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Water Quality Parameters

Water Quality
The cleanest available sources of groundwater and surface water should be protected, used, and maintained
for potable water supply purposes. Numerous parameters are used to determine the suitability of water and
the health significance of contaminants that may be found in untreated and treated water. Watershed and
wellhead protection regulations are a primary consideration.

Microbiological, physical, chemical and microscopic examinations are very important for drinking water
utilities. Water quality can be best assured by maintaining water clarity, chlorine residual in the distribution
system, confirmatory absence of indicator organisms and low bacterial population in the distributed water.

Standards for drinking water are based on Primary Drinking Water Standards developed under the Safe
Drinking Water Act of 1974 as assumed in 1986. The maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) are non-
enforceable health goals that are to be set at levels at which no known or anticipated adverse health effects
occur, and which allow an adequate margin of safety. They are known as recommended maximum
contaminant levels (MCLs). MCLs are enforceable and must be set as close to MCLGs as is feasible, based on
the use of best technology.

1- Temperature
Variables that affect a waterways temperature include:

1. The color of the water. Most heat warming surface waters comes from the sun, so waterways with
dark-colored water, or those with dark muddy bottoms, absorb heat best.
2. The depth of the water. Deep waters usually are colder than shallow waters simply because they
require more time to warm up.
3. The amount of shade received from shoreline vegetation. Trees overhanging a lake shore or river
bank shade the water from sunlight. Some narrow creeks and streams are almost completely
covered with overhanging vegetation during certain times of the year. The shade prevents water
temperatures from rising too fast on bright sunny days.
4. The latitude of the waterway. Lakes and rivers in cold climates are naturally colder than those in
warm climates.
5. The time of year. The temperature of waterways varies with the seasons.
6. The temperature of the water supplying the waterways. Some lakes and rivers are fed by cold
mountain streams or underground springs. Others are supplied by rain and/or surface run-off. The
temperature of the water flowing into a lake, river or stream helps determine its temperature.
7. The volume of the water, the more water there is, the longer it takes to heat up or cool down.
8. The temperature of effluents dumped into the water. When people dump heated effluents into
waterways, the effluents raise the temperature of the water.

Fish and most aquatic organisms are cold-blooded. Consequently, their metabolism increases as the water
warms and decreases as it cools. Each species of aquatic organism has its own optimum (best) water
temperature. If the water temperature shifts too far from the optimum, the organism suffers. Cold-blooded
animals canot survive temperatures below 0 oC (32 oF), and only rough fish like carp can tolerate
temperatures much warmer than about 36 oC (97 oF). All sorts of physiological changes take place in aquatic
organisms when water temperatures change. Fish are not the only organisms requiring specific
temperatures. Diatoms seem to grow best at a temperature of 15-25 oC, green algae at 25-35 oC, and blue-
green algae at 30-40 oC. Warm water also makes some substances, such as cyanides, phenol, xylene and zinc,
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more toxic for aquatic animals. If high water temperatures are combined with low dissolved oxygen levels,
the toxicity is increased.

2- Odor
Odor should be absent or very faint for water to be acceptable, less than 3 Threshold Odor Number (TON).
Water for food processing, beverages, and pharmaceutical manufacture should be essentially free of taste
and odor. The cause may be decaying organic matter, wastewaters including industrial wastes, dissolved
gases, and chlorine in combination with certain organic compounds such as phenols. The sense of smell is
more sensitive than taste.

Treatment Control

Activated carbon adsorption, aeration, chemical oxidation (chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, potassium
permagnate) and coagulation and filtration will usually remove odors and tastes.

3- Color
Color should be less than 15 True Color Units (TCU), (cobalt platinum units for filtered water sample).
Although persons accustomed to clear water may notice a color of only 5 units. The goal is less than 3 units.
Water for industrial uses should generally have a color of 5 to 10 or less.

Color is caused by substances in solution, known as true color, and by substances in suspension, mostly
organics causing apparent or organic color. Iron, copper, manganese and industrial wastes may also cause
color.

Treatment Control

Color can be controlled at the source of watershed management. Identifying, waters from sources,
contributing natural organic and inorganic color excluding them. Controlling behavior of populations,
increasing water flow gradients, using settling basins at inlets of reservoirs and blending of water.

Coagulation, flocculation, settling and rapid sand filtration should reduce color causing substances in solution
to less than 5 units with coagulation as the major factor. Slow sand filters should remove about 40 percent of
total color. True color is costly to remove. Oxidation (chlorine and ozone), or carbon adsorption also reduce
color.

