What Is This Module About?

Look around you. What do you see? Do you see people performing different activities,
plants in certain places, several things such as chairs, tables, pieces of paper, plastic and many
more? Do the questions, “What are these things made of? How come some of them seem to have
similar properties, while others are totally different from one another?” come to mind?
Most of the things around us are organic or made of compounds composed mainly of the
elements carbon and hydrogen. In the earlier days, it was believed that these compounds came
only from living things, hence the name organic. Inorganic compounds, on the other hand,
included only those that came from nonliving things. Nowadays, though, when you say organic
compounds, you are referring to compounds of carbon.
In this module, you will learn how important organic compounds are to your life. This
module will talk about the uses and applications of organic compounds in your daily life. It will
introduce the different forms of carbon as well as the unique type of bonds that it forms with other
elements. After studying this module, you will know how the uniqueness of carbon explains the
existence of millions of organic compounds.
There are three lessons in this module:
Lesson 1 – Uses of Organic Compounds
Lesson 2 – The Different Forms of Carbon
Lesson 3 – Carbon: A Unique Element

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:

♦ cite the applications and uses of various organic compounds;
♦ describe the different forms of carbon;
♦ relate the electronic structure of carbon to its bonding characteristics;
♦ explain the unique properties of carbon that account for the countless organic
compounds on earth;
♦ determine the number of electron pairs shared from the type of bond formed between
carbon and another atom; and
♦ predict the possible chemical structures from a given molecular formula.

1
 Wait!

Before you continue reading this module, make sure that you have already read the
following modules:
♦ Matter 1A: Forms, Properties and Changes
♦ Matter 1B: Forms, Properties and Changes
♦ Periodicity of the Elements
♦ The Atom: A Closer Look
♦ Chemical Bonds: Forces That Link

Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you start studying this module, take the following test first to find out how well you
know the topics to be discussed.
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Write the name of of the organic compound present in the items given below. Choose
from the list of organic compounds in the following box.

ether carboxylic acid ketone

alcohol aldehyde hydrocarbon
ester phenol amide

_______________ antifreeze in car radiators

_______________ anesthetics
_______________ nail polish remover
_______________ moth repellant
_______________ food flavoring
_______________ fuels
_______________ dental analgesic
_______________ preservative for biological specimens
_______________ liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
_______________ vinegar and citrus fruits

2
2. What are allotropes?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. In how many forms does carbon exist in nature?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. What are the different forms of carbon?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5. Give the electron configuration of carbon.
_________________________________________________________________
6. How many valence electrons does carbon have?
_________________________________________________________________
7. What type of bond does carbon form?
_________________________________________________________________
8. How many bonds can carbon form?
_________________________________________________________________
9. Draw all the possible structural formulas corresponding to the following molecular
formulas:
a. C4H10

b. C5H12

3
 Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those found in
the Answer Key on page 34.
If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already know much about
the topics in this module. You may still study the module to review what you already know. Who
knows, you might learn a few more new things as well.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This means that this module is for you. It will help you
understand some important concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you study this module
carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in the test and a lot more! Are you ready?
You may go now to the next page to begin Lesson 1.

4
 LESSON 1

Uses of Organic Compounds

The number of compounds that contain carbon is many times greater than the number of
compounds that do not contain carbon. There are so many organic compounds and their
molecules can be so large and so complicated in structure.
What really is so special about the compounds of carbon that a whole branch of
chemistry—organic chemistry—is dedicated to studying them?
Organic compounds are of great importance in various fields such as biology, medicine,
technology and even in your daily life. Dyes, paper, inks, fabrics, plastics, gasoline, paints and
even the food that you eat are all composed of organic compounds. Even your body is composed
of different kinds of organic compounds.
In this lesson, you will learn what the uses of organic compounds are. You may not be
aware of it, but there isn’t a single day that you do not use some kind of organic compound or
another. You will discover some very common organic compounds that you see every day around
you. You will also realize how truly important organic compounds are, because without these
organic compounds, you wouldn’t be alive. I’m sure you’re eager to find out more about these
wonderful substances. So, read on!

Let’s Read

Read the following story about ants:

Have you ever wondered why ants usually follow definite trails on their way to their source
of food? We often see ants forming a long chain as they travel. If the first ant goes on a curved
path, the rest of the ants follow the same curve. If it goes on a straight path, the rest of them go
the same straight path. Days before the start of the rainy season, we observe chains of ants,
especially in places where foodstuff such as sugar and bread are found.

A group of ants is traveling like a chain. The ant appears to whisper something to
On its way, the group meets an ant the leader ant and continues on its way.
carrying a piece of bread crumb.

5
 The chain of ants then follows the path On their way back, the ants meet another
taken by the ant with the bread crumb on group of ants. The leader ants then
its way to the source of food. whisper to one another and the second
group proceeds to the source of food.

Why is the chain of ants able to reach the place where the bread crumbs are? Do ants really
talk to one another?

