ay bulong para sa mga Hiligaynon
HETEROGENOUS NA WIKA
Nangangahulugang wika mula sa iba-ibang
lugar, grupo o pangangailangan ng paggagamit nito.
Nagkakaroon ng maraming variation ang wika.
Ang naging batayan ng linggwistiko para
magkaroon ng heterogenous na wika ay
masususing pag-aaral at pananaliksik tungkol sa
sosyolohikal at linggwistiak.
Ito ay ang mga uri ng wika na karaniwang
ginagamit sa pakikipag-ugnayan sa pang araw-araw na
buhay.
Isa ang bansa nating Pilipinas sa
pinakamaraming wika sa buong daigdig. Halos nasa 175
ang wika ng ating bansa. Ang apat dito ay hindi na halos
ginagamit at ang 171 ay kasalukuyang ginagamit.
Mula sa saluting “heterous” o magkaisa at
“genos” o uri at lahi ng salitang heterogenous.
Nagkakaroon ng barayti ng wika dahil sa
pagkakaiba-iba ng mga indibidwal at maging ng mga
grupo ng mga tao na naaayon sa kanilang ginagalawan,
lipunan, pamumuhay, edad, antas ng edukasyon at
interes.
GAMIT NG WIKA SA LIPUNAN
1. INSTRUMENTAL
a. Ito ang tungkulin ng wikang tutugon sa
mga pangangailangan ng tao gaya ng
pakikipag-ugnayan sa iba.
2. REGULATORYO
a. Ito ang tungkulin ng wikang tumutukoy
sa pagkontrol sa ugali o asal ng ibang
tao.
3. INTERAKSYONAL
a. Ang tungkulin na ito ay nakikita sa
paraan ng pakikipag-ugnayan ng tao sa
kapwa.
4. PERSONAL
a. Saklaw ng tungkuling ito ang
pagpapahayag ng sariling opinyon sa
paksang pinag-uusapan.
5. HEURISTIKO
a. Ang tungkuling ito ay ginagamit sa
pagkuha o paghahanap ng
impormasyong may kinalaman sa
paksang pinag-aaralan.
6. IMPORMATIBO
a. Ito ang kabaliktaran ng heuristiko.
mga ANIM NA PARAAN NG PAGGAMIT NG WIKA (Jakobson
2003)
1. Pagpapahayag ng damdamin (emotive) –
saklaw nito ang pagpapahayag ng mga saloobin,
damdamin at emosyon.
2. Panghihikayat (conative) – ito ay ang gamit ng
may wika upang makahimok at makaimpluwensiya
sa iba sa pamamagitan ng pag-uutos at
pakiusap.
3. Pagsisimula ng pakikipag-ugnayan – ginagamit
ang wika upang makipag-ugnayan sa kapwa at
makapagsimula ng usapan.
4. Paggamit bilang Sanggunian – ipinapakita nito
ang gamit ng wikang nagmula sa aklat at iba pa.
sangguniang pinagmulan ng kaalaman upnag
maparating ang mensahe at impormasyon.
5. Paggamit ng kuro-kuro – ito ang gamit na
lumitaw sa mga suliranin sa pamamagitan ng
pagbibigay ng komento sa isang kodigo o batas.
6. Patalinghaga – saklaw nito ang gamit ng wika sa
masining na paraan ng pagpapahayag ng
panulaan, prosa, sanaysay at iba pa.
ANG PINAGMULAN NG WIKA
Ayon sa mga propesor sa komunikasyon na sila
Emmert at Donaghy (1981), ang wika kung saan ito ay
pasalita ay isang sistema ng mga sagisag na binubuo ng
mga tunog; kung ito naman ay pasulat ito ay iniuugnay
natin sa mga kahulugan nais iparating bilang tao.
KASAYSAYAN NG WIKANG PAMBANSA
SA PANAHON NG KASTILA
- Nang ilagay sa pamumuno ng kastila ang
kapuluan si Villalobos ang nagpasiya ng ngalang
Felipinas bilang parangal kay Haring Felipe
ngunit dila ng tao ay naging Filipinas.
- Itinuro ng mga kastila ang kristiyanismo sa mga
katutubo upang maging sibilisado uamno ang
mga ito.
- Naniniwala ang mga kastila na mas mabisa ang
paggamit ng katutubong wika
pagpapatahimik sa mamamayan kaysa sa libong
sundalong Espanyol.
- Ang pamayanan ay pinaghati-hati sa apat na
