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Introduction Chapter 1 1. Introduction Natural disasters are prominent in almost every

nook and corner of the world in one or many forms, like floods, earthquakes, droughts,
landslides, volcanic eruptions, forest fires etc. Landslides are the natural processes, which
occur and recur in specific geo-environmental conditions. These are the major
phenomena of the mountainous regions, mostly in the newly formed mountains on the
geological time scale and triggered at places of surface excavation for roads,
settlements, open pit mines or the places having high seismic activities.

The fifth synthesis report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

<https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-
sciences/intergovernmental-panel-on-climate-change> (IPCC, 2014
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216302458>), did not
provide a global overview on landslides. Landslides were considered in the IPCC special
report “Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change
Adaptation” (Seneviratne et al., 2012
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216302458>), where one
reads that “There is high confidence that changes in heat waves, glacial retreat, and/or
permafrost <https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-
sciences/permafrost> degradation will affect slope instabilities in high mountains, and
medium confidence that temperature-related changes will influence bedrock
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/bedrock>
stability.

There is also high confidence that changes in heavy precipitation will affect landslides in
some regions”. Considerations on local or regional landslide conditions were given in
the reports of IPCC working group II published in 2007 (Parry et al., 2007
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216302458>) and 2014
(Field et al., 2014
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216302458>, Barros et al.,
2014 <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216302458>).
Significantly, the IPCC (2014)
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216302458> synthesis
report provided evaluations on flood risk to the population, and concluded that the
number of people exposed to rare flood events is expected to increase worldwide. A
similar global assessment for landslide risk to the population is still missing.

In India, landslides mainly occur in the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The slopes of
Himalayan region are moderately stable but the natural processes such as weathering
and erosion due to different weather phenomena (rainfall, snowfall etc.) make them
unstable. Anthropogenic activities (land use land cover change, deforestation) in the
Himalayan region (Highly sensitive) is also a reason for the occurrence of landslides.
S.No. Year Place Description of Landslides events and damages 1. 1803 Srinagar
Landslide damming, Flash floods swept away one third of Srinagar. 2. 1880 Nainital
Major landslide on the Sher-Ka-Danda slope due to rainfall and earth tremor, destroyed
buildings and killed 143 persons. 3.

July 1970 Belakuchi Landslide damming on Alaknanda river killed more than 50 persons,
more than 100 villages affected. 4. October 1990 Nilgiris 36 persons killed 5. July 1991
Assam Road, building lost, 300 persons killed. 6. June 1993 Aizawal 4 person killed. 7.
July 1993 Itanagar 25 persons killed. Loss to property. 8. August 1993 Kohima 500
persons killed, destroyed more than 200 houses. 9. June 1994 Varundh ghat 20 persons
killed, road damaged. 10. September 1995 Kullu More than 22 persons killed. 11. August
1998 Malpa More than 200 persons killed, road network disrupted. 12. July 2004
Joshimath- Badrinath More than 17 killed, disrupted 300 m road.

13 August 2004 Tehri dam project 9 persons killed 14. September 2007 Dharchula More
than 15 persons killed. 15. 2008 Amru Band 17 persons killed, huge damage to roads
and houses. 16. August 2009 Pithoragarh 38 person killed 17 July 2010 Almora 36
persons killed. 18. September 2012 Okhimath 68 persons killed, extensive damage to
agricultural field, roads. 19. June 2013 Bageshwar, Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Rudraprayag &
Uttarkashi Flash flood and landslides. More than 6000 persons killed and 4000 went
missing.

Table 1: Some of the major Landslides in India (1800-2013) Whole world is experiencing
the Climate Change and Uttarakhand is not away from it. The air temperature is
increasing, higher intensity and more frequent heavy rain events, increasing
precipitation and sea level rise; can alter landslides and sediment process. The current
global observations indicating a clear warming trend and projected to continue
warming during this century.

Increasing air temperature can cause soil breakdown, allow more water to penetrate
soils and hence reducing the snow accumulation and increase the risk of wildfire and
other threats, all of which can increase the rate of erosion and may result into landslides
in mountainous regions with higher slopes. Alteration in the rainfall pattern, resulting in
heavy downpour in a few days or hours causing floods and landslides, melting of
glaciers exposing the rocks which causes weathering and hence weakening the resisting
force.

The flooded rivers accelerating the erosional activities in the basins results into
disintegration and decomposition of rocks and soil soaked into rain water, disintegrated
rocks and soil may slide down due to gravity. All such varieties of mass movement on
slopes, including some such as rockfalls, topples and debris flows that involve little or no
true sliding is called landslide (Varnes, 1984). They are integral to the natural processes
of earth's surface geology and helps in redistribution of soil and sediments in a process
that can be in abrupt collapses or in slow. Occurrence of landslide is common in geo
dynamic sensitive belts i.e.

zones and areas of earthquakes or other geotectonics activities (Bolt et. al., 1975). There
more than 600 landslide prone areas in Uttarakhand out of which around 100 are in the
Alakananda river basin. Around 5000 lives were lost between 2001-2016 due to
landslides and related mishaps in Uttarakhand. They become barrier in communication
during rainy seasons. 30% of landslides found in Himalayan regions due to its
geotechnical/ geomorphological activities (MHA 2011) in which Garhwal Himalaya has
more experiences of landslides because of its different kind of topography.

Survey of India recognised Kaliyasaur landslide (Fig. 1.) in 1920 (Indervir S. Negi, Kishor
Kumar, 2013) at Rudraprayag District and NH-58 one of the major National Highway
connecting Dehradun Rishikesh road to Badrinath and other religious places of
Uttarakhand, passes through this hill. Kaliyasaur landslide is 15 Km away from Srinagar
to Rudraprayag road. Road gets blocked whenever the landslide occurs and the process
is still active. Fig. 1. Kaliyasaur landslide site on the bank of Alaknanda river.

(Source: Google earth) Heavy rainfall, high weathered rock, slope failure, natural and
anthropogenic activities and river meandering are the reasons for landslide in general.
This research work is focused on Alaknanda river valley. With the help of the intensive
site observation, proper treatment of the problem has been suggested and how climate
change is aggravating the current hazards. Himalaya is also the seismically most active
region of Indian peninsula, especially the north east and the northern Himalayas which
are rocked by the earthquakes on several occasions and with lower level of magnitude
to higher level.

Uttarakhand (Northern Himalayas) receives considerable amount of rainfall (>200

cm/yr.) over wide areas in the outer ranges and roads (>5000 km.) have been
constructed without considering the vulnerability of the region entail generation of
colossal volume of debris that increases the intensity of erosion and many new projects
are in line which can make the situation worse. Wide spread deforestation for
development activities and increasing population pressure has forced people to move
up the steeper forested slopes with their ploughs and livestock's (Saxena, 1981).

It further aggravates occurrence of landslides in terrain of varying relief. 1.2. Factors

governing stability of slope and occurrence of Landslides A landslide is the result of
multiple causative factors, including geology, weather, groundwater, gravity, wave
action, and human actions. It is of importance to identify these causative factors for
landslide occurrences in a region.

