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Velocity (mm/sec)
Velocity (inches/sec) = 25.4
Displacement (microns)
Displacement (mils) = 25.4
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From Imperial to Metric: -
Velocity (mm/sec) = Velocity (inches/sec) X 25.4
Displacement (microns) = Displacement (mils) X 25.4
2.4 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY OR ACCELERATION WHICH SHOULD
WE USE?
Since the amplitude of vibration can be measured in terms of displacement, velocity
or acceleration, the obvious question is 'Which parameter should we use?
Vibration amplitude readings taken for checking overall machinery condition
indicate the severity of the vibration. But which is the best indicator of vibration
severity: displacement, velocity or acceleration? To answer this question, consider what
happens when a wire or piece of sheet metal is bent repeatedly back and forth.
Eventually, this repeated bending causes the metal to fai'i by fatigue in the area of the
bend. This is similar in many respects to the way a machine or machine component fail
from the repeated cycles of flexing caused by excessive vibration. Of course, the time
required to fail the wire or sheet metal can be reduced by: -
1. Increasing the amount of the bend (displacement). The further the metal is
bent each time, the more likely it is to fail.
2. By, increasing the rate of bending (frequency). Obviously, the more times
per minute the metal is flexed, the quicker it will fail.
Thus the severity of this bending action is a function of both how far the
metal is bent (displacement) and how fast the metal is bent (frequency). Vibration
severity then appears to be a function of displacement and frequency.
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The phase may be measured with a stroboscope, as shown in figure 2.7. This is
shown for a rotor rotating at same speed. If the frequency of flash of the stroboscope
equals the running speed, any mark on the rotor appears stationary and the reading
against a fixed reference scale would give the phase difference.
2.7 VIBRATION SEVERITY
Since vibration amplitude (displacement, velocity or acceleration) is a measure of
the severity of the trouble in a machine, the next question may be; 'how much vibration is
too much?' To answer this question, it is important to keep in mind that our objective
should be to use vibration checks to detect trouble in its early stages for scheduled
correction. The goal is not to find out how much vibration a machine will stand before
failure, but to get a fair, warning of impending trouble so it can be eliminated before
failure.
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Absolute vibration tolerance or limits for any given machine are not possi 'ble.
That is, it is impossible to select a vibration limit which, if exceeded, wi ill result in
immediate machinery failure. The development of mechanical failure is just far
too,complex for such limits to exist. However, it would be impossible to effectivel utilise
vibration as an indicator of machinery condition y unless some guidelines are available
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In either case the frequency of vibration equals the rotational frequency (IxRPM).
Amplitudes of vibrations are excessive in the radial directions. Phase measurement by a
stroboscope shows a single steady reference mark.
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PAGE 48
4.1.2 PHOTOELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT GAUGES
Another useful displacement measuring device may be constructed by using a
light source and a photoelectric cell. A photocell is, essentially a current generating
device for which the amount of current generated is proportional to the amount of light
falling on it. Hence, if the light falling on the cell can. )e made proportional to the
displacement, the photocell becomes a displacement transducer. A schematic sketch is
shown in figure 4.5a.
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The high frequency response is limited by the inertia of the mechanical lever
system. Typical, limits are: Maximum frequency response - 250 cps, Low frequency
limit 5 cps, maximum displacement 0.125 inches and resolution
0.0002
4.1.5 EDDY CURRENT PROBES
Eddy current probes are primarily used to detect vibration in rotating machines, to
monitor shaft axial position or thrust wear and to measure relative expansion between
rotor and casing of a machine. It is also a proximity probe.
The probe uses the eddy current principle to measure the distance from the coil (on
the tip of the probe) to the surface of the shaft. This is accomplished by the generation of
a small radio frequency in the proximitor (driver). The RF signal escapes into the area
surrounding the probe tip. When no conductive material is within range of the signal,
virtually all of the power released to the surrounding area is returned to the probe tip. As
a conductive surface approaches the tip, the RF sets up small eddy currents on this
surface. This eddy current creates a power loss in the RF signal and is measurable. The
nearer the target material, the greater the eddy current loss. The losses of an eddy current
system appear as a parabolic curve when measurements are made at various gap
distances. Therefore, it is necessary that the probe have a linear voltage output as a
Portable vibration meters with tunable band pass filters are frequently adequate, to
narrow down the range of possible cause. If the predominant amplitude occurs at sub-
rotational frequency, for instance, bearing instability should immediately be suspected. If
rotational frequency dominates, then some form of unbalance response problem is
probably involved. Amplitude and frequency measurements should be made on the
bearing caps'. If proximityprobe monitors are installed, the raw data signal should either
be observed on an oscilloscope or put through a band pass filter to identify the major
frequency.
If rotational frequency is the dominant component, further measurements with the
portable meter may help to identify the problem. Determine the end-toend phase
relationship at the two bearings. This can be done if the meter has a strobe light
(normally used for balancing) or with proximity probes by using an oscilloscope.
The tracking filter plot is one of the most informative types of test data This can be
obtained by tape-recording signals from shaft proximity probes or bearing cap vibration
sensors while the machine is run through its entire specs
ELECTRICALLY
INDUCED
1. All electrically 2x slip frequency Radial N/A Steady
caused problems can sidebands around
be isolated, i.e. 1x rpm, 1x and 2x
eliminated by cutting line frequency
the current to motor
MECHANICAL
LOOSENESS
1. Bearings, 1x,2x and 3x Radial Varies with Steady
pedestals, etc. predominant type of
(non-rotating) may be upto 10x at looseness
lower
amplitude
2. Impellers, etc. 1x predominant, but Radial Will vary from Steady while
(rotating) may have harmonics start-up running, but
upto 10x at low levels to start-up will vary
from
start up to
start-up.
OPERATION
(process related)
1. Blade/vane pass No. of blades/vane Radial pre- N/A Fluctuating
x rpm dominant in the
direction of dis-
charge piping
INSTABILITY
1) Oil whirl 40 to 46 percent of Radial N/A Steady
running speed
2) Oil whip Sun-rotational and Radial N/A Steady
equal to shaft
resonance.
3) Rotor rub 50 percent of Radial N/A Steady
running speed and
half harmonics
2) Pitch line run out, 1x rpm and gear mesh Radial for spur N/A 1x rpm and
mass unbalanec, frequency with +,- gear gears, axial for mech.
misalignment or rpm side bands helical or Frequency
faulty tooth herringbone side bands
gears depend on
fault severity.