A

PRACTICAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT

Submitted in partial fulfillment Of Bachelor of Engineering Degree
RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

SESSION: 2010-2011
Submitted To Submitted By
Mrs. ISHA DHINGRA AJIT KUMAR
C. ID:-07ME004
(B.TECH. VII Semester)
BRANCH: -E.C.E

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

BALDEV RAM MIRDHA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my heartfelt thanks to the management of

ROBOSAPIENS INDIA PVT.LTD. For providing me
the opportunity to do Summer project at their
organization. I was provided with the ample
opportunities to explore the area of my discretion
and to interact with professors at all levels. More
over all my queries were duly sorted after.

I am deeply in debt to Mr. Pradeep Kumar for

giving his sincere guidance and moral support and
making it a wholesome learning experience.

I would like to convey my gratefulness to

Mr.Aman Sethi, Toshendra Sharma and Malay
Bisht without whom this training was impossible.

I express my heartiest gratitude to the faculty

Shailabh Suman and Suren Kunar for their help in
making my project meaningful and giving me the
basic fundamentals in robotics and embedded
systems in the right direction.
Date: 12 june-2010
 PREFACE

Don't undertake a project unless it is manifestly important and nearly

impossible. 
- Edwin Land
More briefly, emergent computation is the study of how high-level
representation and processing of information can emerge from the
interactions of large numbers of simple processors.
Purpose of this report is to endow ourselves with the basic knowledge
of ROBOTICS and the various important peripherals and electronic
components used in the various robotic circuits. Also, this project
discusses the ways to learn programming in EMBEDDED and
ROBOTICS using AVR microcontrollers.
 CONTENTS
Algorithm:
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field. details
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circuits
if(PINA.6==0)
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pull-up by and
some simulation
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design. has AVR-
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GCC
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ldev=3;
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and in C.
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resistance isLeft
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We
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microcontroller propertySensing
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Comments:
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form C initialization
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programmer
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top=FFh
rdev=1; // OC2 steering
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as gradual change in wheel of speeds.
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K. J. Somaiya College of Engineering
L293D for
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http://www.seattlerobotics.org/
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Mumbai, India
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drive to reduce traction. -General improvements

rdev=3;
TCCR2=0x00;

Page 10 ofTruth
17
Table for controlling the direction of motion of a DC motor
 ATmega8 (AVR Core) 90
ATmega16 (AVR Core) 150
ATmega32 (AVR Core) 300
ATmega128 (AVR Core) 425
Transistors Low power Eg: BC547 Power 1.50 to 15 or more 1.50 15.00
Transistor Eg: TIP31C
Connectors 1.00 per pin
Optocoupler (MCT2E) 8.00
Common Tools
Soldering Iron 150 (typical) to 400
Solder metal 25.00
Solder Flux 5.00
Desoldering Wick 5.00
Breadboard 80.00 to 100.00
Wire Stripper 25.00
Common ICs
Voltage Regulators (78XX), LM324,IC555 5.00
etc
MAX232 20.00
ULN 2003 / ULN 2803 14.50
TSOP17XX 17.00
L298, L293, L293D 70.00
IC Programmers
Homemade (Support fewer devices, support 20.00 to 80.00
only serial programming, not as rugged)
Eg: PonyProg ( http://www.lancos.com ) 2500 to 25000
Readymade (Support many chips, support
parallel programming, easy to use, rugged)
Wireless Modules 700.00
Parallel Port / Serial Port Add on Card for PC 500.00
Universal PCB 10.00 to 50.00

You may drop your feedback at priyank.patil@gmail.com .

Priyank Patil KJ Somaiya CoE – Information

Technology VidyaVihar, Mumbai

倀愀最攀. ....
TRANSISTORS
This section aims at the introduction of the Bipolar Junction Transistors
(BJT) that includes NPN and PNP transistors. Both the majority carriers
and the minority carriers play a major role in the operation of the
transistor. That is why it is named so. A BJT is widely used in the
discrete circuits, IC design, both analog and digital. The N-type material
has a surplus of electrons (hence the negative charge) and the P-type
material is deficient in electrons (hence the positive charge). The
principle of operation of operation of both the types of transistors is
exactly the same, the only difference being in the biasing (base current)
and the polarity of the power supply for each type.

NPN TRANSISTORS: CONSTRUCTION AND

WORKING

Fig: A figure showing the basic schematic of NPN transistors

Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility
is higher than the hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater
currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-
doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. This
can be better illustrated from the figure shown below:

P-doped semiconductor (The

Base)

N-doped
layers

Fig: A figure showing the construction of NPN transistors

A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified

in the collector output. In other words, an NPN transistor is "ON" when
its base is pulled high relative to the emitter. The arrow in the NPN
transistor symbol is towards the emitter leg and points in the direction of
the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode,
as shown below:

Fig: A figure showing the direction of conventional current flow in NPN

transistors
PNP TRANSISTORS: CONSTRUCTION AND
WORKING

Fig: A figure showing the basic schematic of PNP transistors

The PNP transistor works essentially the same as the NPN transistor.