Most of the time it is hard to establish the relationships between various causative
factors since the great variety of slope movements reflects the diversity of factors that
may disturb the slope stability. Nevertheless, it may be possible to demarcate landslide
susceptible in the past by identifying and analyzing the factors that have caused
landslides in the past (Aleotti and Chowdhury, 1999). We need to understand the
conditions, under which mass movements are caused and the factors that trigger the
movements. Systematic study is required to recognize the extent of danger and to
propose adequate remedial measures.

In general, the factors causing landslides can be categorized into natural and
anthropogenic factors (Fig. 2), which have been briefly described here. Fig. 2. Flowchart
showing causative factors of landslide 1.2.1 Natural Factors The factors independent of
human activities. These can grouped into inherent and external factors. Inherent Factors
The inherent factors include the inherent characteristics of hill slope. These factors
include geology, local relief, hydrogeological conditions, slope gradient, structure, as
well as land use and land cover. Lithology It is an important geological parameter as it is
related to the basic characters of the slope forming materials.

There are two fundamental types of slope forming materials - loose, unconsolidated
materials and in-situ rocks. The unconsolidated materials, except older fluvial materials,
in general, have least shear strength and are more prone to failure. Particularly, if they
are charged with water, they show high potential to failure. The rocks are in general
more stable as compared to unconsolidated materials. The lithological characters
related to failure potential are related to their erodibility response to the processes of
weathering and erosion. For example, igneous rocks, such as granite, are hard and
massive and hence show greater resistance to erosion.

Moreover, they have interlocking crystals, which is mainly responsible for their increased
angle of shearing resistance. On the contrary, the terrigenous sedimentary rocks are
more vulnerable to erosion and hence more landslides are seen on these rocks. The
granular metamorphic rocks like Quartzite are more stable due to similarity of
properties with igneous rocks. However, other metamorphic rocks like phyllites and
schists are more prone to landslides. Mechanical and chemical weathering affects the
strength of rock mass, which is also one of the contributory factors of landslides (Ref---).

Structure The primary and secondary discontinuities in the rocks bedding, joints,
foliations, faults constitutes structure. Since the landslides by definition are gravitational
failures, so there is a great influence of the disposition of the structural discontinuities
and direction on the stability of the slopes. The more the frequency of joints, the size of
the resultant rock wedges will be small promoting more failure potential (Ref---). .

Slope Terrain characteristics are very important for assessment of potential areas of
landslide and among them slope is most relevant. Shear strength is the guiding factor in
assessing the stability of the slope. The meandering river courses in Himalaya often
causes steep to very steep slopes on the outer periphery of the meanders where the
slopes become unstable. Construction on or at the base of steep slopes has to be done
carefully (Ref---). For any type of construction of steep slope with slope angles larger
than 25 degrees, it is mandatory to make sure that the ground is reasonably stable (Fig.
3). Fig. 3. An increasing slope angle A also results in an increase of the driving force D.
Fig.

4. Steep slopes on the bank of Alaknanda river are more like to slide down if induced by
vibrations or rainfall. Relative relief The local height of the slope between the ridge top
and valley floor in a slope facet is known as the relative relief. It is important in
determining the size of the unstable wedges. The higher relative relief have more
probability of failures (Ref---). The principal agent for any landslide to occur is the
gravitational force and the movement of this mass will be proportional to the hill slope
angle.

The resisting forces preventing the mass from sliding down along the slope are inversely
proportional to the same hill slope angle and proportional to the friction angle of the
material. Prolong rain or heavy downpour can significantly reduce these resisting forces.
The speed at which different landslides occur varies greatly (Fig. 5). Fig. 5. Relative failure
speed for different types of landslides. Land use and land cover Land cover is an
indication of the slope stability. The thick vegetation covered areas are less prone to
erosion and are generally more stable. While sparsely covered or barren land are more
prone to erosion and instability.

Forest cover do protect the land from weathering and erosion by smoothing the action
of climatic agents. However, the growth of plants in pre-existing cracks or joints may
also cause excess stress on joint walls due to increase in size of roots. This phenomena
may increase the crack and loosen the rock and eventually pushes the slope material out
and cause landslide (Ref---). . Similarly, the land use is also an important indicator of the
slope behavior. The deforestation on the higher mountains or the steep slope leave the
land exposed barren to soil erosion and destabilization.

The increasing population is drifting population to the higher regions and hence
increase in development activities for housing, agriculture etc. are making the slope
unstable. The development of network of roads to facilitate the transportation is making
the slopes unstable in the Himalayan regions of which Alakananda basin is a part.
Hydrogeological conditions Hydrological conditions are the indication of the subsurface
flow pattern. It is important because the subsurface water in the hilly regions are
channeled through the structural discontinuities of the rocks.

Rain and snowmelt water penetrates into the joints of the rock and increase the
pressure within rocks which results in the decreasing shear resistance of rocks
responsible for instability. In the upper Himalayas, where the freezing and thawing
actions are common causes the slope instability. It exerts the pressure on the rock wall
results in widening of the fractures and joints (Ref---). External Factors These factors
cannot be studied on the hill slope since they are exerted outside over the larger area
and called as regional factors. These factors include downpour (heavy rainfall) and
earthquakes.

These factors are responsible for inducing the landslides and also known as triggering
factors. Seismicity and vibrations The seismicity is the frequency of the earthquake in a
region. They produce seismic shocks. Vibrations are produced by large-scale explosion
and heavy machines which may affect the slope equilibrium by evoking temporary
change in stress level which may ultimately results in the landslide. Hilly areas are known
for the earthquake induced landslides. Himalayas are geodynamical very sensitive and
vulnerable. Uttarakhand experience nearly 200 earthquakes of smaller magnitudes each
year. There are several examples of earthquakes induced landslides, viz.
a major landslide occurred in Oct 1999 tiggered 20 new and 6 old landslides in Chamoli,
killing hundreds of people (Ravindran and Philip, 2002). Hundreds of translational and
rotational landslides, rock avalanches and debris flows have been reported after the
magnitude 7.6 Muzzafarabad earthquake on October 8, 2005 (Bhandari, 2006). Rainfall
The cloudburst due to concentrated rainfall, which triggers the landslides, is another
important external factor.

Cloudburst or heave rainfall or continuous rainfall leads to increase in pore water

pressure, decrease the shear strength of the slope materials and at the same the
increasing effective total weight which often lead to sudden failures. This phenomena is
responsible for extremely high damages in Himalaya. It has been observed that the
landslides mostly occur during the monsoon season. In summers, the clayey and marly
materials contract, but swell up under the moist conditions of the monsoon results into
the situations conductive to mass movement and earth flow.

The examples are in the terrain of crystalline rocks in Pauri-Lansdowne belt. Landslide of
1880, 1898, 1939 took place after the downpour. The similar story has been observed
during the Tawaghat-Khela landslides in Pithoragarh district. These are common
observation of concentrated rainfall followed by the landslides in Himalaya (Pande
2006). 1.2.2 Anthropogenic factors These factors originate from human activities for the
development of the region and include deforestation, ill planned construction activities,
urbanization etc.

Deforestation Plants roots naturally bind soil and thus they help in reducing the chances
of the slope instability unless the failure plane is very deep. The extensive deforestation
is reported from the many parts of the Himalaya and the also the frequency of the
landslide in those parts. Improper land use The improper land use can be observed from
the following activates, · Conversion of steep slopes in farmland, · Irrigation on
vulnerable slopes, · Overgrazing by the cattle, · Quarrying · Construction of structures in
hazard prone areas Ill planned construction activates Improper selection of the site
before the placement of infrastructure such as hill roads, canals etc. without considering
the terrain capability can result in disaster.

Close proximity to the streams and rivers can be disastrous. 1.3 Morphological Features
Indicating Risk for Occurrence of Landslide 1.3.1 Old landslides/rock fall sites The old
landslide can be reactivated, for example, by heavy rainfall or an earthquake and slide
down over the old landslide. 1.3.2 New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground or street
pavements Cracks on the ground surface are indicators that the ground is moving,
either moving slowly (creep) or initiating a landslide. 1.3.3
Faults and Folds The regions from where any fault or fold line passes are more
susceptible to landslides. These are the regions where two tectonic plates converge. The
Main Central Thrust (MCT) passes trough the Alaknanda river. 1.4. Landslide Material
and Movement The type of landslide that occurs in a given location often depends on
the composition and type of material that form the ground near the surface. Table 2:
Relationship between types of movement and the types of material (adapted from
Varnes, 1978). Aim & Objectives Chapter 2 2.

Aim of the study The aim of the study is to assess the landslides and the causative
factors in the Alaknanda river valley and suggest the possible mitigation solutions. 2.1
Objectives The following objectives are pursued in order to fulfill the above aim. · To
study the landslide prone areas of Alaknanda river valley using GIS. · To study the
relation between of landslides and other natural and anthropogenic factors. · To identify
and map the sites of landslides. · To study the hazards associated with the landslide. · To
suggest the mitigation solutions.

I predict that the most of the landslides have been induced by the anthropogenic
activities and also tried to find the relation between the Climate Change along with the
anthropogenic activities, and increasing frequency of the landslides in the Alaknanda
river valley. I hope this would help to achieve my objectives and can provide better
understanding of the occurrence of landslides for proper monitoring and planning.
Review of the Literature Chapter 3 3. Review of Literature 3.1 Natural Disasters The
frequency of the natural disasters and its intensity is increasing in the world (Sudmeir-
Rieux et al., 2006; FAO, 2018).

“The term natural disaster implies the occurrence of a natural condition or phenomenon,
which threatens or acts hazardously in a defined space and time (IrasemaAlcántara-
Ayala <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X02000831>, 2002).
It has occurred since Earth's inception, these events act independently of the social
structures, human existence has created (Burton et al. 1993). In this sense, a natural
disaster can be expressed as the elements in the physical environment injurious to man
(Burton and Kates, 1964)
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X02000831>; an
interlinking of people and nature (White, 1973)
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X02000831>; the
possibility of occurrence of a damaging phenomenon (UNDRO, 1982)
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X02000831>; and as a
physical event which makes an impact on human beings and their environment
(Alexander, 1993)
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X02000831>.

Natural disasters take place worldwide, but their impact is much greater in developing
countries, where they occur very often (IrasemaAlcántara-Ayala
<https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X02000831>, 2002).
Climate extremes are the natural part of the climate system, however “climate change
has resulted into the changes in the frequency, spatial extent, duration, intensity,
duration and timing of extreme weather and climate events” (IPCC 2012b). India is
already receiving higher rate of precipitation in Himalayan regions and studies predict
that, it is going to further increase in the coming years (Mukherjee et al., 2018).

At international level, the economic loss estimated for such disasters now averages
between USD 225 billion to USD 300 billion every year (FAO, 2018). The impact of
natural disasters is greater in the developing countries, where they occur more often
since these countries are located in areas largely affected by seismicity, flooding, etc.
and their economic, social, political and cultural conditions are not good. Consequently,
vulnerable to natural disasters (economic, social, political and cultural vulnerability).
India ranks among the world's most disaster prone areas.

Having just 2% of total land mass, India accounts for 1/6th of the world's population
(Sunil Chauhan). Of the 36 States and Union Territories, as many as 28 are disaster prone
(GoI, 2004a). Most disasters are water related. India counts under the developing nations
and hence, more vulnerable to the rural disasters, since the majority of livelihood are
based on agriculture (Chapagain & Raizada, 2017). Most settlements are rural in the
Indian Himalayan region and with poor construction quality (Max Wyss, 2015). . It is
characterized by fragility of terrain, instability, tectonically active, and seismically
sensitive (Vishwambhar P. Sati, 2011).

In such region with difficult terrain, access to food, shelter and communication which
help with relief and recovery is a challenge after a disaster (Chapagain & Raizada, 2017).
Increase in monsoon rain and rapid retreat of the Himalayan glaciers has consequences
for water related hazards, such as cloudburst, glacier lake outburst floods which
eventually trigger the landslides (Vishwambhar P. Sati, 2011). 3.2 Landslides Many
articles are discussing the causes of landslides (Turner, 2018).The main three categories
of causes are Geological cause, morphological cause and human cause (Cruden and
Varnes, 1996).

Cruden and farness further explaining causes under each category. Kjekstad and
Highland (2009) explaining human caused landslide hazard in Indian context, which also
involves the building of human settlements in Himalayas and tourist resort building and
lack of drainage system 8 in northern India. The other human activities which trigger
landslide are agroforestry (Perera al., 2018).

Flash floods and occurrence of landslides dams in river valleys also occur frequently due
to erratic rainfall and one of the most drastic one is the recent flash flood along with
debris flow at Kedarnath on 16-17 June 2013 which claimed more than a thousand
casualties and more than three thousand went missing. In last few years, several
researchers have been attempted the assessment of landslide susceptibility in the form
of hazard zonation maps (Van Westen 1994; Carrara et al. 1995; Chung and Fabbri 1999;
Guzzetti et al. 1999).

Landslide plays an important role in landform building process, promoting soil

formation and it has been observed often that most habitations in the hills is located in
the proximity of old stabilised landslides as these provide suitable land for agricultural
operations. Direct losses due to landslides have been increasing and frequent disruption
of the transport network by landslides has been highlighted as a major hindrance in
economic well-being of the region (Brabb EE, Pampeyan EH, Bonilla MG, 1972).
Alaknanda valley and the same has been studied about the different natural and man-
made feature to assess the influence of these on the occurrence of landslides in these
regions.

This has been done to formulate a viable and long lasting strategy for minimizing the
risk of landslides. In the previous some years, mainly due to extreme precipitation
events, landslides have, however become a major cause of concern (Sajwan KS and
Sushil K., 2016) Climate change leads to permafrost degradation in the high altitude
snow covered region, and human engineering projects and changing climate further
accelerate the process of permafrost degradation (He et al., 2009b).

During the thawing of permafrost, the phase change of water has a severe impact on
the mechanical properties of the soil and hence the chances of landslides increases
(Wang et al., 2014b). 3.3 Climate Change Climate change caused by increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases, which results in global warming. These gases trap
the heat in our atmosphere by preventing terrestrial radiation from escaping into space.
The major greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxides etc. imitted
when fossil fuels are burned in the industries and the automobiles. There is a surge in
the use of Fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution (Maarten K.

van Aalst, 2006). The climate change is expected to hit developing countries the hardest.
Its potential effects on temperatures, precipitation pattern and intensity, sea levels, and
frequency of weather related disasters pose risks for agriculture, food and water
supplies (World Bank, 2020). Climate change is threatening global water and food
security, agriculture supply chains and many coastal cities (Dr. V. Shaharban, 2018).

South Asia is one of the major region going to experience the extremities of climate
change in the near future, especially India due to its diverse terrain (Tony George
Puthucherril, 2012). India is expected to have serious impacts of changing climate
because the country is rapidly exploiting its natural resources an in doing so, destroying
its environment mainly due to “urbanization and industrialization” (Saha and Talwar).
2013 Uttarakhand floods landslides, the 2015 Chennai flood and the 2016 drought are
few prominent natural hazards caused huge damage of life and property.

Other prominent evidences are increasing in the intensity of many extreme weather
events such as heat waves, glacier retreat exposing the rocks, intense rainfall, landslides.
These disasters result in adverse impact such as hunger, vulnerability to diseases, loss of
income and livelihoods (Shreerupa Mitra Jha, 2016). The Himalayas are experiencing the
wrath of Climate Change at an unprecedented rate; this is increasing the incidents of
erratic rainfall, cloudburst, landslides and related disasters.

Warming in Himalayas is happening higher than the global average of 0.74 ?C over the
last 100 years (IPCC, 2007a; Du et al., 2004), at least 2-3 times higher than global
averages. Progressively higher warming with higher altitude is a phenomenon prevalent
over the completely Himadri region (New et al., 2002). Uttarakhand is most vulnerable to
Climate related risks. About three-fourth of the state's population is rural and virtually all
depends on agriculture and allied activities. Tourism is the growing source of income in
the last few years, yet it declined after the 2013 floods.

A large portion of the state in under forest. Uttarakhand having 15 important rivers and
over a dozen of major glaciers is a valuable freshwater reserve (Ashutosh Mishra, 2014).
Climate change has affected this region severely. Several studies have shown a notable
temperature rise over the region, especially in the mountainous regions which results
into the erratic rainfall, irregular winter rain, depleting natural resources, glacier retreat,
increasing intensity and frequency of flash floods,landslides, drying of perennial streams.
3.4 Uttarakhand Floods Uttarakhand has a long history of floods, especially during the
monsoon season.

The number of deaths due to rain and floods, which also triggered landslides at few
places, was more than 60 in 2019, 58 in 2018, 84 in 2017. More than two thousand big
and small animals too died (down-to-earth, 2019). Only in 2019, the total loss was more
than two billion rupees (SDRFA, Uttrakhand). Let's not forget the 2013 flood of
Kedarnath. The main reason behind the disaster was the heavy downpour in very short
time that led to flash floods in all the major river streams in Uttarakhand (Down to
Earth). The recorded rainfall in the State between 15 June and 18 June 2013 was
measured at 385.1

mm, against the normal rainfall of 71.3 mm, which was in excess of 440%. The major
region cited was the unprecedented warming of the region (India Disaster Report, 2013).
Over the years, the change in the rainfall pattern and intensity has led to changes in the
hydrogeological activity of the region since Himalayas are the newest formations on the
geological time scale. 3.5 Cloudbrust In recent times, the impacts of Climate Change are
prominent in the form of extreme events. Cloudbursts are extreme rainfall events trigger
large scale mass movement and flash floods.

It is a natural and common phenomenon in the Himalaya, especially in Garhwal

(Alaknanda River is the part of this region) and Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.
Cloudburst often causes landslides in the catchment areas of the rivers in Himalayas
(Uttarakhand State Disaster Management Authority). Cloudburst has triggered the
landslides in the Uttarakhand but it is noteworthy that the sites that were damaged and
destroyed in these incidences have some striking similarities. It is noticed that most
cloudburst events occur on cultivated land.

According to DMMC report (2012 and 2014) most of the habitations were observed to
be situated amid agricultural lands with a thick cover of overburden material. This added
to the devastation and a number of houses were completely swept away by the
landslide debris. Another observation is that these events, mostly occur along first and
second order drainages (seasonal streams). The majority of the incidences have at the
same time been encountered on the rocks of Munsiyari Fm. and Almora Crystallines
(Sushil Khanduri and others). 3.6

Geology The geology of the place very much decides the chances of landslides in a
particular region. It includes the study of bedrock, glacial drift, loess, alluvium, river flow,
bank erosion (Gregory C. Ohlmacher, 2001). The type and intensity of landslides very
much depend upon the geological setting and formation of the region. The newly
formed regions of the geological time scale will be more susceptible to the landslides
(José Chacón and others, 2016). Lithology and tectonics data collected to study the
geology of the place. Geology is an important parameter to know the stability of a site
because active geomorphological processes such as landslides are sensitive to the
geology of the place.

The various rock slopes and slope angles determine the landslides (Sajwan KS; Sushil K,
2016). The Main Central Thrust (MCT) passes in between the Central Crystalline and the
Garhwal group of rocks separating both. It is the major tectonic discontinuity exposed
across the Alaknanda river valley along with other several faults in the area. The area is
comprised of low grade metasediments like dolomites, quartzites and slates belonging
to the Garhwal Group while Central Crystalline Group is represented by high grade
metamorphics like gneiss, marble, schist and granite (Shantanu Sarkar, 2016).

The site is full of many local weak planes and are vulnerable to mass wastage because
the fractured rock mass are filled by gauge materials. The moving water and gravity
easily pull down the fractured and sheared rocks on the hill slopes. On an average, the
beds are inclined at about 30° towards NE but we can observe many local variations due
to multiple folds (Sajwan KS; Sushil K, 2016). 3.7 Coping strategies and mitigation
measures “An aware, informed and prepared community is better able to cope and
respond to disaster situations than otherwise" (Parkash, 2013).

Risk assessment is crucial in preventing the effects of natural disasters (Skrzypczak et al.,
2017). Residential and industrial structures should build outside the hazard zone,
adequate drainage system should be there (Skrzypczak et al., 2017) land use regulations
to prevent building in susceptible sites (Crozier, 2012), which all contribute
anthropogenic trigger to landslides. Capacity development is one of the important
aspects of disaster risk reduction and sustainable development in hilly terrain (Parkash,
2013).

There are several mitigation options for landslides, structural and geotechnical, political,
legal and administrative measures (Turner, 2018) more specifically which includes,
physical methods, hydrological methods, site grooming, warning systems, regulations,
fiscal incentives, land use planning schemes, education and loss-sharing schemes
(Crozier, 2012). With the current changing Climate and the environment, the incidents
and intensity of landslides in the mountainous regions will be on the increase in coming
years (Jimmy Osuret and others, 2016).

The proper study of the region is required at the very first step, about the geology,
identification of slopes, hydrogeological conditions, land use land cover change,
anthropogenic activities like building roads, dams etc. (K.Y.Choi and Raymond
W.M.Cheung, 2016). There is need to check the deforestation and the forest fire in
summer season in the region, which exposes the hill slopes, and heavy rains and melting
snows after summer washes off the hill slopes and causes landslides. The heavy
downpour causes more water flow in the river channels which results in the bank
erosion, which makes the foothills of the river valley weaker (Elliott C. Spiker and Paula L.
Gori, 2000).
Fix the slopes and discourse people to live in proximity to the river banks, which is more
susceptible to landslides (K.Y. Choi and Raymond W.M. Cheung, 2016). “People with
location specific livelihood are more vulnerable to resettlement programmes”(Kjekstad
and Highland, 2009). So it is very necessary to identify the socio-economic background
(Kjekstad and Highland, 2009) and impact of landslide on livelihood of the affected
community.

Thus, utilized recovery includes rehabilitation and re-establishmen tUttarakhand of

services and making the affected community self-sustaining again (Crozier, 2012). The
return to destroyed home will be influenced by the personal ties also. For the elderly the
only hope to survive the disaster will be with the help of family, neighbours and
caregivers (Aldrich, 2012). Hasyim (2013) identified coping strategies of tsunami affected
community. It comprises temporary local migration, working longer hours, utilizing
support from extended families, utilized more services from money lenders, drawing
upon household?s liquid assets (sold jewellery, livestock or farmland), Many children left
their schools changed livelihood and Households diversified their livelihoods activities.
Osuret et al. (2016) identified positive and negative coping strategies and vulnerabilities
of landslide and flood affected households in Uganada. Sudmeier-Rieux et al.

(2012) identified coping strategies- risk acceptance, risk perception and access to
resources in Nepal Landslide affected villages. In Uttrakhand, Risk assessment
methodologies have been applied, mapping of the areas into landslide zoning (NDMA,
2019). Projects having a less physical restructuring are allowed first. The monitoring is
done after the implementation of the restoration works. It includes locally to speed up
the restoration (Pratibha Barik, 2016). The further study with consistent and
strengthened methodologies will help to justify the above mentioned strategies and will
also try fill up the gaps in between. Study Area Chapter 4 4. Study Area Fig. 6.

ASTER DEM showing study area along with main river (Alaknanda river blue in colour)
and the major thrust. 4.1 Location The study was conducted in the the Alaknanda river
valley located in the Uttarakhand state in India. The study area lies within 30°08?44? to
30°50?28? N latitude and 78°33?52?E to 79°12?49? E logitude in Alaknanda river can be
mapped. The Alaknanda is a Himalayan river in the Indian state of Uttarakhand
originating at Satopanth Glacier (elevation 3, 880 m) and merging with Bhagirathi River
at Devprayag (elevation 475 m) to be called as the Holy Ganges.

It is the major river of Northern India and the holy river of Hinduism. The area of
Alaknanda river basin is 11.8 x 103 km2 and is formed by the proglacial Alaknanda
stream and its tributaries which are mostly fed by snow, ice melt and monsoon
precipitation. The major portion of the river falls in the Chamoli region of the state. 4.2
Climate The climate of Uttarakhand is demarcated between its two natural division: the
larger hilly terrain and the smaller plain region. The type of climate in the southern part
of the state is closely resembles with the Gangetic plain, hot summers temperature
crossing 40°C mark and chilled winters with temperature going below 5°C.

Typically, Himalayan climates are experienced in the northern part of the Uttarakhand.
The mountain ranges with different altitudes are responsible for the local climate
influencing the monsoon and rainfall. The higher peaks are covered with snow almost
throughout the year at the elevation above 4000 m. Warm temperate climate is
experienced in the Middle Himalayan Valleys having summer temperature around 25°C
and cooler winters. Higher areas of the Middle Himalayan valleys experience the cool
temperate conditions with the summer temperature around 15 to 18° C and winters
below freezing point. Cold alpine climate is experienced at higher reaches.

At altitudes above about 4500 m, the temperature is below the freezing point and the
area is perennially covered with snow and ice. The rains are received in the monsoon
season which is the main reason behind the numbers of landslides in the monsoon
season. The eastern flanks of the Himalayan ranges receives heavy rainfall while the
western section remains relatively dry. Same climatic and precipitation condition is
experienced by the Alaknanda river originating at the altitude near 4000 m and flowing
down to the elevation near 500 m at Devprayag. 4.3

Geomorphology and Physiography The topography of the region is highly precipitous. It

consist of many peaks such as Nandadevi (7816 m), Kamet (7756 m), Chaukhambha
(7138), Trishul (7120 m), Neelkanth (6596 m) etc. There are many transverse, deep,
narrow gorges of rivers like Alaknanda, Saraswati, etc. seperating the glaciers covering
the slopes of the peaks. The valleys regions are occupied with the morainic materials. U-
shaped glacier valleys, V- shaped fluvial valleys,, lateral and end moraines, river terraces
and Denudational Structural Mountains are the prevalent landforms. Landslides are
common feature of this region due to high relief and high precipitation.

The Alaknanda river is the main river in the area which originates from Satopanth-
Bhagirat Kharak Group of glaciers. ?e river initially has a West-East course before
meeting Saraswati river at Keshav prayag near Mana village at the north of Badrinath
Shrine and further it flows almost North-South. Downstream major tributaries as Khiro
Ganga join it below the Badrinath shrine at Benakuli, Bhuindar Ganga meets at
Govindghat and Dhauli Ganga meets at Vishnuprayag above Joshimath.

Downstream small tributaries as Kalpa Ganga, Garur Ganga, Patal Ganga and Birahi
Ganga join the Alaknanda between Joshimath and Chamoli. Nandakini river joins it at
Nandprayag. Southeast flowing, Pinder River joins the Alaknanda at Karanprayag. 4.4
Geology of the area Fig. 7. Geological Map Two rock sequences are observed to be
exposed in the area around Chamoli district; compressed between North Almora Thrust
(NAT) and Main Central Thrust (MCT) constitutes the Lesser Himalayan meta-
sedimentary zone.

Underlying meta-sedimentaries of Garhwal Group are separated by the MCT (Srivastava

& Ahmad 1979). There is presence of several faults beside the MCT in the Alaknanda
river valley. The area is composed of gneiss, schists and metabasics belonging to Central
Crystalline Group of high grade metamorphics and dolomites, slates and quartzites
belonging to Garhwal group. All these rocks are very much weathered and sheared.
Slate are generally thin bedded while quartzites are highly jointed and thick bedded for
the most of their part. Gauge materials filled the locally jointed rocks as a result of
shearing.

Naturally gneiss are hard and massive but they can be found as loose boulders at many
places. MCT is the base of Varatika Group while the top is bounded by a normal Fault. It
has been named as Trans- Himadri Thrust/Fault (T-HF). This plane is full of the Tethyan
sediments which are largely un-metamorphosed. Himalayan Garhwal Group is separated
from the southern outer Lesser Himalayan Jaunsar and Almora Groups by North Almora
Thrust (NAT). Alaknanda Fault (AF) extending from south of Nandprayag in the east to
beyond Chribatiyakhal in the west is the significant E-W striking Fault in the area. Table
3. Lithotectonic succession in the region of Alaknanda river valley (after Valdiya, 1980).