Let’s Learn

The preceding story shows that ants apparently talk to one another. However, ants do not
really talk. They actually use organic compounds as a chemical communication device. These
compounds are called pheromones. They are secreted by an insect and recognized by the other
insects as a message. Most of these pheromones are hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon is an
organic compound containing the elements carbon and hydrogen.
A pheromone could be a sex attractant, an alarm or an indication of the source of food. This
is exactly what the ants release and is the reason why other ants are able to trace the path to the
source of food.
The simple story on ants illustrates just one of the many uses of organic compounds.You will
find out that in almost everything that you encounter and use every day, an organic compound or
two play a major role.
There are different kinds of organic compounds, depending on their molecular composition
and structure. Let’s first discuss the hydrocarbons.
As I mentioned before, hydrocarbons are composed of the elements carbon and hydrogen,
which is also why they are called hydrocarbons. Although many of the hydrocarbons can be
synthesized (prepared in a laboratory), they are usually obtained from organic sources such as
petroleum and coal. The hydrocarbons include the alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and the aromatic
hydrocarbons. They are used as fuels and raw materials in the manufacture of detergents, drugs
and plastics. Halogenated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons with one or more hydrogen atoms
replaced by halogens (group 7A elements), usually fluorine or chlorine.

6
 Let’s Try This

The following pictures show some of the important uses and applications of hydrocarbons.
Below each picture, name the purpose for which the hydrocarbons are used.

1. _______________ 2. _______________ 3. _______________

4. _______________ 5. _______________ 6. _______________

7. _______________ 8. _______________ 9. _______________

Were you able to identify correctly the uses shown in the pictures? Let’s see. Check if your
answers are the same as those shown on the next page:

7
 1. Fuel for industrial and 2. Used as petroleum jelly 3. Hastens ripening of
home use (for example, and mineral oil fruits (ethylene)
LPG/methane gas)

4. Coolant for refrigerators 5. Blood substitute (for 6. Detergents, drugs,

and air conditioners, example, plastics (for example,
propellant for aerosols fluorocarbons) benzene)
(for example, Freon)

7. Artificial rubber raw 8. Intermediate in vitamin 9. Material for

material and welding A formation (carotene) disposable diapers
torch (acetylene) (cyanoethylene)

Let’s Think About This

Cyanoethylene, a derivative of the hydrocarbon acetylene, is used in the manufacture of

disposable diapers. What property of cyanoethylene makes it an important component of these
diapers?
A disposable diaper must be able to absorb a large amount of liquid. Materials made of
cyanoethylene have the ability to absorb water up to 2000 times their mass, thereby making them
suitable as disposable diaper components. In fact, cyanoethylene is called a super absorbent
because of this property.

8
 Let’s Try This

Are you familiar with isopropyl alcohol? I’m sure you are. Isopropyl alcohol is the main
ingredient of rubbing alcohol. Alcohols and ethers are two classes of organic compounds with
various uses and applications.
Choose from among the following inside the box which are uses of alcohols and which are
uses of ethers. Write your answers under the appropriate columns.

solvent for varnish anesthetic

antifreeze in car radiators solvent for organic compounds
extracting medium tonic drinks
industrial fuel

Alcohol
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
Are your answers the same as mine?
Alcohol
solvent for varnish
antifreeze in car radiators
extracting medium
industrial fuel
Ether
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
Ether
anesthetic
solvent for organic compounds
extracting medium

9
 Let’s Learn

Alcohols are among the most common and versatile organic compounds. Methyl alcohol,
for instance, is often employed in large quantities as solvent for varnishes, shellacs and lacquers. It
is added to ethyl alcohol in the preparation of denatured alcohol. In fact, it is the presence of
methyl alcohol that renders denatured alcohol unfit for drinking. Denatured alcohol is used as an
industrial fuel and as a solvent. Ethyl alcohol, on the other hand, is the main component of tonic
and alcoholic drinks. Along with ethylene glycol, it is also used as an antifreeze in car radiators.
Different kinds of alcohols are also used for extracting other organic compounds from materials
such as plants.

Ethyl alcohol, together with ethylene Ethyl alcohol is more commonly used
glycol, is used as an antifreeze in car in tonic drinks or alcoholic drinks such
radiators. as wines and liquors.

Ethers are commonly employed as solvents for a wide variety of organic compounds. Ethyl
ether is used as a general anesthetic, meaning it is used to render a patient unconscious and
insensitive to pain during surgery.

Ethers are also very good as an extracting

medium. They are especially used for separating fats
from carbohydrates.

In medicine, ethyl ether is used as a

general anesthetic by producing
unconsiousness and insensitivity to
pain during surgery.

10
 Let’s Think About This

Have you been bitten by an ant? How did it feel?

Did you notice how an ant bite causes a stinging sensation? What do you think is
responsible for this?
Read on to find out.

Let’s Learn

The sting of an ant bite is a caused by an organic compound—formic acid. The name
formic came from the Latin word formica, meaning “ant.” The irritating feeling caused by formic
acid is just one of the many instances where the significance of the carboxylic acids in your life
can be seen.
Aside from formic acid, there are many carboxylic or organic acids that are vital to your life.
A number of them are found in the materials that you are very familiar with. Acetic acid, for
instance, is present in vinegar. Butyric acid is an ingredient of butter. Citric acid is present in citrus
fruits such as kalamansi and orange, while lactic acid is in sour milk. Oxalic acid, which is found
in plants such as cabbage and spinach, is also used in bleaching straw or leather. It is also used in
removing rust and stain.
Most carboxylic acids are found in plants. In animals such as human beings, these acids take
part in different biochemical reactions.

Citric acid in fruits Acetic acid in vinegar Butyric acid in butter

Let’s Think About This

Do you know what causes body odor?

