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Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

ssasasasaKirkuk University
C.E Engineering
Stage_ Three

Name of the experiment: Signal expoun energy and ef

Name of Students in the Grope: muhammed iyad hamza

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Signal Energy Creates Subsidiary to Serve the Distributed
Generation

Signal Energy has created a new subsidiary called Signal Energy DG to serve the distributed generation
energy market.

Distributed generation power is generated by energy sources like solar panels or wind turbines to create
electricity near where it will be consumed. This type of energy may be a source of power for commercial
and industrial users or aggregated and residential customers. In many cases distributed generation
helps users achieve net-zero energy consumption, or to create excess energy to sell back into the larger
power grid.

“We are excited to launch Signal Energy DG,” said Greg Pawson, President, Signal Energy. “As a
leading EPC in the utility-scale solar industry, this move will diversify our business into a market where
our core competencies fit extremely well and allow us to offer an additional service to an expanding set
of customers.”

While Signal Energy has primarily focused on larger utility-scale projects in the past, this move
establishes a new market segment in the renewable energy sector. Signal Energy DG has already
secured a pipeline of solar projects, many of which start construction this year.

The project pipeline, as well as the staff of approximately 40 professionals, comes through acquisition
from Exyte Energy, Inc. the subsidiary of Exyte, a global leader in the design, engineering and delivery
of facilities for high-tech industries.

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“Once we met the team at Exyte Energy, Inc. we knew that they were a great fit for Signal’s culture and
already embodied our values,” said Pawson. “Everyone at Signal is excited to have this great group as
part of the Signal team.”

Solar Power World has recognized Signal Energy as a leading solar EPC contractor for seven
consecutive years. In 2018 the company launched Signal Energy Australia and is currently constructing
utility-scale solar and wind projects across the US and Australia.

“The distributed generation market continues to grow and we anticipate that trend will continue,” said
Pawson. “As companies seek to offset power costs and meet internal renewable energy targets, we
expect to see the expansion of projects across the spectrum from traditional utilities to industrial
customers. It’s a thrilling time to be in the renewable energy industry and Signal Energy DG is in a
perfect position to be an industry leader.”

Analog signals
Since we often think of a signal as a function of varying amplitude through time, it seems to reason that a good
measurement of the strength of a signal would be the area under the curve. However, this area may have a negative
part. This negative part does not have less strength than a positive signal of the same size. This suggests either
squaring the signal or taking its absolute value, then finding the area under that curve. It turns out that what we call
the energy of a signal is the area under the squared signal, see Figure

Ea=∫∞−∞(|x(t)|)2dtEa t x t 2

Note that we have used squared magnitude(absolute value) if the signal should be complex valued. If the signal is
real, we can leave out the magnitude operation.

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Signal x(t) The energy of x(t)
is the shaded regionSketch of energy calculation
Signal Power

Our definition of energy seems reasonable, and it is. However, what if the signal does not decay fast enough? In
this case we have infinite energy for any such signal. Does this mean that a fifty hertz sine wave feeding into your
headphones is as strong as the fifty hertz sine wave coming out of your outlet? Obviously not. This is what leads us
to the idea of signal power, which in such cases is a more adequate description.

Signal with inifinite energy

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Analog signals
For analog signals we define power as energy per time interval.

Pa=limT→∞1T∫T2−T2(|x(t)|)2dtPa lim T → ∞ 1 T t T 2 T 2 x t 2

For periodic analog signals, the power needs to only be measured across a single period.

Pa=1T0∫T02−T02(|x(t)|)2dtPa 1 T0 t T0 2 T0 2 x t 2
Given the signal x(t)=sin(2πt)x t 2 t, shown in Figure, calculate the power for one period.
For the analog sine we have Pa=11∫10sin2(2πt)dt=12Pa 1 1 t 0 1 2 t 2 1 2.

Analog sine.

Signals and Systems, Part 1

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◮ A signal is a real (or complex) valued function of one or more real
variables.
◮ voltage across a resistor
◮ price of Google stock at end of each trading day
◮ amount of rain at 16:00 UTC as function of latitude, longitude
◮ atmospheric pressure as function of location and time
In this course the independent variable is almost always time.
◮ Physical signals have units, e.g., volts or psi (Si pascal = N/m2)
◮ Signals can (usually or in principle) be measured:
◮ g(t) 7→ g(0)
◮ g(t) 7→
R1
−1 g(u) du (area)
◮ g(t) 7→
R1
−1 |g(u)|2 du (energy)
The mathematical term for a measurement is functional.

Units of Power
◮ If a signal g(t) measured in volts is applied to a load resistor R, then the
power in watts is
P=

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g(t)2
R
Normally we do not care about the load, so we normalize to R = 1.
◮ In many applications, the effect of the signal varies as the log of the
signal; e.g., human hearing and sight.
◮ Power can be expressed in decibels (dB). dB are logarithmic and relative
to some standard power.
If P is measured in watts, then
◮ power in dBW is 10 log10 P (power relative to 1W)
◮ power in dBm (or dBmW) is log10(1000 P) = 30 + 10 log10 P
◮ One bel (B) is too large to be useful.
The bel is named for Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922). The dB was adopted by NBS in 1931.
It is not an SI unit.

Operations on Signals (cont.)

◮ Time reversal: g(−t)
◮

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Application to Signal Detection
Consider a radar pulse g(t).
The return signal depends on whether the transmit signal encounters a
target. Here w(t) represents noise and interference.
y(t) =

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(
ag(t − t0) target present
w(t) target absent
Typical pulse is 1 μs at 3 GHz; repetition rates from 2 kHz to 200 KHz