Design Handbook For RautaRuukki Structural Hollow Sections

DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS
Chapter 1
DESIGN HANDBOOK
FOR RAUTARUUKKI
STRUCTURAL HOLLOW
SECTIONS
1
Chapter 1 DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS
New, revised edition 2000

ISBN 952-5010-47-3
Author Rautaruukki Oyj, Hannu Vainio (M.Sc.Tech)
Typesetting Lasjuma Oy
Translation Trantex Oy
Printers Otava Book Printing Ltd, Keuruu 2000
Orders RAUTARUUKKI OYJ
METFORM
13300 Hämeenlinna, Finland
tel. +358 3 528 60
fax +358 3 528 5873
Internet: www.rautaruukki.com/metform
2
DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS Chapter 1
FOREWORD
This volume is a completely new, revised edition of the 1/98 handbook for Rautaruukki structu-
ral hollow sections, replacing all former editions. It is mainly based on the European
prestandard on steel structures, Eurocode 3 (ENV 1993-1-1:1992). Other parts of the Eurocode
were also used, and the design guidance for hollow section structures published by CIDECT
(Comité International pour le Développement et l´Étude de la Construction Tubulaire) were
consulted for additional reference.
The aim of this handbook is to provide design guidance for structures manufactured of Rauta-
ruukki structural hollow sections. It is also intended as a textbook. The primary scope of this
handbook is building construction, but it can also be used in mechanical engineering where
applicable.
The handbook was written by Hannu Vainio (M.Sc.Tech). On Rautaruukki's behalf, the
manuscript was supervised by Reijo Ilvonen, Janne Pirttijoki and Kristian Witting. Professor
Erkki Niemi, Jouko Kouhi, Antti Helenius, Ilkka Hakola, Tiina Ala-Outinen, Arto Rokkanen,
Hannu Reinikainen and Mikko Arponen also participated in the preparation of the manuscript
and revised parts of it. The handbook was translated into English by Sirpa Meriläinen at
Trantex Oy. Lauri Sannikka of Lasjuma Oy prepared the lay-out. The book was printed and
bound by Otava. Warmest thanks are due to all contributors.
In this document, a comma is used instead of a decimal point, and a decimal point is used ins-
tead of a multiplication sign, in accordance with the usual continental practice.
Rautaruukki is happy to receive any comments and suggestions for improving the contents of
this handbook.
Hämeenlinnassa 1.2.2000
RAUTARUUKKI
METFORM
The accuracy of the contents of this manual has been carefully reviewed. Nevertheless,
Rautaruukki is not responsible for any remaining errors or damage, whether direct or indirect,
due to the incorrect application of the information presented in this book. The data in this book
is for reference only, and the user is responsible for verifying the accuracy of the results by
calculation. The information in this book is subject to change.
3
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 8
1 RAUTARUUKKI METFORM STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS ............................... 9
1.1 EN 10219 hollow sections ................................................................................................. 9
1.2 Manufacture of hollow sections ......................................................................................... 9
1.3 References ........................................................................................................................ 11
2. RESISTANCE OF HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES .................................................. 13

2.1 Limit state design and partial safety factors ...................................................................... 13
2.2 Classification of cross-sections ......................................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Calculating the effective cross-section .............................................................................. 17
2.3 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to bending moment ........................................... 18
2.3.1 Effect of holes on bending resistance ................................................................................ 19
2.3.2 Bending resistance in bi-axial bending .............................................................................. 19
2.3.3 Bending resistance of Class 4 circular hollow sections ..................................................... 20
2.3.4 Lateral-torsional buckling of hollow sections ..................................................................... 21
2.3.5 Examples for calculating bending resistance of various cross-sections ............................ 23
2.4 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to shear force .................................................... 26
2.4.1 Shear resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections ............................................ 27
2.4.1.1 Plastic shear resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections ................................. 27
2.4.1.2 Shear buckling resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections .............................. 27
2.4.2 Shear resistance of circular hollow sections ...................................................................... 28
2.4.2.1 Plastic shear resistance of circular hollow sections ........................................................... 28
2.4.2.2 Shear buckling resistance of circular hollow sections ....................................................... 28
2.4.3 Effect of holes on shear resistance ................................................................................... 29
2.5 Hollow sections subjected to torsion moment ................................................................... 25
2.5.1 Methods for calculating torsion resistance of hollow sections ........................................... 31
2.5.1.1 Plastic torsion resistance of hollow sections ..................................................................... 31
2.5.1.2 Torsional buckling resistance of hollow sections ............................................................... 31
2.6 Hollow sections subjected to axial force ............................................................................ 33
2.6.1 Tension resistance of hollow sections ............................................................................... 33
2.6.2 Compression resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections and
Class 1, 2 and 3 circular hollow sections (no buckling) ..................................................... 33
2.6.3 Compression resistance of Class 4 cross-sections (no buckling) ..................................... 34
2.7 Combined load resistance of hollow sections (no buckling) .............................................. 34
2.7.1 Hollow sections subjected to bending moment and axial force (no buckling) ................... 35
2.7.1.1 Class 1 or 2 hollow sections .............................................................................................. 35
2.7.1.2 Square or rectangular Class 3 or 4 hollow sections and circular Class 3
hollow sections .................................................................................................................. 36
2.7.1.3 Class 4 circular hollow sections ......................................................................................... 36
2.7.2 Hollow sections subjected to shear force and bending moment ....................................... 37
2.7.2.1 Square and rectangular hollow sections ............................................................................ 37
2.7.2.2 Class 1, 2 or 3 circular hollow sections ............................................................................. 38
2.7.3 Hollow sections subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment
(no buckling) ...................................................................................................................... 40
2.7.3.1 Class 1 or 2 hollow sections .............................................................................................. 40
2.7.3.2 Class 3 and 4 square and rectangular hollow sections and Class 3
circular hollow sections ...................................................................................................... 41
.7.3.3 Class 4 circular hollow sections ......................................................................................... 41
2.8 Buckling resistance of hollow sections .............................................................................. 43
4
2.8.1 Buckling resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections and Class 1, 2 and 3
circular hollow sections ...................................................................................................... 43
2.8.2 Buckling resistance of Class 4 circular hollow sections ..................................................... 44
2.9 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to combined loads (buckling) ............................ 46
2.9.1 Hollow sections subjected to bending moment and axial force (buckling) ........................ 47
2.9.1.1 Square and rectangular hollow sections and Class 1, 2 and 3 circular hollow sections .... 47
2.10 Concentrated load resistance of hollow sections .............................................................. 54
2.10.1 Concentrated load acting from one side only .................................................................... 54
2.10.2 Concentrated load acting from both sides ......................................................................... 56
2.11 References ........................................................................................................................ 58
3 DESIGN OF JOINTS IN HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES ......................................... 59

3.1 Design of welded joints in lattice structures ....................................................................... 59
3.1.1 Joints of circular, square or rectangular brace members to square or
rectangular chords ............................................................................................................. 62
3.1.2 Joints of circular brace members to circular chords .......................................................... 72
3.1.3 Joints of circular, square and rectangular brace members to I profile chords ................... 77
3.2 Welded frameworks ........................................................................................................... 77
3.2.1 Joints of square and rectangular hollow sections subjected to bending ............................ 78
3.2.2 Circular hollow section joints subjected to bending ........................................................... 80
3.3 Welded end-to-end joints of hollow sections ..................................................................... 82
3.4 Bolted hollow section joints ............................................................................................... 84
3.4.1 End-to-end bolted hollow section joints ............................................................................. 84
3.4.1.1 Flange plate connections ................................................................................................... 85
3.4.1.2 In-line tension joint with splice plates ................................................................................ 90
3.4.2 Bolted beam-to-column joints ............................................................................................ 94
3.5 Hollow section-to-foundation joints .................................................................................... 104
3.5.1 Joint between a column subjected to axial force and foundation ..................................... 104
3.5.2 Joint between a column subjected to bending moment and axial force and the foundatio 105
3.6 References ........................................................................................................................ 108
4. FATIGUE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE IN HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES ............. 109

4.1 Fatigue loading .................................................................................................................. 109
4.2 Stress calculation methods in fatigue design .................................................................... 110
4.3 Design requirements for fatigue-loaded hollow sections (nominal stress method) ........... 111
4.3.1 Conditions and necessity of fatigue design ....................................................................... 111
4.3.2 Fatigue load design conditions .......................................................................................... 112
4.3.3 Fatigue strength of hollow sections (nominal stress method) ............................................ 114
4.3.3.1 Fatigue strength under normal and shear stress ............................................................... 114
4.3.3.2 Fatigue strength of lattice structure joints (nominal stress method) .................................. 115
4.4 Fatigue strength of lattice structure joints (hot spot method) ............................................. 117
4.5 Design of fatigue-loaded hollow section structures ........................................................... 122
4.5.1 Welded joints ..................................................................................................................... 122
4.5.2 Bolted joints ....................................................................................................................... 124
4.5.3 Lattice structures ............................................................................................................... 124
4.6 Brittle fracture of structural hollow sections ....................................................................... 129
4.6.1 Parameters affecting brittle fracture in structural hollow sections ..................................... 129
4.6.2 Minimum service temperatures of Rautaruukki structural hollow sections ........................ 132
4.7 References ........................................................................................................................ 132
5
5 FIRE DESIGN OF HOLLOW SECTIONS ......................................................................... 133

5.1 Development of temperature in fire compartments 134
5.1.1 Standard time-temperature curve ...................................................................................... 134
5.1.2 Development of temperature according to the parametric model ...................................... 135
5.2 Development of steel temperature .................................................................................... 135
5.2.1 Development of temperature in unprotected steel members ............................................. 136
5.2.2 Development of temperature in fire protected steel members ........................................... 137
5.3 Strength and modulus of elasticity of steel in fire situations .............................................. 139
5.4 Critical temperature in hollow section structures ............................................................... 140
5.5 Determining the strength of hollow section structures in fire situations ............................. 141
5.5.1 Partial safety factors in fire design ..................................................................................... 142
5.5.2 Determining the cross-section class in fire design ............................................................ 143
5.5.3 Strength of hollow section subjected to tension in fire situations ...................................... 144
5.5.4 Buckling strength of hollow sections in fire situations ........................................................ 144
5.5.5 Bending strength of hollow sections in fire situations ........................................................ 145
5.5.6 Shear strength of hollow sections in fire situations ............................................................ 146
5.5.7 Strength of hollow sections subjected to bending moment and compressive axial
force in fire situations ......................................................................................................... 146
5.6 Fire retardant methods ...................................................................................................... 147
5.6.1 Fire retardation by insulation ............................................................................................. 147
5.6.2 Fire retardation by increasing the heat retention capacity of structural steel .................... 149
5.6.3 Structural fire retardation ................................................................................................... 150
5.7 Fire design of concrete-filled columns ............................................................................... 155
5.7.1 Using tables in the fire design of concrete-filled columns .................................................. 156
5.8 References ........................................................................................................................ 158
6 DESIGN OF HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES ........................................................... 159

6.1 Structural actions ............................................................................................................... 161
6.1.1 Self-weight and imposed loads .......................................................................................... 162
6.1.2 Snow load .......................................................................................................................... 162
6.1.3 Wind load ........................................................................................................................... 162
6.1.4 Additional horizontal forces ............................................................................................... 164
6.1.5 Combined loads ................................................................................................................. 165
6.1.6 Load determination in the model building .......................................................................... 166
6.2 Designing columns ............................................................................................................ 167
6.2.1 Column buckling length ..................................................................................................... 167
6.2.2 Effect of joint stiffness on column buckling length ............................................................. 167
6.2.3 Column-to-foundation connections .................................................................................... 171
6.2.4 Column design in the model building ................................................................................. 172
6.2.5 Designing the column-to-foundation joint in the model building ........................................ 174
6.3 Designing the hollow section beams ................................................................................. 177
6.3.1 Designing gable beam in the model building ..................................................................... 178
6.3.2 Designing the door beam in the model building ................................................................ 180
6.4 Design of trusses ............................................................................................................... 183
6.4.1 Selection of truss type ....................................................................................................... 185
6.4.2 Selection of the chord member .......................................................................................... 187
6.4.3 Selection of bracing members ........................................................................................... 189
6.4.4 Design of truss joints ......................................................................................................... 189
6.4.5 Truss joints at the supports ............................................................................................... 191
6.4.6 Estimation of the truss rigidity ............................................................................................ 192
6.4.7 Designing the truss of the model building .......................................................................... 193
6.5 Stiffening hollow section structures ................................................................................... 204
6
6.5.1 Designing the stiffening elements in the model building .................................................... 204
6.6 References ........................................................................................................................ 208
7 SHOP FABRICATION AND ERECTION .......................................................................... 209

7.1 Cutting of hollow sections .................................................................................................. 209
7.1.1 Cutting of circular hollow sections ..................................................................................... 209
7.1.2 Cutting methods ................................................................................................................ 211
7.1.3 Notching of hollow section ends ........................................................................................ 211
7.2 Bending of hollow sections ................................................................................................ 212
7.2.1 Bending methods for hollow sections ................................................................................ 212
7.3 Bolted joints ....................................................................................................................... 213
7.3.1 Thermodrilling of hollow section walls ............................................................................... 214
7.3.2 Expansion bolt joints .......................................................................................................... 214
7.3.3 Pilot tap joints .................................................................................................................... 214
7.4 Welding of hollow sections ................................................................................................ 215
7.4.1 Quality levels ..................................................................................................................... 215
7.4.2 Welding methods ............................................................................................................... 215
7.4.3 Welding sequence ............................................................................................................. 216
7.4.4 Fillet and butt welds ........................................................................................................... 216
7.4.5 Preheating ......................................................................................................................... 218
7.4.6 Residual stresses .............................................................................................................. 218
7.4.7 Inspection of welds ............................................................................................................ 219
7.5 Tolerances ......................................................................................................................... 220
7.6 Assembly of trusses .......................................................................................................... 225
7.7 Fire protection .................................................................................................................... 226
7.8 Transport and storage ....................................................................................................... 226
7.9 Erection ............................................................................................................................. 227
7.10 References ........................................................................................................................ 228
8 CORROSION PROTECTION ............................................................................................ 229

8.1 Corrosivity categories ........................................................................................................ 229
8.2 Surface preparation ........................................................................................................... 230
8.3 Anti-corrosive painting ....................................................................................................... 230
8.4 Hot-dip galvanizing ............................................................................................................ 232
8.5 References ........................................................................................................................ 234
9 APPENDIX
LIITTEET ..................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................... 235
Appendix 9.1 Cross-sectional propertiesjaand
Liite 9.1 Putkipalkkien poikkileikkaus- resistance values
kestävyysarvot for steel
teräslajille grade................................
S355J2H S355J2H ............... 235
235
Appendix 9.2 Buckling tables for steel grade S355J2H .................................................................... 257
Liite 9.2 Putkipalkkien nurjahduskestävyydet teräslajille S355J2H ................................................. 255
Appendix 9.3 Calculation tables for truss joints ................................................................................ 289
Appendix Calculation
Appendix 9.4 tables
Estimating thefor lattice of
stiffness joints
moment connections ......................................................... 287
327
Liite 9.4 Kehäliitosten jäykkyyden arvioiminen ................................................................................
Appendix 9.5 Fatigue categories ...................................................................................................... 325
333
Liite 9.5 9.6
Appendix Väsymisluokat
Cross-section ...................................................................................................................
factors in fire design ............................................................................. 331
339
Appendix
Liite 9.6 9.7 Minimum bending
Poikkileikkaustekijät radii for square and
palomitoituksessa rectangular hollow sections ...........................
............................................................................. 343
337
Appendix 9.8 WinRAMI software ......................................................................................................
Liite 9.7 Neliön ja suorakaiteen muotoisten putkipalkkien minimitaivutussäteet ............................. 345
341
Liite 9.8 WinRAMI-ohjelma .............................................................................................................. 343
7
INTRODUCTION
The structural hollow section is a modern, adaptable element for steel structures. It is also an
environmentally friendly element, since it is easy to recycle and re-use. The simple shape of
hollow sections and their excellent mechanical properties make them a light-weight and
affordable solution.
In a lattice structure, the high buckling resistance of hollow sections enables the use of long
spans and a large spacing between diagonals. Due to the superior torsional stiffness of the
closed section, lattice structures made of hollow sections as well as individual hollow sections
have good resistance to lateral-torsional buckling. The fabrication of standard joint details is
cost-efficient, and rounded corners and easily accesible joints facilitate pre-treatment.
Hollow sections can easily be formed into light-weight and stiff frames grid structures, since
their torsional stiffness and bending resistance in all directions is high. The torsional stiffness of
hollow sections can be utilized also in various console structures and structures with projecting
sections. In bracing members, the high stiffness of the hollow section serves to produce a low
susceptibility to deflection.
Another application for hollow sections is in composite structures. When using a concrete-filled
composite column, the properties of steel and concrete can be efficiently utilized, under normal
loads and in fire situations.
New jointing systems, using direct attachment to the hollow section wall, enable the
preparation of flexible and simple joints in hollow section structures.
The design of a hollow section member or framework is easy and quick: the simple geometry
can be expressed with few parameters, which makes computer-aided design a feasible option.
The weight, resistance and stiffness of structures can be optimized by modifying the wall
thickness, without needing to change the external dimensions of the hollow section or the
geometry of the structure.
This design handbook for hollow sections includes data on materials and dimensions of hollow
sections manufactured by Rautaruukki. It also provides instructions for the dimensioning and
design of cross-sections, joints and structures. Moreover, instructions are given for shop
fabrication and site installation of hollow sections, as well as for their corrosion protection and
fire design.
The handbook is complemented by the WinRAMI software, designed by Rautaruukki especially

for the dimensioning of hollow section structures. Additional information on WinRami software
is available in Rautaruukki sales offices.
The design guidance in this book is principally based on the European prestandard on steel
structures, Eurocode 3 (ENV 1993-1-1:1992) and other parts of the Eurocode. The guidance
for the design of hollow section structures published by CIDECT (Comité International pour le
Développement et l´Étude de la Construction Tubulaire) were also used as a reference. The
primary scope of this handbook is building construction, but it can be used also in mechanical
engineering where applicable. The resistance values shown in formulae and tables are
ultimate design values based on the basic partial safety factors used in Eurocode 3.
However, the partial safety factors used in national application documents (NADs) may
differ from those used in Eurocode 3, and this must be taken into account in structural
design. The user is responsible for always verifying the information from the currently valid
national application document.
8
1 RAUTARUUKKI METFORM STRUCTURAL HOLLOW

SECTIONS
1.1 EN 10219 hollow sections
Rautaruukki Metform manufactures cold-formed welded hollow sections conforming to
EN 10219, made of steel grade S355J2H. The design guidance in this manual applies to
Rautaruukki Merform structural hollow sections shown in Appendix 9.1. These hollow sections
are manufactured according to satisfy the requirements of Eurocode 3 [1] and the latest
research [2]. According to the latest research [2], the Rautaruukki Metform structural hollow
sections shown in Appendix 9.1 are suitable for welded steel structures down to the operat-
ing temperature of -40°C (section 4.6).
For the longitudinally welded* structural hollow sections shown in Appendix 9.1, Rautaruukki
Metform guarantees the properties required by EN 10219 standard. In addition to this, the
following properties are guaranteed for steel grade S355J2H:
- impact toughness value of 35 J/cm2 is guaranteed at a testing temperature of -40°C

(EN 10219: requires 35 J/cm2 of a testing temperature of -20°C)
- mechanical properties meet the additional requirements for the application in plasticity
theory presented in Eurocode 3 (ENV 1993-1-1:1992, section 3.2.2.2) when tested in
accordance with standard EN 10219
- a carbon equivalent value of 0,39 maximum is guaranteed for steel grade S355J2H (EN
10219: requires a carbon equivalent value of 0,45 maximum)
- chemical composition is better than required by EN 10219
- tolerance of wall thickness is better than required by EN 10219
- products meet the wall slenderness limitations presented in the latest research [2]:
(B+H)/T ≥ 25
- corners are free of cracks
- the products meet the following EN 10219 options:
• 1.2: The maximum value of the carbon equivalent is guaranteed for constructional steels.
• 1.3: Alloy contents are provided on the inspection certificate
• 1.7: Steel grade is suitable for hot-dip galvanizing
• 1.8: No weld repairs are made to the base material of the hollow section
*The technical delivery conditions for spiral welded hollow sections are agreed separately for
each order.
1.2 Manufacture of hollow sections

Rautaruukki Metform manufactures the structural hollow sections from hot rolled steel strip by
cold forming and welding. Hollow sections, with square and rectangular cross-sections and
small circular (D ≤ 323,9 mm) hollow sections, are seam-welded longitudinally using high
frequency welding (HFW) (Figure 1.1). Large circular sizes (D ≥ 355,6 mm) are seam-welded
spirally using submerged arc welding (SAW) (Figure 1.2). The quality of hollow sections is
controlled according to the ISO 9001 quality system, certified in all hollow section factories.
9
Longitudinally welded hollow sections
The material used in longitudinally welded hollow sections is steel strip, cut accurately to
correspond with the width of the external dimensions of the section. At the beginning of the
production line, the steel strip is unrolled and the strip ends are welded together. The strip is
then fed into a strip accumulator to enable a continuous manufacturing process.
The steel strip is shaped with forming rolls at room temperature step by step into a circular
cross secton. The edges of the strip are heated to the welding temperature with high frequency
current using an induction coil and pressed together. External burrs are removed from the
section. Seam quality is ensured by a continuous eddy current or ultrasonic inspection.
The diameter of a circular hollow section is calibrated to the final dimensions and the cross-
section is formed to square or rectangular shape with profile rollers. A continuous marking is
made to the hollow section, and it is cut to dimensions according to customer orders. Samples
are taken for mechanical tests and flattening/expanding tests are carried out as required by the
delivery condition standard, in accordance with the factory’s quality system.
After cutting, the dimensions of the hollow sections are checked and the products are packed
in stacks. Each stack is marked with a tag indicating the properties of the stacked hollow
sections and their identification code. Based on the identification tag, the properties of the
hollow section can be traced down to the steel manufacture.
Forming rolling
Welding
Burr removal
Weld inspection
Shaping and calibrating rolling
Figure 1.1 Fabrication of longitudinally welded hollow sections
10
Spirally welded hollow sections
Rautaruukki Metform also manufactures circular hollow sections with diameters from ∅ 355,6
to ∅ 1219 mm by spirally welding them from hot-rolled steel strip. At the beginning of the
production line, separate steel strips are welded into a continuous sheet, which is then
straightened and formed into a spiral-welded pipe using three-roll bending at room
temperature. The spiral seam is welded both inside and outside using submerged arc welding.
Mechanical values are tested with test coupons cut from the section. Sections are cut to
dimensions according to customer orders, then inspected and delivered to customers.
Forming unit Strip coil
Welding Feeding roll Roll straightening
Weld inspection
Welding unit for strip

Roll cutter continuity
Figure 1.2 Fabrication of spirally welded hollow sections
1.3 References
[1] ENV 1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu. Osa 1-1: Yleiset säännöt ja
rakennuksia koskevat säännöt, 1993
(ENV 1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1.1: General rules and rules
for buildings, 1993)
[2] CIDECT: Project 5AQ/2: Cold formed RHS in arctic steel structures,
Final report 5AQ-5-96, 1996
11
12
Chapter 2
2. RESISTANCE OF HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES

2.1 Limit state design and partial safety factors
The resistance of a member refers to the structure's ability to bear the loads it is subjected to
without failure or excessive deformation. Resistance and load vary according to time and
location. Thus, they do not have a single absolute value, but their values are distributed
according to statistic probability. In design, the dispersion of resistance and load must be taken
into account by using partial safety factors.
The design criterion for the ultimate limit state is:

Rk
γ f ⋅ Sk ≤ (2.1)
γM
where
γf is the partial safety factor for the load

γM is the partial safety factor for steel
Sk is the characteristic value of the force or moment induced by the load
Rk is the characteristic value of resistance
Table 2.1 Partial safety factors for actions [1]

Permanent actions Variable actions (γQ)
(γG) Leading variable Accompanying
Accompanying variable action action variable action
Favourable effect 1,0 * *
Unfavourable effect 1,35 1,5 1,5
Fatigue-inducing action 1,0 1,0 1,0
Fire design ** ** **
Serviceability limit state 1,0 1,0 1,0 · ψ0
The partial safety factors presented in this table are the basic values of Eurocode 3. National values must be
checked from the national application document (NAD) [9], [10], [11], [12].
* Usually 0 [9]
** Partial safety factors for fire design are presented in chapter 5
Also the design formulae may differ nationally. The examples in this book were
calculated using basic values in Eurocode 3.
When calculating the design value for load in ultimate limit state, the following formulae are
applicable when the structure is subjected to several variable actions [1]:
∑ γ G.j ⋅ Gk.j + γ Q.1 ⋅ Qk.1 (2.2a )

j
∑ γ G. j ⋅ Gk. j + 0, 9 ∑ γ Q.i ⋅ Qk.i (2.2b )

j i≥1
13
where
γ G. j is the partial safety factor for permanent action
Gk . j is the characteristic value of the permanent action [5]
γ Q.1 is the partial safety factor for leading variable action
Qk .1 is the characteristic value of the leading variable action [5]
γ Q.i is the partial safety factor for variable action
Qk .i is the characteristic value of the variable action [5]
In formula (2.2a), only the primary leading variable action is taken into account. In formula
(2.2b), all variable actions are taken into account. The formula to be used in the design is the
one giving the most severe effect.
Alternatively, a more accurate formula (2.3) can be used for ultimate limit state calculations [1].
∑ γ G. j ⋅ Gk. j + γ Q.1 ⋅ Qk.1 + ∑ ψ 0.i ⋅ γ Q.i ⋅ Qk.i (2.3)

j i >1
where
ψ0 is the combination factor of the action
The partial safety factors of the material depend on the class of the cross-section, the loading
and the location of the designed element in the structure (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2 Partial safety factors for the material [1]