Body odor is caused by a fatty acid (a carboxylic acid with a long hydrocarbon chain)
called valeric acid. Valeric acid is secreted by the body, usually in the armpits. When it gets
especially hot, the body secretes excessive amounts of this acid, causing the unpleasant odor.
To remedy this unpleasant body condition, it is best to use a deodorant. Deodorants contain
substances that can neutralize the acid.

11
 Let’s Learn

The importance of the carboxylic acids can also be seen in the various uses for which the
compounds derived from them are employed. These compounds are called acid derivatives.
One of these acid derivatives is the ester. An ester is characterized by its pleasant, fruity odor.
Because of this property, esters are commonly employed in making perfumes and food flavorings.
The distinctive odors of fruits are due to the presence of one or more esters.
The names of some esters and their corresponding odors or flavors are shown in the
following pictures.

Isoamyl acetate Ethyl butyrate Isobutyl formate n-Octyl acetate Methyl salicylate
(banana) (pineapple) (raspberry) (orange) (wintergreen)

Look at the picture below.

What do you find in the picture?

____________________________________________
____________________________________________

The picture shows examples of fats and oils that you commonly use. Fats and oils are
esters of fatty acids. They are found in animals and plants. Examples of such substances are beef
tallow, butter, lard, olive oil, peanut oil, corn oil and soybean oil.

12
 Let’s Think About This

Have you been near soap-manufacturing plants? Did you ever smell something that
resembles coconut oil as you passed through these places? Why do you think this is so?
Soap manufacturers use coconut oil as one of the raw materials of soap. Coconut oil, an
ester, is heated with a strong base (usually sodium hydroxide, NaOH). What is formed is a
sodium salt of a fatty acid. This is now what you know as soap.

Let’s Review

Identify the organic compound used for making each of the following:
1. food flavoring __________ 3. car radiator antifreeze __________
2. vinegar __________ 4. anesthetic __________
Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on page 35.

Let’s Learn

A carboxylic acid derivative of great importance to your body is the amino acid. Amino
acids are the main components of proteins. The significance of these acid derivatives is shown in
the following pictures.

Amino acids form the major part of Amino acids are also the major
proteins in foodstuff. components of proteins in muscles
and tissues in the living system.

Did you know that . . .

. . . the medicine that you usually take whenever you have a headache or fever is an
ester? In 1883, a chemist working for the Bayer Company in the U.S.A. combined an organic
acid, salicylic acid, with acetic anhydride to produce acetylsalicylic acid, now popularly
known as aspirin. Aspirin is the most widely used drug in the world. It acts as a fever reducer
(antipyretic), a pain reliever (analgesic) and an anti-inflammatory agent.

13
 Let’s Learn

The last two classes of organic compounds that we will consider in terms of uses and
applications are the aldehydes and ketones. These compounds, which are similar to each other,
are important components of organic compounds in the body. They have several uses such as in
making food flavors and as preservatives.

Let’s Think About This

Have you been to a textile store? Have you ever felt something that irritated your eyes?
What do you think is responsible for this?

Let’s Learn

Most of the textiles and fabrics that are sold in stores are treated with an organic
preservative. This chemical is formaldehyde, an aldehyde. It is the formaldehyde that is
responsible for the eye irritation that you experience whenever you are in a place where there are
lots of textiles and fabrics. Commercially, formaldehyde is sold as a 40% solution, more
commonly known as formalin. Formalin is used in preserving biological specimens.

Formica is used in table tops and kitchen counters. Other plastics such as those used in
kitchen utensil handles and table wares are derived from formaldehyde.
Examples of flavorings made from aromatic aldehydes are vanilla and cinnamon.
Ketones are characterized by their unique aromas. A moth repellant, camphor, is a ketone.
The musky odor of perfume is due to a ketone, muscone, which is extracted from the musk
glands of male deer.
Aldehydes and ketones are also present in various biochemical compounds such as sugars
and steroids.

14
 Let’s Think About This

Did you know that a ketone is used in removing nail polish? What do you call this ketone?
How does it smell?
What is one important physical property of this ketone that makes it suitable as a nail polish
remover?
The liquid used for removing nail polish is commonly known as acetone. Acetone is a
ketone that has a characteristic fruity odor. Notice that as you rub the acetone on your nails, it
quickly evaporates, hence it feels cold. This property makes it suitable as a nail polish remover.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Write the letter of the correct answer on the line before the number.
_____ 1. The organic compound responsible for the development of body odor is a
_____________.
a. amino acid c. ketone
b. ester d. fatty acid
_____ 2. This compound mixed with ethyl alcohol is used as antifreeze in car radiators.
a. methyl alcohol c. formaldehyde
b. ethylene glycol d. acetone
_____ 3. These organic compounds are the major components of proteins.
a. fatty acids c. amino acids
b. carboxylic acids d. acetic acid
_____ 4. The ketone extracted from the musk glands of male deer and used in perfumes
is _________.
a. acetone c. cinnamon
b. formalin d. muscone
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35. Did you get a perfect
score? If you did, that’s very good! If you did not, don’t worry. Just review the parts of the
lesson that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may proceed to Lesson 2.