However, since the emitter, base, and collector in the PNP transistor are
made of materials that are different from those used in
the NPN transistor, different current carriers flow in the PNP unit. The
majority current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. This is in
contrast to the NPN transistor where the majority current carriers are
electrons.
Fig: A figure showing a properly biased PNP transistor

NPN transistors consist of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between

two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base in
common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other words,
a PNP transistor is "ON" when its base is pulled low relative to the
emitter. The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and
points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is
in forward active mode, as shown below:

Fig: A figure showing the direction of conventional current flow in PNP

transistors
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Operational Amplifiers, commonly known as OP-AMPS are one of the
most basic and foremost components that are used in Robotics and
Embedded Systems. Apart from their most common use as amplifiers
(both inverting and non-inverting), they also find applications as buffers
(load isolators), adders, subtractors, integrators, comparators,
logarithmic amplifiers, impedance converters, filters (low–pass, high-
pass, band- reject or notch), and differential amplifiers. The basic
representation of conventional op- amps is shown below:

Fig: A figure showing the representation of OP-AMPS

CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL OP-AMPS

The various useful characteristics of OP-AMPS are discussed below:

An ideal OP-AMP has voltage gain equal to infinity.

An ideal OP-AMP has input impedance equal to infinity.
An ideal OP-AMP has bandwidth equal to infinity.
An ideal OP-AMP has zero-ohm output impedance.

An ideal op-amp by itself is not a very useful device, since any finite non-
zero input signal would result in infinite output. However, by connecting
external components to the ideal op-amp, we can construct useful
amplifier circuits.
AVR MICROCONTROLLERS
To understand quickly, I define a microcontroller as a single chip
computer. It is a full blown computer in its own. It has a C.P.U, RAM,
some amount of EEPROM (for secondary storage, i.e. permanent
storage without power), many on-chip peripherals (Timers, Serial
communication, Analog to Digital Converters etc.). But here we will be
focusing on Atmel’s AVR series of microcontrollers that are being used
globally now a days and gaining attention. For understanding the AVR
better, we will choose ATMEGA 16 out of the various microcontrollers
available in the market.

ATMEGA 16
The ATmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the
AVR enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in
a single clock cycle, the ATmega16 achieves throughputs approaching 1
MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer to optimize power
consumption versus processing speed.

Fig: A Figure showing the basic ATMEGA 16/32 Circuit.

I/O PORTS
Each AVR MCU has several bi-directional input and output ports that
may be used according to our needs. In addition there are various
secondary functionalities that are mentioned in the brackets before the
respective pins of the MCU. This is where these small chips start
showing their power!

The ATMEGA 16 has four I/O ports. They are named as and designated
as:

PORT A: PIN NO.33 TO 40.

PORT B: PIN NO 1 TO 8.
PORT C: PIN NO 22 TO 29.
PORT D: PIN NO 14 TO 21.

In addition the other pins are for oscillator, reset.VCC, GND, AREF
(reference voltage for port A), AVCC and RESET.

PROGRAMMING THE AVR

There are 32 general purpose registers in AVR MCUs. Some of them

are described as follows:
Each port in AVR has three related registers. They are described as
follows:

DDR REGISTERS: It stands for Data Direction registers. They are used
for setting the direction, i.e. input or output. For example:
DDRA = 0X00 => PORT A is configured input.
DDRA = 0XFF => PORT A is configured output.

PORT REGISTER: After we have set the pins to output, we can control
them with the register values. What values we write here will be visible
on the related pins of the MCU. For example:
//Make PORT D – 0 high
PORTD =0B00000001;
//Make it low
PORTD = 0b00000000;
PIN REGISTER: When we set any port pin as input, we can read its
status using this register. For example:
If (PIND & 0B00000001)
{
DO THIS;
}
Else
{
DO THIS;
}
This example shows how to take input from the real world, as in a line
follower from sensors.
TIMERS IN AVR
A timer in simplest term is a register. Timers generally have a resolution
of 8 or 16 bits. So an 8-bit timer is 8 bits wide capable of holding values
from 0-255. But this register has a magical property! Its value increases
or decreases automatically at a predefined rate, supplied by the user.
This is the timer clock and it doesn’t need CPU’s intervention. Since a
timer works independently of CPU, it can be used to measure time
accurately. Timers upon certain conditions take some actions
automatically or inform the CPU. One of the basic conditions is the
situation when timer OVERFLOWS i.e. it is counted up to its maximum
value (0-255 for 8-bit timers), and then again rolled back to 0. In this
situation a timer can issue an interrupt and we must write an ISR
(Interrupt Service Routine) to handle the event.

0 1 2 ….. 255 0 1 2….

Timer initialized CPU notified of overflow

8 BIT TIMERS IN AVR

The ATMEGA 16/32 has three timers, of which the simplest one is the
TIMER0, having the resolution of 8-bit, i.e. it can count from 0-255.

THE PRESCALER
The prescaler is a mechanism for generating clock for timer by the CPU
clock. For studying the prescaler more efficiently, we will go through the
timer 0 register.
TCCR0 TIMER COUNTER CONTROL REGISTER
This register is used to configure the timer using the prescaler. The
various bits of this register are: