Relation between Female Literacy and Change in GDP per capita from

base year 1991

Abdullah Azhar

Ali Zulqarnain

Asif Mahmood Siddiqui

Maryam Osman Yusuf

NUST Business School

2
 Acknowledgement

First and foremost our sincere gratitude to God Almighty Who gave us the ability and the

courage to complete this project on time. We extend our heartfelt recognition for Ms. Saeeda

Batool, our course instructor, who gave us the knowledge and the guidance to be able to

complete this paper. We would like to sincerely thank Syed Mudassar Raza for helping us in the

project. Last but not the least, we would like to thank our families and dear friends who have

been our strength during the entire period.

1
1
 Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to find the relation between female literacy and GDP per capita. For

this purpose a hypothesis has been tested which is “Relation between change in GDP per capita

and female literacy in Pakistan”. To test the hypothesis a regression analysis has been conducted

and the results show that there is a hundred percent significance between the two variables being

studied. The results conclude that more than 90% of variance in the female literacy rate can be

explained by the change in GDP per capita from the base year. Furthermore, the results also

show that a unit change in GDP per capita from the base year 1991 will bring a 4.3% change in

the literacy rate.

2
3
Section 1: Introduction

The research paper is aimed establishing a concrete relationship between female literacy

in Pakistan and the GDP per capita. Pakistan is still one of the few countries in which the gap

between the male and female literacy ratio is very high- female literacy is almost half of the male

literacy rate. The recent census tallies in China and India show that Pakistan is substantially

behind the two large Asian nations. China’s literacy rate is near 90% and India has reached 65%.

Pakistanis around 50 %, this means we need to do better. Moreover, it is a moment of concern

too, because we have lesser population and are not as huge as China and India.

A point to be taken into consideration is that the meaning of literacy gets changed in our

country so that the figures could be altered even further. Sometimes, they say who can read and

write are literate, while at times they say a person who has reached 5th standard is a literate and

once it was also believed that a person who could calculate is also a literate. Since we are

carrying the research related to the last fifteen years so we will assume a literate person as

someone who can read and write a simple letter in English.

There has been no primary research on the topic but secondary research has been carried

out and information collected from various sources such as previously written research papers on

female literacy, articles on the internet etc.

Motivation to write this research paper is the fact that Pakistan is one of the few countries

having an almost equal ratio of females to males in terms of population yet the female literacy

rate is very low compared to the male literacy rate. Moreover, lack of access to education due to

infrastructure or family structural constraints is widespread. Low income levels in Pakistan have

been identified as a key factor to the hindrance of female literacy rate in Pakistan.

1
 The first section of the paper introduces the study, while the second section carries a

review of the existing studies on the topic. Section three comprises of the methodology, while

section four provides the results of the study and their discussion. The last section of the paper

concludes the study under consideration.

1
Section 2: Literature Review

This paper seeks to establish a concrete relationship between female literacy in Pakistan

and the percentage change GDP per capita since 1991 (the base year). However, before studying

the trends these variables have taken in Pakistan, it is imperative that the existing literature on

this hypothesis be studied, to determine what relationship these variables depict in other areas of

the world. Furthermore, this review of literature is not solely limited to studies on female

literacy, as male literacy is also studied in context with the topic of interest.

Ghaus, Pasha & Ghaus (1996) examined the social development ranking of various

districts of Pakistan on the basis of eleven indicators relating to education, health and water

supplies. The paper goes on to emphasize the importance of education indicators, particularly

female education in determining the overall level of social development. Several other factors of

regional variations are also discussed. The paper concludes that overall Punjab has the highest

social development followed by NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan. There is also substantial

evidence of variation within provinces. The paper is a good attempt to highlight the status of the

various provinces in the country, as it will help guide policy efforts in order to improve their

current circumstances.

Narrowing the scope from the eleven indicators, down to one, Khan (1997) examined the

education sector of Pakistan, which is an area vastly neglected by the governments in the past

fifty years. Female literacy levels are the lowest in the world. Most of the education sought is not

technical or scientific in nature. The students generally see no relationship between education

and higher earnings or social status in the society. The paper also concludes that East Asian

countries have progressed owing to education. The paper holds that despite the emphasis laid on

1
education world over, the planners in Pakistan failed to allocate resources to it. To add to the

sorry state, the attitude of the feudal as well as the foreign educated elites led to the poor

development of education in Pakistan. The paper stresses on the need for developing education

in Pakistan due to the challenges of the new millennium that are looming on the horizon. This

study identifies the causes of the poor state of affairs of the education sector, especially female

education and should alarm the present government about taking some measures so that Pakistan

may also benefit from the fruits of an educated population.

Studying the importance and state of social development in the Pakistani society at a

global level and thus adding a new dimension to the study of Pakistan as a society, Pasha &

Ahmed (1999) conducted a study examining Pakistan’s ranking in social development

worldwide, based on the established two-way link between social progress and sustainable

economic growth. The study concludes that economic growth leads to revenues for the

government and higher per capita income which translates into social development. An

improvement in social indicators leads to higher economic growth due to better labor

productivity. However, if improved economic development is not translated into social

development then eventually economic growth suffers, which has precisely been the case in

Pakistan. There has been some economic growth, about 5% in the last decade but the effect on

social indicators is not evident. Female literacy remains way below that of the males, infant

mortality is high and other social indicators also do not present a very good picture. This

research is a useful attempt to show Pakistan’s position in the global arena. This study adds a

new dimension to the social study of Pakistan as the foundation of the study is different from that

of the previous two studies discussed.

A few years later, Hamid & Siddiqui (2001) analyzed the gender differences in demand

for schooling. According to the study, Pakistan has a very poor ranking in terms of human

2
development indicators, while gender differences in human development are also significant

within and between other South Asian countries. The paper depicts the results of various human

development indicators in the paper; which include female and male enrolment, ratio of

enrolment with income etc. The paper concludes that perhaps due to a rise in poverty the

enrolment at primary schools declined in 1990’s while it also shows that in the urban areas net

enrolment ratio with income and the positive income effect is higher. The paper goes onto show,

using the data from rural and urban areas that despite a rise in female enrolment after the 90’s

gender differences persist and income is the main factor affecting demand for education. This

paper completely transforms the canvas of study, as it brings down the analysis to a more

primary level, where gender differences play a part in the determination of the literacy rates.

In order to emphasize the importance of education, Kingdon (2002) presents a study on

the socio-economic benefits of female education and also identifies how female literacy can lead

to social gains. According to the findings of the study, women account for half of the world’s

population yet they just receive one-tenth of the world’s income. Commenting on the recent

research on the social gains from female education, it may be concluded that these gains are

much higher than gains from male education. The study has led to greater emphasis on female

literacy. The paper also suggests some policy prescriptions in order to promote female education.

This study may be paramount in forming a proper policy for female education in Pakistan as the

numerous socio-economic benefits associated with female literacy will be a major attraction for

the governments.

Building upon previous studies with a fresh view, Gupta (2002) studied the determinants

of the female-male non-agricultural wage ratio in developing countries. It was a cross country

study on the determinants of gender gap using data on industrial composition, economic

performance, women participation in the labor market and economic outcomes for developing

3
nations. The study concluded that higher female literacy and greater female labor market is

activity is associated with a lower wage gap. The study also concludes that higher the degree of

industrialization, the greater is the gender gap. Women’s over representation in lower paying

jobs in industrialized nations is an explanation of lower pay for women in these countries. The

premise of studying this paper is to explain the wage differences for women employed in the

agriculture sector. This sector is especially important from Pakistan’s perspective, as it is an

agro-based economy. Though the paper does not directly relate to the topic of study, however, it

was important to review this paper in order to support the argument being developed.

Female literacy is very important for the development of a nation, because when a female

receives education she is able to transfer it on to her children and a trickledown effect is created,

because of which, at times entire societies get educated. Clark (2003) studied the connection

between female literacy, information technology and democracy and established a diversity in it

which was affected by other economic and social factors. However, overlooking the importance

of female literacy in the overall socio-political development of a nation can have negative

effects. The study uses a two-staged regression analysis to validate the hypothesis that female

literacy impact communication technology in a country and these in turn affect the state of

democracy in the country. This study ably highlights the importance of female literacy for one

particular sector within a country’s economy, and it also highlights how female literacy can

affect the politics of the nation, besides the economic and the social conditions, as explained by

previous studies.

Taking a different direction from the existing studies, Verner (2005) in his paper presents

a model of literacy. It shows that the main determinants of worldwide literacy are enrollment

rates; average years of schooling of adults, and life expectancy at birth. Income has a weak

nonlinear effect, negatively affecting literacy. 95% of the world’s illiterate people live in

4
developing countries and about 70% are women. Female illiteracy rates are particularly high in

Sub-Saharan Africa and African countries do not have a high literacy rate when controlling for

other factors. This model is helpful in that it will allow the government to see which factors have

been important globally and which ones will be important from the Pakistani perspective in

determining the state of the education sector of Pakistan.

Similar to the study carried out by Ghaus, Pasha & Ghaus in 1996, Hussain & Qasim

(2005) in their paper attempt to identify areas that are still lagging behind other parts of the

country in terms of literacy levels, and are unable to play their role in the development of human

capital of the country. The analysis indicates that more than 75% of the districts in the country

are under-represented in terms of literacy levels. In general, Sindh lags behind in case of rural

areas and NWFP in case of females. The results also show that economically backward areas

have low literacy level. A lot of effort is required to bring these areas at par with other areas of

the country. The difference between the two studies lies in the variable being considered for the

rankings of the various parts of the nation. In the former, eleven social indicators were

considered, while in the latter only one, education, is being researched upon.

In order to examine the situation of gender inequality and female literacy in other parts of

the world, a study conducted on Turkey was reviewed. Kiziaslan & Kiziaslan (2007) in their

study compared the position of gender inequalities in the world and in Turkey. The UNDP is

actively involved in developing measures to examine gender based inequalities and in this study,

the country ranked first, last and Turkey are compared. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was

used to calculate the correlation between the Gender related Development Index (GDI) and

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) in these countries. The results displayed a strong

positive correlation between GDI and real GDP per capita in Turkey; in Norway all components

and GDI; while in Niger, there is a positive correlation between male/female life expectancy and

5
GDI. The paper also concludes that GDI and women’s share in administrative and technical jobs

have a positive correlation. The paper identifies that in order to calculate GDI and GEM values it

is necessary to differentiate several other factors such as differences in rural-urban scenario. It

can be said that gender inequalities will always display disparities in various terms. This is a

fairly well attempted research that allows a fairer comparison of the Pakistani scenario with a

country that is near the European Union, one of the most developed blocs of countries.

Coming to South East Asia, Rao & Reddy (2008) studied the gender discrimination in

education for India. The study specifically focused on the situation in Andhra Pradesh, where

dimensions on female literacy were studied. Women make up half of India’s population, yet they

are socially and economically discriminated against. The paper suggests that female literacy

should be seen as a source of economic development and not as a waste of resources. It also

holds that women are equally comparable to men as opposed to the popular notion that they are

not as competent as males. The paper also analyzes the theory of justice and cooperative conflict

in context of gender discrimination in the country. Furthermore, the paper examines status of

female literacy in AP and suggests measures to improve the situation. This study attempts to

define the state of affairs in India, which is Pakistan’s neighbor. This paper highlights the

importance of female literacy and attempts to change the thought process of the people in favor

of educating females.

Concentrating the study on India, Kambhapati & Rajan (2008) studied the contribution of

Indian girls to the rural economy through their household chores and involvement in the labor

market. The study is modeled in the context of the various institutional and familial

arrangements prevalent in the different areas of the country. Using a multivariate probit model,

the study finds that the best possible outcome for girls is in the districts where female literacy is

high because here the probability of schooling increases while the probability of work decreases.

6
The study also holds that the probability of girls going to school decreases as the number of

younger siblings increases, while the opposite holds true in case of presence of elder female

siblings. However, if older male siblings are present, the probability of going to school for

female children reduces. The paper ably attempts to explain how Indian girls are making a

positive contribution towards the Indian economy, which helps lay the foundation to establish a

link between GDP per capita and female literacy.

In a completely different setting and time, Becker & Woessmann (2008) in their paper

state that Martin Luther urged each town to have a girls’ school so that girls would learn to read

the Gospel, evoking a surge of building girls’ schools in Protestant areas. The first Prussian

census of 1816, show that the larger share of Protestants decreased gender gap in basic

education. Similar results are found for the gender gap in literacy among adults in the 1871

census. This shows that the world has accepted the importance of female education, while in

Pakistan the situation is quite adverse. It will still take a long time before the populace begins to

accept female education as an important part of development.

In 2008, a study for the state of women was conducted for the Indian province of Andhra

Pradesh. Enhancing on that, Nayak & Mahanta (2009) attempted to analyze the status of women

and their empowerment in Assam, a state in India. Various indicators such as access to

education, employment, household decision making, domestic violence experiences, freedom of

speech and expression etc. are used to measure empowerment through secondary data. The study

holds that gender does play a part in development process in the state, as women in Assam have

a lower status as compared to the average Indian woman elsewhere. However, the study

concludes that as compared to the average Indian woman elsewhere, women is Assam have a

better status in terms of financial autonomy and domestic violence experienced. India has high

interstate disparity as is evident from the figures from Kamrup and Tinisukia which despite

7
having a higher per capita GDP have not been able to minimize the gender gap. In some districts,

on the other hand, have a female literacy rates have a higher number of women participating in

the labor force. Furthermore, districts with higher literacy have a higher proportion of female

main and marginal workers and low proportion of non-workers. Despite these findings, female

enrolment is below fifty percent as even the educated women look towards baseless cultural

practices and are not forward looking. Government has made efforts to promote education but

the situation is still not very promising as there is no awareness regarding the importance of

women empowerment. The paper is good attempt to highlight how a different province in India

is contributing to the development of its womenfolk. As per evidence from earlier studies, the

efforts made will translate into long term growth, for not only the province but the entire country.

A study was conducted in Turkey, in 2007, where the gender inequality in Turkey was

studied. In 2008, Lutz & McGillivray use panel data from Sub Saharan Africa and other Arab

countries and Bond Arellano estimations to study gender inequality and growth. The study

empirically analyzes the impact of two indicators, namely ratio of girls to boys in primary and

secondary education and the ratio of 15-24 year old literate females to males, on growth. These

indicators are associated with the Millennium Development Goals. The study concludes that

gender inequalities in literacy have a significantly negative effect that is robust to the changes in

the specifications. In the Arab countries, this result is even more pronounced. Furthermore, the

paper highlights that the more open the economy, gender inequality in literacy seems to have an

additional but positive effect; indicating that trade-induced growth may be accompanied by

greater inequalities. Both the studies show the situation of gender inequality in two different

parts of the world, one fast moving to development, while the other classified in the poorest

states of development. The study is a good attempt to present the circumstances in both parts of

the world.

8
Section 3: Methodology

The study seeks to establish a link between the GDP per capita and the female literacy

rates in Pakistan. The basis of this belief is that the greater income available for the household,

the decision maker will be willing to spend it on educating the females of the house.

Furthermore, ample literature exists that suggests that the income of a household is a determinant

of female literacy. Additionally, literature also suggests that female literacy helps determine the

socio-economic situation of the country. For this, the two variables being studied are female

literacy and the change in GDP per capita from the base year 1991. In the study female literacy

being the dependent variable and change in GDP per capita from the base year being the

independent variable. Female literacy rate shows the percentage of females who are literate out

of the total female population of the country. GDP per capita is the income of an individual in

the country. However, for the purpose of this study, this variable shall be defined by the trend of

the GDP per capita from the base year of 1991. The GDP per capita in 1991 is equated to 100

and then the subsequent trends have been calculated.

The study is going to be testing a hypothesis, as it will seek to recognize whether

economic condition will impact female literacy or not, i.e. is economic condition a factor

responsible for explaining the poor levels of female literacy in Pakistan. It shall be a longitudinal

study, since the data collected spans over a range of years. Since all research is secondary in

nature and pertains to information obtained from the population of Pakistan in their natural work

setting, therefore, minimal researcher interference will be there. It will be carried out in non-

contrived settings, as the study pays close attention to all possible variables that may affect

female literacy. It will be a field study, as the observations are made in their natural environment.

1
 Since it is a macro level analysis, with the female literate population as the focused

group, therefore, government level resources and data will be used. Primarily, the Economic

Survey of Pakistan, Census of the Pakistani population and other pertinent journals and

publications will be considered for data.

