G109: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Submitted to:
Dr. Mihir Lal Saha
Professor
Department of Botany
University Of Dhaka.
Submitted by:
Naziba Ali
Roll 93
Section A, BBA 27

Date of submission: June 10, 2020

 TOPIC 1: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

DEFINITION: The biochemical process by which green plants prepare carbohydrate

with the help of Carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight is termed as
photosynthesis. In this way light energy is converted to chemical energy. The reaction is
as follows:
6CO2+ 6H2 O→ C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
On the basis of Oxygen requirements, photosynthesis can be classified into two types: (i)
Oxygenic photosynthesis (ii) Anoxygenic photosynthesis (e.g. green sulfur bacteria)
REQUIREMENTS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
i. Chloroplast & chlorophyll: Small pores called stomata
are found on the surface of leaves in most plants, and they
let carbon dioxide diffuse into the mesophyll layer where
chloroplasts are present. Within each chloroplast, disc-
like structures called thylakoids are arranged in piles that
Figure 1: Chloroplast
are known as grana. The membrane of thylakoid contains
green colored pigments called chlorophylls that absorb light.
ii. CO2 : Food in pants is produced from the reduction of CO 2 . The rate of
photosynthesis increases with the increase of CO 2 up to 1% concentration in the
atmosphere.
iii. Water: In photosynthesis, H + required for the reduction of CO 2 comes from water.
Due to scarcity of water, stomata may become flaccid restricting the entry of CO 2 .
iv. Light: Sunlight takes part in the synthesis of chlorophyll. Research has found that, for
photosynthesis, red, blue and purple portion of visible spectrum function better than
green and yellow.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS PROCESS: In 1905, Blackman divided photosynthesis into 2

phases (1) Light Dependent Phase (2) Light Independent Phase/ Dark Phase
1) Light dependent phase: This stage occurs in the thylakoid of chloroplasts.
Chlorophyll molecules absorb light energy (photons) which is converted into
chemical energy in a multiprotein complex called a photosystem (PSI & PSII).
Next, two compounds-ATP (an energy storage molecule) and NADPH2 (a reduced
electron carrier) are formed. ATP is produced through the process of

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 photophosphorylation whereas Oxygen, Hydrogen and electrons are released
through the photolysis of water. The reaction involved in this stage is:
ADP+Pi→ ATP
2) Light independent phase: The Calvin
Cycle takes place in the stroma and does
not directly require light. Instead, the
Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH2
from the light-dependent reactions to
reduce CO2 . Three steps of Calvin Cycle
are described below:
i. Carbon Fixation: The CO2 acceptor Figure 2: Calvin Cycle

is a 5C pentose sugar called Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) which incorporates

3 molecules CO2 into 6 molecules of 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA) in the
presence of RuBP carboxylase enzyme.
ii. Reduction: ATP and NADPH 2 are used to convert the 6 molecules of 3-PGA
into 6 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). This is a reduction reaction
since NADPH2 donates electrons to the 3PGA.
iii. Regeneration of RuBP: Some G3P molecules take part in producing glucose
(C6H12 O6 ) and others are recycled to regenerate RuBP (acceptor of CO 2 ) with the
help of ATP. 18 ATP and 12 NADPH 2 are consumed to produce a single glucose
molecule.
IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Observing the impacts of photosynthesis on
earth, some scientists have termed it as ‘Bio-chemical factory.’
 Photosynthesis is the only source of O 2 for living beings. Oxygen produced from
photosynthesis is utilized to produce energy in the form of ATP during aerobic
respiration.
 Only green plants can store food through photosynthesis. So animals and humans
are dependent on plants for their survival. The progress of human civilization relies
on this process directly or indirectly.
 Photosynthesis is very important for maintaining the balance of CO 2 (0.033%) &
O2 (20.95%) in the atmosphere. In absence of this process, a shortage of O 2 and
surplus of CO2 would occur.

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 TOPIC 2: RESPIRATION

DEFINITION: Respiration is the biochemical process by which organisms produce

kinetic energy by the oxidation of food with or without Oxygen. It occurs in the cytoplasm
and mitochondria of cell.
TYPES OF RESPIRATION: On the basis of presence or absence of O2 , it is of 2 types:
a. Aerobic respiration: This process requires O 2 and completely oxidizes the respiratory
substrate. 2880 KJ of energy is used to break up glucose and in turn, 38 ATP are produced.

C6 H12 O6+ 6O2→6CO2 + 6H2 O+ Energy (38 ATP)

b. Anaerobic respiration (fermentation): It occurs in absence of O 2 and produces CO 2
and ethanol or lactic acid by incomplete oxidation. Bacteria, yeast perform this
respiration.
Alcoholic fermentation: C6H12O6 + 2 ADP+ 2 Pi→C2H5 OH (ethanol) + 2CO2+ 2 ATP
Lactic acid fermentation: C6H12O6 + 2 ADP+ 2 Pi→2 Lactic Acid+ 2 ATP

MECHANISM OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION: It is divided into 4 stages as follows:

1. Glycolysis: It is the initial stage of
both aerobic and anaerobic respiration
since no O2 is required. It occurs in the
cytoplasm of cell & 1 molecule of
glucose is broken down into 2 molecules
of 3C compound- pyruvic acid, 4
molecules of ATP and 2 NADH 2.
Figure3: Cell respiration
2. Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A:
This process occurs in the mitochondria. The first step is to remove the carboxyl group
from the pyruvate which then releases CO 2 . Resultantly, a two carbon compound is formed
which is oxidized forming 2C acetyl group (CH3COO -). NAD+ helps to remove hydrogen
and electrons from the pyruvic acid. The last step is to add coenzyme A (a sulfur
containing atom) to the acetate. Thus Acetyl CoA is formed.
3. Kreb’s cycle: Acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb’s cycle and combines with a 4C compound
called Oxaloacetic acid producing the 6C acid called Citric acid (C6 H8O7 ).This Citric acid
undergoes a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions and produce CO 2 , ATP, NADH2 &
FADH2.

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4. Electron Transport Chain (ETS): In this stage, NADH 2 & FADH2 produced in the
above 3 stages are oxidized to produce ATP, water, electrons & protons. The energy is
released when electrons containing high energy move through the ETS. Thus, in aerobic
respiration, 1 molecule of glucose is completely oxidized to produce 6 molecules of CO 2,
6 molecules of H 2 O and 38 ATP which is summarized below:

Stages of respiration Substances produced Substances used Neat product

Glycolysis 2 molecules pyruvic acid
2 molecules NADH 2
2 ATP 6 ATP
4 molecules ATP
2 ATP
Acetyl co-A 2 molecules acetyl co-A 2 pyruvic acid
2 molecules CO 2 2 molecules CO 2
2 molecules NADH 2 6 ATP
Kreb’s Cycle 4 molecules CO2 2 Acetyl co-A 4 molecules CO 2
6 molecules NADH2 18 ATP
2 molecules FADH2 4 ATP
2 molecules GTP 2 ATP
38 ATP+ 6 molecules
CO2
Table 1: Production of energy (ATP) from 1 molecule of glucose

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESPIRATION: An organism performs all its activities with the

energy produced through respiration. CO 2 released through respiration is used in
photosynthesis to produce carbohydrate, the principal food for living beings. It also aids
in maintaining the balance of O 2 and CO2 in the environment. Respiration plays a crucial
role in absorbing mineral salts which indirectly drive the growth and other physiological
activities in a plant. The energy required for cell osmosis, cell division, contraction of
muscles, synthesis of essential molecules, maintaining constant body temperature is
provided by respiration. Different intermediate products of respiration, like Oxaloacetic
acid, alpha-keto glutaric acid etc. are utilized during the formation of chlorophyll and
alkaloids. In human body, the main purpose of respiration is to provide oxygen to the cells
at a rate adequate to satisfy metabolic needs. This involves transport of oxygen from
the lung to the tissues by means of blood circulation. Thus, the respiratory system helps
to maintain acid-base balance, water levels as well as the heat balance. For production of
bread, yeast is mixed with flour for swelling up the bread. In brewing industries, lactic
acid and ethyl alcohol are produced which are further used to produce curd, cheese etc.
Thus, the importance of respiration is manifold in our day-to-day life.