Let’s Remember

♦ Most of the things around you are made up of different organic compounds.
♦ There are different classes of organic compounds. These include hydrocarbons, ethers,
alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, amino acids, aldehydes and ketones.
♦ Different organic compounds have different properties that make them suitable for a
wide variety of uses.
15
 LESSON 2

The Different Forms of Carbon

The carbon atom is an element that belongs to group 4A in the periodic table. It is
composed of six electrons, six protons and six neutrons. It is much less abundant compared to
other elements. However, it is an element that is readily available in nature.
In this lesson, you will learn the different forms in which carbon exists in nature as well as the
characteristics of each form. You will also learn how the structures of the different forms of
carbon can be related to their properties.

Let’s Try This

Look at the pictures below. These pictures show the substances diamond and charcoal.

Diamond Charcoal

Now, imagine you are holding a diamond and a piece of charcoal. In your mind, feel the
two materials. How do you compare the two? Write your “observations” below.
diamond:_______________________________________________________________
charcoal:_______________________________________________________________
Compare the colors of diamond and charcoal.
diamond:________________________________________________________________
charcoal:________________________________________________________________
Suppose you press the diamond between your thumb and forefinger. What do you think will
happen? __________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

16
 If you hold a small piece of charcoal and press it between your thumb and forefinger, what
do you think will happen to the charcoal?
______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Based on your answers, fill up the following table:

Characteristic Diamond Charcoal

Color

Opaque or transparent

Smooth or rough

Hard or soft

Uses

Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on page 35.

Let’s Learn

If you were able to describe the distinct features of the two substances correctly, that means
you have a clear picture of the basic differences between diamond and charcoal. You can
describe diamond as transparent, brilliant and hard and charcoal as black, dull and quite soft.
Diamond and charcoal appear very different from one another. But do you know that these
two substances are made up of only one kind of element? Both materials are made of carbon.
Why is it then that diamond is hard but charcoal is soft?
You see, diamond and charcoal are two naturally occurring forms of carbon. They are called
the allotropes of carbon.
Allotropes are the different forms in which an element may occur in nature. If that definition
seems a bit hard to understand, let’s compare allotropes to more familiar things.
What do you see in the following pictures?

Liquid water Ice

17
 The picture on the left shows liquid water while that on the right shows ice. Liquid water and
ice are two forms in which water can exist. They can be compared with allotropes. Both liquid
water and ice (solid water) have the same composition. They are both made up of molecules of
water, H2O. However, they differ in the way their molecules are arranged, as shown in the
following pictures:

Liquid water Solid water (ice)

The difference in molecular arrangement is the reason why liquid water is different from ice.
Just like the two forms of water, allotropes have the same composition. They are composed of
the same element, but differ in the way the atoms of the element are arranged. This means that
allotropes have different properties as well.
Carbon has actually four allotropes but in this module, we are going to discuss only three—
diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon. These are the forms in which carbon is most
readily found in nature. The fourth carbon allotrope is the buckminsterfullerene commonly
known as the buckyball. Each buckyball molecule is made up of 60 carbon atoms. All the
allotropes of carbon are made up of carbon atoms only. However, these allotropes differ in their
properties because of the way the carbon atoms are bound to one another. To give you an idea
as to how the forms of carbon compare with one another, please see the table below:
Diamond Graphite Amorphous Carbon

Hard Quite soft Quite soft

Almost transparent Black Black

Bright Dull Dull

Has regular shape Fixed shape with Irregular shape

regular pattern
Used as a cutting tool Used as lubricant Used as fuel and material
and as jewel and in pencils for carbon paper

From the preceding table, you can see that graphite and amorphous carbon are quite similar
to one another while diamond is very different from the two.

18
 Let’s Study and Analyze

Look at the pictures showing the structures of diamond and graphite below. Identify which
of the two diagrams is a portion of diamond and which is that of graphite based on the properties
of the two substances. Remember that diamond is so hard that it is used as a tool for cutting.
Graphite, on the other hand, is soft enough to be used as a lubricant. It is also used in making
pencils.

If you answered that the structure on the left is that of diamond and that on the right is that of
graphite, you are correct. Observe the way the carbon atoms are arranged in a diamond and in
graphite. In a diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms to form a
tetrahedron.

Let’s Learn

3
1
5

A regular tetrahedron Carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedral

shape in a diamond

A regular tetrahedron is a three-dimensional figure made up of four equilateral triangles,

with any one of them as the base. Each carbon atom has a tetrahedral structure. At the center of
the structure (1) is the carbon nucleus. The four corners of the tetrahedron are the points at which
the atom can bond to other atoms.
In forming the diamond crystal, each carbon tetrahedron is packed with four other
tetrahedrons in a very orderly manner, forming a network of carbon atoms that are fixed in their
positions and have no room for movement.

19
 Tetrahedron units in diamond Tetrahedron units packed close to one
another to form the diamond crystal

This explains why diamond is hard. In fact, it is the hardest known mineral.
You have just found out that the carbon atoms in the diamond structure have strong bonds
formed in a three-dimensional tetrahedral structure. In the case of graphite, the atoms crystallize in
a pattern of hexagonal layers. Do you know what a hexagon is? A hexagon is a polygon with six
sides. Imagine six carbons arranged on one plane, forming the six points of a polygon. They
would look like this:

C C

C C

A hexagon

C C
Carbon atoms occupy the
corners of the hexagon.

Because the groups of carbon atoms are arranged as piles of hexagons, the forces of
attraction between the planes are weak. Hence, graphite is soft.

20
 Let’s Think About This

Based on the arrangement of the carbon atoms in graphite, explain why it is used as a
lubricant. (Remember, a good lubricant should be able to reduce friction between surfaces and
spread easily.)
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Is your answer the same as this?
The layers or planes of carbon hexagons are stacked parallel to one another in the graphite
structure. Such an arrangement results in each plane or layer being able to slide past another.
This gives graphite its softness which is an important property of lubricants. Graphite in the
form of black grease can be used to make movements of certain machine parts smooth.

Let’s Learn

The third allotrope of carbon is amorphous carbon. The term amorphous refers to a
structure that has an irregular shape, as opposed to crystalline, which refers to having a fixed
shape with a regular pattern. For example, table salt is crystalline, not amorphous, because each
salt granule has a regular shape. Sand, on the other hand, is amorphous since sand particles have
irregular shapes.
Amorphous carbon, unlike diamond and graphite, has no regular structure. However, it is
similar to graphite when it comes to some properties, such as color and texture.
Charcoal is a common example of an amorphous carbon. It is an adsorbent, meaning it is
capable of holding substances on its surface. This is the reason why it is used in removing color
from solutions. Charcoal is a common component of water filters. It is also used in making gas
masks that filter out poisonous gases from the air.
Other common amorphous forms of carbon are coke and carbon black. Coke is used as a
fuel while carbon black is used in making carbon paper, printer ink and shoe polish.

21
 Let’s See What You Have Learned

A. Identify what is being described in each of the following.

________________ 1. The hardest known mineral
________________ 2. Any of the forms in which an element can exist in nature
________________ 3. A term used to describe a solid that has no fixed shape
________________ 4. The structure in which a carbon atom in diamond is found
________________ 5. A carbon allotrope made up of atoms arranged in
hexagonal layers
B. Name at least two uses for each of the allotropes of carbon.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on page 36. Did you get a
perfect score? If you did, that’s very good! If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts of
this lesson that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may move on to Lesson 3.

Let’s Remember

♦ Allotropes are the different forms in which an element can exist. There are four
allotropes of carbon, namely diamond, graphite, amorphous carbon and
buckminsterfullerene.
♦ In diamond, the carbon atoms are arranged in closely packed tetrahedrons.
♦ Graphite is soft because in the graphite structure, the carbon atoms are in hexagons
arranged in layers parallel to one another.
♦ Amorphous carbon has no definite structure.

22
 LESSON 3

Carbon: A Unique Element

You learned in Lesson 2 that carbon is an element that is readily available in nature in three
forms—diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon. Because carbon is a group 4A element, it has
four valence electrons. Recall that the number of valence electrons determines the bonding
characteristics of an element. Carbon will therefore have little tendency give up or accept
electrons. If this is so, how then is carbon able to form so many compounds? As you can see,
next to hydrogen, carbon is the element that has the most number of compounds. It seems then
that carbon must have properties not found in other elements.
In this lesson, you will find out what makes carbon a unique element. You will also learn how
to draw the structures of different organic compounds. Are you eager to learn already? Read on!

Let’s Try This

Carbon is in group 4A of the periodic table. It can be written as 6C12. Fill in the blanks using
the information given above.
The chemical symbol of carbon is _____________.
Its atomic number is _____________.
There are _____________ protons in a carbon atom.
The number of electrons in a carbon atom is _____________.
The mass number of carbon is _____________.
A carbon atom has _____________ neutrons.
The electron configuration of carbon is _____________.
There are _____________ valence electrons in carbon.
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 36.

23
 Let’s Learn

What is the electron configuration of carbon? Its electron configuration is 1s22s22p2.

Drawing the orbital diagram of carbon, you have:

1s 2s 2p
How many valence electrons does carbon have?
Carbon has four valence electrons. Since carbon has four valence electrons, it can form four
bonds with other atoms.
In forming compounds, carbon shares its four outer shell or valence electrons with other
atoms. The four valence electrons can be shared with four other atoms as in methane (CH4); with
three other atoms as in ethene (CH2= CH2); or with just two atoms as in acetylene (CH — — CH).
In methane, carbon forms four single bonds with four hydrogen atoms. In ethene, it forms
two single bonds with two hydrogen atoms and a double bond with another carbon atom. In
acetylene, it forms one single bond with a hydrogen atom and one triple bond with another
carbon atom.
Look at the following diagrams:

H
H H
—

—
—

H—C—H H—C —
— C—H
H — C=C — H
—

Carbon has four single Each carbon atom has two Each carbon atom has a
bonds in forming methane, single bonds and a double single bond and a triple
CH4. bond in ethene, CH2=CH2 . bond in acetylene, CH CH.

Notice that in the three structures above, carbon always has a total of four bonds. The four
bonds may be four single bonds, a double bond and two single bonds, or a single bond and a
triple bond.
Let’s compare this to a familiar situation. Suppose you tied four pieces of rope around a
pole or a tree. If you want to stretch the ropes, there are several ways to do so. But definitely,
you cannot do it alone. You can ask some of your friends to do it with you.

24
 Look at the following pictures that show how the four ropes can be stretched.

In the pictures above, the tree represents the carbon atom, while the persons holding the
ropes represent the atoms to which carbon is bonded. Each stretched rope represents a bond
between carbon and the other atom.
Because of the different ways in which it bonds with other atoms, carbon is able to form
many different compounds.

Let’s Review

Determine the number of single, double and/or triple bonds in the following compounds.