Partial safety factor
Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections γM0 = 1,1
Class 4 cross-sections γM1 = 1,1
Resistance to buckling γM1 = 1,1
Net section at bolt holes (area of holes subtracted γM2 = 1,25
from the gross cross-section)
Resistance of bolted joints γMb = 1,25
Resistance of rivetted joints γMr = 1,25
Resistance of pin joints γMp = 1,25
Resistance of welded joints γMw = 1,25
Friction joints Ultimate limit state γMs.ult = 1,25
Ultimate limit state, oversize γMs.ult = 1,40
holes parallel to load
Serviceability limit state γMs.ser = 1,1
Resistance of joints in hollow section lattices γMj = 1,1

Fatigue strength Inspection and 'Fail safe' Non 'fail safe'
accessibility of components1) components 2)
structure
normal γMf = 1,0 γMf = 1,25
poor γMf = 1,15 γMf = 1,35
1)
'Fail safe' components = failure of one structural element does not lead rapidly to the collapse of the entire structure
2) Non 'fail safe' components = failure of one structural element leads rapidly to the collapse of the entire structure
The partial safety factors presented in this table are the basic values used in Eurocode 3. National values
must be checked from the appropriate national application document (NADs).
14
2.2 Classification of cross-sections

Cross-sections are divided into four classes. A single structure may contain structural elements
with cross-sections of different classes. Elements of a single cross-section (flanges and webs)
may also belong to different classes. The class of a cross-section is determined by the
slenderness and the stress state of the cross-section elements. The class of a single hollow
section may be different in bending and compression.
Class 1: Cross-sections which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity required for
plastic analysis.
Class 2: Cross-sections which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but have limited
rotation capacity.
Class 3: Cross-sections in which the calculated compression stress in the extreme fibre the
cross-section can reach yield strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent the development of
the plastic moment resistance.
Class 4: Cross-sections are those in which it is necessary to make explicit allowances for the
effects of local buckling when determining their moment recistance or compression recistance.
The classification of the cross-section is usually determined by to the highest classification of

compression element. The forces and resistances of the structure can be calculated for all
classes using elasticity theory, if the effect of local buckling on cross-section resistance is taken
into account. Plastici theory can be applied when calculating forces for class 1 cross-sections
and resistances for class 1 and 2 cross-sections. In practice for simplicity forces can be
calculated using the method determined by the highest class.
For Class 4 square and rectangular hollow sections, the calculation of bending and
compression resistance is based on the effective cross-section. Resistances of the cross-
section are thus calculated using only the effective area of elements. When calculating
resistance for class 4 circular hollow sections, the effective cross-section cannot be used, and
Eurocode 3 does not give instructions for calculating their resistance. In this case, resistance
can be assessed in relation to the buckling stress of the cylindrical casing. Circular hollow
sections with Class 4 cross-sections are not recommended for load carrying structures.
15
Table 2.3 Design methods for various cross-section classes [1]

Cross-section class Method for calculating Method for calculating Distribution of stresses when
resistance actions (loads) the resistance is reached
1 Plastic analysis Plastic analysis
Square, rectangular
;; ; ; ; ;
and circular hollow fy
sections
;
2 Plastic analysis Elastic analysis
Square, rectangular
sections
;
3 Elastic analysis Elastic analysis
Square, rectangular
sections
4
Square, rectangular
and circular hollow
sections
Effective cross-section
; ;
Elastic analysis
fy 0,5beff
4 Buckling stress Elastic analysis

Circular hollow
sections σu < fy
;
16
Table 2.4 Limit values for cross-section classes [3]

;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;
h
Stress
state
b
t
d
t
Loading
method
Compres-
Cross-
section
fy
N
element mm2
Cross-section class
1 2
235 275 355 460 235 275 355 460
Web and h/t 45,0 41,6 36,6 32,2 45,0 41,6 36,6 32,2
235
45,0
275
41,6
3
355 460
36,6 32,2
sion flange b/t
Bending Flange b/t 36,0 33,3 29,3 25,7 41,0 37,9 33,4 29,3 45,0 41,6 36,6 32,2
Bending Web h/t 75,0 69,3 61,1 53,6 86,0 79,5 70,0 61,5 127,0 117,3 103,3 90,8
Compres- Entire d/t 50,0 42,7 33,1 25,5 70,0 59,8 46,3 35,8 90,0 76,9 59,6 46,0
sion and/or cross-
bending section
fy is the yield strength for steel
For other steel grades, the values in column 235 N/mm2 are multiplied by correction factor ε when using
square and rectangular hollow sections and by correction factor ε2 when using circular hollow sections.
235 2 235
ε= ,ε =
fy fy
The cross-section class for a compression and bending web can be determined according to the instructions in
reference [1], a conservative assessment is obtained when the cross-section class of the web is determined by
compression only.
2.2.1 Calculating the effective cross-section
The width reduction factor ρ for Class 4 cross-sections of square and rectangular
hollow sections is calculated as follows [1]:
ρ=1 kun λ p ≤ 0,673

when (2.4)
λ p − 0, 22
ρ= 2 kun λ p > 0,673
when (2.5)
λp
The slenderness of a class 4 web subjected to bending and its effective width is calculated
according to the guidance given in reference [1]. The slenderness of the flange or web
subjected to uniform compression can be determined using the following formula (2.6):
b1
fy t
λp = = (2.6)
σ cr 56, 8 ⋅ ε
17
where
t is the thickness of the hollow section wall

σ cr is the buckling stress
b1 = b- 3t; flange design width or h- 3t; web design heigth
235
ε =
fy
fy is the nominal yield strength of the material [8]
Table 2.5 Effective width beff of the flat compression elements with Class 4 cross-sections in
square and rectangular hollow sections [1]
Stress distribution (compression positive) Effective width befff
+σ +σ
beff = ρb1
be1 = 0,5 beff
be1 be2 be2 = 0,5 beff

b1
2.3 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to

bending moment
Hollow sections are efficient when subjected to bending about one or both principle axis. In ad-
dition, the buckling resistance about the minor axis is superior to an equivalent weight I or H
profile section and therefore lateral restraints can be placed at greater spacings.
The design criterrion for a member subject to bending about one axis is:
MSd ≤ Mc. Rd (2.7)
where
M Sd is the design value for bending moment

Mc. Rd is the design value for bending resistance
The bending resistance for hollow sections of different classes of cross-section is calculated as follows [1]:
Class 1 and 2 cross-sections Mc. Rd = M pl. Rd = Wpl ⋅ f y / γ M 0
Class 3 cross-sections Mc. Rd = Mel. Rd = Wel ⋅ f y / γ M 0
Class 4 cross-sections Mc. Rd = Meff . Rd = Weff ⋅ f y / γ M 1 (square and rectangular)
Class 4 cross-section (circular hollow sections)(section 2.3.3)
where:
Wpl is the plastic modulus of the cross-section
Wel is the elastic modulus of the cross-section
Weff is the effective modulus of the cross-section
fy is the design strength
18
2.3.1 Effect of holes on bending resistance
The effect of holes need not be taken into account in a flange subjected to tension when the
following criterion is satisfied [1]:
A f.net f y γ M2
0, 9 ⋅ ≥ (2.8)
Af fu γ M0
where
Af is the cross-sectional area of the tension flange

A f.net is the net cross-sectional area of the tension flange
fu is the ultimate strength of the material
γ M0 is the partial safety factor for the material (Table 2.2)
γ M2 is the partial safety factor for the net effective cross-section (Table 2.2)
If the criterion is not satisfied, the cross-sectional area of the tension flange assumed in design,
must be reduced to such an extent that the criterion is satisfied. This reduced cross-sectional
area of the tension flange is then used to calculate the bending resistance. The effect of holes
in the tension area of the web need not be considered, if the criterion (2.8) is met in the entire
tension area. The tension area consists of the tension flange and the tension element of the
web. In the compression area, the effect of holes need not be considered, unless the bolt holes
are oversize or slotted [1].
2.3.2 Bending resistance in bi-axial bending
The following design criteria are applied, if the hollow section is subjected to bi-axial bending
[1]:
α α
 M y.Sd   M z.Sd 
Class 1 and 2 cross-sections M  + M  ≤ 1, 0 (2.9)
 pl.y.Rd   pl.z.Rd 
 M y.Sd   M z.Sd 
Class 3 cross-section M  +  ≤ 1, 0 (2.10)
 el.y.Rd   Mel.z.Rd 
Class 4 cross-section  M y.Sd   M z.Sd 

(square and rectangular M  +  ≤ 1, 0 (2.11)
hollow sections)  eff.y.Rd   Meff.z.Rd 
where
α =2 (circular hollow sections)

α =1,66 (square and rectangular hollow sections)
The effective cross-section modulus Weff.y is calculated assuming only My.Sd is present and
Weff.z is calculated assuming only Mz.Sd is present. The bending resistances are thus
calculated separately.
19
Chapter 2
2.3.3 Bending resistance of Class 4 circular hollow sections
The buckling stress must be calculated for circular hollow sections with Class 4 cross-sections.
The design criterion is that the bending moment due to loading is smaller than the bending
resistance of the hollow section:
M Sd ≤ Mc. Rd (2.12)
where
M Sd is the design value for the bending moment

Mc. Rd = σu ·Wel/γM1 (design value for bending resistance)
σu is the buckling stress of the hollow section
The buckling stress of a circular hollow section is calculated as follows, when λ ≤ 2 [2]:
(
σ u = 1 − 0, 4123(λ )
1, 2
)f y (2.13)
where
fy
λ =
α b ⋅ σ cr
t
σ cr = 0,605E
r
d −t
r = (the radius of the wall central axis)
2
αb is the reduction factor for buckling stress, which is calculated as follows, when r/t ≤ 212
[2]:
0, 6734
α b = 0, 1887 + (2.14)
r
1 + 0, 01
t
r
For the hollow sections for which > 212 and/or λ > 2 , the buckling stress should be
t
calculated according to guidance given in reference [2].
20
2.3.4 Lateral-torsional buckling of hollow sections
With hollow sections, lateral-torsional buckling does not normally govern. However, lateral-
torsional buckling may govern in long hollow sections with a small b/h ratio. Figure 2.1 and
Table 2.6 give the maximum lengths with which lateral-torsional buckling need not be taken
into account when using square and rectangular hollow sections with Class 1-3 cross-sections.
Circular hollow sections are not liable to lateral-torsional buckling. The values in Table 2.6 are
determined using the following formula [3]:
Mc.Rd ⋅ γ M1
≤ 0, 4 (2.15)
Mcr
where
Mc.Rd is the design value for bending resistance

Mcr is the elastic critical lateral-torsional buckling moment
If condition (2.15) is not met, the lateral-torsional buckling resistance can be calculated
according to Eurocode 3 [1].
Table 2.6 Rectangular hollow sections: length ratios below which lateral-torsional buckling
need not be taken into account [3]
b−t L
;;
h−t h−t
M M
L fy = 235 N/mm2 fy = 275 N/mm2 fy= 355 N/mm2 fy = 460 N/mm2

0,25 27,8 23,8 18,4 14,2
0,33 41,8 35,8 27,7 21,4
0,5 73,7 63,0 48,8 37,7
t
h
0,6 93,1 79,5 61,6 47,5

0,7 112,5 96,2 74,5 57,5
b 0,8 132,0 112,8 87,4 67,4
0,9 151,3 129,3 100,2 77,3
1,0 170,6 145,8 112,9 87,2
These values are determined for uniform moment which is the most severe case.
21
b−t
h−t
45 1,0
40 0,9
35 0,8
30 0,7
25
Length L (m)
0,6
20 0,5
15
0,33
10
0,25
0
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400
Height (h-t) (mm)
Figure 2.1 Limit value curves for lateral-torsional buckling (fy = 355 N/mm2)
22
2.3.5 Examples for calculating bending resistance of various

cross-sections
Example 1a:
Class 1 cross-section
Consider a structural hollow section with dimensions 140 x 140 x 5. The steel grade used
is S355J2H, for which the Class 1 criteria are (Table 2.4):
Flange: b / t = 28 < 29,3 (compression)
Web: h / t = 28 < 61,1 (bending)
The plastic section modulus for the cross-section is determined by the following equation
[6]:
b ⋅ h 2 ( b − 2t )( h − 2t ) 2
Wpl = − − 4 Az ⋅ hz + 4 Aξ ⋅ hξ (2.16)
4 4
where the terms induced by corner rounding are:

π
Az =  1 −  ⋅ r02
 4
π
Aξ =  1 −  ⋅ r12
 4
10 − 3π 
= −
h
hz ⋅ r0
2  12 − 3π 
h − 2t  10 − 3π 
hξ = − ⋅r
2  12 − 3π  i
ri = 5 mm (internal nominal corner radius)

r0 = 10 mm (external nominal corner radius)
By inserting the hollow section dimensions 140 x 140 x 5 in the formula 2.16, we obtain
the following value for section modulus:
140 ⋅ 140 2 (140 − 2 ⋅ 5)(140 − 2 ⋅ 5) 2
Wpl = − − 4 ⋅ 21, 46 ⋅ 67,77 + 4 ⋅ 5, 37 ⋅ 63, 88
4 4
= 132 ⋅ 10 3 mm 3
The bending resistance of the hollow section with dimensions 140 x 140 x 5 is thus:
fy 355
M pl. Rd = Wpl = 132 ⋅ 10 3 = 42, 6 kNm
γ M0 1, 1
Bending resistance values are presented also in tables in Appendix 9.1.
23
Example 1b:
Class 2 cross-sections
Consider a hollow section with dimensions 160 x 160 x 5. The steel grade used is
S355J2H, for which the Class 2 criteria are (Table 2.4):
Flange: b / t = 32 < 33,4 (compression)
Web: h / t = 32 < 70 (bending)
For Class 2 cross-sections, the plastic section modulus is determined by the following
formula (2.16):
ri = 5 mm
r0 = 10 mm
Wpl = 175·103 mm3
Thus, the following bending resistance is obtained for a hollow section with dimensions
160 x 160 x 5:
fy 355
M pl. Rd = Wpl = 175 ⋅ 10 3 = 56, 5 kNm
γ M0 1, 1
Example 1c:
Class 3 cross-sections
Flange: b/t = 36 < 36,6 (compression)
Web: h/t = 36 < 103,3 (bending)
For a Class 3 cross-section, the elastic section modulus is calculated as follows [6]:
 b ⋅ h 3 ( b − 2t )( h − 2t ) 3  2
Wel =  − − 4( I zz + Az ⋅ hz 2 ) + 4( Iξξ + Aξ ⋅ hξ 2 ) ⋅ (2.17)
 12 12  h
where the terms, taking account of corner rounding, are:
1 π 1  4
I zz = − −  r0
 3 16 3(12 − 3π ) 
1 π 1  4
Iξξ =  − −  ri
 3 16 3(12 − 3π ) 
ri = 5 mm
r0 = 10 mm
By inserting the dimensions of the hollow section 180 x 180 x 5 in the formula (2.17), the
following value for elastic section modulus is obtained:
 180 ⋅ 180 3 (180 − 2 ⋅ 5)(180 − 2 ⋅ 5) 3  2
Wel =  − − 4(75, 5 + 21, 5 ⋅ 87, 8 2 ) + 4( 4, 7 + 5, 3 ⋅ 83, 9 2 ) ⋅
 12 12  180
= 193 ⋅ 10 3 mm 3
24
The following bending resistance is obtained for a hollow section with dimensions
180 x 180 x 5:
Wel ⋅ f y 193 ⋅ 10 3 ⋅ 355
Mel. Rd = = = 62, 3 kNm
γ M0 1, 1
Example 1d:
Square hollow section with Class 4 cross-section
Flange: b/t = 40 > 36,6 (compression) ⇒ Class 4 cross-sections

Web: h/t = 40 < 103,3 (bending) ⇒ Class 1 cross-sections
As the compression flange belongs to Class 4, its effective width must be determined. The
slenderness of the flange is obtained from the formula (2.6):
;;;;;
;;;;;
200 − 3 ⋅ 5 1,5t 0,5beff bnon.eff 0,5beff 1,5t
λp = 5 = 0, 801 > 0, 673 ;

235
56, 8 ⋅
355
δ
Now, the effective width of the flange can be calculated
from the formula (2.5):
;
0, 801 − 0, 22
beff = ⋅ ( 200 − 15) = 167 , 5 mm
0, 8012
The neutral axis of the effective cross-section is transferred downwards. The effective
section modulus of the cross-section is calculated by subtracting the section modulus of
the non-effective element from the section modulus of the entire cross-section. The
effective section modulus for a hollow section with dimensions 200 x 200 x 5 is obtained
as follows:
I + Aδ 2 − bnon.eff ⋅ t ⋅ ( 0, 5h - 0, 5t + δ ) 2
Weff = ( 2.18 )
0, 5h + δ
2410 ⋅ 10 4 + 3840 ⋅ 2, 27 2 − 17 , 5 ⋅ 5( 0, 5 ⋅ 200 - 0, 5 ⋅ 5 + 2, 27) 2
= = 227 , 2 ⋅ 10 3 mm 3
0, 5 ⋅ 200 + 2, 27
where
bnon.eff ⋅ t ⋅ ( 0, 5 ⋅ h − 0, 5 ⋅ t ) 17 , 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ ( 0, 5 ⋅ 200 − 0, 5 ⋅ 5)
δ = = = 2, 27 mm
A − bnon.eff ⋅ t 3840 − 17 , 5 ⋅ 5
(transfer of the neutral axis of the cross-section)
25
bnon.eff = b – 3t – beff = 200 – 3· 5 – 167,5 = 17,5 mm (non-effective element of the

compression web)
A is the area of the entire cross-section (Appendix 9.1)
I is the second moment of area of the entire cross-section (Appendix 9.1)
To obtain the bending resistance value, the effective section modulus is multiplied by the
yield strength:
Meff.Rd = 227,2·103·355 / 1,1= 73,3 kNm
Example 1e:
Circular hollow section with Class 4 cross-section
Consider a hollow section with dimensions 323,9 x 5. The steel grade used is S355J2H,
for which the Class 3 criteria are (Table 2.4):
d / t = 64,78 > 59,6 ⇒ Class 4 cross-section
First, determine the slenderness of the cross-section:
t 5
σ cr = 0, 605 E = 0, 605 ⋅ 210000 = 3984, 0 N/mm 2
r 159, 45
0, 6734 0, 6734
α b = 0, 1887 + = 0, 1887 + = 0, 775
r 159, 45
1 + 0, 01 1 + 0, 01
t 5
fy 355
λ= = = 0, 339
α b ⋅ σ cr 0, 775 ⋅ 3984, 0
Buckling stress is determined by the following formula (2.13):
( ) ( )
σ u = 1 − 0, 4123 ⋅ λ 1, 2 f y = 1 − 0, 4123 ⋅ 0, 339 1, 2 355 = 315, 0 N/mm 2
To obtain the bending resistance of the cross-section, the buckling stress is multiplied by
the elastic section modulus:
Mc. Rd = =
[
σ u ⋅ Wel σ u ⋅ π d − (d − 2t )
4 4
]
=
[ ]
315, 0 ⋅ π 323, 9 4 − ( 323, 9 − 2 ⋅ 5) 4
= 112, 6 kNm
γ M1 32d ⋅ γ M 1 32 ⋅ 323, 9 ⋅ 1, 1
2.4 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to shear force

The design criterion for a hollow section subject to shear force is [1]:
VSd ≤ VRd ( 2.19)
where
VSd is the design value for the shear force

VRd is the design value for the shear resistance
26
2.4.1 Shear resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections
The method for calculating the shear resistance depends on the slenderness of the web of the
cross-section as follows [1]:
h 235
≤ 69 ⋅ + 3 ⇒ calculate the plastic shear resistance (section 2.4.1.1)
t fy
h 235
> 69 ⋅ + 3 ⇒ calculate the resistance to shear buckling (section 2.4.1.2)
t fy
Shear buckling need not be considered for square and rectangular hollow sections for which
h/t < 59,1 and the yield strength of the material fy ≤ 355 N/mm2. In practice, shear buckling
governs only for a very few hollow sections.
2.4.1.1 Plastic shear resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections
Plastic shear resistance is calculated using the following formula [1]:

Av ⋅ f y
Vpl. Rd = ( 2.20)
where
Av
2.4.1.2
;;;
3 ⋅ γ M0
; =A
h
b+h
(h in this case is the dimension parallel to shear force)
h
b
Vsd
Shear buckling resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections

b
Vsd
The shear buckling resistance of hollow sections is calculated using the following formula [1]:
τ ba
Vba. Rd = 2(h - 3t ) ⋅ t ( 2.21)
γ M1
The web shear buckling stress τba depends on the slenderness of the web λw as follows [1]:
(
τ ba = 1 − 0, 625(λ w − 0, 8) )
fy
for 0, 8 < λ w < 1, 2 ( 2.22)
3
where
h - 3t
λw = t
235
86, 4
fy
The resistance to shear buckling is calculated according to the instructions in reference [1],
ifλw ≥ 1,2.
27
2.4.2 Shear resistance of circular hollow sections
The shear resistance of circular hollow sections can be assessed by the following methods
Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections ⇒calculate plastic shear resistance (section 2.4.2.1)
Class 4 cross-sections ⇒calculate shear buckling resistance (section 2.4.2.2)
2.4.2.1 Plastic shear resistance of circular hollow sections
The plastic shear resistance is calculated by the following formula [1]:

Av ⋅ f y
Vpl. Rd = ( 2.23)
3 ⋅ γ M0
where
2
Av =A
π
2.4.2.2 Shear buckling resistance of circular hollow sections
The design value of shear buckling resistance for circular hollow sections is obtained using the
following formula [2]:
τ ba
Vba. Rd = π ⋅ r ⋅ t ( 2.24)
γ M1
where
τ ba is the shear buckling stress

r the central axis radius of the hollow section wall
The calculation of the theoretical shear buckling stress is a complex task. A conservative
assessment is obtained by the following simplified formula [2]:
t  t  0,75
τ cr = 0, 747 E ⋅ ( 2.25)
L  r
where
L is the length of the hollow section element which is subjected to the shear Vsd
A more accurate formula for calculating the theoretical shear buckling stress is given in
reference [2]. The difference to the results obtained by the formula (2.25) is, however, rather
small when using normal hollow section lengths (> 1000 mm). The shear buckling stress is
determined by the following formulae [2]:
τ ba = 0, 65τ cr for τ cr ≤ 0, 444f y ( 2.26 )
fy  fy 
τ ba =  1 − 0, 222  for τ cr > 0, 444f y ( 2.27 )
3 τ cr 
28
2.4.3 Effect of holes on shear resistance

The effect of holes located in webs need not be considered when calculating the design value
for plastic shear resistance, if the following criterion is satisfied [1]:
fy
Av.net ≥ Av ( 2.28 )
fu
where
Av is the cross-sectional area of the web

Av.net is the net cross-sectional area of the web
The cross-sectional area Av used in design is reduced to the value (fu / fy) · Av.net, if the
criterion (2.28) is not satisfied.
Example 2a:
y;y;
Calculate the shear resistance of a hollow section with
dimensions 400 x 200 x 6. The steel grade used is
S355J2H. First determine whether the buckling of the
web needs to be considered. Using the dimensions
given in the example, the following value is obtained:
h 400
t
=
6
= 66, 67 > 69
235
fy
+ 3 = 59, 1 400
200
VSd
⇒ buckling of the web must be taken into account
Calculate the slenderness of the web and the shear buckling stress τba using the formula
(2.22).
h - 3t 400 - 18
λw = t = 6 = 0, 906
235 235
86, 4 86, 4
fy 355
(
τ ba = 1 − 0, 625 ⋅ (λ w − 0, 8) )
fy 355
= (1 − 0, 625 ⋅ (0, 906 − 0, 8)) = 191, 4 N / mm 2
3 3
The shear resistance is obtained by inserting the shear buckling stress in the formula (2.21):
τ ba 191, 4
Vba. Rd = 2(h - 3t )t = 2( 400 - 3 ⋅ 6 ) ⋅ 6 ⋅ = 797 , 6 kN
γ M1 1, 1
Example 2b:
Calculate the shear resistance of a hollow section with dimensions 400 x 200 x 8. The
steel grade used is S355J2H.
h 400 235
= = 50 < 69 + 3 = 59, 1 ⇒ buckling of the web need not be taken into
t 8 fy account
29
The shear resistance is obtained directly by inserting values in the formula (2.20):
Av ⋅ f y 400 355
Vpl. Rd = = 9124 ⋅ ⋅ = 1133 kN
3 ⋅ γ M0 200 + 400 3 ⋅ 1, 1
y;
Example 3a:
Calculate the shear resistance of the circular hollow section in
example 1e with dimensions 323,9 X 5 and a Class 4 cross-
00
section. The length of the hollow section is 6 m, and the steel 60
grade used is S355J2H. Shear force is assumed constant along
the entire length of the hollow section. First, determine the
;yy;
theoretical shear buckling stress from the formula (2.25):
t  t  0,75
τ cr = 0, 747 E ⋅
L  r
VSd
0,75
5  5 
= 0, 747 ⋅ 2,1 ⋅ 10 5 ⋅  = 337 , 4 N/mm 2
6000  159, 45 
The shear buckling stress is obtained from the formula (2.27), since τcr > 0,444 fy:
fy  fy  355  355 
τ ba =  1 − 0, 222 =  1 − 0, 222  = 157,1 N/mm
2
3 τ cr  3 337 , 4 
The resistance to shear buckling is calculated using the shear buckling stress:
t 5
Vba. Rd = τ ba ⋅ π ⋅ r = 157 , 1 ⋅ π ⋅ 159, 45 = 357 , 7 kN
γ M1 1, 1
Example 3b:
Calculate the shear resistance for a hollow section with dimensions 323,9 x 8. The steel
grade used is S355J2H.
For a Class 2 cross-section, the plastic shear resistance must be calculated.
(d/t= 40,5 < 46,3):
Av ⋅ f y 2 355
Vpl. Rd = = 7939 ⋅ = 941, 7 kN
3 ⋅ γ M0 π 3 ⋅ 1, 1
2.5 Hollow sections subjected to torsion moment

Hollow sections are efficient when subjected to a torsional moment. Their torsional resistance
is superior to that of open sections. The design criterion for a member subjected to torsion
moment is the following:
Mt .Sd ≤ Mt . Rd ( 2.29)
where
Mt .Sd is the design value for torsion moment

Mt . Rd is the design value for torsion resistance
30
2.5.1 Methods for calculating torsion resistance of hollow sections
As Eurocode 3 Appendix G dealing with torsion is not yet available, torsion resistance is
calculated using the same method as for shear resistance. Torsional resistance for square and
rectangular hollow sections can be calculated as follows:
h 235
≤ 69 ⋅ + 3 ⇒ calculate plastic torsional resistance (section 2.5.1.1)
t fy
h 235
> 69 ⋅ + 3 ⇒ calculate resistance to torsional buckling (section 2.5.1.2)
t fy
The torsional resistance of a circular hollow section depends on the slenderness and the length
of the hollow section. Normally, it can be determined using the following methods:
Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections ⇒ (calculate the plastic torsion resistance (section 2.5.1.1)
Class 4 cross-section ⇒ (calculate the resistance to torsional buckling (section 2.5.1.2)
2.5.1.1 Plastic torsion resistance of hollow sections
The plastic torsional resistance of hollow sections can be expressed by the following formula
[4]:
fy fy
Mt . pl. Rd = Wt ≈ 2 At ⋅ t ( 2.30)
3 ⋅γ M0 3 ⋅γ M0
where
Wt is the torsional resistance of the cross-section

At is the area bounded by the central axis of the hollow section wall
2.5.1.2 Torsional buckling resistance of hollow sections
The resistance to torsional buckling can be calculated by the equation [2]:

Wt
Mt .b. Rd = τ ba ( 2.31)
γ M1
where
τ ba is the shear buckling stress (sections 2.4.1.2 and 2.4.2.2)
31
y;y;
Example 4: 200
Consider the hollow section in example 2a with dimensions
400 x 200 x 6 subjected to torsion moment Mt.Sd = 150 kNm.
The steel grade used is S355J2H.
The shear buckling stress τba, for the adjacent cross-section
400
was calculated in the example 2a. Determine the torsional 6
buckling resistance of the cross-section as follows:
Wt 877 , 1 ⋅ 10 3
Mt .b. Rd = τ ba = 191, 4 ⋅ = 152, 6 kNm Mt.Sd
γ M1 1, 1
Mt .b. Rd > Mt .Sd OK!
y;
Example 5:
Consider the circular hollow section in example 3a with
dimensions 323,9 x 5 subjected to torsion moment Mt.Sd = 00
60
100 kNm. (τba obtained from example 3a). The torsional
buckling resistance is given by the following formula:
Mt .b. Rd = τ ba
Mt .b. Rd > Mt .Sd

Wt
γ M1
y;y;
= 157 , 1 ⋅
OK!
786, 6 ⋅ 10 3
1, 1
= 112, 3 kNm
Mt.Sd
32
Chapter 2
2.6 Hollow sections subjected to axial force

2.6.1 Tension resistance of hollow sections
Regardless of slenderness, the cross-section is fully effective when subjected to tension. Thus,
the form of the cross-section does not affect the tension resistance. Hollow sections are
efficient when used as tension members, as their joints can be made stronger and less com-
plex than equivalent open sections. The design criterion for hollow section in tension is [1]:
N Sd ≤ Nt . Rd ( 2.32)
where
N Sd is the design value of tensile force
Nt . Rd is the design value of tension resistance
The tension resistance of the cross-section is the smallest of the following [1]:
fy
Nt . Rd = A ( 2.33)
γ M0
fu
Nt . Rd = 0, 9 Anet ( 2.34)
γ M2
where
Anet is the net area (the area of holes subtracted from the gross area)
fu is the ultimate strength of the material
If ductility is required of the structure, the criterion (2.35) must be satisfied [1]:
Anet fy γ M 2
0, 9 ≥ ⋅ ( 2.35)
A fu γ M 0
However, it is recommended that the criterion (2.35) should always be satisfied.
2.6.2 Compression resistance of square and rectangular hollow

sections and Class 1, 2 and 3 circular hollow sections
(no buckling)
The design criterion for hollow sections loaded in compression is [1]:

N Sd ≤ Nc.Rd ( 2.36 )
where
N Sd is the design value for compressive force
fy
Nc.Rd = N pl. Rd = A for Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections
γ M0
fy
Nc.Rd = Aeff for Class 4 cross-sections
γ M1
Aeff is the effective cross-section area in axial compression
33
2.6.3 Compression resistance of Class 4 cross-sections (no buckling)
The design criterion for circular hollow sections with Class 4 cross-sections can be expressed
as [2]:
N Sd ≤ Nc.Rd ( 2.37 )
where
σu
Nc. Rd =A
γ M1
σu (
= 1 − 0, 4123 λ ( )1,2 ) fy when λ ≤ 2
fy
λ =
α 0 ⋅ σ cr
t
σ cr = 0, 605 E
r
d −t (the radius of the wall central axis)
r =
2
Factor α0 is determined by the equation:

0, 83 r
α0 = when ≤ 212 (2.38 )
r t
1 + 0, 01
t
2.7 Combined load resistance of hollow sections

(no buckling)
Table 2.7 presents criteria for the effect of different load combinations.
Table 2.7 Combined load criteria to be checked when no risk of buckling is present
Load combination Cross- Class 1 and 2 Class 3 Class 4
section cross-sections cross-section cross-section
Section Formula Section Formula Section Formula
Bending, Square and rectangular 2.7.1.1 (2.39) 2.7.1.2 (2.43) 2.7.1.2 (2.43)
compression or tension Circular 2.7.1.1 (2.39) 2.7.1.2 (2.43) 2.7.1.3 (2.44)
Bending Square and rectangular 2.7.2.1 (2.46) 2.7.2.1 (2.46) 2.7.2.1 (2.46)
Shear* Circular 2.7.2.2 (2.47) 2.7.2.2 (2.47) 2.7.2.3 (2.48)
Bending Square and rectangular 2.7.3.1 (2.49) 2.7.3.2 (2.50) 2.7.3.2 (2.50)
Compression or tension Circular 2.7.3.1 (2.49) 2.7.3.2 (2.50) 2.7.3.3 (2.51)
Shear*
*The shear force needs to be taken into account only if VSd > 0,5 VRd
The effect of torsion is allowed for by adding the following term in the interaction expression:
Mt .Sd
Mt . Rd
34
2.7.1 Hollow sections subjected to bending moment and axial force

(no buckling)
The cross-section class of a web loaded by bending moment and axial force depends on the
stress distribution. In practice, the cross-section class is more easily determined by the
compression element (web or flange).
2.7.1.1 Class 1 or 2 hollow sections
The interaction expression (2.39) can be applied for Class 1 and 2 cross-sections [1]:
α α
 M y.Sd   M z.Sd 
M  +   ≤ 1, 0 (2.39)
 Ny.Rd   M Nz.Rd 
The parameter α used in the calculation of bending resistance depends on the form of the
hollow section:
Circular hollow sections α = 2

b
;; ;
Square and rectangular hollow sections
1, 66
α= 2 ≤ 6 y
 N 
1 − 1, 13 Sd  My
h
 N pl.Rd 
where
N pl. Rd = A
fy
γ M0
; z
Mz
The bending resistance is reduced by axial force and depends on the shape of the hollow
section:
 N 
M N . Rd = 1, 26 M pl. Rd  1 − Sd  , for square hollow sections ( 2.40)
 N pl.Rd 
however M N . Rd ≤ M pl. Rd ( M pl. Rd is the plastic bending resistance,
section 2.3)
 N 
M Ny. Rd = 1, 33 M pl. y. Rd  1 − Sd  , for rectangular hollow sections ( 2.41a )
 N pl.Rd 
however M Ny. Rd ≤ M pl. y. Rd ( M pl. y. Rd is the plastic bending resistance about the
y axis, section 2.3)
 1 − N Sd 
 N pl.Rd 
= M pl.z. Rd 
ht 
M Nz. Rd , for rectangular hollow sections ( 2.41b )
 0, 5 + 
 A 
however M Nz. Rd ≤ M pl.z. Rd ( M pl.z. Rd is the plastic bending resistance about the
z axis, section 2.3)
35
  N  1,7 
M N . Rd = 1, 04 ⋅ M pl. Rd  1 −  Sd   circular hollow sections ( 2.42)
  N pl.Rd  
 
however M N . Rd ≤ M pl. Rd ( M pl. Rd is the plastic bending resistance, section 2.3)
2.7.1.2 Square or rectangular Class 3 or 4 hollow sections and circular Class 3

hollow sections
The interaction expression (2.43) is derived according to the elasticity theory [1]:
N Sd M y.Sd M z.Sd
+ + ≤ 1, 0 Class 3 cross-section ( 2.43a )
Nc. Rd Mel. y. Rd Mel.z. Rd
N Sd M y.Sd M z.Sd
+ + ≤ 1, 0 Class 4 cross-sections ( 2.43b )
Nc. Rd Meff . y. Rd Meff .z. Rd
where
fy
Nc. Rd =A for Class 3 cross-section
γ M0
fy
Nc. Rd = Aeff for Class 4 cross-sections
γ M1
fy fy
Mel. y. Rd = Wel. y ja Mel.z. Rd = Wel.z
and
γ M0 γ M0
fy fy
Meff . y. Rd = Weff . y ja Meff .z. Rd = Weff .z
and
γ M1 γ M1
Aeff is calculated for axial compression. The effective cross-section modulus Weff.y is
calculated assuming only My.Sd is present and Weff.z assuming only when Mz.Sd is present.
2.7.1.3 Class 4 circular hollow sections
The combined load criteria for Class 4 circular hollow sections can be expressed as follows:
N Sd M Sd
+ ≤ 1, 0 ( 2.44)
Nc. Rd Mc. Rd
where
M Sd = M y2.Sd + M z2.Sd
σ
Nc. Rd =A u
γ M1
36
σu
Mc. Rd = Wel
γ M1
σu (
= 1 − 0, 4123 λ ( )1,2 ) fy kun λ ≤
when 2
fy
λ =
α ⋅ σ cr
t
σ cr = 0, 605 ⋅ E
r
The combined effect of bending moment and axial force is allowed for by the parameter α [2]:
α0 ⋅σ 0 + αb ⋅σ b
α= ( 2.45)
σ0 +σb
where
N Sd
σ0 = the design stress due to the axial force
A
M
σb = Sd the design stress due to the bending moment
Wel
0, 83 r
α0 = when ≤ 212
r t
1 + 0, 01
t
0, 6734 r
α b = 0, 1887 + when ≤ 212
r t
1 + 0, 01
t
2.7.2 Hollow sections subjected to shear force and bending moment
2.7.2.1 Square and rectangular hollow sections
If the shear force is more than half of the shear resistance of the cross-section (VSd > 0,5VRd),
the effect of shear force must be accounted for when calculating bending resistance. The shear
resistance value VRd is either Vpl.Rd (section 2.4.1.1) or Vba.Rd (section 2.4.1.2). The bending
resistance of the cross-section is then [1]:
 ρAv 2 
 pl
W −  fy
 8t 
MV . Rd = ≤ Mc. Rd ( 2.46 )
γ M0
where
2
 2V 
ρ =  Sd − 1
 VRd 
37
fy
Mc. Rd = Wpl for Class 1 and 2 cross-sections (section 2.3)
γ M0
fy
Mc. Rd = Wel for Class 3 cross-sections (section 2.3)
γ M0
fy
Mc. Rd = Weff for Class 4 cross-sections (section 2.3)
γ M1
t is the wall thickness of the hollow section
Av is the the area of the shear element formula [(2.20) or (2.21)]
Figure 2.2 depicts the resistance area of the combined effect of bending moment and shear
force.
Combined effect of shear force and

VRd
bending moment
0,5VRd
M
Mf.pl Mpl
Figure 2.2 The effect of shear force on plastic bending resistance.

The bending resistance of the section due to the flanges is Mf.pl.
2.7.2.2 Class 1, 2 or 3 circular hollow sections
For a circular hollow section with Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-section, the bending resistance can be
expressed as follows when the shear force is more than half of the shear resistance
(VSd > 0,5 Vpl.Rd) [3]:
2
 V 
MV.Rd = M pl.Rd 1 −  Sd  ( 2.47 )
 Vpl.Rd 
however MV.Rd ≤ Mc.Rd

38
where
fy
Mc. Rd = Wpl for Class 1 and 2 cross-sections (section 2.3)
γ M0
fy
Mc. Rd = Wel for Class 3 cross-sections (section 2.3)
γ M0
VSd = (Vy.Sd ) 2 + (Vz.Sd ) 2

Vpl. Rd is the plastic shear resistance (section 2.4.2.1)

For circular hollow sections with Class 4 cross-sections, the effect of shear force is accounted
for in the combined load criterion [2]:
M Sd V
+ Sd ≤ 1 ( 2.48 )
Mc.Rd Vba.Rd
where
Mc.Rd is the design value for bending resistance (section 2.3.3)

Vba.Rd is the design value for shear buckling resistance (section 2.4.2.2)
Example 6
Calculate the bending resistance for a hollow section
with dimensions 400 x 200 x 6 when subjected to a
shear force equal to 600 KN. The steel grade used is
S355J2H. The resistance to shear buckling for a
similar hollow section was calculated in example 2a. MSd
This value is now used. Force quantities are:
VSd = 600 kN > 0,5 Vba.Rd = 0,5 · 797,6 = 398,8 kN
;y
MSd = 290 kNm
Determine the classification of the cross-section:
Flange: 29,3 < b/ t = 200/ 6 = 33,3 < 33,4
⇒ Class 2 VSd
Web: 61,1 < h/ t = 400/ 6 = 66,7 < 70
⇒ Class 2
Since the cross-section of the hollow section is Class 2, the plastic bending resistance
can be used. The shear force is more than half of the resistance to shear buckling. Thus,
it decreases the moment resistance.
Calculate the value for the parameter ρ :

2 2
 2V   2 ⋅ 600 
ρ =  Sd − 1 =  − 1 = 0, 255
 VRd   797,6 
39
Inserting the value for ρ in the expression (2.46):

 ρ ⋅ AV 2   0, 255 ⋅ 4584 2 
 pl
W −  fy  906000 −  ⋅ 355
 8t   8⋅6 
MV . Rd = =
γ M0 1, 1
= 256, 4 kNm ≤ M pl.Rd = 292, 3 kNm
The bending resistance of hollow section with dimensions 400 x 200 x 6 is not sufficient
(MSd > MV.Rd). The wall thickness must be increased or a larger hollow section must be
selected.
2.7.3 Hollow sections subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment
(no buckling)
2.7.3.1 Class 1 or 2 hollow sections
The interaction expression (2.49) can be applied to Class 1 and 2 cross-sections [1]:
α α
 M y.Sd   M z.Sd 
M  +   ≤ 1, 0 ( 2.49)
 Ny.Rd   M Nz.Rd 
where
1, 66
α = 2 ≤ 6 square and rectangular hollow sections
 N 
1 − 1, 13 Sd 
 NV.Rd 
α =2 circular hollow sections
 N 
M N.Rd = 1, 26 MV . Rd  1 − Sd  square hollow sections
 NV.Rd 
however M N.Rd ≤ MV . Rd
 N 
M Ny.Rd = 1, 33 MV . y. Rd  1 − Sd  rectangular hollow sections
 NV.Rd 
however M Ny.Rd ≤ MV . y. Rd
 1 − N Sd 
 NV.Rd 
M Nz.Rd = MV .z. Rd 
h⋅t  rectangular hollow sections
 0, 5 + 
 A 
however M Nz.Rd ≤ MV .z. Rd
40
  N  1,7 
M N.Rd = 1, 04 MV . Rd  1 −  Sd   circular hollow sections
  N pl.Rd  
 
however M N.Rd ≤ MV . Rd
fy
N pl. Rd =A
γ M0
fy
NV . Rd = ( A − ρ ⋅ Av )
γ M0
MV . y. Rd is the bending resistance with the effect of the shear force taken into
account (by y axis) (section 2.7.2.1)
MV .z. Rd is the bending resistance with the effect of the shear force taken into
account (by z axis) (section 2.7.2.1)
MV . Rd is the bending resistance with the effect of the shear force taken into
account for circular hollow sections (section 2.7.2.2) or for square hollow
sections (section 2.7.2.1)
2.7.3.2 Class 3 and 4 square and rectangular hollow sections and Class 3 circular
hollow sections
The interaction expression for a member subjected to compression and bending in the
presence of shear force can be expressed in a similar way to that in section 2.7.1.2. The effect
of shear force is accounted for in bending resistance values [1]:
N Sd M y.Sd M z.Sd
+ + ≤ 1, 0 ( 2.50)
Nc. Rd MV . y. Rd MV .z. Rd
When using circular hollow sections with Class 4 cross-sections, the resistance of the cross-
section must be checked using the combined load criterion [2]:
N Sd M Sd V
+ + Sd ≤ 1 ( 2.51)
Nc.Rd Mc. Rd Vba.Rd
where
Nc.Rd is the design value for bending resistance (section 2.3.3)

Mc. Rd is the design value for compression resistance (section 2.6.3)
Vba.Rd is the design value for shear buckling resistance (section 2.4.2.2)
41
Example 7
Determine whether a hollow section with dimensions
200 x 200 x 8 can carry the load shown in the adjacent
;y
figure. The steel grade used is S355J2H, and the load My
values are: Vy
NSd = 1400 kN
My.Sd = 27 kNm N Mz
Mz.Sd = 24 kNm
Vz.Sd = 400 kN > 0,5 Vpl.Rd = 275,75 kN Vz
Vy.Sd = 150 kN < 0,5 Vpl.Rd
Determine the classification of the cross-section (Table 2.4):
h/t = b/t = 200/8= 25 < 29,3 ⇒ Class 1
The method for calculating the shear resistance also depends on the slenderness of the
cross-section:
h/t = 200/8 = 25 < 59,1 ⇒ calculate the plastic shear resistance

The plastic shear resistance of the cross-section is the same about both axes:
fy h⋅ A 355 200 ⋅ 5924
Vpl. Rd = = = 551, 9 kN
3 ⋅ γ M0 h + b 3 ⋅ 1, 1 200 + 200
The reduction in the bending resistance due to shear force depends on the parameter ρ:
2
 2Vz.Sd   2 ⋅ 400 
2
ρz = − 1 =  − 1 = 0, 203
 Vpl.Rd   551, 5 
ρy =0 for (Vz.Sd < 0, 5Vpl.Rd )
Next, the resistance to axial force and bending is determined, taking into account the
effect of shear force:
 ρ z ⋅ AV2   0, 203 ⋅ 2960 2 
 pl
W −  fy  420860 −  355
 8t   8⋅8 
MV . y. Rd = = =
γ M0 1, 1
= 126, 9 kNm < M pl.y.Rd = 135, 8 kNm
355 ⋅ 420, 86
MV .z. Rd = M pl.z. Rd = = 135, 8 kNm
1, 1
fy 355
NV.Rd = ( A − ρ ⋅ Av ) = ( 5924 − 0, 203 ⋅ 2960) ⋅ = 1718 kN
γ M0 1, 1
42
The effect of axial force on the bending resistance is accounted for by the following
formulae:
 N 
M Ny. Rd = 1, 26 ⋅ MV . y. Rd  1 − Sd  = 1, 26 ⋅ 126, 9 ⋅  1 −
1400 
= 29, 60 kNm
 NV.Rd   1718 
 N 
M Nz. Rd = 1, 26 ⋅ MV .z. Rd  1 − Sd  = 1, 26 ⋅ 135, 8 ⋅  1 −
1400 
= 31, 67 kNm
 NV.Rd   1718 
The parameter α for a rectangular hollow section is (section 2.7.3.1):

1, 66 1, 66
α = 2 = 2 = 6, 65 > 6 ⇒ α = 6
 N  1 − 1, 13
1400 
1 − 1, 13 Sd   1718 
 NV.Rd 
In this case, the interaction expression (2.49) is as follows:

α α
 M y.Sd   M z.Sd   27 
6
 24 
6
M  +  M  = 

 +
 
 = 0, 765 < 1, 0

OK!
 Ny. Rd  Nz.Rd 29, 60 31, 67
2.8 Buckling resistance of hollow sections

2.8.1 Buckling resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections
and Class 1, 2 and 3 circular hollow sections
Stuctural hollow sections are particularly efficient as compression members, as the hollow
section material is located equally about and at a distance from the cross-section’s mid-point.
Due to high torsional stiffness, torsional buckling need not be taken into account. The design
criterion for the flexural buckling resistance of the compression member can be expressed as
follows [1]:
N Sd ≤ N b.Rd ( 2.52)
where
fy
N b.Rd = χ ⋅ β A ⋅ A (the design value for flexural buckling resistance)
γ M1
χ is the reduction factor for flexural buckling
Aeff
βA = for square and rectangular Class 4 hollow sections
A
βA =1 for Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections
Aeff is the effective cross-sectional area
A is the total cross-sectional area
43
The reduction factor χ for buckling is given by the equation [1]:

1
χ= ≤ 1, 0 ( 2.53)
φ + φ − (λ )
2 2
[
φ = 0, 5 ⋅ 1 + α (λ − 0, 2) + (λ )
2
] ( 2.54)
Lc fy
λ= ⋅ βA ( 2.55)
π ⋅i E
where
Lc is the buckling length

i is the radius of gyration
α is the factor allowing for initial deflection and residual stresses
Buckling length depends on the type of connection at the ends of the member. Usually, it is
conservative to use the actual length as the buckling length for lattice structures and the
theoretical buckling length for rigid structures without allowing for joint rigidity. The
determination of buckling length is presented in more detail in Chapter 6.
According to Eurocode 3, there are several methods for calculating the buckling resistance of
the cross-sections of cold formed hollow sections. A simple conservative method is to use the
nominal yield strength fy and buckling curve c [7] for the hollow sections. For buckling curve c,
the value of the imperfection factor α is 0,49 [1].
2.8.2 Buckling resistance of Class 4 circular hollow sections
The design criterion for the buckling resistance of Class 4 cross-sections is:
N Sd ≤ N b.Rd ( 2.56 )
where
σu
N b. Rd = χ ⋅ A (design value for buckling resistance)
γ M1
σu (
= 1 − 0, 4123 λ ( )1,2 ) fy (buckling stress [2])
fy
λ =
α 0 ⋅ σ cr
0, 83
α0 =
r
1 + 0, 01
t
t
σ cr = 0, 605 E
r
44
The reduction factor χ for buckling is calculated as in section 2.8.1, except that the buckling
stress (fy = σu). is used instead of yield strength. The cross-sections of Class 4 circular hollow
sections are always considered to be totally effective; thus βA= 1.
Example 8a
Calculate the compression resistance of a hollow NSd
;
y
section with dimensions 200 x 200 x 5. The steel grade
used is S355J2H, and the buckling length is 4 m. The
member is nominally pinned at both ends.
Determine the classification of the cross-section of the
hollow section (Table 2.4):
b / t = 200/ 5 = 40 > 36,6 ⇒ Class 4

As the cross-section of the hollow section is Class 4,
the effective cross-section must be determined. The
slenderness of the compression elements is calculated
using the formula (2.6):
y;
λp =
b1
t
56, 8 ⋅ ε
beff = heff =
=
200 - 15
56, 8
5
2
λp
235
355
= 0, 801 > 0,673
4000
The dimensions of the effective and non-effective elements of the cross-section are as
follows [formula (2.5) and Table 2.5]:
λ p − 0, 22
(b − 3t ) =
0, 801 − 0, 22
0, 8012
bnon.eff = b − 3t − beff = 200 − 3 ⋅ 5 − 167 , 5 = 18 mm
( 200 − 3 ⋅ 5) = 167, 5 mm
Using the effective cross-section, let us determine the effective area and parameter βA:
Aeff = A − ( 4 ⋅ bnon.eff ⋅ t ) = 3840 − ( 4 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 5) = 3480 mm
200
200
Aeff 3480
βA = = = 0, 906
A 3840
The local buckling of the cross-section has now been taken into account. Next, consider
the buckling resistance of the hollow section. The cross-section slenderness is
determined using the formula (2.55):
Lc fy 4000 355
λ= βA = 0, 906 = 0, 628
i ⋅π E 79, 3 ⋅ π 210000
The reduction factor for buckling is calculated from the formulae (2.53) and (2.54) by
inserting α = 0,49 ( for buckling curve c):
χ = 0,769
45
The buckling resistance of the hollow section is calculated by multiplying the plastic
compression resistance of the effective cross-section by the reduction factor (2.52):
fy 355
N b. Rd = χ ⋅ Aeff = 0, 769 ⋅ 3480 ⋅ = 863, 7 kN
γ M1 1, 1
Example 8b
Calculate the compression resistance of a hollow section with dimensions 200 x 200 x 8.
The steel grade used is S355J2H, and the buckling length is 4 m. The member is nomi-
nally pinned at both ends. Determine the classification of the cross-section (Table 2.4):
b/ t= 200/ 8 = 25 < 36,6 ⇒ Class 1 cross-section
The effective cross-section need not be calculated for Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections.
The cross-section slenderness is calculated using the formula (2.55):
Lc fy 4000 355
λ= = = 0, 675
i ⋅π E 77 , 6 ⋅ π 210000
The reduction factor for buckling is calculated from formulae (2.53) and (2.54) by
inserting α = 0,49 (for buckling curve c):
χ = 0,740
The buckling resistance of the hollow section is calculated by multiplying the plastic
compression resistance by the reduction factor χ (2.52):
fy 355
N b. Rd = χ ⋅ A = 0, 740 ⋅ 5920 ⋅ = 1414, 8 kN
γ M0 1, 1
2.9 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to combined

loads (buckling)
Criteria for the effect of different load combinations when buckling is taken into account are
shown in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8 Combined load criteria to be checked when buckling may be present
Loading Cross-section Class 1 and 2 cross- Class 3 cross- Class 4 cross-
combination sections sections sections
Section Formula Section Formula Section Formula
Bending and Square 2.9.1.1 (2.57) 2.9.1.1 (2.57) 2.9.1.1 (2.57)
compression Rectangular 2.9.1.1 (2.57) 2.9.1.1 (2.57) 2.9.1.2 (2.60)
The effect of torsion is accounted for by adding the following term in the interaction expression:
Mt .Sd
Mt . Rd
46
2.9.1 Hollow sections subjected to bending moment and axial force

(buckling)
The classification of webs subjected to bending and compression depends on the stress
distribution. In practice, the cross-section class is more easily determined by the compression
element (web or flange).
2.9.1.1 Square and rectangular hollow sections and Class 1, 2 and 3 circular hollow
sections
The interaction expression for a structure subjected to compression and bending is as follows
[1]:
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd k z ⋅ M z.Sd
+ + ≤1 ( 2.57 )
N b.Rd M y.Rd M z.Rd
where
fy
N b. Rd = χ min ⋅ β A ⋅ A
γ M1
χ min is the minimum value of the reduction factor for buckling (about the y or z axis)
fy fy
M y. Rd = Wpl. y M z. Rd = Wpl.z for Class 1 and 2 cross-sections
γ M1 γ M1
fy fy
M y. Rd = Wel. y M z. Rd = Wel.z for Class 3 cross-sections
γ M1 γ M1
fy f y for Class 4 square and rectangular
M y. Rd = Weff . y M z. Rd = Weff .z
γ M1 γ M 1 hollow sections
The parameters ky and kz in expression (2.57) are determined as follows [1]:

µ y ⋅ N Sd
ky = 1 − ≤ 1, 5 ( 2.58 )
χ y ⋅ A ⋅ fy
µ z ⋅ N Sd
kz = 1 − ≤ 1, 5 ( 2.59)
χ z ⋅ A ⋅ fy
where
χy is the reduction factor for buckling determined about the y axis
χz is the reduction factor for buckling determined about the z axis
Wpl. y − Wel. y
µy = λ y ( 2β My − 4) + ≤ 0, 9 Class 1 and 2 cross-sections
Wel. y
Wpl.z − Wel.z
µz = λ z ( 2β Mz − 4) + ≤ 0, 9 Class 1 and 2 cross-sections
Wel.z
47
µy = λ y ( 2β My − 4) ≤ 0, 9 Class 3 and 4 cross-sections

µz = λ z ( 2β Mz − 4) ≤ 0, 9 Class 3 and 4 cross-sections
β My and β Mz are equivalent uniform moment factors allowing for the shape of the
moment diagram (Table 2.9)
λy = the slenderness determined by the y axis
is
λz = the slenderness determined by the z axis

is
Table 2.9 The form factor of the moment plane βM [1]

Method of loading Moment diagram Equivalent uniform moment factor
End moments
M1
βM.ψ = 1,8 - 0,7ψ

ψM1
-1 ≤ ψ ≤ 1
In plane lateral uniform load
βMQ = 1,3
MQ
;y;y
In plane lateral concentrated load
βMQ = 1,4
MQ
End moments and in plane lateral βM is derived from the formulae
( )
loads MQ
MQ βM = βM.ψ + βMQ − βM.ψ
∆M
∆M
MQ = the moment with the greatest
absolute value due to lateral loading
MQ ∆M
∆M = the moment with the greatest
absolute value when the sign of the
moment does not change
MQ
∆M ∆M = the sum of the absolute values of
the greatest and smallest moments,
when the sign of the moment changes
48
Buckling is taken into account in the interaction expression which can be expressed as follows:
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd k z ⋅ M z.Sd
+ + ≤ 1, 0 ( 2.60)
N b.Rd Mc.Rd Mc.Rd
where
N b.Rd is the design value for buckling resistance (section 2.8.2)
σ
Mc. Rd = Wel u
γ M1
σu (
= 1 − 0, 4123 λ ( )1,2 ) fy (buckling stress [2])
fy
λ =
α b ⋅ σ cr
0, 6734
αb = 0, 1887 +
r
1 + 0, 01
t
t
σ cr = 0, 605 E
r
The parameters ky and kz in expression (2.60) are determined as follows:
µ y ⋅ N Sd
ky = 1 − ≤ 1, 5 (σu is determined with parameter α0, section 2.8.2)
χ y ⋅ A ⋅σu
µ z ⋅ N Sd
kz = 1 − ≤ 1, 5 (σu is determined with parameter α0, section 2.8.2)
χz ⋅ A ⋅σu
where
χy is the buckling reduction factor determined about the y axis
χz is the buckling reduction factor determined about the z axis
µy = λ y ( 2β My − 4) ≤ 0, 9
µz = λ z ( 2β Mz − 4) ≤ 0, 9
β My ja β Mz are the equivalent uniform moment factors (Table 2.9)
Lc. y σu
λy = (σu is determined with parameter α0, Table 2.8.2)
π ⋅ iy E
Lc.z σ u (σu is determined with parameter α0, Table 2.8.2)
λz =
π ⋅ iz E
Y and z axis are chosen in such a manner that the primary governing combination is obtained
for bending moments.
49
Example 9
Calculate the resistance for the hollow section from NSd =500 kN
example 8a with dimensions 200 x 200 x 5, when it
200
is subjected to axial force and bending moment due
to a uniform transverse load. Only one of the axes is
subjected to bending. The member is supported by
4000
200
5
nominally pinned connections at both ends.
The slenderness and compression resistance of the

effective cross-section is obtained from example 8a:
MSd =10 kNm
λ = 0,628
;y
Nb.Rd = 863,7 kN (Nb.Rd = Nb.y.Rd = Nb.z.Rd, symmetrical cross-section)
The bending resistance value for a hollow section with dimensions 200 x 200 x 5 was
calculated in example 1d i.e.
My.Rd = Meff.Rd = 73,3 kNm
The equivalent uniform moment factor is given in Table 2.9:
βMQ = 1,3
Using factor βMQ the parameters µ and k in the interaction expression can be derived
from the formula (2.58):
µy = λ ( 2β MQ − 4) = 0, 628( 2 ⋅ 1, 3 − 4) = −0, 879
µ y ⋅ N Sd 500000
ky = 1− = 1 + 0, 879 = 1, 419
χ y ⋅ A ⋅ fy 0, 769 ⋅ 3840 ⋅ 355
Check the resistance of hollow section for the combined effect of axial force and moment
(2.57):
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd 500 1, 419 ⋅ 10
+ = + = 0,772 < 1, 0 OK!
N b.Rd M y.Rd 863,7 73, 3
50
Example 10 N N
Calculate the resistance of a hollow section with
dimensions 180 x 180 x 5 to the loading shown in the
adjacent figure. The buckling length of the structure
is 4 m, and the member is supported by nominally
pinned connections at both ends. The steel grade used
4000
My Mz
is S355J2H, and the loading values are:
NSd = 400 kN
My.Sd = 9 kNm
Mz.Sd = 9 kNm
Mt.Sd = 3 kNm (assumed constant along the y-y z-z
entire hollow section)
The hollow section in classified as Class 3, since
;y
33,4 < b/t= 36 < 36,6 (Table 2.4). Thus, the bending
resistance must be determined using elasticity theory.
The effect of torsion must be accounted for in the inte-
raction expression. The reduction factor χ for the
buckling of a hollow section subjected to compression
is calculated using buckling curve c (section 2.8.1):
χ
=
Lc f y
i ⋅π E
= 0,702
N b. Rd = χ ⋅ A
µy
ky = 1-
=
4000
71,1 ⋅ π
γ M1
M y. Rd = M z. Rd = Wel
355
210000
= 0, 702 ⋅ 3436 ⋅
χ y ⋅ A ⋅ fy
fy
γ M1
= 193 ⋅
= 1 + 1, 03
= 0,736
Determine the compression and bending resistance of the hollow section:

fy 355
1, 1
355
1, 1
= 778, 4 kN
= 62, 28 kNm
Mt
N
The parameters µ and k depending on the shape of the moment diagram are as follows
(section 2.9.1.1)
= λ ( 2β MQ − 4) = 0, 736 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 1, 3 − 4) = −1, 03
µ y ⋅ N Sd 400000
0, 702 ⋅ 3436 ⋅ 355
= 1, 481 < 1, 5
Mz
My
µz = λ ( 2β MQ − 4) = 0, 736 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 1, 4 − 4) = −0, 883

µ z ⋅ N Sd 400000
kz = 1- = 1 + 0, 883 = 1, 412 < 1, 5
χ z ⋅ A ⋅ fy 0, 702 ⋅ 3436 ⋅ 355
The calculation method for torsional resistance is determined by the web slenderness
(section 2.5.1):
h/t = 180/ 5 = 36 < 59,1 ⇒ calculate the plastic torsion resistance
51
Plastic torsional resistance is calculated using the formula (2.30):

f y Wt 355 289, 8
Mt . pl. Rd = ⋅ = ⋅ = 54, 0 kNm
3 γ M0 3 1, 1
By adding the effect of torsion in the interaction expression (2.57), the following result is
obtained:
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd k z ⋅ M z.Sd Mt .Sd
+ + +
N b.Rd M y.Rd M z.Rd Mt . pl. Rd
400 1, 481 ⋅ 9 1, 412 ⋅ 9 3
= + + + = 0, 987 < 1, 0 OK!
778, 4 62, 28 62, 28 54, 0
Example 11
y;
Calculate the resistance of a circular hollow section
with dimensions 323,9 x 5 to the combined loading
shown in the adjacent figure. The steel grade used is
00
S355J2H, and the hollow section length is 6 m. The 60
moment is assumed constant along the hollow section
length. The hollow section is supported by hinges at
both ends.
The loading values are:
NSd
My.Sd
Mz.Sd
Mt.Sd
= 18 kNm
= 18 kNm
= 6 kNm
;yy;
= 500 kN (compression) N
Mt
First, the buckling resistance of the hollow section is calculated. Obtain the following
Mz
My
value for the parameter α0 in compression only:

0, 83
α0 = = 0, 723
r
1 + 0, 01
t
The buckling stress σu, in compression only, is calculated as follows:

t 5
σ cr = 0, 605 E = 0, 605 ⋅ 2, 1 ⋅ 10 5 = 3984 N/mm 2
r 159, 45
fy 355
λ= = = 0, 351
α 0 ⋅ σ cr 0, 723 ⋅ 3984, 0
(
σ u = 1 − 0, 4123(λ )
1, 2
)f y ( )
= 1 − 0, 4123 ⋅ 0, 3511, 2 355 = 313, 3 N/mm 2
The slenderness is obtained for buckling by inserting the buckling stress value into the
formula (2.55):
52
Lc σ u 6000 313, 3
λ= = = 0, 654
π ⋅ i E π ⋅ 112, 8 210000
The buckling resistance of the compression member is derived from
formulae (2.52 - 2.54):
σu 313, 3
N b. Rd = χ ⋅ A = 0, 753 ⋅ 5009 ⋅ = 1074, 2 kN
γ M1 1, 1
The equivalent uniform moment factor for constant moment is (Table 2.9):
βMψ = 1,1
Parametes µ and k are derived from the formula (2.58):
µ y = µ z = λ ⋅ ( 2β Mψ − 4) = 0, 654 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 1, 1 − 4) = −1, 177
µ ⋅ N Sd 500000
k y = kz = 1- = 1 + 1, 177 = 1, 498 < 1, 5
χ y ⋅ A ⋅σu 0, 753 ⋅ 5009 ⋅ 313, 3
The bending resistance for a hollow section with dimensions 323,9 x 5 was calculated in
example 1e:
σu
Mc. Rd = Wel = 112, 6 kNm
γ M1
The torsional buckling resistance is taken from example 5:

Wt
Mt .b. Rd = τ ba. Rd = 112, 3 kNm
γ M1
The resistance values calculated can be inserted in the interaction expression (2.60).
Allowing for the effect of torsion, the following result is obtained:
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd k z ⋅ M z.Sd Mt .Sd
+ + +
N b.Rd Mc.Rd Mc.Rd Mt .b. Rd
500 1, 498 ⋅ 18 1, 498 ⋅ 18 6
= + + + = 0, 998 < 1, 0 OK!
1074, 2 112,6 112,6 112, 3
53
2.10 Concentrated load resistance of hollow sections

When the hollow section is subjected to concentrated loads, the local resistance of the web
must be checked, as the walls of the hollow section are relatively thin. The larger the area into
which the concentrated load can be distributed, the greater the resistance. The width ss of the
effective supporting surface of the area subjected to the load is directly proportional to the
thickness of the material between the concentrated load and the web. Regarding the effect of
the concentrated load, two cases can be distinguished [1]:
a) Concentrated load acting from one side only

b) Concentrated load acting from both sides a)
FSd
FSd
b)
FSd
2.10.1 Concentrated load acting from one side only
With a concentrated load acting from one side only, the resistance of the one web of hollow
section is the smallest of the following [1]:
Ry. Rd = (ss + s y )t
fy
( 2.61)
γ M1
 1 + 3s s 
 h - 3t 
Ra. Rd = 0, 5t 2 E ⋅ fy ( 2.62)
γ M1
where
ss the width of the effective supporting surface determined by assuming that the
concentrated load is distributed in an 45° angle along continuous metal planes
2
 σ f . Ed 
sy = 2 b⋅t 1−  
 fy 
b is the lesser of the flange width and 25 t
σ f . Ed is the bending stress in the flange
h is the web height
ss
≤ 0, 2
(h − 3t )
54
load from I profile load from hollow

section
y;y;
Detail 1 Detail 2
FSd t
tw
FSd FSd
ri
FSd FSd
ri
t
tf
1:
1
1:
1
1:
1 Fillet weld
ss ss
;y
Figure 2.3 Width of effective supporting surface
The width of the effective supporting surface is calculated by the following formula, when the
corner rounding of the uppermost hollow section is filled by the weld (Figure 2.3, Detail 2):
ss = 2t + ( 2 − 2 ) ⋅ ri ( 2.63)
where
t is the wall thickness of the uppermost hollow section (Figure 2.3, Detail 2)
ri is the internal corner radius of the uppermost hollow section (Figure 2.3, Detail 2)
Alternatively, when load is transmitted from the I section (Figure 2.3, Detail 1):
ss = t w + 2t f + 2( 2 − 2 ) ⋅ ri (hot rolled I section) ( 2.64)
ss = t w + 2t f + 2 2 ⋅ ab (welded I section) ( 2.65)
where
tw is the web thickness of the I section

tf is the flange thickness of the I section
ri is the internal corner radius of the hot rolled I section
ab is the throat thickness of a welded I-section
Additionally, when bending moment is present the interaction expression must be checked [1]:
FSd M
+ Sd ≤ 1, 5 ( 2.66 )
Ra.Rd Mc.Rd
FSd
≤ 1, 0 ( 2.67 )
Ra.Rd
M Sd
≤ 1, 0 ( 2.68 )
Mc.Rd
55
2.10.2 Concentrated load acting from both sides
With a concentrated load acting from both sides, the resistance of one web of the hollow
section for one web is the smallest of the following [1]:
Ry.Rd = (ss + s y )t
fy
( 2.69)
γ M1
fy
Rb.Rd = χ ⋅ beff ⋅t ( 2.70)
γ M1
where
Rb.Rd is the buckling resistance of the compression member formed by the web
χ is the buckling reduction factor in buckling class c
beff is the effective width of the web (Figure 2.4)
Formula (2.70) determines the compression resistance of the hollow section web by treating
the web as a compression member whose width is beff and height is h - 3t. The buckling length
is the web height h - 3t. The buckling load is calculated using the formulae (2.52) - (2.56)
presented in section 2.8.1.
Depending on the location of the concentrated load, the effective width of the web is calculated
as follows [1]:
a) concentrated load on the hollow section span
beff = h 2 + ss2
b) concentrated load close to the end of the hollow section
beff = 0, 5 ⋅ h 2 + ss2 + a + 0, 5ss ≤ h 2 + ss2
Ss
a)
beff
h
a Ss
b)
beff
beff
h
Figure 2.4 Effective web width

56
Example 12
Calculate the concentrated load resistance of the member shown in the adjacent figure
using hollow sections with dimensions 200 x 200 x 10 and 100 x 100 x 5. The steel grade
used is S355J2H.
The resistance is derived from the formulae (2.61) and (2.62), as the concentrated load
in the joint acts from one side only. Flange plates (t = 10 mm) increase the width of the
yy;;y;
effective supporting surface in proportion to their thickness.
FSd
Ss
FSd
Ss 100x100x5
0,5FSd 0,5FSd
y;y;
Ss Ss
200x200x10
For a hollow section with dimensions 200 x 200 x 10, the following result is obtained
(concentrated load acting on both webs):
Ry. Rd = 2(ss + s y )t
fy
γ M1
(
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 5 + ( 2 − 2 ) 5 + 2 ⋅ 10 + 2 ⋅ 10 + 2 200 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 ⋅) 355
1, 1
= 918, 9 kN
 1 + 3s s 
 h − 3t 
Ra. Rd = 2 ⋅ 0, 5t 2 E ⋅ fy ⋅
γ M1
(1 + 3 ⋅ 0, 2)  ss 
= 1 ⋅ 10 2 210000 ⋅ 355 ⋅ = 1255, 9 kN  ≤ 0, 2
1, 1  (h - 3t ) 
The resistance of the hollow section with dimensions 200 x 200 x 10 is the smallest of the
values calculated above, that is, RRd = 918,9 kN.
For the hollow section with dimensions 100 x 100 x 5, the following result is obtained
(concentrated load is distributed on webs):
Ry. Rd = 2 ⋅ (ss + s y )t
fy
γ M1
(
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 10 + ( 2 − 2 )15 + 2 ⋅ 10 + 2 ⋅ 10 + 2 100 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ ) 355
1, 1
= 366, 3 kN
 1 + 3s s 
Ra. Rd = 2 ⋅ 0, 5t 2 E ⋅ fy ⋅
 h − 3t  = 5 2 ⋅ 210000 ⋅ 355 ⋅ (1 + 3 ⋅ 0, 2) = 314, 0 kN
γ M1 1, 1
57
The resistance of the hollow section with dimensions 100 x 100 x 5 is the smallest of the
values calculated above, that is, RRd = 314 kN. The concentrated load resistance of the
entire joint is determined by the buckling of the web of the hollow section with
dimensions 100 x 100 x 5. Thus, the greatest allowed concentrated load value affecting
the joint is FSd = 314,0 kN.
2.11 References
[1] ENV 1993-1-1:Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu. Osa 1-1: Yleiset säännöt ja
[2] ECCS: Technical Committee 8- Structural stability- Technical working group 8.4- Stability
of shells: Buckling of steel shells, European recommendations, 4th Edition, 1988
[3] CIDECT: Structural stability of hollow sections, Verlag TÜV Rheinland GmbH, Köln 1992
[4] CIDECT: Design guide for structural hollow sections in mechanical applications, Verlag
TÜV Rheinland GmbH, Köln 1995
[5] ENV 1991-2-1:Eurocode 1: Suunnitteluperusteet ja rakenteiden kuormat. Osa 2-1:

Rakenteiden kuormat: Tiheydet, oma paino ja hyötykuormat, 1995
(ENV 1991-2-1:Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures. Part 2-1: Actions
on structures. Densities, self-weight and imposed loads, 1995)
[6] EN 10219-2: Kylmämuovatut hitsatut seostamattomat rakenne- ja hienoraerakenne-

teräsputkipalkit. Osa 2: Toleranssit, mitat ja poikkileikkaussuureet, 1997
(EN 10219-2: Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
steels. Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties, 1997)
[7] CIDECT: Research project No 2R-2-16: Buckling behaviour of a new generation of cold
formed hollow sections, Draft final report-2R-2-16 final, Aachen 1996
[8] EN 10219-1: Kylmämuovatut hitsatut seostamattomat rakenne- ja hienoraerakenne-

teräsputkipalkit. Osa 1: Tekniset toimitusehdot, 1997
(EN 10219-2: Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
steels. Part 1: Technical delivery requirements, 1997)
58
Chapter 3
3 DESIGN OF JOINTS IN HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES

3.1 Design of welded joints in lattice structures
Joints in lattice structure are usually assumed to be nominally pinned, and brace members are
designed for axial load only. Depending on the dimensions of the chord and brace members,
the effect of joint rigidity can be accounted for, by reducing the buckling length of the brace
member. The transverse loads on the chord span between the braces introduce bending mo-
ments, and the chord must therefore be designed for compression and bending. In terms of
compression resistance, a hollow section with thin walls is the most practical solution.
However, when considering the resistance of the joint , a thin-walled, wide chord is not as good
as a thick-walled, narrow chord. The design formulae for lattice structure joints are partially
based on test results. When using the formulae, it must be ascertained that the hollow sections
meet the validity conditions given in the tables. Appendix 9.3 includes formulae for assessing
lattice structure joints for different hollow section types.
Table 3.1 shows different types of uniplaner lattice structure joints. Joint in multiplaner frames
are dealt with in references [2] and [3]. The figures also feature the following parameters
essential for the joint design:
e is eccentricity g
g is gap g
q is overlap
e
-e
Eccentricity value is taken as positive when the neutral axes of the brace members intersect
the chord below the centre of gravity (Table 3.1). Eccentricity is negative when the intersection
is located above the chord’s centre of gravity (Table 3.1). The joint gap refers to the space
between the brace members. The joint is overlapped when the brace members are partially or
completely overlaid by each other. The overlap can also be expressed as a negative-value.
Eccentricity and gap are interrelated in the following manner [2]:
h sin(θ 1 + θ 2 )
g = e + 0 
h1 h2
− − (3.1)
 2  sin θ 1 sin θ 2 2 sin θ 1 2 sin θ 2
 h1 h2  sin θ 1 sin θ 2 h0
e= + + g − ( 3.2)
 2 sin θ 1 2 sin θ 2  sin(θ 1 + θ 2 ) 2
where
θi is the smaller of the angles between the brace member and the chord
hi is the height of the brace member
h0 is the height of the chord
59
Table 3.1 Joint types in lattice structures

Joint type Gap joint Overlap joint
N
g
θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2
e
q
-e
K g
θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2
q
-e
KT g1 g2
θ1 θ3 θ2 θ1 θ3 θ2
e=0
e
q1 q2
T
θ1
X θ1
Y
θ1
Table 3.2 presents different failure modes of hollow section lattice structures. The governing
failure mode depends on the dimensions of the chord and brace members, and on the joint
geometry.
60
Table 3.2 Failure modes of lattice structure joints

Failure mode Structure in which the failure
mode is possible
Flexural failure of the chord Thin-walled chord, brace
face member narrower than chord
Punching shear failure of the Thin-walled chord with great

chord face b0, brace member slightly
narrower than chord
Tension failure of the bracing Thick-walled brace member

member or weld failure and thin-walled chord
Local buckling of the bracing Thin-walled brace member

member with a great bi or hi
Overall shear failure of the Thin-walled chord with

chord small h0
Local buckling of the chord Thin-walled high chord of

walls equal width as the brace
member
Local buckling of the chord Thin-walled chord with

face great b0
61
3.1.1 Joints of circular, square or rectangular brace members to

square or rectangular chords
Before calculating the resistance of the joint, members must be designed according to their
loads (chapter 2). Joints are usually assumed pinned, so the brace members are designed for
axial force only. When calculating the resistance of the joint, the moments due to the
eccentricity of the joint need not be taken into account, if the eccentricity is between
−0, 55h0 ≤ e ≤ 0, 25h0 (3.3)
where
However, when designing the chord, the moments due to the joint eccentricity must be taken
into account.
The chord face resistance is affected by the axial force and the bending moment. This function
is determined by using the parameter n [1]:
γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj σ 0. Ed γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj  N 0.Sd M0.Sd 
n= = +
1, 1  A0 ⋅ f y 0 Wel ⋅ f y 0 
 (3.4)
1, 1 fy0
where
σ 0. Ed is the greatest compression stress in the flange on the side of the joint
N 0.Sd is the axial force of the chord
M0.Sd is the bending moment of the chord
fy0 is the yield strength of the chord
In examples 13-17, the resistance of the joint is determined by using Tables 9.3.1, 9.3.2 and
9.3.3 in Appendix 9.3. When using the tables, it must be ascertained that the lattice members
and the joint geometry meet the validity conditions presented in the tables. The principle is to
calculate the resistance of the joint for different failure modes and select the smallest value as
the final resistance of the joint. The steel designation used in all examples is S355J2H. When
calculating the resistance of the hollow section lattice structure joints, the partial safety factor
γMj, is used with the value of 1.1.
The validity condition for the joint are met in examples 13-27, but their checking is not
presented in the examples.
In the tables in Appendix 9.3 and examples 13-27, it is assumed that the value of the
partial safety factor γM0 of the material is 1.1. The tables in Appendix 9.3 apply for steel
grades with the yield strength value of 355 N/mm2 or smaller.
62
Example 13
A Y joint with a tension brace member N1.Sd b1

(Table 9.3.1).
h1
;; ;
The joint geometry and loading are as t1
follows: θ
Brace member: 100 x 100 x 5, N0.Sd t0
h0
A1 = 1836 mm2
;
⇒ NRd = 1836 · 355/ 1,1 = 592,5 kN
Chord: 200 x 200 x 8, A0 = 5924 mm2 b0
N0.Sd = 936,4 kN (compression)
N1.Sd = 590 kN (tension)
θ = 45°
β = b1/ b0 = 100/ 200 = 0,5
η = h1/ b0 = 100/ 200 = 0,5
The chord axial force N0.Sd influences the resistance of the joint in the form of the term kn:
γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj N 0.Sd 1, 1 936400
n= = = 0, 490
1, 1 A0 ⋅ f y 1 5924 ⋅ 355
0, 4n 0, 4 ⋅ 0, 490
kn = 1, 3 − = 1, 3 − = 0, 908
β 0, 5
Chord face yield

Since β = 0,5 < 0,85 the chord face resistance must be checked:
f y ⋅ t 0 2  2η
+ 4 1 − β  kn
1, 1
N1. Rd =
(1 − β ) sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 8 2  2 ⋅ 0, 5 + 4 1 − 0, 5  0, 908 1 = 225, 1 kN < N

=
(1 − 0, 5) sin 45  sin 45  Sd
1, 1
Resistance of the joint

The resistance of the joint is thus N1.Rd = 225,1 kN, which is remarkably less than the
brace member axial force N1.Sd = 590 kN. A larger hollow section must be selected as the
brace member or the chord face must be reinforced to obtain a sufficient resistance of
the joint.
63
Example 14 b1
A T joint with a compression brace N1.Sd
member (Table 9.3.1).
;;;
The joint geometry and loading are the h1 θ t1
following:
Brace member: 100 x 100 x 5,
N0.Sd t0
A1 = 1836 mm2
h0
⇒ NRd = 1836 · 355/1,1 = 592,4 kN
;
Chord: 100 x 100 x 6, A0 = 2163 mm2
N0.Sd = 400 kN (compression) b0
N1.Sd = 350 kN (compression)
θ = 90°
β = b1/ b0 = 100/ 100= 1,0
γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj N 0.Sd 1, 1 400000
n= = = 0, 573
1, 1 A0 ⋅ f y 1 2163 ⋅ 355
0, 4n 0, 4 ⋅ 0, 573
kn = 1, 3 − = 1, 3 − = 1, 07 > 1, 0 ⇒ kn = 1
β 1, 0
Note that the term kn is not relevant in this example, since the chord face yield is not the
governing failure mode (β > 0,85).
Chord web buckling
The chord web buckling may be a relevant failure mode for the design, since β is 1,0.
First, determine the buckling stress using buckling curve c:
h 
= 3, 46  − 2
fy 1 100 355 1
λ = 3, 46  0 − 2 = 0, 664
 t0  E(sinθ ) π  6  210000(sin 90) π
χ = 0, 747
N
fb = 0, 747 ⋅ 355 = 265, 2
mm 2
Now we can calculate the chord web resistance:
fb ⋅ t 0  2h1 265, 2 ⋅ 6  2 ⋅ 100
+ 10t 0  + 10 ⋅ 6
1 1
N1. Rd = = = 376, 1 kN
sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 sin 90  sin 90  1, 1
Brace member failure

Next, determine the effective width of the brace member:
10b1 ⋅ t 02 10 ⋅ 100 ⋅ 6 2
beff = = = 72 ≤ b1
b0 ⋅ t1 100 ⋅ 5
N1. Rd = f y ⋅ t1 ( 2h1 − 4t1 + 2beff )

1 1
= 355 ⋅ 5( 2 ⋅ 100 − 4 ⋅ 5 + 2 ⋅ 72) = 522, 8 kN
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 1, 1
The chord web resistance determines the resistance of the entire joint, which then is:
N1.Rd = 376,1 kN > N1.Sd OK !
64
Example 15
An X joint with compression brace members
(Table 9.3.1). b1
N1.Sd
The joint geometry and loading are as h1
;;
follows:
t1
Brace members: 180 x 180 x 6, θ
A1 = 4083 mm2 N0.Sd t0
h0
⇒ NRd = 4083 · 355/ 1,1 = 1318 kN
Chord: 200 x 200 x 8, A0 = 5924 mm2
;
N0.Sd = 620 kN (tension) ⇒ kn =1 b0
N1.Sd = 1000 kN (compression) h1
θ = 30°
β = b1 / b0 = 180/ 200 = 0,90
η = h1 / b0 = 180/ 200 = 0,90
γ = 0,5b0 / t0 = 0,5 · 200/ 8 = 12,5
Chord face punching shear

The chord face punching shear must be checked, since 0,85 < β < 1-(1/γ)= 0,92:
10t 0 ⋅ b1 10 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 180
bep = ≤ b1 = = 72 ≤ 180
b0 200
f y ⋅ t 0  2h1 355 ⋅ 8  2 ⋅ 180
+ b1 + bep  + 180 + 72
1 1
N1. Rd = = = 2897 , 8 kN
3 sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 3 sin 30  sin 30  1, 1
Chord face yield and chord web buckling

The chord resistance must be determined for both chord face and web, since
0,85 < β < 1,0. The resistance of the joint is calculated for the chord face when β = 0,85
and for the chord web when β = 1,0. Then, the resistance is determined by linear
interpolation when β = 0,9:
a) β = 0,85
f y ⋅ t 02  2η
+ 4 1 − β  kn
1, 1
N1. Rd =
(1 − β ) sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 8 2  2 ⋅ 0, 9 + 4 1 − 0, 85  1 = 1418, 1 kN > N ⇒ N

= 1. Rd = 1318 kN
(1 − 0, 85) sin 30  sin 30  1, 1 Rd
65
b) β = 1,0
h 
= 3, 46  − 2
fy 1 200 355 1
λ = 3, 46  0 − 2 = 1, 473
 t0  E(sinθ ) π  8  210000(sin 30) π
χ = 0, 323
N
fb = 0, 323 ⋅ 0, 8 ⋅ sin 30 ⋅ 355 = 45, 87
mm 2
f ⋅ t 2h 45, 87 ⋅ 8  2 ⋅ 180
= b 0  1 + 10t 0  + 10 ⋅ 8
1 1
N1. Rd = = 533, 8 kN
sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 sin 30  sin 30  1, 1
Now, determine the chord resistance by interpolation using the values calculated above:
N1.Rd = 533,8+ (1318 – 533,8)(1– 0,9)/ 0,15 = 1056,6 kN
Chord shear
Next, check the chord shear resistance:
f y ⋅ Av 1 355 ⋅ 3200 1
N1. Rd = = = 1192, 5 kN
3 sin θ γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 3 sin 30 1, 1

Also the effective width of the brace member must be checked:
10b1 ⋅ t 02 10 ⋅ 180 ⋅ 8 2
beff = = = 96 mm < b1
b0 ⋅ t1 200 ⋅ 6
N1. Rd = f y ⋅ t1 ( 2h1 − 4t1 + 2beff )

1 1
= 355 ⋅ 6( 2 ⋅ 180 − 4 ⋅ 6 + 2 ⋅ 96 ) = 1022, 4 kN
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 1, 1
Resistance of joint
The resistance of the joint is the smallest of the above values, that is,
N1.Rd = 1022,4 kN > N1.Sd OK !
66
Example 16
A gapped K joint (Table 9.3.2).
The joint geometry and loading are as N1.Sd N2.Sd b1,2
h1 h2
follows:
;;
g
t1,2
Brace members:150 x 150 x 6, θ1 θ2
A1 = 3363 mm2 N0.Sd t0
⇒ NRd = 3363 · 355/ 1,1 = 1085 kN
h0
e
Chord: 200 x 200 x 8, A0 = 5924 mm2
;
θ1 =θ2 = 45° b0
N0.Sd = 1363,6 kN (compression)
N2.Rd = 600 kN (tension)
γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj N 0.Sd 1, 1 1363600
n= = = 0, 713
1, 1 A0 ⋅ f y 1 5924 ⋅ 355
0, 4n 0, 4 ⋅ 0, 713
kn = 1, 3 − = 1, 3 − = 0, 920
β 0, 75
200
γ = 0, 5 ⋅ = 12, 5
8
β = 150 / 200= 0,75 < 1 – (1/γ)= 0,92, so the chord punching shear must be checked.
The joint gap presented by the joint geometry is [2]:

h sin(θ 1 + θ 2 )
g = e + 0 
h1 h2
− − = 27 , 9 mm
 2  sin θ 1 sin θ 2 2 sin θ 1 2 sin θ 2
e = 20 mm, e < 0,25h0 = 50 mm (eccentricity is within the limits allowed in Appendix

9.3)
Determine the resistance of the joint by brace member 1 only, since the brace members
are of equal size and carrying equal loads.
Chord face yield

First, calculate the resistance by chord face yield:
 m m

2  ∑ bi + ∑ hi 
f y ⋅ t0 i =1 i =1 1, 1
N1. Rd = 8, 9   kn γ
sin θ  2m ⋅ b0  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
 
 
355 ⋅ 8 2  150 + 150  1
= 8, 9 0, 920 12, 5 = 634, 2 kN
sin 45  2 ⋅ 200  1, 1
67
Chord shear
Obtain the following value for the shear resistance of the entire chord:
Av = (2h0 + α · b0)t0 = (2 · 200+ 0,241 · 200)8 = 3586 mm2
1 1
α= = = 0, 241
4g 2 4 ⋅ 27 , 9 2
1+ 2 1+
3t 0 3 ⋅ 82
f y ⋅ Av 1, 1 355 ⋅ 3586 1
N1. Rd = = = 944, 9 kN
3 sin θ γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 3 sin 45 1, 1

The effective width of the brace member is:
10b1 ⋅ t 02 10 ⋅ 150 ⋅ 8 2
beff = = = 80 mm < b1
b0 ⋅ t1 200 ⋅ 6
= f y ⋅ t1 ( 2h1 − 4t1 + b1 + beff )

1, 1
N1. Rd
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
1
= 355 ⋅ 6( 2 ⋅ 150 − 4 ⋅ 6 + 150 + 80) = 979, 8 kN
1, 1
Chord punching shear

In this case, the chord punching shear resistance must also be taken into account:
bep = 10t0 · b1 / b0 = 10 · 8 · 150/ 200 = 60 ≤ 150
f y ⋅ t 0  2h1
+ b1 + bep 
1, 1
N1. Rd =
3 sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 8  2 ⋅ 150
+ 150 + 60
1
= = 1337 , 1 kN
3 sin 45  sin 45  1, 1

The chord face yield determines the resistance of the joint, which then is:
N1.Rd = 634,2 kN > N1.Sd OK!
68
In a gapped KT joint, it must also be checked a) 3 b) 3

that the sum of the brace member vertical 2 2
1
force components is less than the resistance θ3 1 θ3
of the joint. The vertical rigidity in the chord
θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2
face is poor, so this condition is relevant. Four
different load modes can be suggested.
These are presented in Figure 3.1. In 3.1c,
the lattice joint is subjected to a down-pulling c) d) 3
3 2 2
point load. In 3.1d, an intermediate support is
placed at the corner. In the cases presented
1
θ3 1 θ3
in the figure, the conditions for the resistance
θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2
of the joint are the following [2]:
θ4 θ4
4 4
Figure 3.1 A gapped KT joint
a) N 2. Rd sin θ 2 ≥ N1.Sd sin θ 1 + N 3.Sd sin θ 3 ( 3.5)

b) N1. Rd sin θ 1 ≥ N 2.Sd sin θ 2 + N 3.Sd sin θ 3 ( 3.6 )
c) N 2. Rd sin θ 2 ≥ N1.Sd sin θ 1 + N 3.Sd sin θ 3 + N 4.Sd sin θ 4 ( 3.7 )
d) N1. Rd sin θ 1 ≥ N 2.Sd sin θ 2 + N 3.Sd sin θ 3 + N 4.Sd sin θ 4 ( 3.8 )
69
Example 17a
A gapped K joint (Table 9.3.3). N1.Sd N2.Sd b1,2
The joint geometry and loading are as
;;
follows:
h1
h2
θ1 θ 2 t1,2
Brace members: 140 x 140 x 6, A1 = 3123 t0
N0.Sd
mm2
h0
q
⇒ NRd = 3123 · 355/1,1 = 1008 kN
-e
;
Chord: 180 x 180 x 8, A0 = 5284 mm2 b0
θ1 =θ2 = 60°
The joint overlap expressed by the joint geometry is as follows [2]:

 h sin(θ 1 + θ 2 ) h2 
q = −  e + 0 
h1
− − = 92, 4 mm (overlap scale)
 2  sin θ 1 ⋅ sin θ 2 2 sin θ 1 2 sin θ 2 
e = –30 mm > –0,55h0 = –99 mm (joint eccentricity is within the limits allowed in
Appendix 9.3)
The relative value of the overlap λov is:
λov = q· sin(θ1)/ h1 = 92,4 sin(60)/ 140 = 0,57

Now 0,5 ≤ λov < 0,8, so the following value is obtained for the effective width:
10b1 ⋅ t 02 10 ⋅ 140 ⋅ 8 2
beff = = = 83 mm ≤ b1
b0 ⋅ t1 180 ⋅ 6
10b1 ⋅ t 22 10 ⋅ 140 ⋅ 6 2
be( ov ) = = = 60 mm ≤ b1
b2 ⋅ t1 140 ⋅ 6
(
N1. Rd = f y ⋅ t1 2h1 − 4t1 + be + be( ov )) 1, 1
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
1
= 355 ⋅ 6( 2 ⋅ 140 − 4 ⋅ 6 + 83 + 60) = 772, 5 kN
1, 1

The resistance of the joint is not sufficient, since N1.Rd = 772,5 kN is less than N1.Sd.
With an overlap (q) of 130 mm, a sufficient strength of the joint is obtained.
70
Example 17b N1.Sd

A lower corner joint in a lattice structure
(Table 9.3.3).
The resistance of the lattice’s lower corner can
be determined using the formulae for
overlapped joints which consider the lower
chord as continuous (Figure 3.2) [2]. The θ2
resistance of the joint can be determined for θ1
the lower corner with the following joint
members:
Brace member: 100 x 100 x 5, A1 = 1836 mm2 Figure 3.2a A lower corner
⇒ NRd = 1836 · 355/ 1,1 = 592,4 kN joint in a lattice structure
2
Chord: 150 x 150 x 6, A0 = 3360 mm
θ1 = 90°
θ2 = 45°
The joint must be designed in such a manner that eccentricity e = 0.
N1.Sd
The following overlap value is obtained:
 h sin(θ 1 + θ 2 ) h2 
q = −  e + 0 
h1
− − = 81, 1 mm
 2  sin θ 1 ⋅ sin θ 2 2 sin θ 1 2 sin θ 2 
sin(θ 1 ) sin( 90)
λ ov = q = 81, 1 = 0, 81 θ1 θ2
h1 100
q
Now λov > 0,8, so the following value for Figure 3.2b The calculation
the effective width is obtained: model
10b1 ⋅ t 22 10 ⋅ 100 ⋅ 6 2
be( ov ) = = = 48 mm ≤ b1
b2 ⋅ t1 150 ⋅ 5
N1. Rd (
= f y ⋅ t1 2h1 − 4t1 + be + be( ov )) 1, 1
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
1
= 355 ⋅ 5( 2 ⋅ 100 − 4 ⋅ 5 + 100 + 48) = 529, 3 kN
1, 1

Thus, the resistance of the joint is N1.Rd = 529,3 > N1.Sd OK !
71
3.1.2 Joints of circular brace members to circular chords
The joint of a circular brace member to a circular chord is designed according to Tables 9.3.4,
9.3.5 and 9.3.6 presented in Appendix 9.3. Otherwise, lattice structures constructed of circular
hollow sections are designed by the same principles as square and rectangular hollow
sections, presented in section 3.1.1. When determining the resistance of the joint, the moments
due to joint eccentricity need not be taken into account, if the eccentricity is between:
−0, 55d0 ≤ e ≤ 0, 25d0 (3.9)
where
d0 is the diameter of the chord
However, when designing the chord, the moments due to joint eccentricity need to be taken
into account.
The chord axial force and bending moment influence the chord face resistance. This function is
determined by parameter np.
γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj σ p. Ed γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj  N p.Sd M0.Sd 
np = = A ⋅f +  (3.10)
1, 1 fy0 1, 1  0 y 0 Wel ⋅ f y 0 
where
σ p. Ed is the chord compression stress due to force Np.Sd and bending moment M0.Sd
N p.Sd = N 0.Sd − ΣNi.Sd cos(θ i )

N 0.Sd is the axial force of the chord
Ni.Sd is the axial force of the brace member
θi is the angle between the brace member and the chord
M0.Sd is the bending moment of the chord
fy0 is the yield resistance of the chord
72
Example 18
A T or a Y joint (Table 9.3.4).
The joint geometry and loading are as follows: N1.Sd
;
;;;;
;;;
Brace member: 168,3 x 5, A1 = 2565 mm2
;;
d1 θ t1
⇒ NRd = 2565 · 355/ 1,1 = 827,8 kN
t0
Chord: 219,1 x 10, A0 = 6569 mm2 Np.Sd
θ = 90°
d0
Np.Sd = 1018,2 kN (compression)
The axial force of the chord Np.Sd influences the

resistance of the joint in the form of the term kp.
γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj N p.Sd 1, 1 1018200
np = = = 0, 48
1, 1 f y ⋅ A0 1 355 ⋅ 6569
( ) ( )
k p = 1, 0 − 0, 3 n p + n p2 = 1, 0 − 0, 3 0, 48 + 0, 48 2 = 0, 79
168, 3
β= = 0, 77
219, 1
219, 1
γ = = 11, 0
20
Chord face yield

The resistance of the joint determined by the chord face yield is:
f y ⋅ t 02
N1. Rd =
sin θ
( )
2, 8 + 14, 2β 2 γ 0.2 k p
1, 1
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 10 2
=
sin 90
( )
2, 8 + 14, 2 ⋅ 0, 77 2 11, 0 0,2 ⋅ 0, 79
1
1, 1
= 462, 1 kN

The chord punching shear resistance is given by:
f y ⋅ t 0 ⋅ π ⋅ d1  1 + sin θ  1, 1 355 ⋅ 10 ⋅ π ⋅ 168, 3  1 + sin 90  1
N1. Rd = = = 985, 2 kN
3  2 sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
2
3  2 sin 2 90  1, 1

The resistance of the joint is the smallest of the above values
N1.Rd = 462,1 kN > N1.Sd OK !
73
Example 19
An X joint (Table 9.3.4). N1.Sd
The joint geometry and loading are as follows:
; ;
;;;;
;;
Brace members: 193,7 x 6, A1 = 3538 mm2
d1 θ t1
;
⇒ NRd = 3538 · 355/ 1,1 = 1142 kN Np.Sd
t0
d0
Chord: 219,1 x 10, A0 = 6569 mm2
;
θ = 90° d1
N1.Sd = 450 kN
;
N1.Sd
1, 1 1018200
⇒ np = = 0, 48
1 355 ⋅ 6569
kp = 1,0 – 0,3(np+np2)
= 1,0– 0,3(0,48+ 0,482) = 0,79
β = 193,7/ 219,1 = 0,884
Chord face yield

The resistance of the joint determined by the chord face yield is:
f y ⋅ t 02  5, 2  1, 1 355 ⋅ 10 2  5, 2  1
N1. Rd =   kp =   ⋅ 0, 79 = 466, 9 kN
sin θ  1 − 0, 81β  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 sin 90  1 − 0, 81 ⋅ 0, 884  1, 1

The chord punching shear, resistance is given by:
f y ⋅ t 0 ⋅ π ⋅ d1  1 + sin θ  1, 1 355 ⋅ 10 ⋅ π ⋅ 193, 7  1 + sin 90  1
N1. Rd = = = 1133, 8 kN
3  2 sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
2
3  2 sin 2 90  1, 1

The resistance of the joint is the smallest of the above values
N1.Rd = 466,9 kN > N1.Sd OK !
74
Example 20
An overlapped K joint (Table 9.3.5).
The joint geometry and loading are as N1.Sd N2.Sd
;;;;
follows:
d1 g
Chord: 219,1 x 10, A0 = 6569 mm2 d2
θ2 t1,2
;
θ1
;; ;
Brace members: 168,3 x 5 (compression
;;
member) t0
Np.Sd
⇒ N1.Rd = 2565 · 355/ 1,1 = 827,8 kN
d0
139,7 x 5 (tension member)
⇒ N2.Rd = 2116 · 355/ 1,1 = 682,9 kN
θ1 =50°
θ2 = 60°
N1.Sd = 600kN (compression)
N2.Sd = 530,7 kN (tension)
1, 1 636400
⇒ np = = 0, 30
1 355 ⋅ 6569
kp = 1,0 – 0,3(np + np 2) = 1,0 – 0,3(0,30+ 0,302) = 0,88
β = (168,3+139,7)/ (2 · 219,1) = 0,703
γ = 219,1/ 20 = 11.0
g = 25 mm
e = 42,6 mm [formula (3.2)]
e < 0,25d0 = 54,8 mm OK !
Chord face yield

The chord face yield resistance for the compression member is given by:
   
0, 2  0 , 024 ⋅ γ 1, 2
 0, 2  0, 024 ⋅ 111, 2 
kg = γ  1 + = 11 1+ = 1, 974
 g    25 − 1, 33 
  − 1, 33


  
 
1 + e 2t0  1 + e 2⋅10
f y ⋅ t0 2 1, 1
N1. Rd = (1, 8 + 10, 2β )kg ⋅ k p
sin θ γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 10 2 1
= (1, 8 + 10, 2 ⋅ 0, 703) ⋅ 1, 974 ⋅ 0, 88 = 656, 5 kN
sin 50 1, 1
For the tension member, the corresponding resistance is:

 sin(θ 1 )   sin( 50) 
N 2. Rd = N1. Rd   = 656, 5   = 580, 7 kN
 sin(θ 2 )   sin(60) 
75

The chord punching shear resistance for the compression member is given by:
f y ⋅ t 0 ⋅ π ⋅ d1  1 + sin θ 1  1, 1 355 ⋅ 10 ⋅ π ⋅ 168, 3  1 + sin 50  1
N1. Rd =   = = 1482, 4 kN
3  2 sin θ 1  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
2
3  2 sin 2 50  1, 1

f y ⋅ t 0 ⋅ π ⋅ d 2  1 + sin θ 2  1, 1 355 ⋅ 10 ⋅ π ⋅ 139, 7  1 + sin 60  1
N 2. Rd =   = = 1017 , 3 kN
3  2 sin θ 2  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
2
3  2 sin 2 60  1, 1

The resistance of the joint is the smallest of the above values:
Compression member: N1.Rd = 656,7 kN > N1.Sd OK !