4.5 Drainage Fig. 8. Drainge map of Alaknanda and Tributaries (ASTER DEM) Alaknanda
is amajor tributary of the holy river Ganga that flows in this region. It get its name after
the confluence with Rishi Ganga. Other major tributaries of Alaknanda are Dhauli Ganga,
Garur Ganga and Patal Ganga (Fig. 6). It flows in NW to SE direction from Badrinath to
Vishnuprayag and thereafter flows in SW direction but near Joshimath it flows towards
west. Most of the river course is almost straight and flows through the deep gorges due
to incision of stream. Drainage pattern suggests the structural control in the region (Fig.
6). 4.6

Temperature and Rainfall The average temperature of the Alaknanda valley is increasing
gradually. It is the result of the Climate Change. The mean lowest temperature is rising
up that is the main reason behind the receding of glaciers. However, in 2019, the valley
received above average rainfall in comparison to previous years. The number of days of
snowfall also increased in the upper valley areas. The rainfall is becoming erratic in the
valley. The year 2019 saw the many new sites of the landslides triggered by the long
rains. The increasing temperature is causing more evaporation results in local cloud
formation and heavy rain.

We have learnt from the June, 2013 disaster and planned accordingly but still the
measures taken are not adequate. We are able to save life but the loss of property is
increasing each year due to unprecedented rainfall. The average rainfall and the
temperature graphs have been given below of the few important and landslide prone
location of the Alaknanda river valley. (Source: World weather online) Graph 1.
Temperature and Rainfall at Badrinath Graph 2. Temperature and Rainfall at Joshimath.
Graph 3. Temperature and Rainfall at Gopeshwar. Graph 4. Temperature and Rainfall at
Ukhimath. Graph 5. Temperature and Rainfall at Rudraprayag. Graph 6. Temperature and
Rainfall at Srinagar. Graph 7.

Temperature and Rainfall at Pauri. Methodology and Tools Chapter 5 5. Methodology

and Tools 5.1 General Methodology and Database The study is based on geospatial as
well as conventional database. The geospatial database includes remote sensing satellite
data from different sensors. Mapping, site visiting, Digital Elevation Models was
prepared for the different thematic layers. Classification of remotely sensed data and
their integration with various conventional datasets under the GIS platform.

To gather a first hand knowledge of an area, a base map was prepared with the help of
Survey of India (SOI) toposheets using ArcGIS 10.6 and ERDAS 14 softwares. DEM maps
were prepared to get an idea about the relief, slope and aspects of the area. Geological
and Tectonic maps of the area was extracted under GIS platform using GSI and NBSS
source maps. A drainage map of the Alaknanda river basin was also prepared using
ASTER DEM based on the SOI toposheets of 1:50,000 scale. The maps related with
landslides sites in the areas was obtained from the NASA global landslide catalogue web
application. Tables of the major landslides and the lithotectonic succession of the region
was made.

The landslide site data was plotted on the DEM using GIS tools and rainfall data was also
combined with that. Site photos were also included. Fatality data were plotted with date
using NASA ArcGIS web application. The landside susceptibility map was made. The site
of landslides was examined and the mitigation solutions are suggested. 5.2 Databases
and Sources · The Survey of India (SOI) toposheets at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 was used to
create the base map of the study area using ASTER DEM. · Alaknanda river basin map
was prepared with the help of Survey of India toposheets. The Toposheets used to study
are 53/N3, N7, N10, N11, N14, N13, J15, J16, J12 of 1:50,000 scale.

· Landsat satellite image for October, 2008 having a spatial resolution of 30 m was used
for modifying the geological and tectonic maps. · Digital Elevation Models (DEM) for
area was prepared from ASTER GDEM of 30 meter resolution. · Google Earth was used
for cross-reference of these geomorphic features identified on satellite images. ·
Information related to geography, climate, geology of the study area was collected from
various research publications and scientific reports, both published and unpublished. ·
Softwares Used: ArcGIS 10.6, ERDAS IMAGINE 14, Google Earth Application version 7.3
and ArcGIS Earth Result and Mitigation Solutions Chapter 6 6. Result 6.1 Distribution of
Landslides Fig. 9. Medium and big landslides recorded between 2010-18 in Alaknanda
river valley.

(Obtained from ArcGIS Web) It is evident from the geology of the Alaknanda river valley
is that it is a newly formed and seismically active region. There are several fault lines
passing through the region as well as the anthropogenic activities taking like road
construction, settlements etc. that are coupled with the rainfall, floods and the cloud
bursts. The landslides are mainly centered to the regions of the tectonic contacts
naturally but in the recent time, the development activities have triggered the landslides
more in number. The National Highway no.

58 running along the river until the origin of the river to ease the transport
communication to the pilgrimage places like Badrinath and also to connect the far off
villages (settlements) has impacted the slope stability. The region has accounted for
more than 400 big and small landslides. The major one are Kaliyasaur landslide, Tangini
landslide etc. Wherever the new landslides have occurred and aligned to the old
sections there the number of landslide is very less. 6.2 Landslide and Anthropogenic
activities Fig. 10. Map of Alaknanda river and the major fault lines.

The black wedge lines crossing the river are major fault lines, ST- South Almora Thrust,
NAT- North Almora Thrust, AF- Alaknanda Fault, MCT- Main Central Thrust. National
Highway number is 58. It has been recorded that in the recent time the number of
medium or smaller landslides have increased. The bigger landslides are very less in
number since they are majorly triggered by the tectonic activities. The development of
the roads in the region have triggered the many landslides out of them few sites have
been recorded where the landslide occurs frequently (e.g. Kaliyasaur landslide).

The widening of the road along the river bank with steep slopes have triggered the
many landslides (Fig. 10) and many times it has been occured after heavy rainfall. The
cutting down loose rocks for making roads at bottom of the slopes makes the top
unstable and with heavy rain and due to gravity they slide down and causes landslides.
In addition to the above, many landslides have occurred in sparsely vegetated area and
the agricultural regions (irrigated or non-irrigated).
The hold on the soil become loose in the absence of the deep roots holding the soil and
also slowing down the speed of the rain water down the slope which causes erosion.
Maximum slides have been recorded on the barren or deforested slopes that can be
easily eroded by the rainwater. The coniferous zones suffer the most due to the medium
slides while the deciduous are least affected. The increased settlements due meet the
requirement of the population is another reason for the landslides.

Many of the mountain slopes have been converted into the terrace farms that holds the
moisture for the longer time and hence make the slopes heavy that slide down due to
gravity. Fig. 11. Debris flow due to temporary road construction to reach the dam
construction site. 6.3. Landslides and nearness to Tectonic contacts Fig. 12. D-tilted, DEM
ASTER map showing the location of landslides to the riverbank and Thrusts (landslides
plotted from the NASA landslide viewer. Most of the landslides have occurred in
proximity of 1-1.5km from the tectonic contacts and the number of slides gradually
decreases when we go away from the tectonic contacts. From this, it is inferred that the
landslide zones are near the tectonic lines (faults or the regional thrust lines).