4- Turbidity
The American Public Health Association (APHA) defines turbidity as "the optical property of a water sample
that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through the sample."
In simple terms, turbidity answers the question, "How cloudy is the water?"

Lights ability to pass through water depends on how much suspended material is present. Turbidity may be
caused when light is blocked by large amounts of silt, microorganisms, plant fibers, sawdust, wood ashes,
chemicals and coal dust. Any substance that makes water cloudy will cause turbidity. The most frequent
causes of turbidity in lakes and rivers are plankton and soil erosion from logging, mining, and dredging
operations.

Measuring Turbidity
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The most accurate way to determine waters turbidity is with an electronic turbidimeter. The turbidimeter
has a light source and a photoelectric cell that accurately measures the light scattered by suspended
particles in a water sample. The results are reported in units called Nephelometric Turbidity Units or NTUs.

Turbidity Level Of Water For Industrial Use

Industrial Use Maximum Turbidity Units (NTU)
Beverages 1-2
Food products 10
Water used in boilers 1-20 (varies with type of boiler)
Making high grade paper 5-25
Making rayon 1
Making cotton 25
Baking 10
Water used for cooling 50
Ice making 0.5 (same as drinking water)
Tanning leather 20

5- SOLIDS
The term “solids”, “suspended” and “dissolved” as used herein, replace the term “residue”, “non filterable,”
and “filterable. Solids refer to matter suspended or dissolved in water or wastewater. Solids may affect
water or effluent quality adversely in a number of ways. Waters with high dissolved solids generally are of
inferior palatability and may induce an unfavorable physiological reaction in the transient consumer, for
these reasons, a limit of 500 mg TDS / L is desirable for drinking waters. Highly mineralized waters also are
unsuitable for many industrial applications. Waters high in suspended solids may be esthetically
unsatisfactory for such purposes as bathing. Solids analyses are important in the control of biological and
physical water and wastewater treatment processes.

TOTAL SOLIDS

Total solids are the term applied to the material residue left in the vessel after evaporation of a sample and
its subsequent drying in an oven at a defined temperature. Total solids include “total suspended solids,” the
portion total solids retained by a filter, and “dissolved solids,” the portion that passes through a filter of 2.0
µm (or smaller) nominal pore size under specified conditions. “Suspended solids” is the portion retained on
the filter.

FIXED SOLIDS

Fixed solids are the residue of total, suspended, or dissolved solids after heating to dryness for a specified
time at a specified temperature. The weight loss on ignition is called “Volatile Solids.”

SETTLEABLE SOLIDS

Settle able solids are the term applied to the material settling out of suspension within a defined period.
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6- TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are solids in water that can be trapped by a filter. TSS can include a wide variety
of material, such as silt, decaying plant and animal matter, industrial wastes, and sewage. High
concentrations of suspended solids can cause many problems for stream health and aquatic life.

High TSS can also cause an increase in surface water temperature, because the suspended particles absorb
heat from sunlight. This can cause dissolved oxygen levels to fall even further (because warmer waters can
hold less DO), and can harm aquatic life.

High TSS in a water body can often mean higher concentrations of bacteria, nutrients, pesticides, and metals
in the water. These pollutants may attach to sediment particles on the land and be carried into water bodies
with storm water. In the water, the pollutants may be released from the sediment or travel farther
downstream.

The flow rate of the water body is a primary factor in TSS concentrations. Fast running water can carry more
particles and larger-sized sediment. Heavy rains can pick up sand, silt, clay, and organic particles (such as
leaves, soil, and tire particles) from the land and carry it to surface water. A change in flow rate can also
affect TSS; if the speed or direction of the water current increases, particulate matter from bottom
sediments may be re-suspended.

During storm events, soil particles and debris from streets and industrial, commercial, and residential areas
can be washed into streams. Because of the large amount of pavement in urban areas, infiltration is
decreased, velocity increases, and natural settling areas have been removed. Sediment is carried through
storm drains directly to creeks and rivers.

7- Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

In the realm of public and industrial water supplies, the Total –Dissolved-Solids determination is the only one
of importance. It is used to determine the suitability of potential supplies for development. The total solids
in a liquid sample consist of total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS). The TDS content of
potable waters usually ranges from 20 to 1000 mg/L. In general, water with a TDS content less than 500mg/L
is most desirable for such purpose. A higher total-solids concentration imports taste to the water and often
has a laxative and sometimes the reverse effect upon people. Waters with high total solids content tends to
stain glassware and has adverse impacts on irrigated crops, plants, and grasses. WHO guidelines recommend
the upper limit of 1000mg/L as TDS in potable waters. The suspended solids analysis is used to ensure the
suspended load require treatment before used for domestic water supplies.