Tension member: N2.Rd = 580,7 kN > N2.Sd OK !
Example 21
An overlapped K joint (Table 9.3.6).
The joint geometry and loading are as follows: N1.Sd N2.Sd
d1,2
Brace members: 139,7 x 5, A1 = 2116 mm2
;
;;;;
; ;;
d1 d2 t1,2
⇒ NRd = 2116 · 355 / 1,1 = 682,9 kN
Chord: 219,1 x 10, A0 = 6569 mm2
θ1 = 40°
θ2 = 50°
N2.Sd = 503,5 kN (tension)
;; d0
θ1
Np.Sd
q
θ2
t0

1, 1 636400
⇒ np = = 0, 30
1 355 ⋅ 6569
kp = 1,3 – 0,3(np+np2) = 1,0 – 0,3(0,30+ 0,302) = 0,88
β = 139,7/ 219,1 = 0,64
γ = 219,1/ 20 = 11,0
q = 85 mm (overlap)
e = –53,0 mm [formula (3.2)]
e > – 0,55d0 = –120,5 mm OK !
76
Chord face yield

The chord face yield for the compression member is given by:
   
 0, 024 ⋅ γ 1, 2
 0 , 024 ⋅ 11 1, 2
k g = γ 0, 2  1 + = 110, 2  1 +  = 2, 30
 −q    −85 − 1, 33 
  − 1, 33 
  
 1+ e
 2t 0  1 + e 2⋅10
f y ⋅ t0 2 1, 1
N1. Rd = (1, 8 + 10, 2β )kg ⋅ k p
sin θ γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 10 2 1
= (1, 8 + 10, 2 ⋅ 0, 64) ⋅ 2, 30 ⋅ 0, 88 = 846, 3 kN
sin 40 1, 1
sin θ 1 sin 40
N 2. Rd = N1. Rd = 846, 3 = 710, 1 kN
sin θ 2 sin 50

The resistance of the joint expressed by the brace members is:
Compression member: N1.Rd = 846,3 kN > N1.Sd OK !
Tension member: N2.Rd = 710,1 kN > N2.Sd OK !
3.1.3 Joints of circular, square and rectangular brace members

to I profile chords
The joint is designed according to the principles presented in section 3.1.1, except that now
Tables 9.3.7 and 9.3.8 in Appendix 9.3 are used.
3.2 Welded frameworks

Members in welded frameworks are subjected to both bending and axial loads. Since the joint
rigidity influences the scale of the joint moment and the joint moment influences the joint
rigidity, the final distribution of forces and moments should be determined by iteration. A
conservative method is to determine the joint moments assuming complete rigidity of the joints,
and the span moments by assuming the joints
are pinned. Appendix 9.4 contains instructions for M θ
b1/b0= 1
estimating joint rigidity when using square and
rectangular hollow sections. M
Figure 3.3 presents the moment-rotation curve b1

;
for welded joints. The curve slope represents the b1/b0< 0,85
joint rigidity. This depends on the relation
between the hollow section width and the column b0
width, and on the wall thickness of joint elements.
The greater the b1/b0 relation and the wall θ
thickness, the stiffer the joint. Figure 3.3 Rigidity of frame joints
77
3.2.1 Joints of square and rectangular hollow sections subjected to

bending
Table 9.3.9 in Appendix 9.3 includes the formulae for determining the bending resistance of
square and rectangular hollow sections for loads both parallel and perpendicular to the chord
axis. The combined effect of the axial force and bending moment are accounted for by the in-
teraction expression [1]:
N1.Sd Mip.1.Sd Mop.1.Sd
+ + ≤1 (3.11)
N1. Rd Mip.1. Rd Mop.1. Rd
where
N1.Sd is the axial force of the brace member

Mip.1.Sd is the bending moment parallel to the plane of the frame
Mop.1.Sd is the bending moment perpendicular to the plane of the frame
Moreover, the resistance of the joint to axial force (section 3.1) and to bending moment
(section 3.2) must be checked separately.
Example 22
A compression and bending T joint (Table
9.3.9). Mip.1.Sd
The joint members and loading b1
are the following: N1.Sd
Chord: 150 x 150 x 6
NRd = 3363 · 355/ 1,1 = 1085 kN
MRd = 180 · 355/ 1,1 = 58,1 kNm
Brace member: 150 x 150 x 6
NRd = 3363 · 355/ 1,1 = 1085 kN
MRd = 180 · 355/ 1,1 = 58,1 kNm
Loads:
;;;
; h0
h1
θ t1
t0
b0
Mip.1.Sd = 15 kNm
N1.Sd = 150 kN
β = b1/ b0 = 150/ 150 = 1,0

Since β =1, the effective width of the brace member is calculated first (Table 9.3.9):
10b1 ⋅ t 02 10 ⋅ 150 ⋅ 6 2
beff = = = 60 mm ≤ b1
b0 ⋅ t1 150 ⋅ 6
  beff   1
Mip.1. Rd = f y Wpl.1 −  1 −  b1 ⋅ h1 ⋅ t1 
  b1   γ Mj
  1
= 355 180000 −  1 −
60 
150 ⋅ 150 ⋅ 6  = 32 kNm
  150   1, 1
78
Chord web yield

The bending resistance determined by the chord web yield is (Table 9.3.9):
1, 1 1
Mip.1. Rd = 0, 5 f yk ⋅ t 0 (h1 + 5t 0 ) = 0, 5 ⋅ 355 ⋅ 6 ⋅ (150 + 5 ⋅ 6 ) 2 = 31, 4 kNm
2
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 1, 1
T joint, fyk = fy
Bending resistance of the joint

The bending resistance of the joint is the smallest of the above values.
Mip.1.Rd = 31,4 kNm > MSd
The brace member resistance to compression is determined according to the guidance in

section 3.1.1. Since the brace member and chord are of equal width, the brace member
failure and the chord face buckling due to axial force need to be checked:
Brace member failure (Table 9.3.1)

10b1 ⋅ t 02 10 ⋅ 150 ⋅ 6 2
beff = = = 60 mm ≤ b1
b0 ⋅ t1 150 ⋅ 6
= f y ⋅ t1 ( 2h1 − 4t1 + 2beff )

1, 1 1
N1. Rd = 355 ⋅ 6 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 150 − 4 ⋅ 6 + 2 ⋅ 60) = 766, 8 kN
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 1, 1
Chord face buckling (Table 9.3.1)

h 
= 3, 46  − 2
fy 1 150 355 1
λ = 3, 46  0 − 2 = 1, 041
 t0  E(sin θ ) π  6  210000(sin 90) π
χ = 0, 516
N
fb = 0, 516 ⋅ 355 = 183, 3
mm 2
1, 1 1
N1. Rd = fb ⋅ t 0 ( 2h1 + 10t 0 ) = 183, 3 ⋅ 6 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 150 + 10 ⋅ 6 ) = 359, 7 kN
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 1, 1
Compression resistance of the joint

The compression resistance of the joint is the smallest of the above values.
N1.Rd = 359,7 kN
Combined load condition of the joint

Now, the calculated resistance values are substituted in the interaction expression (3.11).
N1.Sd Mip.1.Sd 150 15
+ = + = 0, 895 < 1, 0 OK!
N1. Rd Mip.1. Rd 359, 7 31, 4
79
3.2.2 Circular hollow section joints subjected to bending
Table 9.3.10 in Appendix 9.3 presents the formulae for determining the moment resistance of
circular tubes for loads both parallel and perpendicular to the plane of the frame. The combined
effect of axial force and bending moment is allowed for by using the following interaction
expression [1]:
2
N1.Sd  Mip.1.Sd  Mop.1.Sd
+  + ≤1 (3.12)
N1. Rd  Mip.1. Rd  Mop.1. Rd
Moreover, the resistance of the joint for the axial force (section 3.1) and the bending moment
must be checked separately (section 3.2).
Mip.1.Sd
Example 23
A compression and tension T joint. N1.Sd
;; ;
; ;
The joint members and loading are as
follows:
Chord: 219,1 x 5
;
;;
NRd = 3363 · 355/ 1,1 = 1085 kN d1 t1
MRd = 229 · 355/ 1,1 = 73,9 kNm
;
Brace member: 219,1 x 5 Np.Sd
d0
NRd = 3363 · 355/ 1,1 = 1085 kN t0

;
MRd = 229 · 355/ 1,1 = 73,9 kNm
Loads:
;
;
Mip.1.Sd = 30 kNm
Np.Sd = 272,7 kN (chord)
N1.Sd = 70 kN (brace member)
β = d1 / d0 = 219,1/ 219,1 = 1,0
γ = 219,1/ (2 · 5)= 21,91
First, we calculate the effect of the chord axial force:
1, 1 272700
N p.Sd = 272, 7 kN (puristusta)
(compression) ⇒ np = = 0, 251
1 355 ⋅ 3363
kp = 1,0– 0,3(np + np 2) = 1,0– 0,3(0,251+ 0,2512) = 0,906
Chord face yield
The bending resistance calculated by the chord face yield is (Table 9.3.10):
kp 1, 1
Mip.1. Rd = 4, 85 f y ⋅ t 02 ⋅ γ 0, 5 ⋅ β ⋅ d1
sin(θ ) γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
0, 906 1
= 4, 85 ⋅ 355 ⋅ 5 2 ⋅ 21, 910, 5 ⋅ 1, 0 ⋅ 219, 1 ⋅ = 36, 4 kNm
sin( 90) 1, 1

Since d1 = 219,1 mm > d0 – 2t0 = 219,1– 2 · 5 = 209,1 mm, the punching shear resistance
of the chord need not be taken into account in calculating the bending resistance. The
bending resistance of the joint is thus Mip.1.Rd= 36,4 kNm.
80
Chord face yield

The compression resistance for the brace member is calculated according to the
guidance presented in section 3.1.1. By the chord face yield, we obtain (Table 9.3.4):
f y ⋅ t0 2
N1. Rd =
sin θ
( )
2, 8 + 14, 2β 2 γ 2 ⋅ k p
1, 1
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 5 2
=
sin 90
( )
2, 8 + 14, 2 ⋅ 1, 0 2 ⋅ 21, 910, 2 ⋅ 0, 906
1
1, 1
= 230, 4 kN

The chord punching shear need not be calculated, since d1 = 219,1 mm > d0 – 2t0 =
209,1 mm.
Compression resistance of the joint

The compression resistance of the joint calculated by the chord face is N1.Rd = 230,4 kN.
Now, the calculated resistance values are substituted in the interaction expression
(3.12):
2
N1.Sd  Mip.1.Sd 
2
70  30 
+ = +  = 0, 983 < 1, 0 OK!
N1. Rd  Mip.1. Rd  230, 4  36, 4 
81
Chapter 3
3.3 Welded end-to-end joints of hollow sections

The resistance of hollow section end-to-end joints should be designed to be at least equal to
the hollow section plastic resistance in order to utilize the entire plastic resistance of the cross
section. The resistance of the welded joint is at least equal to the hollow section resistance, if
the weld is a full penetration weld and the conect weld material for the parent metal is selected.
The weldability of structural steels is good with all welding procedures. Preheating is necessary
only if the external temperature is below 5 °C or if the hollow sections are damp. Instructions
for selecting the form of the backing and grooves are given in Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
Table 3.3 Welded end-to-end joints with equal wall thicknesses [4]
Groove type Wall α b c Backing
thickness thickness
Without backing plate
t ≤ 3 mm 0° t - -
t
3 ≤ t ≤ 20 mm 60° 0 ≤ b ≤ 3 mm - -
α
t
α t ≤ 20 mm 60° 0 ≤ b ≤ 4 mm 1,5 ≤ c ≤ 4 mm -
t
b
c
With backing plate

b t0 = 3 mm 0° 3 ≤ b ≤ 5 mm - t1 =3 mm
t0 = 5 mm 0° 5 ≤ b ≤ 6 mm - 3 < t1 ≤ 5 mm
t0
t0 = 6 mm 0° 6 ≤ b ≤ 8 mm - 3 < t1 ≤ 6 mm
t1
α t0 < 20 mm > 60° 5 ≤ b ≤ 8 mm 1 ≤ c ≤ 2,5 mm 3 < t1 ≤ 6 mm

t0
b
c
t1
82
Table 3.4 Welded end-to-end joints with different wall thicknesses [4]
Groove type Difference in thicknesses α β
t2 - t1 ≤ 0,5 t2 ≤ 3 mm 60°- 80° -
α
t2
t1
Unlimited 60°- 80° ≤ 30°

α β
t2
t1
t2 - t1 ≤ 1,5 mm 60°- 80° -

α
t1
t2
1,5 < t2 - t1 < 3 mm 60°- 80° -

α
t1
t2
t2 - t1 ≥ 3 mm 60°- 80° ≤ 14,036°

α
t1
t2
b
β
Root gap b is selected as in Table 3.3
83
3.4 Bolted hollow section joints

3.4.1 End-to-end bolted hollow section joints
In structures utilizig hollow section structures, it is normal practice to assemble structure

elements in the workshop by welding and then connect the elements on site with bolted joints.
Bolted joints are quicker and easier to prepare on site than welded joints. Alternatives for end-
to-end bolted joints are shown in Figure 3.4.
a) b) c)
d) e) f)
g)
Figure 3.4 Alternatives for end-to-end connections
When designing a joint, it is essential to ensure that the load is as concentric as possible in
relation to the cross section and that the rigidity of the joint components is uniform. In this
respect, a tension joint is best constructed using the alternatives b, c, f or g. In these joint
types, the tension load is transmitted more directly to the hollow section than in joints a, d or e,
which also include the risk of lamellar tearing. In the flange joints d and e, a sufficient flange
thickness must be selected to minimize the bolt prying forces due to flange elasticity.
84
3.4.1.1 Flange plate connections
Flange plate connections for square and rectangular hollow sections
A flange plate connection can be designed

assuming it a bi-dimensional joint of T p/2 p p p/2
a
elements, in which the bolts are placed at
;;;
opposite sides of the hollow section (Figure d0
3.5). Due to the tension load, a plastic hinge is
formed in the flanges at the bolt rows and the t0
b
hollow section walls. The tension resistance of NSd NSd
the flange can be determined using the plastic
bred
flange moment. When determining the loading
on bolts, the prying force due to flange
bending must be accounted for.
When calculating the flange plate joint
δ for the relative net area of the bolt row [2]:
where
d 
δ = 1−  0 
 p
d0 is the diameter of bolt holes

;
resistance, the first thing to determine is factor
ared
Figure 3.5 Flange plate connection
(3.13)
p is the spacing between the bolt centres
Parameter αh accounts for the effect of holes on the flange plastic moment values at the bolt
location, when the tensile force of the bolts is assumed equal to their tension resistance [2]:
 K ⋅ Bt . Rd   a + 0, 5d 
αh =  2 − 1  δ ( a + b + t )  (3.14)
 tp  0
where
4bred ⋅ γ M 0
K =
0, 9 f y ⋅ p
bred b − 0, 5d + t 0 (the bolt row lever arm by the plastic hinge)
b is the distance of the bolts from the hollow section edge
a is the distance of bolts from the flange edge
d is the diameter of the bolt
t0 is the thickness of the hollow section wall
Bt . Rd is the tensile resistance of bolts or the punching resistance of the flange
[Eurocode 3:6.5.5.4] [1] (select the smaller value)
fy is the yield strength of the flange
85
For the flange thickness, the following minimum and maximum values are obtained [2]:
K ⋅ Nt .Sd
≤ tp ≤ K ⋅ Nt .Sd (3.15)
1+δ
where
Nt .Sd is the axial force in one bolt

tp is the thickness of the flange
The resistance of the joint can be determined by expressing the work done in the plastic hinges
equal to the work done by the external load [2]:
t p2 (1 + δ ⋅ α h )n
N Rd = (3.16 )
K
where
n is the number of bolts
Due to the prying effect, the axial force introduced to the bolt is greater than Nt.Sd. This axial
force in the bolt is expressed with the symbol Np.Sd [2]:
  b  δ ⋅α p 
N p.Sd = Nt .Sd  1 +  red   (3.17 )
  ared  1 + δ ⋅ α p 
where
ared = a + 0, 5d ≤ 1, 25b + 0, 5d
 K ⋅ Nt .Sd   1
αp = 2 − 1δ 
 tp 
The axial force Np.Sd must be smaller than the tension resistance of the bolt.
86
Example 24
Calculate the tension resistance of the adjacent a b bred ared
flange plate joint which is subjected to axial force
;;; p/2
NSd = 1086 kN. The hollow section dimensions are
120 x 120 x 8, and the steel grade used is S355J2H.
d0
The steel grade used in the flange is S355J2.
p
The strength grade of the M 27 bolts is 10.9. The t0
; p/2 p
flange hole position parameters are:
d0 = 30 mm
p = 90 mm
⇒ δ = 1– (d0/ p) = 1– (30/ 90)= 0,67 NSd
b = 45 mm
d = 27 mm
t0 = 8 mm
⇒ bred = b– 0,5d + t0 = 45– 0,5 · 27+ 8 = 39,5 mm
K = 4bred ·γM0 /(0,9fy · p) = 4· 39,5· 1,1/ (0,9 · 345 · 90)
= 6,22 mm2/ kN
(tp > 16 mm ⇒ fy = 345 N/mm2)
a = 45 mm NSd
⇒ ared = a+ 0,5d = 45+ 0,5 · 27 = 58,5 mm
The bolt force in one bolt is:

Nt.Sd = NSd / 6 = 1086/ 6 = 181 kN
The tension resistance of the bolt is [1]:

Bt.Rd = 0,9fub · As /γMb = 0,9 · 1000 · 459/ 1,25 = 330 kN
where
As is the tension cross section of the bolt
fub is the ultimate strength of the bolt
γMb is the partial safety factor for bolt joints (chapter 2)
Flange resistance
The minimum and maximum values for the flange thickness are obtained by the formula
(3.15):
K ⋅ Nt .Sd
≤ t p ≤ K ⋅ Nt .Sd
1+δ
6, 22 ⋅ 181
≤ t p ≤ 6, 22 ⋅ 181
1 + 0, 67
26 mm ≤ t p ≤ 33,6 mm
Select a flange thickness of tp = 28 mm.

87
The joint resistance is determined using the formula (3.16):

t p2 (1 + δ ⋅ α h )n 28 2 (1 + 0, 67 ⋅ 1, 442)6
N Rd = = = 1487 kN > N Sd OK!
K 6, 22
 K ⋅ Bt . Rd   a + 0, 5d   6, 22 ⋅ 330   45 + 0, 5 ⋅ 27 
αh =  − 1  δ ( a + b + t )  =  28 2 −1   = 1, 442
 t 2
p  0
  0, 67 ( 45 + 45 + 8 ) 
Resistance of bolts
The tensile resistance of the bolts is checked, with the prying effect taken into account by
the formula (3.17):
 K ⋅ Nt .Sd   1   6, 22 ⋅ 181   1 
αp =  2 − 1  δ  =  28 2 − 1  0, 67  = 0, 651
 tp 
  b  δ ⋅α p    39, 5  0, 67 ⋅ 0, 651 
N p.Sd = Nt .Sd  1 +  red   = 181 1 +   
  ared  1 + δ ⋅ α p    58, 5  1 + 0, 67 ⋅ 0, 651
= 218, 1 kN < 330 kN OK!
Resistance of welds
The resistance of a fillet weld is calculated as shown in Eurocode 3, subsection 6.6.5.3
fu ⋅ a ⋅ Lw
Fw. Rd = (3.18 )
3 ⋅ β w ⋅ γ Mw
where
fu is the ultimate strength of the weaker joint component
a is the thickness of the weld throat
Lw is the length of the weld
βw is the strength factor (S355 ⇒ βw = 0,9) [1]
γ Mw is the partial safety factor of the welded joints (chapter 2)
In the example, the hollow section is welded to the flange from all edges. In such cases,
the required throat thickness is:
3 ⋅ β w ⋅ γ Mw ⋅ N Sd 3 ⋅ 0, 9 ⋅ 1, 25 ⋅ 1086
a= = = 9, 0 mm
fu ⋅ Lw 490 ⋅ 480
The joint resistance is sufficient for an axial force of 1086 kN, which is also the plastic
tension resistance of the 120 x 120 x 8 hollow section.
88
Flange plate joint in circular hollow sections
f3
10
e1
d0 e2
; ;
8
tp
6
t0
4
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
Figure 3.6 Shape coefficient of the flange f3 [3]

;
1,0
d0 − t 0
d0 − t 0 + 2e1
The required flange thickness for a circular hollow section is calculated from the following
formula [3]:
2 ⋅ N Sd ⋅ γ M 0
tp ≥ (3.19)
f y ⋅ π ⋅ f3
where
f3 is the shape coefficient of the flange (Figure 3.5)
N Sd is the design value for the tensile force of the joint
fy is the yield strength of the flange
For the number of bolts, we obtain the following equation [3]:
 
 1 1 
N Sd  1 − + 
 f3  r1  
 f 3 ⋅ ln  
  r2  
n≥ (3.20)
0, 67 ⋅ Bt . Rd
where
r1 = 0, 5d0 + 2e1
r2 = 0, 5d0 + e1
89
3.4.1.2 In-line tension joint with splice plates
An in-line tension joint with splice plates is

suitable as a splice joint for the lower chord in NSd NSd
a2
a lattice structure. Since the load is parallel to
the plates, there is no risk of lamellar tearing
of the splices (Figure 3.7). a1 a1
The resistance of the joint is determined NSd NSd
separately for bolts and splices. The bolts
t
transfer the force affecting the joint by their Lv Lv
shear resistance. The bolt’s shear resistance
per shear plane is determined from the
following formula, assuming the shear plane Figure 3.7 In-line joint with splice plates
does not pass through the threaded portion
of the bolt [1]:
0, 6 fub ⋅ A
Fv. Rd = (3.21)
γ Mb
where

A is the cross section of the bolt
γ Mb is the partial safety factor of the bolt joints (chapter 2)
The tension resistance of the splice plates is calculated by taking into account both the net
cross section and the bearing resistance. The resistance of the net cross section can be
calculated by the same principle as that of a hollow section in tension (chapter 2). The bearing
resistance of a splice plate depends on the positioning of the holes and the strength of the
bolts. This relationship is illustrated by the parameter α, obtained as the minimum value from
the following equation [1]:
 e1
 3d
 0
 p 1
α = min  1 − ( 3.22)
 3d 0 4
 fub

 fu
however, α ≤ 1,0
where
e1 is the distance of the bolt from the edge parallel to force

d0 is the diameter of the bolt hole
p1 is the distance between bolts parallel to force
fu is the ultimate strength of the splice
90
The bearing resistance of a double shear joint per one bolt is determined from the equation [1]:
2, 5 ⋅ α ⋅ fu ⋅ d ⋅ t
Fb. Rd = (3.23)
γ Mb
where
d is the diameter of the bolt

t is the thickness of the splice
γ Mb is the partial safety factor of the bolt joints
Addihonally, the resistance for block shear failure of the splice in the middle must be checked.
The design value for block shear failure is determined from the formula [1]:
f y ⋅ Av.eff
Veff . Rd = (3.24)
3γ M 0
In this case, the effective shear area Av.eff can be calculated from the following formula [1]:
  f 
Av.eff = t ⋅ Lv.eff = t  2( Lv + a1 ) + ( a2 − k ⋅ d0 ) u   (3.25)
  f y  
f 
however Lv.eff ≤ 2( Lv + 5d ) + ( a 2 − k ⋅ d0 ) u 
 fy 
where
fu is the ultimate strength of the hollow section

fy is the yield strength of the hollow section
k = 2, 5
Lv , a1 and a2 are defined in Figure 3.7
91
Example 25
Calculate the tension resistance of the e1 p1
e2
adjacent joint. The dimensions of the hollow
section are 150 x 150 x 6,3, and the steel NSd NSd
a2
hp
p2
designation used is S355J2H.
The steel grade used in splices is S355J2. d0

Lw
The strength grade of the M24 bolts is 8.8.
t1
t2
The parameters of the joint geometry are: NSd NSd
t1 = 20 mm Lv a1
t2 = 10 mm
d = 24 mm
d0 = 26 mm
a1 = e1= e2 = 40 mm
Lv = a2 = p1 = p2 = 80 mm
hp = 160 mm
Resistance of the splice plate net cross-section

The splice plates can be taken as tension cross sections. Thus, the resistance of a cross
section containing holes can be obtained from formulae (2.33) and (2.34) [1]:
Anet = 20(160 − 2 ⋅ 26 ) = 2160 mm 2
Av = 20 ⋅ 160 = 3200 mm 2
Av ⋅ f y 3200 ⋅ 345
= 1003, 6 kN  t p > 16 mm ⇒ f y = 345
N 
Ft . Rd = =
γ M1 1, 1  mm 2 
0, 9 Anet ⋅ fu 0, 9 ⋅ 2160 ⋅ 490
Ft . Rd = = = 762, 0 kN
γ M2 1, 25
Thus, the tension resistance of the net cross section is Ft.Rd = 762,0 kN.
Bearing resistance of splice plates

When the holes are situated as in the example, the bearing resistance of splice plates is
as follows [1]:
 e p 1 f 
α = min  1 ; 1 − ; ub 
 3d0 3d0 4 fu 
= min[0, 513; 0,776; 1,632] = 0, 513 ≤ 1, 0
2, 5 ⋅ α ⋅ fu ⋅ d ⋅ t 2, 5 ⋅ 0, 513 ⋅ 490 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 20
Fb. Rd = = = 241, 3 kN
γ Mb 1, 25
Now there are 4 bolts per plate, so the bearing resistance is:
Fb.Rd = 4 · 241,3 = 965 kN
92
Block shear failure resistance of splice plates

First, calculate the effective shear area from the formula (3.25):
  f 
Av.eff = t1 ⋅ Lv.eff = t1  2( Lv + a1 ) + ( a2 − k ⋅ d0 ) u  
  f y  
 490  
= 20  2( 80 + 40) + ( 80 − 2, 5 ⋅ 26 )  = 5226 mm 2
  
345 
f 
Lv.eff = 261, 3 mm < 2( Lv + 5d ) + ( a2 − k ⋅ d0 ) u  = 421, 3 mm
 fy 
Obtain the block shear failure resistance by substituting in formula (3.24):

f y ⋅ Av.eff 345 ⋅ 5226
Veff . Rd = =2 = 946, 3 kN
3 ⋅γ M0 3 ⋅ 1, 1
Shear resistance of bolts

The shear resistance of bolts is determined by assuming that the shear plane does not
pass through the threaded portion of the bolt [1]:
0, 6 ⋅ fub ⋅ A 0, 6 ⋅ 800 ⋅ 452
Fv. Rd = = = 173, 6 kN
γ Mb 1, 25
There are four bolts and the joint has two shear planes, so the bolt resistance is:
Fv.Rd = 8 · 173,6 = 1389 kN
Resistance of welds
Design the fillet welds with a throat thickness of 5 mm applying formula (3.18). The axial
force introduced into the weld is assumed equal to the hollow section plastic tension
resistance. The plastic tension resistance of a hollow section with dimensions 150 x 150
x 6,3 is [1]:
Npl.Rd = NSd = 3485 · 355/ 1,1 = 1125 kN
The following value for the required weld length is obtained:

3 ⋅ β w ⋅ γ Mw ⋅ N Sd 3 ⋅ 0, 9 ⋅ 1, 25 ⋅ 1125
Lw ≥ = = 224 mm
4 fu ⋅ a 4 ⋅ 490 ⋅ 5
Resistance of joints
The entire resistance of the joint is then determined by the resistance of the net cross
section:
Ft.Rd = 762 kN
93
3.4.2 Bolted beam-to-column joints
A hollow section or an I profile can be joined to a hollow section column by several different
;
methods, as shown in Figures 3.8-3.16. Introducing rigidity to the joint requires the use of end
plates, which means that the tolerance on length must be more rigorous. In structures with
multiple bays, the variation of length may accumulate, and the length deviation must be evened
out with intermediate plates. More flexible joints in which bolts transmit the shear forces allow
for greater adjustment. However, even in flexible joints, it is important to take into account the
moments due to the eccentricity of shear force in the design of the column.
Figure 3.8 A beam-to-column connection between I sec-

tion and hollow section subjected to shear, bending and
normal loads. The joint resistance is usually limited by the
buckling or plastification of the column web.
Figure 3.9 A typical beam-to-column connection between