ordeng misyonerong Espanyol na kalunan ay
naging lima it, ang mga ito ay Agustino,
Pransiskano, Dominiko, Heswita at Rekolekta
upang pangasiwaan ang Kristiyanismo.
- Ang paghahating ito ay nagkaroon ng epekto sa
pakikipagtalastasan ng mga katutubo.
- Ang mga prayle ay sumulat ng mga diksyonaryo,
aklat-panggramatika, katekismo at
kumpensyunal upang madaling matuto ng
katutubong wika.
GOBERNADOR FRANCISCO TELLO DE GUZMAN
- Nagmungkahi na turuan ang mga Indiyo ng
Espanyol.
CARLOS II AT FELIPE II
- Naniniwalang kailangan maging bilinggwal ng
mga Filipino.
HARING FELIPE II
- Muling inulit ang utos na pagtuturo ng wikang
Espanyol sa lahat ng katutubo noong ika-2 ng
Marso 1634 ngunit nabigo ang kautusang ito.
CARLOS I
- Nagmungkahi na ituro ang Doctrina Christiana
gamit ang wikang Espanyol.
CARLOS IV
- Lumagda sa isa pang dekrito na nag-uutos na
gamitin ang wikang Espanyol sa lahat ng
paaralang itatag sa pamayanan ng Indio.
Dahil sa nabaggit na kautusan ay lalong nagkawatak-
watak ang mga katutubo at tuluyan ng nagapi ng mga
Espanyol ang katutubo at hindi nila itinanim sa isip ng
mga tao ang kahalagahan ng wikang nagbibingkis sa
kanilang damdamin.
REBOLUSYONG PILIPINO
- 333 taon ang pananakop ng mga kastila,
namulat sila sa kaapihang dinanas.
sa - Sa panahong ito, maraming Filipino ang naging
matindi ang damdaming Nasyonalismo.
- Nagkaroon ng mga propaganda ng kilusan
noong 1872 na siyang naging simula ng
kamalayan upang maghimagsik.
- Sa panahong rebolusyon sumibol sa mga
maghigimagsik ang kaisipang “isang bansa, sang
diwa” laban sa mga Espanyol. Pinili nila ang
tagalong sa pagsulat. Masidhing damdamin
laban sa mga Espanyol ang pangunahing paksa
sa kanilang mga sinulat.
- Si Jose Rizal ay naniniwala na ang wika ay
malaking bagay upang mapagbuklod ang
kanyang mga kababayan.
mga PANAHON NG AMERICANO
Malayang ipinagamit ang Ingles. Itinuro ang
Ingles sa mga oaaralan at ginamit ang Ingles bilang wika
ng pagtuturo. Maraming Filipino ang natuto at nagsalita
ng Ingles.
 Pagkatapos ng kolonyalismong Espanyol,
dumating ang mga Amerikano sa pamumuno ni
Almirante Dewey.
 Ingles ang naging wikang panturo noong
panahong ito.
 Ang mga sundalo na nagturo ng Ingles ay
kinikilala bilang THOMASITES.
 Noong taong 1931, ang Bise Gobernador
Heneral George Butte, ay nagpahayag ng
kanyang panayam ukol sa paggamit ng
bernakular sa pagtuturo sa unang apat na taon
ng pag-aaral.
DAHILAN KUNG BAKIT NARARAPAT NA INGLES ANG
ITURO SA PAMBAYANG PAARALAN
 Ang pagtuturo ng bernakular sa mga paaralan
ay magreresulta sa suliraning administratibo.
 Malaki ang nagasta ng pamahalaan para sa
edukasong pambayan at paglinang ng Ingles
upang maging wikang pambansa.
 Hindi magandang pakinggan ang magkahalong
wikang Ingles at bernakular.
  Ingles ang nakikitang pag-asa upang magkaroon
ng pambansang pagkakaisa.
 Ang Ingles ay mayaman sa katawagang
pansining at pang-agham.
HAPONES
- Ipinagbawal ang paggamit ng Ingles sa anumang
aspekto ng pamumuhay ng mga Filipino.
- Ipinagbabawal ang paggamit ng aklat at
peryodiko mula sa Amerika.
- Itinuro ang wikang Nihonggo sa lahat ng
paaralan subalit binigyang-diin ang wikang
Tagalog.
- ORDINANSA MILITAR BLG. 13
1. Itinatag ng mga Hapones
2. Nag-uutos nag awing opisyal na wika