A regression analysis will be carried out between the dependent and the independent

variable to establish the correlation coefficient, which will then help us come to pertinent

conclusions with regards to the hypothesis.

2
Section 4: Results & Discussion

4.1 Results

Pakistan is a developing nation and has therefore been struggling with keeping its

economy afloat. The governments have been facing numerous issues therefore have not been

able to give this sector its due attention. As per the data obtained regarding female literacy, in a

span of 16 years, it has grown by a mere 17% percent, which shows the sorry state of affairs in

this sector. The following graphs show the trend for the Female literacy rates and the GDP per

capita between 1991-2006.

Figure 1: Trend in Female Literacy Rates for Pakistan (1991-2006)

Figure 2: Trend in GDP per Capita (1991-2006)

After conducting a regression analysis for the female literacy rate and the change in GDP

per capita from the base year 1991, the following regression equation was obtained:

Female literacy rate = 21.906 + 0.043*change in GDP per capita from the base year

1
 Table 1: Model Summary

Adjusted R Std. Error of

Model R R Square Square the Estimate

1 .953 .909 .902 1.87516

Table 1 shows the model summary for the regression run between the concerned

variables. The R value for the regression is 0.953 which means that the two variables, i.e. the

change in GDP per capita from the base year (1991; Rs.9063=100%) and the female literacy are

strongly, positively correlated. The closer the R value is to 1, the stronger the correlation

between the variables. The next column of the table shows the R square value, also known as the

coefficient of determination, shows the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that

can be explained by the independent variable. In this particular scenario, 90.9% of the variance

in the female literacy rate in Pakistan can be explained by the change in GDP per capita from the

base year (1991). The third column shows the adjusted R-squared value (0.902) which is a more

honest version of the R-squared value. The reason for determining the adjusted R-squared value

is to explain the variation in the dependent variable as more predictors are added to the model.

Therefore, in this case, the adjusted R-squared is quite near to the R squared value which shows

that the independent variable explains the variation in the dependent variable quite accurately.

Table 2: Coefficients

1
 Unstandardized Standardized 95% Confidence
Coefficients Coefficients Interval for B

Lower Upper
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Bound Bound

1 (Constant) 21.906 1.070 20.470 .000 19.611 24.201

Change in GDP per

capita from base year
.043 .004 .953 11.807 .000 .035 .050
1991 (1991 GDP per
capita=100)

a. Dependent Variable: Female literacy rate for

Pakistan

Table 2 shows the coefficients that will help construct the equation relating the female

literacy rates and the change in GDP per capita from the base year and depict the strength of the

relationship between the concerned variables. The first column of the table shows the predictor

variables (constant and the change in GDP per capita from the base year). The first variable in

the column is Constant which, as the name indicates, represents the constant, also known as the

Y intercept, i.e. the height of the regression line as it cuts the Y-axis, i.e. if the GDP per capita in

a particular year is the same as that in the base year, then this figure (21.906%) will show the

literacy rate in that year. The second column of the table, shows the coefficients in their natural

form, thus are known as unstandardized coefficients .The B in this column shows the values for

the regression equation that will help predict the relationship between the dependent and the

independent variable. As per this table, the B equals 0.043 which indicates that a unit change in

GDP per capita from the base year will change the female literacy rate by 4.3%, all else held

constant. This is statistically significant as the significance is equal to 0. The reason for this low

percentage is that female literacy is not only a function of the change in GDP per capita from the

base year, but is determined by numerous other variables, that were beyond the scope of this

study. The std. error column shows the standard errors associated with the coefficients. This

2
value is used to test whether the parameter is significantly different from 0 and obtaining a t-

value. Beta shows the standardized coefficient, i.e. these are the coefficients that would be

obtained if all the parameters in the regression were standardized. In this case, the Beta value is

0.953, which shows that if both the variables are standardized, then the percent change in GDP

per capita will have a 95.3% impact on the female literacy. The higher the value of this beta, the

higher will be the t-value. The t-value for the independent variable is 11.807 while that for the

constant is 20.47, while the significance is 0 for both the constant and the change in GDP per

capita from the base year. These results show that the coefficient for the independent variable is

statistically significant at the alpha level of 0.05 because its p-value is 0.000, which is smaller

than 0.005. Similarly, the constant is significantly different from 0 at the alpha level of 0.05. The

last two columns of the table show the upper and the lower bounds for the constant and the

change in GDP per capita for the population. This shows a 95% confidence interval for the

coefficient. Confidence intervals are related to the p-values, i.e. if the confidence interval

includes 0, then the coefficient will not be significant. In this case, the interval for the constant

ranges between 19.611 and 24.201 which means that the constant is significant. Similarly, the

interval for the change in GDP per capita from the base year ranges from 0.035 and 0.05 which

shows that the coefficient is significant.