I section and hollow section. The end of the beam must be
;;
stiffened with a plate, which then transfers the shear force,
through contact in bearing, to the stiff portion of the
support component. The joint is suitable mainly for beams
with minor shear force.
Figure 3.10 Semi-rigidity of the joint is obtained by using

very stiff end plates. However, the most practical way is to
;
assume the joint pinned and take the bending moment of
the extension into account in the column design. Due to its
simplicity, this type of joint is frequently used in lattice
structures. Complex joint details are made by welding, and
simple straight members are connected to the outstands,
starting from the corner point, by flange plate joints. The
rigidity between the column and the outstand can be
estimated as shown in Appendix 9.4.
Figure 3.11 The joints shown in Figures 11a and 11b

behave in a similar way. When the bolted joint is made as
an ordinary joint, carrying the load by bolt shear, the
clearances between the bolts and the holes makes the
joint indeterminate with regard to transmission of bending
moment. With a friction grip bolted joint, the moment can
be transferred from the beam to the support plate,
preserving the rigidity.
If the joint is subjected to shear force only, the support

plate can be connected directly to the column flange. In a
joint carrying the bending moment or axial force, the
column flange usually must be stiffened with a reinforcing
plate.
94
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11a
Figure 3.11b
Figure 3.12 In the adjacent figure, a support plate with

threaded holes is welded to the column flange. Since the
bolts are short and the threaded part is subjected to shear
load, the plastic deformation capacity of the joint is low.
The best way to design the bolted joint is to ensure that it's
; ;
resistance is equal to that of the incoming hollow section.
When the flange is made from ordinary structural steel, it Figure 3.12
is advisable to select such plate thicknesses and bolt
dimensions that the thread of the bolt reaches up the
threaded hole at least by the length of the bolt’s nominal
diameter, but the end of the bolt does not touch the
column wall. The column wall thickness should not be
included in the effective thread length, if the holes are
drilled and threaded after the plate is welded. a) b)
;; ;;
;;;;
;;
Figure 3.13 The joint shown in figure 3.13 can be made by
Figure 3.13
threading the holes that are made in the column wall by
;
thermodrilling (Figure 3.13 a). In thermodrilling, the hollow a) b)
section wall is thickened next to the hole, so a sufficient
length for the thread is obtained. An alternative is to use
expansion bolts with the bolt holes drilled as usual (Figure
3.13 b). The expansion bolts press against the tube wall
when the bolt is tightened.
Figure 3.14
Detail 1
Figure 3.14 Figures a and b show examples of connecting

a bracing to the column.
Detail 1
;
Figure 3.15 This figure illustrates an end-to-end joint of a
; ;;
ga
chord of a lattice structure. Diagonals should not be
welded to the end flanges, but to the chord. The actual
gap (ga) of the joint is the distance between diagonal weld
and the chord flange weld. The gap must meet the
requirements given in the tables in Appendix 9.3. Figure 3.15
;;
;
Figure 3.16 Figures a and b show beam-to-column joints
in which the beam is continuous. For the proper
functioning of this kind of joint, it is essential that the loads
during erection and use of the structure are close to Figure 3.16a
symmetrical. When bending moments and shear forces
are unequal, the column must be sufficiently strong to
resist bending. The column flange plate joint is taken as a
hinge in relation to buckling, unless the rigidity of the joint
is increased with specific methods.
Figure 3.16b
95
Hollow section flange plate joint subjected to bending moment
The flange plate joint is capable of transferring both

the bending moment and the shear force. When
calculating the bending resistance, the joint is divided MSd
into components.
- bending resistance of the column web
;;;
- shear resistance of the column web
- tension resistance of flanges and bolts
The lowest of the component resistances determines
;
the bending resistance of the entire joint.
Bending resistance of the column web
The column web bending resistance can be estimated using the formulae for welded lattice
joints (Table 9.3.9). When the column and the beam are of equal width, the following bending
resistance is obtained [1]:
1, 1
Mip.1. Rd = 0, 5 f y ⋅ t 0 (h1 + 5t 0 )
2
(3.26 )
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
where
fy is the yield strength of the column
Shear resistance of the column web
The shear resistance of the column must also be t0

checked, since the moment load is transferred from h1 Vpl.Rd
beam flanges to the column as a shear force. It is
assumed that the column has no external shear load,
and the column shear force then consists of the joint
Vpl.Rd
MRd
load only. The bending resistance of the joint when
governed by the shear is obtained by multiplying the t1
shear resistance of the column web by the column
height [1]:
M Rd = Vpl. Rd (h1 − t1 ) (3.27 )
where
f y ⋅ Av
Vpl. Rd = (design value of the column shear resistance, section 2.4)
3 ⋅γ M0
h1 is height of the column
t1 is the thickness of the beam flange
96
Tension resistance of flanges and bolts
The resistance of flanges and bolts can be estimated by calculating the resistance of the joint
between the flange and hollow section using equivalent T models. Equivalent T models
consist of a column and a flange, and a hollow section and a flange. There are three potential
failure modes for a T model. According to these modes, the tension resistance values of the
;;;
;; ;
;; ;
bolt row are as follows. (Figure 3.17) [1]:
Ft.Rd Ft.Rd Ft.Rd
a) b) c)
;
e m m e
Ft.Rd Ft.Rd
Ft.Rd
Figure 3.17 Failure modes for an equivalent T model. Ft.Rd is the force of the bolt row in
the tension area of the joint.
a) flange yield at the location of the bolt row and at the hollow section webs
4 M pl. Rd
Ft . Rd = (3.28 )
m
b) bolt failure as the flanges yield at the hollow section webs

2M pl. Rd + e ⋅ 2 ⋅ Bt . Rd
Ft . Rd = (3.29)
m+e
c) bolt or flange failure

Ft . Rd = 2 Bt . Rd (3.30)
where
Ft . Rd is the tension resistance of the bolt row

0, 25 Leff ⋅ f y ⋅ t p2
M pl. Rd =
γ M0
Leff is the effective length of the bolt row
tp is the thickness of the flange
m is the bolt’s distance from the outer edge of the hollow section
e is the bolt’s distance from the edge of the flange, e ≤ 1,25 m
Bt . Rd is the tension resistance of the bolt or the punching resistance of the flange
[Eurocode 3: 6.5.5 (4)] [1] (select the smaller value)
97
The effective length of the bolt row depends on the shape of the flange’s yield line pattern.
From the following equations, select the one giving the smallest result [1]:
Leff = 2π ⋅ m (all bolts) (3.31)
Leff = 4m + 1, 25e (all bolts) (3.32)
(the uppermost and lowermost bolt row, if there are
Leff = 0, 5 p + 2m + 0, 625e several rows) (3.33a )
Leff = p (other bolt rows, if there are several rows) (3.33b )
where
p is the vertical distance between the horizontal bolt rows
The bending resistance of the joint is obtained by multiplying the tension resistance values of
the horizontal bolt rows by the distance of the bolt rows from the centre of compression. Only
the bolt rows in the tension zone are considered. The tension zone of the joint is located above
the neutral axis of the hollow section. The following value for bending resistance is therefore
obtained [1]:
M Rd = ∑ ( Ft . Rd )i (hr )i (3.34)
i
where
Ft . Rd is the design value for the bolt row’s tension resistance

hr is the distance of the bolt row distance from the compression centre
98
Example 26 200 x 200 x 6,3

Calculate the bending resistance of the flange
300 x 200 x 8
50
plate joint. The column dimensions are 200 x 200
x 6,3 and those of the hollow section are 300 x
MSd
50 200
200 x 8. The steel grade used is S355J2H. The
hr
flange thickness is 20 mm. The steel grade used
in the flanges is S355J2. The strength grade of
;;;
the M22 bolts is 8.8.
The bending resistance values of the joint
50
components are:
300 x 200 x 8: M1.Rd = 244 kNm
;
300
200 x 200 x 6,3: M0.Rd = 110 kNm
Usually, the joint also includes shear force,
which must be taken into account in the joint
design.
Bending resistance of the column web

The resistance of the column web is determined from the formula (3.26):
1, 1 1
Mip.1. Rd = 0, 5 f yk ⋅ t 0 (h1 + 5t 0 ) = 0, 5 ⋅ 355 ⋅ 6, 3( 300 + 5 ⋅ 6, 3) 2 = 111, 7 kNm
2
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 1, 1
Shear resistance of the column web

Shear resistance of the column web is determined as shown in chapter 2:
f y ⋅ Av 355 ⋅ 2372
Vpl , Rd = = = 442 kN
3 ⋅γ M0 3 ⋅ 1, 1
By multiplying the shear resistance by the height of the hollow section, the moment
resistance for the column web is obtained [formula(3.27)]:
MRd = Vpl.Rd(h1– t1) = 442(0,3 – 0,008) = 129,1 kNm
Resistance of flanges and bolts

First, calculate the effective length of the bolt row [formulae (3.31)- (3.33)]:
Leff = 2π ⋅ m = 2π ⋅ 50 = 314 mm
Leff = 4m + 1, 25e = 4 ⋅ 50 + 1, 25 ⋅ 50 = 262, 5 mm
Since the latter formula gave the smallest value, it is used as the effective length of the
bolt row Leff = 262,5 mm.
Then, substitute the effective length of the bolt row in the failure mode equations for the
T stub [formulae (3.28) - (3.30)]:
0, 25 Leff ⋅ f y ⋅ t p2 0, 25 ⋅ 262, 5 ⋅ 345 ⋅ 20 2
M pl. Rd = = = 8, 233 kNm
γ M0 1, 1
99
a) flange yield at the location of the bolt row and at the hollow section web
4 M pl. Rd 4 ⋅ 8, 233
Ft . Rd = = = 658, 6 kN
m 50
b) bolt failure as the flanges yield at the hollow section webs

2M pl. Rd + e ⋅ 2 ⋅ Bt . Rd 2 ⋅ 8, 233 + 50 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 174, 5
Ft . Rd = = = 339, 2 kN
m+e 50 + 50
c) bolt or flange failure

Ft . Rd = 2 ⋅ Bt . Rd = 2 ⋅ 174, 5 = 349 kN
We see that the failure mode to be used in the design is therefore bolt failure with flange
yielding Ft.Rd = 339,2 kN. It is normally recommended to design the flange joint so that
the flanges yield before the bolts fail. The failure mode is then ductile. For flanges and
bolts, the joint bending resistance is [formula (3.34)]:
MRd = Ft.Rd · hr = 339,2 · (0,25– 0,004) = 83,44 kNm
Design of welds
The welds must transfer the tensile force due to bending moment into the hollow
section’s upper flange
NSd = MRd / 0,3 = 278,1 kN. The fillet weld is provided across the width of the entire
column (200 mm), which gives a required throat thickness of:
3 ⋅ β w ⋅ γ Mw ⋅ N Sd 3 ⋅ 0, 9 ⋅ 1, 25 ⋅ 278, 1
a≥ = = 5, 5 mm
fu ⋅ Lw 490 ⋅ 200

The smallest bending resistance value is that involving failure of the bolts and flange
yielding, so it is selected as the bending resistance of the entire joint:
MRd = 83,44 kNm
100
Example 27 200 x 200 x 6,3

Calculate the resistance of the adjacent shear FSd
200 x 200 x 6,3
40
joint.
The dimensions of the hollow sections are 200 x
40 120
200 x 6,3, and the steel grade used S355J2H. At
the end of the hollow section, the joint is
subjected to a force FSd = 150 kN. The thickness 40 40
of the splice plate is 15 mm, and the strength
grade of the M20 bolts is 8.8. NSd
;
The vertical load introduces a bending moment
into the column:
MSd = 150 · 0,04 = 6 kNm
The axial force of the column is:
NSd = 300 kN (compression)
Bearing resistance of the splice plates

The bearing resistance of the splices is calculated as shown in example 25 [1]:
Fb. Rd =
 e p 1 f 
α = min  1 ; 1 − ; ub  ≤ 1, 0
 3d0 3d0 4 fu 
= min[0, 606; 1, 568; 1,632 ] = 0, 606 ≤ 1, 0
2, 5 ⋅ α ⋅ fu ⋅ d ⋅ t 2, 5 ⋅ 0, 606 ⋅ 490 ⋅ 20 ⋅ 15
γ Mb
=
1, 25
2 bolts ⇒ Fb.Rd = 2 · 133,7= 267,4 kN > Fsd OK !
Block shear failure resistance of splice plates

First, calculate the effective cross-section [1]:


 f 
Av.eff = t ⋅ Lv.eff = t  Lv + a1 + ( a2 − k ⋅ d0 ) u  
 f y  
= 178, 2 kN
 490  
= 15 120 + 40 + ( 40 − 0, 5 ⋅ 22)  = 3000 mm 2
  
355 
f 
Lv.eff = 200 mm ≤ ( Lv + a1 + a3 − n ⋅ d0 ) u  = 215, 3 mm
 fy 
Lv.eff = 200 mm ≤ ( Lv + a1 + a3 ) = 200 mm
a1 = 40 mm ≤ 5d = 100 mm
The resistance to block shear failure is obtained by substituting in the formula (3.24):
f y ⋅ Av.eff 355 ⋅ 3000
Veff . Rd = = = 559, 0 kN > FSd OK!
3 ⋅γ M0 3 ⋅ 1, 1
101
Shear resistance of bolts

In the equation for determining the shear resistance of bolts, it is assumed that the shear
plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt [1]:
0, 6 ⋅ fub ⋅ As 0, 6 ⋅ 800 ⋅ 245
Fv. Rd = = = 94, 1 kN
γ Mb 1, 25
Two bolts and a single-lap joint ⇒ Fv.Rd = 2 · 94,1= 188,2 kN > Fsd OK !
Resistance of the column wall

The resistance of the column wall is calculated as shown in Table 9.3.11 in Appendix
9.3:
γ M 0 ⋅ γ Mj  N Sd M Sd  1, 1 300000 6000
n=  +  = + = 0, 260
1, 1  A ⋅ f y Wel ⋅ f y  1 4745 ⋅ 355 292, 2 ⋅ 355
km = 1, 3(1 − n) = 1, 3(1 − 0, 260) = 0, 962
f y ⋅ t 02 ⋅ h1  2h1 tp  1, 1
M1. Rd = 0, 5km  + 4 1 − 
t p  b0 b0  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
1−
b0
355 ⋅ 6, 3 2 ⋅ 200  2 ⋅ 200 15  1
= 0, 5 ⋅ 0, 962  + 4 1−  = 7 , 79 kNm > M Sd OK!
1−
15  200 200  1, 1
200
Resistance of welds
The weld between the column and the splice must transfer the force FSd vertically and the
tensile force due to moment MSd horizontally. Therefore determine the stress components
of the weld:
FSd
τ ll = (3.35)
a⋅L
M Sd t 1
τ⊥ = σ⊥ = ⋅ ⋅ (3.36 )
Wel a 2
where
τ ll is the shear stress parallel to the weld axis
τ⊥ is the shear stress perpendicular to the weld axis
σ⊥ is the axial force perpendicular to the weld design surface
102
The weld strength is checked with formulae in Eurocode 3 Appendix M [1]:
( )
σ ⊥2 + 3 τ ⊥2 + τ ll2 ≤
fu
β w ⋅ γ Mw
(3.37 )
fu
σ⊥ ≤ (3.38 )
γ Mw
Try a throat thickness of 3 mm, which gives the following weld stresses (fillet welds on
both faces of the plate):
FSd 150000 N
τ ll = = = 125
2a ⋅ L 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 200 mm 2
M t 1 6000 t 1 N
τ ⊥ = σ ⊥ = Sd ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ = 106, 1
Wel 2a 2 100 2 ⋅ 3 2 mm 2
Checking the conditions (3.37) and (3.38):
( )
σ ⊥2 + 3 τ ⊥2 + τ ll2 = 303, 2
N
≤
fu
=
490
mm 2 β w ⋅ γ Mw 0, 9 ⋅ 1, 25
= 435, 6
N
mm 2
OK!
N fu 490 N
σ ⊥ = 106, 1 2 ≤ = = 392 OK!
mm γ Mw 1, 25 mm 2
The same throat thickness can be used in the weld between the hollow section end plate
and the splice.

Compare the calculated resistance values to the force quantities:
VRd = 188 kN > VSd = 150 kN OK !

MRd = 7,79 kNm > MSd = 6 kNm OK !
103
3.5 Hollow section-to-foundation joints

The joint between the column and the foundation is generally assumed to be either rigid or
pinned. In practice, all joints are semi-rigid. However, in practical design, it is seldom necessary
to take the semi-rigidity into account.
It is usual to provide a nominally pinned joint. It is seldom necessary to design a freely rotating
joint (Figure 3.18a) however as the base plate (Figure 3.18b) can be made sufficiently flexible.
The moment at the base of the column need not be taken into account in the design when the
joint is sufficiently flexible.
Reinforcing a rigid joint with stiffeners is seldom an economical alternative. It is usually more
efficient to increase the thickness of the base plate.
;;
;
;;
Figure 3.18
a) b)
Joint of a hollow section to foundation
3.5.1 Joint between a column subjected to axial force and foundation

The joint is subjected to axial force only, so the concrete surface pressure is obtained directly
by dividing the load by the base plate area:
N Sd
p= (3.39)
A
The area is calcutated for axial force concentric with base plate. When the axial force is
eccentric, the base plate area must be reduced. Only the portion of the base plate concentric to
the axial force is included in the reduced area. The base pressure must be less than the
concrete compression resistance.
104
The pressure under the baseplate induces a bending moment into the base plate. The base
plate can be treated as a cantilever whose length is the distance between the hollow section
wall and the plate edge. When calculating the elastic plate resistance, we obtain the following
condition for the base plate thickness [1]:
6M Sd ⋅ γ M 0 3p ⋅γ M0
tp ≥ = a1 (3.40)
b ⋅ fy fy
;;
where
M Sd
b
a1
tp
fy
γ M0
=
b ⋅ p ⋅ a12
2
is the width of the base plate
is the length of the cantilever
is the thickness of the base plate
is the yield strength of the base plate
is the safety factor of the material
force and the foundation
In a rigid joint, the bending moment in the column must be

taken into account. At the ultimate limit state, the
compression stress is limited by the concrete compression
resistance design value of fcd. The tensile force is
M
b
a
In addition, the load during erection should be checked, which is when the holding down bolts
transfer the forces to the foundation.
3.5.2 Joint between a column subjected to bending moment and axial

Sd
NSd
a1
transferred into the foundation through the holding down fcd

bolts on the tension face. The following conditions for the
balance of forces are then obtained: Ns
y
d
Nc
N Sd = Nc − N s = beff ⋅ y ⋅ fcd − As ⋅ f yb (3.41)

M Sd + N Sd [0, 5a − ( a − d )] = Nc ( d − 0, 5 y) (3.42)
where
As is the stress cross-section of the foundation bolts (on the tension face)
f yb is the dimensioning valve for the foundation bolts
fcd is the design value for the compression strength of concrete
beff is the effective width of the bottom plate on the compression side
105
Using this pair of equations, we can determine the length of the concrete compression area y
and the required stress cross-section of the holding down bolts As:
y=
beff ⋅ fcd ⋅ d ± (−beff ⋅ fcd ⋅ d ) 2 − 2beff ⋅ fcd [ MSd + NSd (d − 0, 5a)] (3.43)
beff ⋅ fcd
The holding down bolts have no tensile force if the formula (3.41) yields a negative value for
Ns. The bending load of the base plate is created from the distribution of stresses in the
compression area.
The base plate thickness is determined similarly as in section 3.5.1, except the tension load for
the holding down bolts most also be checked. The holding down bolts may be subjected to
some tension, if the moment is high and the axial force is low. In addition, the load during erec-
tion must also be checked.
Example 28 MSd
Calculate the joint resistance of a hollow section
with dimensions 200 x 200 x 8. The steel grade NSd VSd
used is S355J2H, and the design value for the
compression resistance of concrete is 14 N/mm2.
The base plate dimensions are a x b = 400 x 400.
The steel grade used in the holding down bolts is
S355. The column is subjected to the following
p2
p1
loads:
a
NSd = 1500 kN
MSd = 35 kNm
VSd = 100 kN
;
First, determine whether the holding down bolts
b
are subjected to tension at the ultimate limit

state:
;
a1
y=
beff ⋅ fcd ⋅ d ± (−beff ⋅ fcd ⋅ d ) 2 − 2beff ⋅ fcd [ MSd + NSd (d − 0, 5a)]
beff ⋅ fcd
y=
[
400 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 350 ± ( −400 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 350) 2 − 2 ⋅ 400 ⋅ 14 35 ⋅ 10 6 + 1500 ⋅ 10 3 ( 350 − 0, 5 ⋅ 400) ]
400 ⋅ 14
y = 178 mm (or 522 mm)

Nc = beff · y · fcd = 400·178·14 = 996,8 kN
Ns = Nc – NSd = 996,8 kN – 1500 kN = –503,2 kN
⇒ holding down bolts are not subjected to tension
106
Resistance of the holding down bolts

Since the holding down bolts are not subjected to tension, the holding down bolts need
be designed for shear only:
VSd 3 ⋅ γ M 0 100 3 ⋅ 1, 1
As > = = 552 mm 2
fy 345
4 bolts Ø 24 ⇒ AS = 1412 mm2 > 552 mm2 OK !

Base plate resistance
The value of the bending moment in the base plate at the column edge is as follows:
beff ⋅ a12 ⋅ fcd 400 ⋅ 100 2 ⋅ 14
M Sd = = = 28 kNm
2 2
The thickness of the base plate is obtained by substituting the bending moment MSd into
the formula (3.40):
6 M Sd ⋅ γ M 0 6 ⋅ 28 ⋅ 1, 1
tp ≥ = = 36, 6 mm ⇒ select tp = 35 mm
b ⋅ fy 400 ⋅ 345
107
3.6 References
[1] ENV 1993-1-1:Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu, Osa 1-1: Yleiset säännöt ja
rakennuksia koskevat säännöt, 1993 (Sisältää myös liitteen K: ENV 1993-1-1:1992/
A1:1994)
(Include also annex K: ENV 1993-1-1:1992/ A1:1994)
[2] CIDECT: Design guide for rectangular hollow section joints under predominantly static
loading, Verlag TÜV Rheinland GmbH, Köln 1992
[3] CIDECT: Design guide for circular hollow section joints under predominantly static loading,
Verlag TÜV Rheinland GmbH, Köln 1991
108
Chapter 4
4. FATIGUE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE IN HOLLOW

SECTION STRUCTURES
4.1 Fatigue loading

Fatigue refers to failure of an element due to
repeated loading. Normally, failure results
from stress concentrations created at
structural discontinuities. Local stress
concentrations cause the propagation of
minor initial defects in the weld and at the
weld toe. Fatigue loading can cause failure at
lower stress values than static loading.
;
;
Fatigue loading varies in magnitude, direction
and position. This type of loading occurs, for
instance, in crane gantries, bridges and
machinery foundations.
Fatigue loading generates cracks in the

element and propagates existing initial
Figure 4.1 Structural discontinuities
defects. In welded structures, the most

susceptible position for crack propagation is
normally the line between weld and parent
material. Crack propagation is initiated in the
weld or in its proximity, since the weld always
contains minor defects. Careful welding is
thus especially important for structures
subjected to fatigue loading. Welded joints
have a decisive role in the fatigue design of Figure 4.2 Stress concentration at the weld
the entire member, since the fatigue strength undercut
of a structural hollow section is rarely lower
than that of the joint.
The fatigue strength of a welded detail depends on the following factors:
- stress range (load amplitude)

- stress frequency (number of stress cycles)
- shaping of structural discontinuity locations
- weld geometry
- size of the initial crack
- residual stress state
- toughness of the material
In dynamically loaded members, the effect of vibration on stress values must be accounted for.
The increase of stress is significant if the natural frequency of the members is close to the
vibration frequency of the load. In practice, members are usually designed in such a manner
that the lowest natural frequency is higher than the frequency of the dynamic load. In this way,
the stress concentrations due to resonance can be prevented. The frequency of the dynamic
load can also be higher than the natural frequency, if the resonance frequency is passed
through rapidly (e.g. in machinery foundations).
109
4.2 Stress calculation methods in fatigue design

Stress values can be calculated using four methods that represent different levels:
- nominal stress method
- hot spot stress method
- notch stress method
- fracture mechanics
;;;
;;;
In the nominal stress method, structural
stress values are calculated, usually
according to the elasticity theory, without σm
accounting for the effect of structural
discontinuities. This method is simple and
;;
well-suited for manual calculations. The a) Nominal stress method
fatigue design values presented in Eurocode
3 are based mainly on the nominal stress σm σb σhot spot
method.
+ =
Hot spot stress is the stress present at the
b) Hot spot stress method
critical point of a structural discontinuity
(Figure 4.4). It is at this location that the
fatigue crack growth is assumed to start. σm σb σnlp σln
Structural discontinuities, which appear for
instance where the cross-section changes or + + =
the attachment ends, are taken into account c) Notch stress method
in the hot spot method. However, this method
does not account for the effect of weld σm is the nominal stress
geometry. Due to non-uniform stress σb is the bending stress depending on the joint
distribution, hot spot stress values are usually geometry
higher than nominal stress values. The stress σhot spot is the hot spot stress
values(σa, σb) are calculated for at least two σnlp is the non-linear stress concentration due to
the notch
points at the proximity of the weld, and these σln is the notch stress
values are used to extrapolate the hot spot
stress in the edge of the weld (σhot spot). The Figure 4.3 Stress calculation methods
structure must then be modeled using a
suitable calculation program to determine the
stresses. The stress calculation points can be
selected at a distance of 0,4t and 1,0t (see
Figure 4.4) from the edge of the weld [3]. 0,4t (at least 4 mm)
Linear extrapolation is used if two
extrapolation points are selected. With more 0,6t
extrapolation points, parabolic extrapolation is σhot spot
used. Hot spot stress values can also be
measured from the prototype or calculated
using the concentration factors (Ks) taken σb
σa
from reference manuals.
t
Figure 4.4 Determining hot spot stress

values
110
Notch stress refers to the actual stress at the bottom of the notch. The notch is usually
generated next to the weld or at some other structural discontinuity. The area affected by the
notch stress concentration is approximately 0,3 times the plate thickness [3]. To determine the
notch stress, the structural calculations must be performed using the FE method which
accurately takes into account the geometry of the structure, including the actual weld geometry
and corner radii. The design must not include non-rounded corners, since FE calculation
generates an infinite stress in them as the element size is decreased using shell elements (not
applicable to solid-elements).
The size and shape of the initial crack is also taken into account in the model based on
fracture mechanics. With this model, the rate of crack propagation can be calculated using
the geometry and the properties of the material.
4.3 Design requirements for fatigue-loaded hollow sections

(nominal stress method)
4.3.1 Conditions and necessity of fatigue design
The guidance in Eurocode 3 can be used in fatigue design, provided that the following
conditions apply [1]:
- the normal stress range is lower than 1,5 fy
- the shear stress range is lower than 0,866 fy
- the structure is corrosion-protected so that pit depth is less than 1,0 mm
- the temperature of the structure is below 150 °C
Fatigue strength need not be calculated if the stress range ∆σ fulfills the following
condition [1]:
26
γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ ≤ (4.1)
γ Mf
where
γ Ff is the partial safety factor for fatigue loading (Table 2.1)