Most slides are confined between the NAT passing near the Srinagar and MCT passing
near the Joshimath and also influenced by the local structures affected by the
Neotectonic, e.g, Kaliyasaur, Pipalkothi, Joshimath, confluence of Patalganga and
Alaknanda, Chamolietc, etc. The morphology of the region has become rugged due to
frequent number of landslides. Many of the barren mountain slopes, the hill slopes that
were once covered with the forests are now barren which exhibits the spectacular
picture. It is because the dynamic forces are still active. The many valleys are also barren
due to the similar reason.

If we pass through the region, we can see that the hills are steeply scared, hallowed and
gullied and devoid of vegetation. All these help us as important clues in recognizing and
identifying the major tectonic and thrusts zones on the satellite imagery. The recent
frequency and the number of the slides are far outnumber than the older ones.
Anthropogenic activities such as building of roads and bridges, increasing settlements,
deforestation, dams, agriculture etc. on the fragile hill slopes are equally responsible for
the degradation of the unstable slopes due to the disturbances of the angle of repose.
6.4

Landslide and other Natural Disasters The whole region is full of streams, rivers and
snow covered slopes at the higher altitudes. The natural disasters are the inseparable
part of the Alaknanda river valley though it occurs in different forms, e.g. floods,
cloudburst etc. More of the disasters are due to the hydrogeological conditions of the
region. In the recent years, due to the global warming, the frequency and the
percentage of such disasters have outnumbered the olden time. Cloudbursts have
caused the sudden floods in the low-lying areas and causes significant damages to the
life and property. The have also washed away the slopes down at many places which is
also a slide.

The rainfall in the region is highly variable due to its orographic and geographic
disposition. The maximum average monthly has been recorded in July 2013 (555.3 mm)
and 1.5 mm minimum average monthly rainfall in Nov. 2010. There are many months
which have recorded the 0% of rainfall. The debris or the rock fall from the top block the
rivers and streams at many places and forms temporary dams. It leads to change in the
course of the rivers, which cause more erosion, which ultimately results in more slides.

At few places, these temporary dams have burst out due to the pressure of the water
accumulated and caused the flood like situation in lower course. Forest fire has become
more in numbers in the recent years. In year 2019, around 1600 hectares of forest area
lost due to forest fire. The long dry winter followed by extremely hot summers due to
Climate Change is the reason for it. At few places, forest fires had burnt the vegetation
cover of the hills slope, which ultimately results in the slides with the onset of the
monsoon. Fig. 13. The erosion done by the 2013 Uttarakhand flood. It is 15 m of the
height. 6.5

Landslide Susceptibility Fig. 14. Map showing the active relative tectonics and past
seismicity in sub basins. I-Lower Mandakini; II-Mandakini; III-Upper Alaknanda; IV-
Nandakini; V-Pindar; V-Dhauliganga; VII-Devprayag; and VIII-Birahiganga. Fig. 15.
Susceptibility map of Alaknanda River Valley. The regions along the river channels are
very highly susceptible to landslides. The thrust or the local faults too fall in the Very
High Zone. The water in the rivers flows at the higher velocity while passing through the
sloppy valleys and hence causes erosion on the banks at the significantly higher rate
that result in the displacement of rocks at the bottom of hills or the mountains.

The layer above it slides down under the influence of the gravity, e.g., Kaliyasaur
landslide on the bank of Alaknanda river slides down in about every 5 years which
blocks the NH 58, the only road connecting the middle Himalaya to the lesser Himalaya.
Landslides are more common during the rainy season and frequency is increasing with
the increase in the deluge of rain due to the Climate Change. The precipitation has
become more erratic in the recent years. The Himalayan region is still in the young stage
of formation so the regions of tectonic contacts are very highly susceptible to the
landslides. Tremors due to Earthquakes also makes the slope unstable which are more
near to the faults and thrust lines.
Landslide Susceptibility Zonation (LSZ) relies on a rather complex knowledge of slope
movements and their controlling parameters. The reliability of landslide susceptibility
maps depends mostly on the amount and quality of available data, the working scale
and the selection of the appropriate methodology of analysis and modelling. The
process of creating these maps involves several qualitative or quantitative approaches
(Soeters and Van Westen, 1996; Aleotti and Chowdhury,1999; Guzzetti et. al., 1999,
Onagh et. al., 2012). Fig. 16.

Srinagar town on the bank of Alaknanda river is susceptible to Landslide. It is inhabited

on the alluvial deposits. 6.6 Reduction/Mitigation Solution We can start from identifying
the areas at risk in a systematic way and communicating with authorities and
communities likely to be affected in more better and effective manner. We should focus
on the use of advance technologies and arrangements for the disaster risk management.
We should also incorporate and empower the local communities to manage the risks
from disaster by themselves by creating awareness and training them.

It is not easy for the NDRF, police personals to reach the site in less time in the areas
located remotely with difficult terrain. Fig. 17. Map showing the regions where medium
or big landslides occurred between 2010 and 2016. (Obtained from NASA landslide
viewer) Landslides are by nature occur sudden and it is difficult to predict and control
them but with proper planning and measures risk to lives and property can be reduced.
We can divide the measures in two parts, Pre landslide mitigation measures and Post
landslide mitigation measures. 6.6.1

Pre Landslide/ Disaster Mitigation measures There are numerous fault lines and thrusts
in the geology of Uttarakhand which makes the region instable. The recent scientific
researches are indicating that the Climate Change is going to increase the frequency of
the heavy rainfall which includes cloudbursts causing flash floods and landslides. It
results into increase in ecological and socio-economical vulnerability of the people who
are living in these areas.

The region is also witnessing the massive economic and infrastructure growths which
includes, road construction and widening, mining, large number of hydro projects,
dams, tunneling, diversion structures, infrastructure for tourism and increasing the size
of settlements etc. Landslides and development are very inexorably linked in the
Himalayan region. The vulnerability of a region to landslides or any natural disaster is
directly or indirectly related with the prevailing conditions of the region or society.

The development pattern is the symbol of the condition of the region or society but
unfortunately most of these developments activities are not aligned with the local
geological, geo-morphological and ecological conditions. It is not easy to locate the
exact site, magnitude and the extent of the landslides and other natural disasters but
there are several measures that can help us to reduce the impact of these disasters.
Some of the measures are land use planning, soil management, construction codes,
check deforestation, settlements away from the river banks or the tectonic contacts,
awareness raising, post disaster recovery plans etc. i.

Locate the landslide hazard prone area with the help of modern technologies and the
local people and map the hazard zonation in macro and meso scales. ii. Plan and
implement the structural and non-structural measures with the help of experienced
people in academic as well as practical in handling such disasters. It can include Geo
engineers, Geologists, Environmentalists, Civil Engineers, Hydrologists, Postgraduates in
Disaster Management etc. and can prepare the mitigation plan focusing on each
components. iii.