Compound Single Bonds Double Bonds Triple Bonds

CH3CH3

CH3CH=CH2

CH —
— CCH3

Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on pages 36 and 37.

Did you know that . . .

. . . carbon has the ability to bond with itself in long chains and varying sizes? It is the only
element that is able to do so. This is also one of the reasons why there are millions of organic
compounds.

25
 Let’s Learn

Suppose there are four carbon atoms and ten hydrogen atoms that can be joined together,
how many compounds can be possibly formed?
Here, the organic compound can be represented by the molecular formula C4H10. Definitely,
there will be not just one possible structural formula that you can draw if there are four carbon
atoms. The different ways in which carbon atoms bond will result in there being more than one
possible structure for this molecular formula.
Arriving at all the possible structural formulas is similar to arranging several marbles.
Consider the following situation:
Suppose you have five marbles. Let’s label the five marbles as shown in the picture below.

1 2 3 4 5

Try to arrange the five marbles in different ways. After doing this, you should come up with
the following possible arrangements.

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4

4 2 3
1 2 3 1 5 4

The same procedure can be followed in predicting the possible ways in which the carbon
atoms can be arranged with respect to one another. But remember that aside from carbon being
bonded to another carbon atom, it also forms bonds with other atoms such as hydrogen. You can
follow these steps:
1. Arrange all the carbon atoms side by side.

C C C C

26
 2. Next, write the correct number of hydrogen atoms around each carbon. You must
recall that each carbon atom must have no more and no less than four bonds.
H H H H

—
—
H C C C C H

—
—

—
—
H H H H

The resulting structure must contain the correct total number of hydrogen atoms
given by the molecular formula C4H10.
3. To arrive at the other possible structures, imagine removing one carbon atom from the
structure above and placing it above or below the main structure. In doing so, the new
structure that results is:

H H H

H C C C H

H H

H C H

H
Make sure that you still have the correct total number of hydrogen atoms in the
new structure.
4. You can repeat the procedure of transferring one carbon atom from one position to
another until you can no longer come up with a new and different arrangement.

Let’s Study and Analyze

One possible way of arranging the four carbon atoms described by the molecular formula
above is in a ring as shown below.

Why is this not a possible structure for the compound?

H2 – C C – H2
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
H2 – C C – H2
_______________________________________________

Compare your answer with the one given below:

Although the four carbon atoms can be arranged in a ring, the total number of hydrogen
atoms will only be 8. Since the molecular formula (C4H10) dictates that there be 10 hydrogen
atoms, then the above structural formula where the four carbon atoms are arranged in a ring does
not illustrate the correct structure for the compound.
27
 Let’s Learn

Let’s have another example.

The following structural formulas are possible for the molecular formula C6H14:
1. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
2. CH3CHCH2CH2CH3
CH3

CH3
3. CH3CHCHCH3
CH3

CH3
4. CH3CCH2CH3
CH3
From the structural formulas given based on just one molecular formula, you can now
probably see why there are numerous compounds of carbon that occur on earth. You can
therefore expect to get several compounds with exactly the same number of atoms but with
different structural formulas.
Predicting the structures of organic compounds from a given molecular formula is a matter of
trial and error. However, there is one important rule for you to remember in order for you to
come up with the correct structural formulas.

Remember:
Carbon always forms four covalent bonds (no more, no less).

Let’s Review

The molecular formula of a compound is C5H10. Draw all the possible structural formulas for
this compound. (Note: Double or triple bonds may be used in working out the possible structural
formulas.)
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 37.

Do not forget that the possible structural formulas must always contain the correct
number of each atom as given by the molecular formula!

28
 Let’s Learn

The number of bonds between two atoms indicates the number of pairs of electrons shared
between these atoms. A bond between two atoms corresponds to a pair of electrons shared
between them.
For example, in methane, CH4, there are four single bonds between the carbon atom and
the four hydrogen atoms. This, therefore, corresponds to a total of four pairs of electrons being
shared between the carbon and hydrogen atoms. For every C — H bond, a pair of electrons is
shared.
This can be seen if we draw the structural formula of CH4 as H

—
H—C—H

—
H
Notice that there is only a single bond linking the hydrogen atom to the carbon atom. This
means that the carbon atom and the hydrogen atom share only one pair of electrons.
In the ethene molecule, CH2=CH2, carbon and hydrogen also share a pair of electrons,
while the two carbon atoms have two pairs of electrons between them. Let us draw the structural
formula this way: H H
–
–

H–C=C–H
As shown in the structural formula, there is a single bond linking the hydrogen to the carbon
atom, while the two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond. Therefore, the carbon atoms
actually share two pairs of electrons between them.

Let’s Review

Consider the organic compound, ethyne, commonly known as acetylene. Acetylene is used
as a fuel in welding torches and is also used by some fruit sellers in hastening the ripening of fruits.
Its chemical formula is CH — — CH.
What is the total number of electron pairs shared by the atoms in the compound?
__________________
How many electrons are shared by carbon and hydrogen? ________________________
How many electrons are shared by the two carbon atoms? ________________________
What generalization can you draw regarding the number of bonds and the number of
electrons shared? ___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on page 37.

29
 Let’s See What You Have Learned

Fill in the blanks.