8- pH
The balance of positive hydrogen ions (H +) and negative hydroxide ions (OH -) in water determines how acidic
or basic the water is. The pH scale ranges from 0 (high concentration of positive hydrogen ions, strongly
acidic) to 14 (high concentration of negative hydroxide ions, strongly basic). In pure water, the concentration
of positive hydrogen ions is in equilibrium with the concentration of negative hydroxide ions, and the pH
measures exactly 7.

In a lake or pond, the water pH is affected by its age and the chemicals discharged by communities and
industries. Most lakes are basic (alkaline) when they are first formed and become more acidic with time due
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to the build-up of organic materials. As organic substances decay, carbon dioxide (CO 2) forms and combines
with water to produce a weak acid, called "carbonic" acid — the same stuff that is in carbonated soft drinks.
Large amounts of carbonic acid lower waters pH.

Most fish can tolerate pH values of about 5.0 to 9.0, but serious anglers look for waters between pH 6.5 and
8.2. The vast majority of rivers, lakes and streams fall within 6.5 to 8.2 range.

When acid waters (waters with low pH values) come into contact with certain chemicals and metals, they
often make them more toxic than normal. Mix an acid water environment with small amounts of iron,
aluminum, lead or mercury.

The pH of sea (salt) water is not as vulnerable as fresh waters pH to acid wastes. This is because the different
salts in sea water tend to buffer the water with ingredients. Normal pH values in sea water are about 8.1 at
the surface and decrease to about 7.7 in deep water.

Shallow waters in subtropical regions that hold considerable organic matter often vary from pH 9.5 in the
daytime to pH 7.3 at night. Organisms living in these waters are able to tolerate these extremes or swim into
more neutral waters when the range exceeds their tolerance.

9- Alkalinity (It helps if you read about pH before you read the alkalinity section.)

Alkalinity is not a pollutant. It is a total measure of the substances in water that have "acid-neutralizing"
ability. Don’t confuse alkalinity with pH. pH measures the strength of an acid or base; alkalinity indicates a
solution’s power to react with acid and "buffer" its pH — that is, the power to keep its pH from changing.

To illustrate, we will compare two samples of pure water and buffered water. Absolutely pure water has a
pH of exactly 7.0. It contains no acids, no bases, and no (zero) alkalinity. The buffered water, with a pH of
6.0, can have high alkalinity. If you add a small amount of weak acid to both water samples, the pH of the
pure water will change instantly (become more acid). But the buffered water’s pH won’t change easily
because the Alka-Seltzer-like buffers absorb the acid and keep it from "expressing itself."

Alkalinity is important for fish and aquatic life because it protects or buffers against pH changes (keeps the
pH fairly constant) and makes water less vulnerable to acid rain. The main sources of natural alkalinity are
rocks, which contain carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide compounds. Borates, silicates, and phosphates
may also contribute to alkalinity.

Limestone is rich in carbonates, so waters flowing through limestone regions generally high alkalinity —
hence its good buffering capacity. Conversely, granite does not have minerals that contribute to alkalinity.
Therefore, areas rich in granite have low alkalinity and poor buffering capacity.

Some Recommended Alkalinity Values

Industry and Process Maximum Total Alkalinity
(mg/L as CaCO3)
Carbonated beverages 85
Food products (canning) 300
Fruit juice 100
Washing diapers 60
Pulp and paper making(ground-wood process) 150
Rayon manufacture 50
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Tanning hides 135

Textile mill products 50-200
Petroleum refining 500

Application of Alkalinity Data

Alkalinity is used in a variety of ways in practice such as Chemical Coagulation, Water Softening, Buffer
Capacity, Industrial Waste and the Corrosion Control.

Chemical coagulation: chemicals used for coagulation of water react with water to form insoluble hydroxide
precipitate.

Water Softening: considered in calculating the lime and soda ash requirement in softening of water by
precipitation.

Buffering Capacity: Evaluating the buffering capacity of wastewater and sludges and used to assess a natural
water ability to resist the effect of acid rain.

Industrial Waste: many regulatory agencies prohibit the discharge of wastes containing caustic (hydroxide)
alkalinity to receiving waters. It also used for determining the amenability of waste waters to biological
treatment.

10- Acidity of Water Due to Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is an odorless, colorless gas produced during the respiration cycle of animals, plants and
bacteria. All animals and many bacteria use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Green plants, in turn, absorb
the carbon dioxide and, by the process of photosynthesis, produce oxygen and carbon-rich foods. The
general formulas for plant photosynthesis and respiration are summarized below.

Photosynthesis (in the presence of light and chlorophyll):

Carbon dioxide + Water  Oxygen + Carbon-rich foods

CO2 + H2O  O2 + C6H12O6

Respiration:

Carbon-rich foods + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water

C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O

Green plants carry on photosynthesis only in the presence of light. At night, they respire and burn the food
they made during the day. Consequently, more oxygen is used and more carbon dioxide enters waterways at
night than during the daytime. When carbon dioxide levels are high and oxygen levels are low, fish have
trouble respiring (taking up oxygen), and their problems become worse as water temperatures rise.

Carbon dioxide quickly combines in water to form carbonic acid, a weak acid. The presence of carbonic acid
in waterways may be good or bad depending on the water’s pH and alkalinity. If the water is alkaline (high
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pH), the carbonic acid will act to neutralize it, But if the water is already quite acid (low pH), the carbonic
acid will only make things worse by making it even more acid.

11- Chlorine
Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas that dissolves easily in water. It has a pungent, noxious odor that some
people can smell at concentrations above 0.3 parts per million. Because chlorine is an excellent disinfectant,
it is commonly added to most drinking water supplies in the US. In parts of the world where chlorine is not
added to drinking water, thousands of people die each day from waterborne diseases like typhoid and
cholera.

Chlorine is also used as a disinfectant in wastewater treatment plants and swimming pools. It is widely used
as a bleaching agent in textile factories and paper mills, and it is an important ingredient in many laundry
bleaches.

Free chlorine (chlorine gas dissolved in water) is toxic to fish and aquatic organisms, even in very small
amounts. Chlorine reacts quickly with other substances in water (and forms combined chlorine). The free
chlorine test measures only the amount of free or dissolved chlorine in water. The total chlorine test
measures both free and combined forms of chlorine.

If water contains a lot of decaying materials, free chlorine can combine with them to form compounds called
trihalomethanes or (THMs). Some THMs in high concentrations are carcinogenic to people. Unlike free
chlorine, THMs are persistent and can pose a health threat to living things for a long time.

People who are adding chlorine to water for disinfection must be careful for two reasons: 1) Chlorine gas
even at low concentrations can irritate eyes, nasal passages and lungs; it can even kill in a few breaths; and
2) The formation of THM compounds must be minimized because of the long-term health effects. Less than
one-half (0.5) mg/L of free chlorine is needed to kill bacteria without causing water to smell or taste
unpleasant, although 1.0 mg/L chlorine is not harmful to people.

Effects of chlorine on industrial processes

Chlorine may cause canned or frozen food to taste "funny". It also may affect the smoothness or brightness
of plated metals. Chlorine levels as low as 0.3 mg/L can spoil the quality of high-grade paper during the
manufacturing process.

Effects of chlorine in water used for irrigation

The concentration of chlorine in drinking water or treated wastewater rarely reaches 1.0 mg/L (ppm). So
chlorine usually is not a problem to farmers and gardeners using either drinking water or wastewater to
irrigate their crops.

12- Nitrites and Nitrates (NO2 & NO3)

Nitrite and Nitrate are forms of the element Nitrogen, which makes up about 80 percent of the air we
breathe. As an essential component of life, nitrogen is recycled continually by plants and animals, and is
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found in the cells of all living things. Organic nitrogen (nitrogen combined with carbon) is found in proteins
and other compounds. Inorganic nitrogen may exist in the Free State as a gas, as ammonia (when combined
with hydrogen), or as nitrite or nitrate (when combined with oxygen). Nitrites and nitrates are produced
naturally as part of the nitrogen cycle, when a bacteria 'production line' breaks down toxic ammonia wastes
first into nitrite, and then into nitrate.

Sources of Nitrites and Nitrates

Nitrites (NO2) are relatively short-lived because they are quickly converted to nitrates by bacteria. Nitrites
produce a serious illness (brown blood disease) in fish, even though they do not exist for very long in the
environment. Nitrites also react directly with hemoglobin in human blood to produce methemoglobin, which
destroys the ability of blood cells to transport oxygen. This condition is especially serious in babies under
three months of age as it causes a condition known as methemoglobinemia or "blue baby" disease. Water
with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/L should not be given to babies. Nitrite concentrations in drinking water
seldom exceed 0.1 mg/L.