Aware the local people with the help of Municipal Corporation/ Gram Panchayat/ NGOs
and never allow building an structure in the disaster prone area. We should also place
enough signboard physically marking the area. iv. We need to honestly follow or
monitor the rules by government, project authorities, society etc. They have prepared
the rules and regulations after extensive study of the area by the experts. But in reality,
we have find that most of the project companies as well as monitoring authorities don't
follow the rules and regulations, e.g.

there are many buildings located within the 200 m of the river bank which is against the
directives of Hon'ble High Court of Uttarakhand. v. We can use soil nailing in the upper
slope which is more fragile and chances of rock fall is more. Gibson walls can be used
for the middle part which allow the water to drain retaining the overburden. We can use
surface and subsurface drains for lower slopes or we can make them more slanting near
the roads. vi. If possible, removing the population from the landslide prone areas or
reducing the number of settlements. 6.6.2 Post Landslide /Disaster Mitigation measures
The direct result of the disaster is seen as the loss of life and property.

But the another damage is triggered by a chain of cause and effect events relating to
the first disaster. For example, many of the people unable to pay their loans, increase in
the incidences of the problems related to health, emotional response and crimes. The
disaster associated with the original disaster always remains greater in magnitude than
original one. We must ensure the proper rehabilitation and care of the victims of the
disaster so that the impact of the associated disaster can be mitigated. Fig. 18. Map
showing the number of fatalities recorded due to landslides between 2010- 2016.
(Obtained from Global landslide catalogue web map) Many times the flooding can occur
after the landslide due to high velocity and high depth associated with debris.

The debris can also form a temporary dam causing the drowning of the low laying areas.
We should start the immediate evacuation continuously monitoring the area. Post
disaster, diseases (e.g., diarrhea, vector borne) and infections can increase manifold. We
must assist them with proper medical facilities. The Psychological or mental health
impacts can be observed and related to the trauma experienced during disaster and
after evacuation, the disruption of life and household and loss of personal belongings.
We must assist them with psychological or mental health staffs for quite few days if they
needed. Locals should help them by providing proper food, water and other basic
amenities.

Disaster may also results in the loss of the cultural heritage but barely counted in the
damages. A certain folklores, traditions, language and knowledge of the involved
communities can be lost forever. Government should assist them with the assets
redistribution and providing them basic income. Discussion Chapter 7 7. Discussion The
debate about the causative factors of the landslides centred on whether geological and
tectonic factors are the main reason behind the landslides in the Lesser Himalaya (Sati et
al.,

1998) or whether the anthropogenic factors like development activities. Factors were
stronger when work in conjunction (Pande et al., 2002). Pande et al., (2002) say that
structural weakness, cracks, low rock strength, low vegetation cover, thin soils and
anthropogenic activities all together, were the main causes of landslides. According to
Dahal et al., (2008) geomorphological and anthropogenic factors are more important
than the geological factors.

However, this study has shown that the frequency of the landslides have increased due
not only Climate Change (rate is anthropogenic actives driven) or tectonics but largely
due to anthropogenic activities. The sites with much deforestation, development
activities, and road buildings have generated more number of landslides. The landslide
at Kaliyasaur is coupled with road building, bank erosion and proximity to tectonic fault.
Roads building are the major accelerator for the landslide activity in the West Indes
(Maharaj, 1993).

In Alkananda valley aslo, major numbers of landslides were associated with the road
construction The cut made through the slopes to build road makes the upper slope
unstable which many a times fall down under the influence of gravity. It was identified
that there are the random processes which trigger the landslides on steep hill slopes
which are close to the critical limits of the slope stability (Haigh, 1984, Brunetti et al.,
2009). So, we may accept that the landslides in the Alaknanda river valley are so much
sensitive dependent on their initial conditions.

They can be triggered unpredictably, apparently at random, by any factor, which may
include downpour, earthquake, bank erosion, load accumulation etc. Most of the
landslides were induced by the heavy and prolonged rain and majorly in the areas close
to riverbanks and development activates in the Alaknanda river valley. The whole region
is highly tectonised and rocks are highly sheared, fractured and jointed. Most places
have observed as many as three sets of joints.

Landslides have been largely occurred due to slope modification for development
activities or due to bank erosion by the rivers and streams, mostly during the time of
heavy downpour. Besides, the region where the old landslides material are deposited
are identified as most vulnerable to slope failure. Illegal and unscientific way of
construction throughout the region is most important anthropogenic activities which
advanced the rate of deforestation and landslide incidences.

Deforestation majorly affects the slope stability which can been seen in every part of the
lower Himalayas. We know that the transportation network is the lifeline for the socio-
economic development of the hills but it should be constructed according to the proper
guidance given by the geo-environmental engineers. It should be constructed away
from the riverbanks affecting least to the forests.

All kind of development activities must be done by properly considering the ecological
and geomorphological factors controlling the landslides like slope repose, relative relief,
hydrology, geology, landuse/landcover, structure etc. Mitigation measures are required
to decrease the frequency and the impact of the disaster though following the measures
suggested above. Most of time the post disaster traumas are ignored by the
government and agencies due to the absence of proper machineries and resources but
it results into more fatal scenarios.

We must acknowledge the fact that development and disaster are interlinked but with
proper infrastructure development we can minimize the impact of disaster on the
human beings and lead a beneficial life. Conclusion Chapter 8 8. Conclusion Climate
Change is making the weather condition more unpredictable but still we can do a lot to
minimize the impact. Landslides are induced by the seismic activities as well as the
atmospheric precipitation. Though we can't predict the seismic activates in real time but
real time data on rainfall is available can be used for marking the thresholds of the
different catchments based upon slope, geology, distribution of Quaternary deposits,
catchment area and landuse/ landcover etc. Marking the places with proper sign boards
and generation of timely warning hold the key to saving lives. There is urgent need of
strengthening thee Metrological observations network.

In case of road building, we have seen that the distance from the river and stream bank
is important in order to decrease the frequency of the landslides. It is because such
locations are prone to toe/bank erosion. The farther the road from the riverbanks the
more safer it is. The initial cost of building the roads may be little high in the zones away
from river but in long run it is going to be fruitful and a better decision. It is necessary to
construct the roads in hills for socio-economic development as well as to facilitate the
response/relief, recovery, search and rescue operations after disaster but the road
construction in hills necessarily accompanied by slope stabilization and rainwater
disposal measures. Considering around more than 70% debris slide in the area,
afforestation is very much required using the site-specific plants species, soil nailing,
Gibson wall, wire mesh along the slopes could help in the slop stability.

Landslide hazards can be minimized by avoiding the construction in landslide prone

region. Landslide susceptibility map need to be created at macro and meso level which
can help the planners before planning any infrastructure development in a particular
area. It can handy for the prohibition and regulation of the future development in zones
of active landslide and cloudburst. Mass awareness among the local people should be
conducted about the landslide.

Post disaster mitigation is equally important part of the disaster. Proper rehabilitation
and relocating the affected people is important in order to help them to come out of
the trauma experienced due to the disaster. Many times, it takes months to years to
come out of the trauma. Basic income should be provided to them with adequate food
and water supply. Though disasters impact few people directly but it is our collective
and moral duty to help them who have suffered. We cannot stop the natural disasters
completely but we can minimize the impact by proper planning, utilizing the advance
scientific technology and sharing the resources with those who have been affected.

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