4.2. Discussion

Female literacy in Pakistan has always been a neglected area. The governments, since

independence have failed to allocate adequate resources to it. Over the years, a minimal

percentage of the total government expenditure has been spent in this sector. For instance, during

the last 12 years, the highest spending on education sector was in 2003-2004, which was 13% of

the total government expenses. This study has been conducted with the view of establishing a

3
concrete relationship between the change of GDP per capita since 1991 and female literacy in

Pakistan. As per the results obtained above, there exists a strong positive correlation between the

two. Furthermore, a unit change in the GDP per capita on that from 1991 will lead to a 4.3%

change in the female literacy rate.

The most important factor contributing to the lack of female literacy in Pakistan is

poverty. A large number of population lives below the poverty line, without access to the bare

essentials such as food, water and shelter. Therefore, education is not a priority in their list.

Much of the population is involved in providing for the basic needs of their families, therefore,

they neglect education, which further translates into more poverty.

The study considered the impact of the change in GDP per capita from a base year,

however, there is evidence from previous studies discussed in Section 2 of the paper, which

suggest that some variable, may directly and indirectly affect the female literacy rate. As per

Pasha & Ahmed (1999), social development and economic growth are interconnected. In the

current scenario, however, Pakistan has not been able to bank on the link between the two

variables. This suggests why the literacy rates are low, i.e. since social development is not

present, it does not help the nation in achieving high growth rates of GDP per capita.

Another determinant of female education is the level of awareness within the society.

Those in the rural areas especially do not rank female education as important in the household

budget. The rural class of Pakistan views girls as fit for doing household chores. As studied by

Kambhapati & Rajan (2008) the number of girls attending schools decreases as the number of

younger siblings’ increases. Since Pakistan and India both lie in the same region, share the same

history, culture and values, therefore this study will be equally applicable here. Furthermore, the

study highlights that girls are considered to be appropriate to attending to the household affairs

rather than gaining education. Therefore, there is the problem of low female literacy.

2
 Thirdly, lack of female education in Pakistan can be attributed to a lack of schools within

close proximity of homes. This phenomenon specially holds true for the rural areas, where the

girls are denied schooling owing to the lack of a school within close proximity of the home.

Fourthly, the lack of qualified teaching staff is another reason for poor development of female

literacy in Pakistan. Many people shy away from teaching in government schools and colleges

owing to the poor reputation of the schools, lack of proper monetary and non-monetary benefits

and the lure of better jobs. In case of private schools in the urban areas, the situation is quite

different, where it is seen as a quite a lucrative profession.

The influence of the local mullah of the mosque on the lives of the rural population is yet

another factor contributing to the illiteracy, especially in the rural areas. According to them, it is

inadequate for the girls to be sent for acquiring education, an act contrary to the teachings of

Islam. The strong influence of the Taliban on the northern areas of Pakistan and the province on

NWFP specially has proved to be detrimental to the education of women in these areas.

According to the study conducted by Khan (2007), the education sector has been

neglected by the governments in the past. This is also reflected in the meager amounts of public

spending made on education. The study also highlights that many people in Pakistan do not seek

technical or scientific education which hampers the development of the country. Female literacy

levels in Pakistan are the lowest in the world. Most importantly, the attitude of the feudal and the

foreign educated elites of the nation have played a detrimental part in the development of the

education sector of Pakistan.

Studies have been conducted in the past, some of which have been cited here, that show

that female education and economic development have a two-way link. After a discussion of the

results and survey of existing studies, it has become clear that there is a link between GDP per

capita changes and the female literacy rates. However, this is not the only factor that affects

2
female literacy, as there are numerous other determinants which influence the female literacy in

Pakistan.