1. Carbon always forms __________ covalent bonds.
2. The molecular formula C3H8 has __________ possible structural formula(s).
3. When carbon forms a __________ bond, this means that it is sharing two electron
pairs.
4. Carbon can form __________ double bond(s) and __________ single bond(s) with
two other atoms.
5. The correct molecular formula of CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCCH3CH3 is __________.
Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on page 37. Did you get
everything right? If you did, that’s very good! If you did not, that’s okay. Just review the parts of
the lesson that you did not understand very well before you move on to the next part of the
module.

Let’s Remember

♦ Carbon has four valence electrons and can therefore form four covalent bonds.
♦ Carbon has the unique property of being able to bond to itself in chains or rings of
varying sizes.
♦ The molecular formula of a compound gives the number of each atom present in the
compound.
♦ The flexibility in the way carbon atoms can be joined together explains why several
structural formulas can be written for a particular molecular formula.
♦ The number of bonds between two atoms corresponds to the number of pairs of
electrons being shared between the two.
Well, this is the end of the module. Congratulations for finishing it. Did you enjoy studying it?
Did you learn a lot from it? The following is a summary of its main points to help you remember
them better.

30
 Let’s Sum Up

This module tells us that:

♦ Most of the things around us are made of organic compounds.
♦ The importance of the organic compounds to our everyday life is evident in the variety
of their uses.
♦ Allotropes are the different forms in which an element can exist. There are four
allotropes of carbon, namely diamond, graphite, amorphous carbon and
buckminsterfullerene.
♦ Carbon has four valence electrons and can therefore form four covalent bonds and
buckminster fullerene.
♦ Carbon has the unique property of being able to bond to itself in chains or rings of
varying sizes.
♦ The molecular formula of a compound gives the number of the atoms present in the
compound.
♦ The flexibility in the way the carbon atoms can be joined together explains why several
structural formulas can be written for a particular molecular formula.
♦ The number of bonds between two atoms corresponds to the number of pairs of
electrons being shared between the two.

31
 What Have You Learned?

Answer the following:

1. Draw a line to connect the class of organic compound to the material in which it is
found.
acid-base indicator aromatic hydrocarbon
chemical communication device hydrocarbon
in ants
ketone
propellant in aerosols
carboxylic acid
formica
alcohol
aspirin
ester
explosives
ether
citrus fruits
halogenated hydrocarbon
solvent for varnishes
aldehyde
cinnamon flavor
2. Draw the orbital diagram of carbon.

1s 2s 2p
3. How many valence electrons does carbon have? ____________________________
4. How many bonds can carbon form?______________________________________
5. How many electrons are shared when carbon forms
a single bond? __________________
a double bond? __________________
a triple bond? __________________
6. Identify which allotrope of carbon is described by each of the following:
_________________ carbon atoms in tetrahedral arrangement
_________________ soft
_________________ no definite structure
_________________ used as a cutting tool
_________________ hardest known mineral
_________________ used as a fuel
_________________ carbon atoms arranged in a hexagon

32
 7. Draw all the possible structural formulas from the following molecular formulas:
a. C6H12

b. C3 H 8

Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on pages 38 and 39. If you got
a high score, congratulations! That means you learned a lot from this module. If your score is low,
that’s okay. Just study this module again until you are able to understand the concepts presented
here. Afterward, you may proceed to the next module.

33
 Answer Key

A. Let’s See What You Already Know (pages 2–4)

1. alcohol—antifreeze in car radiators
ether—anesthetics
ketone—nail polish remover
ketone—moth repellant
ester—food flavoring
hydrocarbon—fuels
alcohol—dental analgesic
aldehyde—preservative for biological specimens
hydrocarbon—liquefied petroleum gas
carboxylic acid—vinegar and citrus fruits
2. Allotropes are the different forms in which an element can exist in nature.
3. Carbon exists in four forms.
4. The four forms of carbon are diamond, graphite, amorphous carbon and
buckminsterfullerene.
5. The electron configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p2 since it has six electrons.
6. Carbon has four valence electrons. The second energy level contains the four
valence electrons.
7. Carbon forms covalent bonds. Since carbon has four valence electrons, it neither
gives up nor accepts electrons to complete an octet.
8. Carbon can form four covalent bonds.
9. a. For C4H10, the only possible structures are:
CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3CHCH3
CH3
b. The molecular formula C5H12 may have any of the following structural
formulas:
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3CHCH2CH3 CH3CCH3
CH3 CH3

34
B. Lesson 1
Let’s Review (page 13)
1. ester
2. carboxylic acid
3. alcohol
4. ether
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 15)
1. (d) The fatty acid valeric acid is responsible for the development of unpleasant
body odor.
2. (b) Ethylene glycol is mixed with ethyl alcohol in making antifreeze for car
radiators.
3. (c) Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
4. (d) The ketone used in perfumes is muscone, which is extracted
from the musk glands of male deer.

C. Lesson 2
Let’s Try This (pages 16–17)
When you feel the diamond and charcoal you will observe the following:
diamond: hard, smooth
charcoal: rough, quite soft
The colors of diamond and charcoal are:
diamond: transparent
charcoal: black
Nothing happens to the diamond when pressed between the thumb and
forefinger.
Pressing the charcoal between the thumb and forefinger will cause it to break
apart.
The table should look like this:
Characteristic Diamond Charcoal
Color Colorless Black

Opaque or transparent Transparent Opaque

Smooth or rough Smooth Rough

Hard or soft Hard Soft

Uses Cutting tool, decorative Fuel, filter

gem

35
 Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 22)
A. 1. diamond
2. allotrope
3. amorphous
4. tetrahedron
5. graphite
B. Diamond can be used as a cutting tool and is made into jewels. Graphite is used
as pencil lead and lubricant. Amorphous carbon forms such as charcoal, coke
and carbon black are used as fuel, filter and as materials for making printer ink
and carbon paper.