ang Tagalog at Nihonggo
- PHILIPPINE EXECUTIVE COMMISSION
1. Itinatag upang magataguyod ng
patakarang miitar ng mga Hapones at
propagandang pang-Kultura.
2. Si JORGE VARGAS ang namuno sa
Philippine Executive Commission.
- KALIBAPI (Kapisanan sa paglilingkod sa bagong
Pilipinas)
1. Layuning mapabuti ang edukasyon at
moral na henerasyon at pagpapalakas
at pagpapa-unlad ng kabutihan sa
pamamatnubay ng Imperyong Hapones.
2. Si BENIGNO AQUINO ang nahirang
bilang director ng KALIBAPI
JOSE VILLA PANGANIBAN – nagturo ng Tagalog sa mga
Hapones.
PANAHON NG PAGSASARILI HANGGANG SA
KASALUKUYAN
- Noong Hulyo 4, 1946, ipinahayg na ang wikang
opisyal sa Pilipinas ay Tagalog batay sa batas
Komonwelt Blg. 570.
- Sa pamamagitan ng proklamasyon Blg. 12 na
nilagdaan ni Pangulong Ramon Magsaysay
noong Marso 26, 1952 ipinadidiwang ang
wikang pambansa.
- Nagsimula ang pagdiriwang mula Marso 29
hanggang Abril 4 taun-taon.
- Noong Agosto 13, 1959, pinalitan ang wikang
pambansa mula Tagalog sa Pilipino sa bias ng
kautisang pangkagawaran blg. 7 na ipinalabas ni
Kalihim Jose E. Romero.
- Noong Pebrero 1956, nilagdaan ni Gregorio
Hernandez ang sirkular 21 na nag-uutos na ituro
at awitin ang pambansang awit sa mga
paaralan.
- Noong Marso 27, 1956, nilagdaan ni Rafael
Salas Kalihim Tagapagtanggap ang
Memorandum sirkular blg. 16 na nag-aantas ng
paggamit ng wikang Pilipino sa mga opisyal na
komunikasyon sa mga transaksyon ng
pamahalaan.
SITWASYONG PANGWIKA SA IBA PANG ANYO NG
KULTURANG PILIPINO
PICK – UP LINES
o Makabagong bugtong kung saan may
tanong na sinasagot ng isang bagay ng
madalas maiugnay sa pag-ibig at iba
pang aspeto ng buhay.
HUGOT LINES
o Ang hugot lines ay kaiba sa pick-up
lines. Tinatawag itong “LOVE LINES” o
“LOVE QUOTES”. Karaniwan nagmula
ito sa linya ng ilang tauhan sa pelikula o
telebisyong nagmarka sa puso’t-isipan
ng manonood.
FLIPTOP
o Pagtatalong oral na isinasagawa ng pa-
rap. Nahahawig ito sa balagtasan dahil
ang mga bersong nirarap ay
magkakatugma bagama’t sa Fliptop ay
hindi nakalahad o walang malinaw na
paksang pagtatalunan.
SITWASYONG PANGWIKA SA SOCIAL MEDIA AT
INTERNET
Talamak na sa mga tao ang paggamit ng social
media tulad ng facebook, instagram, twitter,
youtube at iba pa. Walang edad ang pinipili
kahit matanda.
Tulad din sa text, karaniwan ang code switching
o pagpapalit-palit ng Ingles o Filipino.
Sa Pilipans nasa 39,470 milyong katao ang
konektado sa internet sa taong 2015 at ito’y
dumadami ng 10% taun-taon.
Ingles ang pangunahing wika sa Internet.
SITWASYONG PANGWIKA SA TELEBISYON
Ang telebisyon ang tinuturing na
pinakamakapangyarihang media sa kasalukuyan
dahil sa dami ng mga mamamayang naaabot
nito.
Ang mabuting epekto ng paglaganap ng cable o
satellite connection para marating ang
malalayong pulo at ibang bansa.
Wikang Filipino ang nangungunang midyum sa
telebisyon sa bansa na ginagamit ng mga lokal
sa channel.
Mga halimbawa ng mga programang
pangtelebisyon na gumagamit ng Wikang
Fiipino ay mga teleserye, mga pantanghaliang
palabas, magazine show, news and public
affairs, reality show at iba pang programang
pantelebisyon.
Ang pagdami ng mga palabas sa telebisyon
particular ang mga teleserye o pangtahaliang