Section 5: Conclusion

The research attempted to find a correlation between GDP per capita as defined by the

change in GDP per capita from a base year 1991, with the level of female literacy and observed

that education in our country is to a great extent dependant on the income level of the household.

According to the results of the findings, more than 90% variation in the level of female literacy

in Pakistan is explained by the change in GDP per capita from the base year. However, there are

limitations to our research. Firstly, we have considered data for only 15 years. Secondly, the

definition of a literate person has changed over the previous years. Thirdly, per capita income is

only one factor. Other factors (both quantifiable and non-quantifiable) such as awareness, access

of schools near homes also exist.

However, the fact remains that GDP per capita income is possibly the strongest factor

affecting female literacy in our country. The government has to design policies aimed at

improving the overall literacy level in general, and the female literacy level in particular which is

considerably less compared to the male literacy rate.

The government needs to allocate a higher proportion of the budget to the education

especially in case of the rural areas because majority of our population lives in rural areas. Then

the government should create awareness amongst the people living in the rural area about the

importance of females getting educated especially in terms of the impact it would have on the

2
social and economic development. The government needs to have a proper check on the

government schools because they are not given due attention because of which the staff as well

as the students do not take it seriously. There is a lot of effort required on the part of the

government in order to improve the female literacy as well as literacy on the whole. There needs

to be proper policy formulation and then its implementation and monitoring is of utmost

importance.

3
1
References

• Pakistan, Asian Development Bank (ADB), Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2008.

[Online] www.adb.org/statistics.

• Becker, S.O. & Woessmann, L (2008). Luther and the Girls: Religious Denomination and

the Female Education Gap in 19th Century Prussia. [Online]

http://ideas.repec.org/p/ces/ceswps/_2414.html.

• Clark, R.A. (2003). Female Literacy Rates, Information Technology and Democracy.

[Online] http://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/paper-2003/clark.pdf.

• Economic Survey of Pakistan 2000-2007

• Ghaus, A.F.A, Pasha, H.A. & Ghaus, R. (1996). Social Development Ranking of Districts

of Pakistan. Journal of the Pakistan Development Review, 35 (4), 593-614.

• Gupta, N.D. (2002). Gender, pay and development: a cross-country analysis. [Online]

http://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/15311.html.

• Hamid, S. & Siddiqui, R. (2001). Gender Differences in Demand for Schooling. Journal

of the Pakistan Development Review, 40 (4), 1077-1092.

• Husain, F. & Qasim, M.A. (2005). Inequality in the Literacy Levels in Pakistan:

Existence and Changes Overtime. [Online]

http://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/4166.html.

• Khan, A.H. (1997). Education in Pakistan: Fifty Years of Neglect. Journal of the

Pakistan Development Review, 36 (4), 647-667.

• Kingdon, G.G. (1999, August 15-18). Education of Women and Socio-Economic

Development. Paper presented at the 3rd Conference of the International Environment

Forum, Sidcot, UK.

• Kambhampati, U. & Rajan, R. (2008). The 'Nowhere' Children: Patriarchy and the Role

of Girls in India's Rural Economy. Journal of Development Studies, 44 (9), 1309-1341.

• Kizilaslan, N. & Kizilaslan, H. (2007). Gender Inequalities in the World and in Turkey.

Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 3 (10), 1056-1061.

• Lutz, M.B. & McGillivray, M. Gender Inequality and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa and

Arab Countries. [Online]

http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Knowledge/25040335-EN-

GENDER-INEQUALITY-BALIAMOUNE-LUTZ-AND-MCGILLIVRAY.PDF.

• Nayak, P. & Mahanta, B. (2009). Women Empowerment in Assam. [Online]

http://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/12684.html.

• Pasha, A.G & Ahmed, N. (1999). Pakistan’s ranking in Social Development: Have We

Always Been Backward? Journal of the Pakistan Development Review, 38 (4), 739-754.

• Rao, P.A. & Reddy, M.S. (2008). Status of Women: Dimensions of Female Literacy in

Andhra Pradesh - A Study in Gender Discrimination in Education. Journal of Public

Administration, 4 (1), 75-89.

• Verner, D. (2005). What factors influence world literacy? Is Africa different? [Online]

http://ideas.repec.org/p/wbk/wbrwps/3496.html.