Nitrate (NO3) is a major ingredient of farm fertilizer and is necessary for crop production. When it rains,
varying nitrate amounts wash from farmland into nearby waterways. Nitrates also get into waterways from
lawn fertilizer run-off, leaking septic tanks and cesspools, manure from farm livestock, animal wastes
(including fish and birds), and discharges from car exhausts.

Nitrates stimulate the growth of plankton and water weeds that provide food for fish. However, if algae
grow too wildly, oxygen levels will be reduced and fish will die. Nitrates can be reduced to toxic nitrites in
the human intestine, and many babies have been seriously poisoned by well water containing high levels of
nitrate-nitrogen. The U.S. Public Health Service has established 10 mg/L of nitrate-nitrogen as the maximum
contamination level allowed in public drinking water.

13- Dissolved Oxygen in Water

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is oxygen that is dissolved in water. It gets there by diffusion from the surrounding air;
aeration of water that has tumbled over falls and rapids; and as a waste product of photosynthesis. An over
simplified formula is given below:

Photosynthesis (in the presence of light and chlorophyll):

Carbon dioxide + Water  Oxygen + Carbon-rich foods

CO2 H2O O2 C6H12O6

Fish and aquatic animals cannot split oxygen from water (H2O) or other oxygen-containing compounds. Only
green plants and some bacteria can split dissolved oxygen through photosynthesis and similar processes.
Virtually all the oxygen we breathe is manufactured by green plants. A total of three-fourths of the earth’s
oxygen supply is produced by phytoplankton in the oceans.

If water is too warm, there may not be enough oxygen in it. When there are too many bacteria or aquatic
animal in the area, they may overpopulate, using DO in great amounts.

Oxygen levels also can be reduced through over fertilization of water plants by run-off from farm fields
containing phosphates and nitrates (the ingredients in fertilizers). Under these conditions, the numbers and
size of water plants increase a great deal.
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How much DO an aquatic organism needs depends upon its species, its physical state, water temperature,
pollutants present, and more. Consequently, it is impossible to accurately predict minimum DO levels for
specific fish and aquatic animals.

14- Chlorides
Chlorides occur in all natural waters in widely varying concentrations. The chloride content normally
increases as the mineral content increases. River and ground waters usually have a considerable amount.
Chloride salts gain access to natural waters in many ways. The solvent power of water dissolves chloride
from top soil and deeper formations. The salt water being more denser, flow upstream under the fresh
water that is flowing downstream. There is constant intermixing of the salt water with the fresh water
above. Ground waters in areas adjacent to the ocean are in hydrostatic balance with sea water.

Chloride in reasonable concentrations is not harmful to humans. At concentrations above 250 mg/L it gives
salty taste to water, which is objectionable to many people. For this reason a secondary standard of 250mg/L
for chloride in drinking water has been set by the US-EPA, WHO and NEQS-Pak.

In many areas the level of chloride in natural waters is an important consideration in the selection of
supplies for human, industrial, and agricultural uses. The chloride determination is used to control pumping
of groundwater from locations where intrusion of saline water is a problem.

15- Sulfate
The sulfate ion is one of the major anions occurring in natural waters. It is of importance in public water
supplies because its cathartic effect upon humans when it is present in excessive amounts/concentrations.
For this reason the secondary standard for sulfate is 400mg/L in waters intended for human consumption.
Sulfate is important in both public and industrial water supplies, because of the tendency of waters
containing appreciable amounts to form hard scales in boilers and heat exchangers.

16- Water Hardness

Hardness of water caused principally by the elements calcium and magnesium and sometimes by iron and
aluminum. Most of the calcium and magnesium is present in natural waters as bicarbonates, sulfates and
sometimes as chlorides and nitrates. Hardness-producing substances react with soaps, forming insoluble
compounds before lather is produced. They are thus a measure of the soap-consuming power of water. They
also deposit scale in boilers and hot-water heating systems.

Temporary hardness is that removed by boiling. Permanent hardness is that remaining after boiling.
Temporary hardness is caused principally by the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Permanent hardness is due to mostly to calcium sulfate, which is precipitated at higher temperature.
Carbonate hardness is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium normal carbonates and bicarbonates.

Hardness is always expressed in terms of calcium carbonates (CaCO 3). Total hardness is most accurately
found by determining the amounts of calcium and magnesium (and sometimes iron and aluminum) by a
gravimetric analysis and by calculating their equivalent values in terms of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3).
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