programa na sinusubaybayan ng halos lahat ng
milyun-milyong manunuod ang dahilan kung
bakit halos lahat ng mamamayan sa bansa ay
nakakaunawa at nakakapagsalita ng wikang
Filipino.
SITWASYONG PANGWIKA SA TEXT
Ang pagpapadala at pagtanggap ng SMS (Short
Messaging System) na lalong kilala bilang text
message o text ay isang mahalagang bahagi ng
komunikasyon sa ating bansa.
Sa pagbuo ng ng mensahe sa text, madalas
ginagamit ang code switching o pagpapalit-palit
ng Ingles at Filipino sa pagpapahayag.
Madalas ding binabago o pinapaikli ang baybay
ng mga salita para mas madali o mas mabilis
itong mabuo.
SITWASYONG PANGWIKA SA PANGKALAHATAN
Ginagamit ang wikang Ingles sa:
o Boardriin
o BPO (Business Process Outsorcing)
o Mga dokumento
o Website
Nanatiling wikang Flipino ang mall, restaurant,
pamilihan, palengke at direct selling komersyal
na pantelebisyon o panradyo.
SITWASYONG PANGWIKA SA PAMAHALAAN
Batas tagapagpaganap blg. 335, serye ng 1988
na kontribusyon ni dating Pangulo Corry
Aquino.
Dating Pangulo Benigno Aquino (sumang-ayon)
SITWASYONG PANGWIKA SA EDUKASYON
Kinder hanggang garde 3 – unang wika
Mas mataas na antas bilinggwal ang wikang
panturo.
REGISTER O BARAYTI NG WIKANG GINAGAMIT SA
IBA’T-IBANG SITWASYON
- Paggamit ng jargon o terminong kaugnay ng
trabaho o iba’t-ibang hanapbuhay o larangan,
halimbawa sa abogado, exhibit, appeal,
complainant, court
KAKAYAHANG KOMUNIKATIBO
- Sa pagtuturo at pagkatuto ng wika, hindi sapat
na alam ang tuntuning panggramatika.
- Pangunahing layunin sa pagtuturo ay magamit
ito ng wasto sa mga angkop na sitwasyon,
maipabatid ang tamang mensahe at
magkaunawaan ng lubos ang dalawang taong
nag-uusap.
Ano ba ang KAKAYAHANG KOMUNIKATIBO?
- Nagmula ito sa linguist, sociolinguist,
anthropologist at folkonist mula sa Portland
Oregon na si Dell Hymes (1966).
- Nilinang nila ni John J. Gumperz ang konseptong
ito bilang tugon sa kakayahang linggwistika.
- Bilang reaksyon sa kakayahang linggwistika
(linguistic competence) ni Noam Chomsky
noong 1965.
- Ayon kay Hymes na nagsasalita ay hindi sapat
ang magkaroon ng kakayahang lingguwistika
upang epektibong makipagtalastasan gamit ang
wika.
Ano ang KAKAYAHANG GRAMATIKAL?
- Ayon kay Canale at Swain, ito ay ang pag-unawa
at paggamit sa kasanayan sa ponolohiya,
morpolohiya, sintaks, semantika at gayun din
ang mga tuntuning ortograpiya.
- Ang komponent na ito ay magbibigay kakayahan
sa taong nagsasalita upang kaalaman at
kasanayan sa pag-unawa at pagpapahayag sa
literal na kahulugan ng mga salita.
- Mungkahing komponent ng kakayahang
lingguwistiko o kakayahang gramatikal (Cekce
Murcia, Domyei at Thurell – 1995)
SILID ARALAN ANG DAAN TUNGO SA PAGLINANG NG
KAKAYAHANG PANGKOMUNIKATIBO NG MGA
PILIPINO
- Ayon kay Cantal – Pagkalinawan (2010) isang
propesor sa Hawaii, ang mahusay na classroom
pangwika ay yaong may aktibong interaksyon sa
pagitan ng guro at estudyante sa kapwa
estudyante.
MGA DAPAT ISAALANG-ALANG SA EPEKTIBONG
KOMUNIKASYON NI DELL HYMES
 S: Setting (lugar)
 P: Participants (nakikipagtalastasan)
 E: Ends (layunin)
 A: Act Sequence (daloy)
 K: Keys (tono)
 I: Instruments (midyum)
 N: Norms (paksa)
 G: Genre
KAKAYAHANG SOSYOLINGGUWISTIKO
- Savignon (1972)
1. Propesor sa University of Illinois