D. Lesson 3
Let’s Try This (page 23)
The chemical symbol of carbon is C.
Its atomic number is 6.
There are 6 protons in a carbon atom.
The number of electrons in a carbon atom is 6.
The mass number of carbon is 12.
A carbon atom has 6 neutrons.
The electron configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p2.
There are 4 valence electrons in carbon.
Let’s Review (page 25)

Compound Single Bonds Double Bonds Triple Bonds

CH3CH3 seven none none

CH3CH=CH2 seven one none

CH —
— CCH3 five none one

The first structure can be expanded as H H

H C C H
H H

36
Therefore, there will be a total of seven single bonds.
Structure 2 when written as H H H
H C C=C H
H
will contain even single bonds and a double bond.
While the third structure with the expanded formula H H
C—
—C C H
H
has five single bonds and a triple bond.
Let’s Review (page 28)
For the molecular formula C5H10, the possible structural formulas are:
a. CH2 = CH CH2CH2CH3
b. CH3CH= CCH2CH3
H H
c. CH3CHCH = CH2
CH3
Let’s Review (page 29)
Consider the following organic compound with the formula CH —
— CH.
There are five electron pairs shared by the atoms in the compound.
For every carbon to hydrogen, a pair of electrons is shared. Therefore, for the
two C – H bonds, a total of four electrons are shared.
Since there is a triple bond between the two carbon atoms, then a total of six
electrons are shared.
We can say that each bond between two atoms corresponds to a pair of
electrons shared between the two.
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 30)
1. four
2. one
3. double
4. one; two
5. C8H16

37
E. What Have You Learned? (pages 32–33)

1. acid-base indicator aromatic hydrocarbon

chemical communication hydrocarbon
device in ants
ketone
propellant in aerosols
carboxylic acid
formica
alcohol
aspirin
ester
nail polish remover
ether
citrus fruit
halogenated hydrocarbon
solvent for varnishes
aldehyde
cinnamon flavor

2. The orbital diagram of carbon is:

1s 2s 2p
3. Carbon has four valence electrons as shown by the above configuration. The
electrons in the second energy level (2s and 2p) correspond to the valence
electrons.
4. Carbon can form four covalent bonds.
5. The number of bonds corresponds to the number of electron pairs shared
between two atoms. Therefore, the number of electrons shared when the
followings bonds are formed will be
a single bond: two electrons
a double bond: four electrons
a triple bond: six electrons
6. diamond
graphite or amorphous carbon
amorphous carbon
diamond
diamond
amorphous carbon
graphite

38
7. a. The molecular formula C6H12 corresponds to either an alkene or a ring
structure since there are only 12 hydrogen atoms.
Some of the possible structures are:
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH=CH2 CH2 CH2
CH3CH2CHCH=CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2

CH3CHCH2CH=CH2 CH2 CH2

CH3
b. The molecular formula C3H8 will correspond to only one possible structure,
CH3CH2CH3. There will be no other way by which the three carbon atoms
can be arranged except side by side as shown by the structural formula
given.

39
 Glossary

Alcohol An organic compound with a carbon attached to a hydroxyl group.

Aldehyde An organic compound with a terminal carbon forming a double bond with
oxygen and a single bond with hydrogen.
Alkane A hydrocarbon whose atoms are joined only by single bonds.
Alkene A hydrocarbon with one or more double bonds.
Allotrope Any of the forms in which an element can exist in nature.
Amino acid An organic compound that serves as the building block of proteins.
Amorphous Said of a solid whose atoms or molecules are not arranged in a regular
pattern.
Biochemical Referring to substances found in living organisms.
Carboxylic acid An organic compound with a carbon atom forming a double bond with an
oxygen atom and a single bond with a hydroxyl molecule; also called organic acid.
Crystalline Said of a solid whose molecules are arranged in a regular pattern.
Diamond A very hard brilliant precious stone made up of pure crystalline carbon.
Ester An organic compound formed from the reaction between a carboxylic acid and
alcohol.
Ether An organic oxide, that is, a compound with oxygen bonded to two carbon groups.
Fatty acid A long-chain carboxylic acid.
Glycerol An alcohol used in ointments and medicines.
Graphite A soft black form of carbon whose atoms are arranged in a regular pattern.
Hexagon A polygon with six sides.
Hydrocarbon An organic compound made up of carbon and hydrogen.
Ketone An organic compound with a non terminal carbon forming a double bond with
oxygen.
Lubricant A substance that is applied to make something move easily.
Pheromone A substance secreted by an animal that is detected by others of the same
species and produces a response in them.
Solvent The medium in which a substance is dissolved in a solution.
Tetrahedron A three-dimensional figure, with three triangular faces and a triangular base.
Valence electrons The electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom, which are
largely responsible for the chemical behavior of an element.

40
 References

Caret, R., et al. Organic and Biological Chemistry. Dubuque: Wm C. Brown Publishers,
1993.
Keenan, Charles W. and Jesse H. Wood. General College Chemistry. 3rd ed. Tennessee:
Harper International, Inc., 1970.

41