2. “COMPETENCE” – batayang kakayahan
o kaalaman sa wika
3. “PERFORMANCE” – paggamit ng tao sa
wika
- Ang kakayahang sosyolingguwistiko ay ang
pagsasaalang-alang ng isang tao sa ugnayan
niya sa mga kausap, isinasaalang-alang dito ang
kontekstong sosyal ng isang wika. Ayon kay
Fantini (sa Pagkalinawan 2004) isang propesor
sa wika, ito ay ang ugnayan ng nag-uusap, ang
paksa, lugar at iba pa.
KAKAYAHANG PRAGMATIK AT STRATEDYIK
- Kakayahang Pragmatik – sangay ng
lingguwistika na inilalarawan bilang pag-aaral ng
ugnayan ng mga anyong lingguwistiko at mga
gumagamit nito.
 - Ayon kay Yule (1996) binibigyang diin dito ang - Mga dapat isaalang-alang upang malinang ang
gamit ng wika sa mga kontekstong panlipunan kakayahang diskorsal:
gayundin kung paano lumilikha at nakauunawa 1. COHESION (pagkakaisa)
ng kahulugan ang tao sa pamamagitan ng wika. 2. COHERENCE (pagkakaugnay-ugnay)
- Eraser (2010), nakapaloob sa kakayahang ito
TELEGRAMA – mabilisang paraan ng paghahatid ng
ang pagpaparating ng mensaheng ninanais-
kasama ang lahat ng iba pang kahulugan – sa mensahe sa taong nasa malayong lugar.
anumang kontekstong sosyo-kultural. RETORIKA – epektibong mapanghikayat na pagsasalita
- Chomsky, ang kakayahang ito ay tumutukoy sa sa harap ng media.
kaalaman kung paano naiuugnay ang wika at
sitwasyon na pinagagamitan nito. ANTAS NG KOMUNIKASYON
- Kakayahang Stratedyik – tumutukoy at
1. Komunikasyong Intrapersonal
nangangahulugan ng isang kakayahang
2. Komunikasyong Interpersonal
nagpapakita ng masinsinang pagpaplano kung
3. Komunikasyong Pampubliko
paano gagawin. Ito ang kakayahang magamit
4. Komunikasyong Interkultural
ang VERBAL at DI VERBAL na mga signal upang
5. Komunikasyong Mass Media
maihandog ng mas malinaw ang mensahe.
1. VERBAL – ay ginagamitan ng wika/salita ANIM NA PAMANTAYAN SA PAGTATAYA NG
at mga titik na sumisimbolo sa KAKAYAHANG PANGKOMUNIKATIBO (Canary at Cody
kahulugan ng mensahe. 2000)
2. DI VERBAL – kapag hindi ginagamitan
ng salita bagkus ginagamitan ito ng mga 1. Pakikibagay (Adaptablity)
kilos o galaw ng kabuuan upang 2. Paglahok sa pag-uusap (conversational
maiparating ang mensahe sa kausap. involvement)
3. Pamamahala sa pag-uusap (conversational
Albert Mehrabian – ayon sa kanyang aklat na, “Silent management)
Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and 4. Pagpapukaw – damdamin (empathy)
Attitudes” ang komunikasyong nangyayari ay 5. Bisa (effectiveness)
naglalaman ng: 6. Kaangkupan (appropriateness)
7% - salitang ating binibigkas

38% - tono ng ating salita

55% - galaw ng ating katawan

IBA’T-IBANG PAG-AARAL SA MGA ANYO NG DI VERBAL

NA KOMUNIKASYON

1. Kinesika (kinesiks) – pag-aaral ng kilos at galaw

ng katawan
2. Ekspresyon ng mukha (picties)
3. Galaw ng mata (oculesics)
4. Vocalic – pag-aaral ng di lingguwistikong tunog
5. Pandama o Panghawak (haptics)
6. Proksemika (proxemics) – pag-aaral gamit ang
espasyo
7. Chronemics (oras ay nakaapekto sa
komunikasyon)

KAKAYAHANG PROGMATIK

SALIK:

 Intelektwal na kalagayan ng decoder

 Kalinawan ng encoder
 Pagtatagpong ng kani-kanilang interpretasyon

KAKAYAHANG DISKORSAL

- Saklaw nito ang pagkakaugnay ng serye ng mga

salita o pangungusap na bumubuo ng isang
makabuluhang teksto.