γ Mf is the partial safety factor for fatigue strength (Table 2.2)
∆σ is the greatest nominal stress range [N/mm2]
Fatigue need not be taken into account, either, if the number of stress cycles fulfills the
following condition [1]:
3
6 36 
N ≤ 2 ⋅ 10 
⋅ ∆σ E 2 
(4.2)
 γ Mf ⋅ γ Ff
where
∆σ E 2 is equivalent constant-amplitude fatigue stress range at 2 ·106 stress cycles

[N/ mm2] (Figure 4.5)
N N is the number of stress cycles
111
4.3.2 Fatigue load design conditions
Constant-amplitude load
For constant amplitude loading, the fatigue load design condition is presented in the following
form [1]:
∆σ R
γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ ≤ (4.3)
γ Mf
where
∆σ R is the fatigue strength which is dependent on the fatigue category and the
number of stress cycles
Variable-amplitude load
In variable-amplitude loading, the principle is to calculate the cumulative effect of different

stress ranges on the structure. The number of stress cycles featuring different stress ranges
are thus compared with the numbers of corresponding fatigue strength stress cycles and the
obtained quotients are added. The sum must meet the following condition (Palmgren-Miner
rule) [1]:
ni
Σ ≤1 (4.4)
i Ni
where
ni is the number of stress ranges with the magnitude of ∆σi (load)

Ni is the number of the failure-inducing stress ranges with the magnitude of ∆σi
for the relevant detail category
Ni can be determined for normal stresses as follows [1]:

3
6 ∆σ D  ∆σ D
Ni = 5 ⋅ 10  when γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ i ≥
⋅ γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ i 
(4.5)
 γ Mf γ Mf
5
6 ∆σ D  ∆σ D ∆σ L
Ni = 5 ⋅ 10  > γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ i ≥
⋅ γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ i 
when (4.6)
 γ Mf γ Mf γ Mf
∆σ L
Ni = ∞ when γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ i < (4.7)
γ Mf
112
where
∆σ i is the normal stress range caused by the load

∆σ D is the normal stress range of the constant-amplitude fatigue limit
(= 5 ·106 stress cycles) for the relevant fatigue detail (Figure 4.5)
∆σ L is the cut off limit (= 1 ·108 stress cycles) for the relevant fatigue detail
(Figure 4.5)
In the case of shear stress, the corresponding value for Ni is [1]:

5
6 ∆τ c  ∆τ L
Ni = 2 ⋅ 10  when γ Ff ⋅ ∆τ i ≥
⋅ γ Ff ⋅ ∆τ i 
(4.8)
 γ Mf γ Mf
∆τ L
Ni = ∞ when γ Ff ⋅ ∆τ i < (4.9)
γ Mf
where
∆τ i is the shear stress range caused by the load

∆τ C is the shear stress range at 2⋅106 stress cycles for the relevant fatigue detail
(Figure 4.6)
∆τ L is the shear stress cut off limit (= 1 ·108 stress cycles) for the relevant fatigue
detail (Figure 4.6)
The combined load condition for normal stress and shear stress is [1]:
ni ( ∆σ i ) n ( ∆τ i )
Σ +Σ i ≤1 (4.10)
i Ni ( ∆σ i ) i Ni ( ∆τ i )
113
4.3.3 Fatigue strength of hollow sections (nominal stress method)
When calculating the fatigue strength with the nominal stress method, the fatigue category of
the member or element must first be determined. The fatigue category number indicates the
fatigue strength of the detail [N/ mm2] at 2 ⋅106 stress cycles.
4.3.3.1 Fatigue strength under normal and shear stress
The fatigue strength curves for hollow section details (4.5) and (4.6) represent the stress
ranges for details in different fatigue categories. The determination of a detail's fatigue category
is explained in Appendix 9.5.
Constant-amplitude Cut-off limit (∆σL)

fatigue limit (∆σD)
1000
500
400
300
Normal stress range (N/mm2 ) ∆σ
200
100
Detail category
140
50 125
112
40 100
90
80
30 71
63
56
20 50
45
40
36
10
104 105 106 2·106 5·106 107 108 109
Number of stress cycles N
Figure 4.5 Fatigue strength curves for various normal stress ranges [1]
114
(∆τC) Cut-off limit (∆τL)
1000
500
400
300
Shear stress range (N/mm2 ) ∆τ
200
100
Detail category
50 100
40
80
30
20
10
104 105 106 2·106 107 108 109
Figure 4.6 Fatigue strength curves for various shear stress ranges [1]
4.3.3.2 Fatigue strength of lattice structure joints (nominal stress method)
For the design of hollow section lattice structures, the fatigue curves presented in Figure (4.7)
are used. Due to secondary bending moments, lattice structure members feature local stress
concentrations. To account for them, the forces in the brace members and chords are
multiplied by the factors presented in Table 4.1. The stresses obtained are compared with the
fatigue strength ∆σR. The values in Table 4.1 are approximate empirical values or values
based on testing. The nominal stress method yields only a rough estimate of the fatigue
strength of the structure. For instance, the combined effect of chord and brace member
stresses on the fatigue strength is difficult to account for in the nominal stress method. Chapter
4.4 presents the more accurate hot spot calculation method for the hollow section lattice joints.
115
Cut-off limit (∆σL)
1000
500
Stress range (N/mm2 ) ∆σ
400
300
200
100
Detail category
50
40 90
71
30
56
50
20 45
36
10
104 105 106 2·106 107 108 109
Figure 4.7 Fatigue strength curves for lattice structure joints determined by nominal stress
method [1]
116
Table 4.1 Stress correction factors for lattice structure joints [1]
Joint type Chords Verticals Diagonals
Circular hollow sections
Gap K joint 1,5 - 1,3
N joint 1,5 1,8 1,4
Overlap K joint 1,5 - 1,2
N joint 1,5 1,65 1,25
Square and rectangular hollow sections
Gap K joint 1,5 - 1,5
N joint 1,5 2,2 1,6
Overlap K joint 1,5 - 1,3
N joint 1,5 2,0 1,4
4.4 Fatigue strength of lattice structure joints

(hot spot method)
When using the hot spot method for fatigue design, the nominal stress values of lattice
members are multiplied by the concentration factors Ks. The hot spot stress range obtained is
used as in the nominal stress method, except that the fatigue stress curves are selected from
Figure 4.8 according to the wall thickness. The design condition for the hot spot method is:
∆σ R
γ Ff ⋅ K s ⋅ ∆σ ≤ ( 4.11)
γ Mf
For variable-amplitude loading, the number of stress cycles causing failure Ni is determined
from the following formulae:
12, 476 − 3 log( ∆σ )

1− 0,18 log  
16
 t 
Ni = 10 ni ≤ 5 ⋅ 10 6 ( 4.12)
16 , 327 − 5 log( ∆σ ) + 2,01 log  
16
 t 
Ni = 10 5 ⋅ 10 6 < ni ≤ 1 ⋅ 10 8 ( 4.13)
117
Constant-amplitude Cut-off limit (∆σL)

fatigue limit (∆σD)
1000
500
Hot spot stress range (N/mm2 ) ∆σ
400
300
200
100
Wall thickness mm
4
5
6
8
10
50 12,5
40
30
20
10
104 105 106 5·106 107 108 109
Figure 4.9 Hot spot fatigue strength curves for lattice structure joints of square and
rectangular hollow sections [8]. With wall thicknesses 2-4 mm, the 4 mm curve
can be used.
The calculation of stress concentration factors for hollow section lattice structure joints is dealt
with in source [7]. Concentration factors are expressed as functions of chord and brace
member dimensions and joint dimensions (gap or overlap and joint angle). Formulae for
determining stress concentration factors (Ks) for T, X and K jointed square hollow sections are
presented in Tables 4.2 and 4.3.
118
In the case of T or X joints, the concentration factors must be calculated for several points. The
governing point is the one with the greatest stress range. The stress range of the members in T
and X joints can be expressed as follows:
Chord:
K s 0. N ⋅ ∆N 0. max K s 0. M (ip) ⋅ ∆Mip.0. max K s 0. M ( op ) ⋅ ∆Mop.0. max
∆σ 0 = + + +
A0 Wip.0 Wop.0
K si. N ⋅ ∆Ni K si. M (ip) ⋅ ∆Mip.i K si. M ( op ) ⋅ ∆Mop.i
+ + (4.14)
Ai Wip Wop
Brace member:
K s 0. N ⋅ ∆N 0 K s 0. M (ip) ⋅ ∆Mip.0 K s 0. M ( op ) ⋅ ∆Mop.0

∆σ i = + + +
A0 Wip.0 Wop.0
K si. N ⋅ ∆Ni. max K si. M (ip) ⋅ ∆Mip.i. max K si. M ( op ) ⋅ ∆Mop.i. max
+ + (4.15)
Ai Wip Wop
where
∆σ 0 is the stress range of the chord

K s 0. N is the concentration factor for the stress due to the axial force of the chord
K s 0. M (ip) is the concentration factor for the stress due to the chord bending moment
parallel to the lattice plane
K s 0. M ( op ) is the concentration factor for the stress due to the chord bending moment
perpendicular to the lattice plane
∆N 0 is the normal stress range of the chord
∆Mip.0 is the stress range of the chord bending moment parallel to the lattice plane
∆Mop.0 is the stress range of the chord bending moment perpendicular to the lattice plane
A0 is the area of the chord
Wip.0 is the chord section modulus parallel to the lattice plane
Wop.0 is the chord section modulus perpendicular to the lattice plane
The quantities marked with the subscript i are for the brace member, respectively.
The stresses in chord and brace members do not necessarily vary at the same phase. The
stress range of the chord is determined by using the maximum values for the chord’s stress
range. The brace member stress ranges are calculated from the forces acting at the same time
as the chord maximum forces and are added to the chord stress ranges. This is done similarly
for the brace members, except that the maximum values are attributed to the brace member
stress ranges.
With K joints, the maximum concentration factor values need not be calculated at several
points, since Table 4.3 gives the formulae needed for calculating the maximum concentration
factor for chords and brace members. An axially loaded K joint also generates secondary
bending moments, the effect of which is accounted for by multiplying the nominal stresses by
the correction factors given in Table 4.4 [7]. In other cases, the formulae (4.14) and (4.15) are
applied.
119
Table 4.2 Concentration factors for T and X joints with square hollow sections [7]
M1.ip M1.ip
N1 N1
t1 t1
b1 b1
;;;
;; ; E A
B
E A
B
D C D C
t0 t0
;
;
M0.ip N0 M0.ip N0
b0 b0
T joint X joint
Load Concentration factor SCF
In-plane bending Chord:
( ) (1,722+1,151β −0,697 β ) τ 0,75

moment in bracing
K s 0. M (ip ). B = −0, 011 + 0, 085β − 0, 073β 2 ( 2γ )
2
member
= (0, 952 − 3, 062β + 2, 382β 2 + 0, 0228 ⋅ 2γ )( 2γ )

( −0,690 + 5, 817 β − 4,685 β ) 0,75
2
K s 0. M (ip ).C τ
= ( −0, 054 + 0, 332β − 0, 258 β 2 )( 2γ )

( 2,084 − 1,602β + 0, 527 β ) 0,75 2
K s 0. M (ip ). D τ
Brace member:
(
K si. M (ip ). A, E = 0, 390 − 1, 054β + 1, 115β 2 ( 2γ ) ) ( −0,154 + 4, 555 β − 3, 809 β 2 )
Axial force in brace Chord:
( ) (1,377 +1,715β −1,103β ) τ 0,75

member
K s 0. N . B = 0, 143 − 0, 204β + 0, 064β 2 ( 2γ )
2
= (0, 077 − 0, 129 β + 0, 061β 2 − 0, 0003 ⋅ 2γ )( 2γ )

( 1, 565 + 1, 874 β − 1,082β ) 0,75
2
K s 0. N .C τ
= (0, 208 − 0, 387 β + 0, 209 β 2 )( 2γ )

( 0, 925 + 2, 389 β − 1, 881β ) 0,75 2
K s 0. N . D τ
Brace member:
(
K si. N . A, E = 0, 013 + 0, 693β − 0, 278 β 2 ( 2γ ) ) ( 0,790 + 1, 898 β − 2,109 β 2 )
Normal stress caused Chord:

by axial force and K s 0. M (ip).C = K s 0. N .C = 0, 725( 2γ ) ( 0, 248 β ) τ 0,19
bending moment in
chord K s 0. M ( ip ). D = K s 0. N . D = 1, 373( 2γ ) ( 0, 205 β ) τ 0, 24
Minimum concentration factor value is 2

X joints for which β = 1,0 ⇒ Ks0.N.C and Ks0.M(ip).C multiply by 0,65
X joints for which β = 1,0 ⇒ Ks0.N.D and Ks0.M(ip).D multiply by 0,50
Fillet welds: ⇒ Ksi.M(ip)A.E and Ksi.N.A.E multiply by 1,40
Parameters: Conditions:
τ = t1 / t0 0,25 ≤ τ ≤ 1,0
γ = b0 / (2t0) 12,5 ≤ 2γ ≤ 25,0
β = b1 / b0 0,35 ≤ β ≤ 1,0; θ = 90°
120
Table 4.3 Concentration factors for K joints with square hollow sections [7]
N1 N2 b1,2 N1 N2 b1,2
h1 h2
;;
;;
g
h2
1
θ1 t1,2 θ1 t1,2
h
θ2 θ2
N0 t0 t0
h0
h0
q
;
;
b0 b0
Gap joint Overlap joint
Joint type Member Concentration factor SCF
3,62τ ( 2 - τ ) + 0, 336ξ ⋅ γ 2 (0, 3 − 0, 01ξ ⋅ γ ) +
Gap Brace member
2
 γ ⋅g 
(
0, 044γ ⋅ β 6, 38 − γ ⋅ β 2
) − 4, 18  − 2, 2
 100t0 
Gap Chord
 g  g
1, 1τ  0, 00288γ 3 +  + 5, 73ξ  1 − 0, 178ξ 2  −
 t0   t0 
2
 g
0, 166 β 3   − 1, 73
 t0 
Overlap Brace member

(
0, 144β ⋅ γ 2 1 − 0, 813β 2 + 1, 84β ⋅ τ + )
2  γ  3
3, 23ξ  1, 94τ − 1, 9τ − 2
− 0, 26
3
  10  
Overlap Chord
( )
−40, 22ξ ⋅ β 2 1 − 0, 59ξ 2 + 0, 028γ 2 ( 8, 9 β + τ ) −
5, 41γ ⋅ β 3 − 0, 008ξ 2 ⋅ γ 3 + 2, 109ξ 6 − 4, 24

The minimum concentration factor value is 2
Parameters: Conditions for Conditions for
τ = ti / t0 gapped joints: overlapped joints:
ξ = g / bi gapped 0,25 ≤ τ ≤ 1,0 0,4 ≤ τ ≤ 1,0
ξ = -q / bi overlapped 0,25 ≤ ξ ≤ 0,75 -1,0 ≤ ξ ≤ -0,4
γ = b0 / (2t0) 12,5 ≤ 2γ ≤ 25,0 12,5 ≤ 2γ ≤ 25,0
β = bi / b0 0,35 ≤ β ≤ 1,0 0,35 ≤ β ≤ 0,7
g q
1,5 ≤ ≤ 7,0 2,5 ≤ ≤ 17,0
t0 t0
35° ≤ θ ≤ 55° 35° ≤ θ ≤ 55°
Table 4.4 Nominal stress correction factor for K joints (hot spot stress method) [7]
Joint type Chord Brace member
Gapped 1,5 1,5
Overlapped 1,3 1,3
Source [7] includes parametric concentration factor formulae also for circular hollow section
joints.
121
Chapter 4
4.5 Design of fatigue-loaded hollow section structures

4.5.1 Welded joints
Structural welded joints should be placed in locations subjected to the lowest load, whenever
this is feasible (Table 4.5). In welded joints, the fatigue strength does not depend significantly
on the yield strength of steel, which means that the use of high strength steel does not
necessarily bring the same advantages as it does in static design. The level of stress can be
decreased by expanding the cross-sectional area, but this increases the weight of the
structure. The optimal dimensions of a structure must therefore be determined on case by case
basis, taking into account the effects of weight and service life of the structure.
From the fatigue point of view, it is more advantageous to
construct the welded hollow section end-to-end joints
without using intermediate plates, since a better fatigue
category can be obtained. It is essential for the weld
strength that the weld is free of defects especially at the
root side, which is the side more difficult to inspect. If there
is a possibility of defects remaining at the root side (e.g.
when using a high material thicknesses), it is advisable to
use backing plates. However, it should be kept in mind that
the use of backing plates generates a stress concentration
which may decrease the fatigue strength of the structure.
A high weld convexity increases the stress concentration at the weld toe, so a concave weld
provides a better fatigue strength. Other factors improving the fatigue strength of the weld
include a low-gradient weld joint angle and a great corner radius of the weld toe.
Post-weld heat treatment
Post weld heat treatment of the weld toe can be used to

improve the fatigue strength of the joint. In the post
treatment, the weld toe is re-melted with, for instance, a
TIG torch or plasma torch. Another possibility is to remove Grinding
minor initial cracks by grinding the weld toe. At the same
time, the corner radius of the weld’s joining location is
increased (Table 4.5). Grinding depth is typically at the
most 10% of the plate thickness. A recommended grinding
corner radius for plates with thickness less than 20 mm is
10 mm [5].
It is also possible to generate, in the welded detail, a compression stress that counteracts the
crack initiation and decelerates the propagation of the crack. A compression stress can be
generated, for instance, by shot blasting. Stress relieving or annealing is a method intended for
reducing the internal residual tension stresses due to the weld. In annealing, the yield strength
of the material is temporarily lowered by increasing the temperature, which relieves the internal
stresses of the element. To prevent the generation of new stresses, heating and cooling should
be performed as slowly as possible.
Post weld treatment can be profitable when the treated area is small or when the treatment can
be automated in the shop. This treatment can also be used for improving the fatigue resistance
of old structures. The effect of post weld treatment has not been accounted for in the design
guidance of Eurocode 3 [1]. An empirical observation is that grinding increases fatigue strength
by 30-100% (2⋅106 stress cycles) and re-melting by 10-170% (2⋅106 stress cycles). Shot
blasting can yield a fatigue strength improvement of 30-170% (2⋅106 stress cycles) [5].
122
Table 4.5 Methods for improving fatigue strength of details

Method Original detail Improved solution
Stress reduction
σ2 < σ1 σ2 < σ1
σ1 σ1
> t1
t1
t2
Reduction of bending moment in
h1
flange plates h2 < h1
Connection placement in a location connection connection

subjected to lower load
Smoother attachment plate

geometry grinding
Smoother splice plate geometry
Overlapping of a truss connection
L joint reinforcement with an

intermediate plate
M M
Welding method selection

;;
Manual welding Machine welding
;;
Weld end rounding by grinding

Det 1 Det 1
grinding
Det 1 Det 1
;
123
4.5.2 Bolted joints
In bolted joints subject to tension, the use of prestressed bolts increases the fatigue strength of
the joint significantly. The fatigue-inducing stress decreases, if the prestressing force is greater
than the tension load on the joint. Long and elastic bolts increase the fatigue strength, since
the elasticity of flange plates does not significantly reduce the prestressing force of long bolts.
In flange joints subject to tension, it is advisable to place the bolts as close to the weld as
possible in order to reduce additional stress caused by eccentricity.
The prestressing of bolts is also a useful practice in bolted joints that are subjected to shear
force. Prestressing reduces the stress in the material at the edge of the hole, since part of the
force is transferred through in friction between the splices. However, it is important to ensure
that the friction between the splices is sufficient to prevent the bolt from slipping towards the
edge of the hole, which would result in the loss of the prestressing benefits.
4.5.3 Lattice structures
In lattice structure joints, increasing the chord wall thickness and decreasing the brace member
width improves the fatigue strength of the structure, as the bending stresses on the chord wall
are then reduced. The proportion of brace member width to chord width is expressed by the
parameter β. For fatigue strength, the optimal solution would be to have chords and brace
members of equal width, which would yield a β value of 1.0. In that case, the load is
transmitted from the brace member directly to the chord web. With a thick-walled chord,
however, the great corner radius may make it difficult to weld a brace member with equal width
to the chord. The increase in the β value improves fatigue strength in cases in which β is
greater than 0.5-0.7 [6].
Welds in lattice structures must be made so that the initiation and termination points do not
coincide with the brace member corners. To obtain the required weld throat thickness when the
joint angle is smaller than 60°, the brace member end must be tapered (chapter 7). The throat
thickness of lattice structure joints must be sufficient to prevent the weld root side from
governing the fatigue strength. The effect of joint eccentricities is more significant in fatigue
design than in static design, since the fatigue design of lattice structure joints must also
account for the secondary bending moments due to eccentricities. The need for reinforcing
plates in lattice structure joints must be judged on a case by case basis. Reinforcing plates
increase the static strength of the joint; on the other hand, they also generate discontinuities at
which stress concentrations are generated.
;;
Example 29 NSd
Calculate the fatigue strength of a hollow
section with dimensions 200 x 200 x 8, subjected
to a fatigue load ∆NSd. A non-loaded plate is
welded to the side of the hollow section. The
; 75
load on the member fluctuates as follows:
∆NSd(kN) Number of stress cycles(ni)

1 220 1,5 ·107
2 350 1 ·106
3 50 1 ·107
124
When determining the fatigue strength, stresses are calculated using elastic theory.
Calculate the nominal stress range caused by the first load fluctuation for the hollow
section:
∆N1.Sd 220000 N
∆σ 1 = = = 37 , 13
A 5924 mm 2
The fatigue strength of the structure is calculated using the Palmgren-Miner rule,
[formula (4.4)], since the load is not of constant-amplitude. The fatigue category for the
non-load bearing joined element is 71, when the plate length is 75 mm (Appendix 9.5,
Table 9.5.2). In fatigue category 71, the normal stress ranges of fatigue limits are the
following (Figure 4.5):
∆σD = 52 N/ mm2 (stress range of the constant-amplitude fatigue limit)

∆σL = 29 N/ mm2 (stress range of the cut off limit)
Let us assume a fail-safe structure and normal accessibility. A value of 1,0 (Table 2.2) is
obtained for the safety factor of the material in fatigue design γMf The number of stress
cycles resulting in failure is obtained by substituting in the formula (4.6):
5
 ∆σ D  ∆σ D ∆σ L
N1 = 5 ⋅ 10 6   , when > γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ i ≥
 γ Mf ⋅ γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ i  γ Mf γ Mf
5
6  5
∆σ D 6 52 
N1 = 5 ⋅ 10   = 5 ⋅ 10   = 2, 69 ⋅ 10
7
 γ Mf ⋅ γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ 1   1, 0 ⋅ 1, 0 ⋅ 37 , 13 
Load fluctuations 2 and 3 are calculated in a similar manner:

350000 N
∆σ 2 = = 59, 08
5924 mm 2
3
6  3
∆σ D 6 52 
N 2 = 5 ⋅ 10   = 5 ⋅ 10   = 3, 41 ⋅ 10
6
( ∆σ 2 > ∆σ D )
 γ Mf ⋅ γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ 2   1, 0 ⋅ 1, 0 ⋅ 59, 08 
50000 N
∆σ 3 = = 8, 44
5924 mm 2
N3 = ∞ ( ∆σ 3 < ∆σ L )
The strength of the hollow section is calculated from the summation equation (4.4):
ni 1, 5 ⋅ 10 7 1 ⋅ 10 6 1 ⋅ 10 7
Σ = + + = 0, 85 < 1, 0 OK !
i Ni 2, 69 ⋅ 10 7 3, 41 ⋅ 10 6 ∞
125
Example 30
Check the fatigue strength of a gapped K N1.Sd N1.Sd b1
h1 h1
joint using the nominal stress method.
;;
g
Dimensions of the chord are 200 x 200 x t1
10 and those of the brace members are θ1 θ1
140 x 140 x 5. The axial force range for N0.Sd t0
brace members ∆N1.Sd is 190 kN and for
h0
the chord ∆N0.Sd is 590 kN. The axial
;
forces in the chord and the brace b0
member fluctuate, the chord axial force
being 100 kN when the axial force in the N (kN)
brace members is 190 kN. Similarly, the
axial force in the brace members is Chord
590
49 kN when the axial force in the chord
members is 590 kN.
190
The dimensions of the joint are as
follows: 100 Brace member
49
θ1 = 37° Time
g = 35 mm
e = 0,8 mm (≈ 0 mm)
When determining the stresses on lattice structure joints, the effect of secondary bending
moments must be taken into account. The corrected stress range value is obtained by
multiplying the uniform stress range by the correction factor presented in Table 4.1:
1, 5 ∆N1.Sd 1, 5 ⋅ 190000 N
Brace member: ∆σ 1 = = = 108
A1 2636 mm 2
1, 5 ∆N 0.Sd 1, 5 ⋅ 590000 N
Chord: ∆σ 0 = = = 122
A0 7260 mm 2
The fatigue category of the joint is determined by the ratio of the thickness of the chord
walls to brace member walls (Table 9.6.3):
t0 / t1 = 2,0 ⇒ fatigue category 71
Assume a fail-safe structure and a normal accessibility, which yields a material factor
for fatigue designl (γMf) of 1,0 (Table 2.2)
The fatigue strength at 5 ·104 stress cycles, for fatigue category 71, is as follows (Figure
4.7):
∆σR = 148 N/ mm2
126
Compare the fatigue strength with chord and brace member stress ranges (4.3):
N ∆σ R 148 N
γ Ff ∆σ 0 = 1, 0 ⋅ 122, 0 = 122 2 < = = 148 OK !
mm γ Mf 1, 0 mm 2
N ∆σ R 148 N
γ Ff ∆σ 1 = 1, 0 ⋅ 108 = 108 < = = 148 OK !
mm 2 γ Mf 1, 0 mm 2
Example 31
Calculate the fatigue strength of the joint shown in example 30 using the hot spot stress
method. First determine the values of the parameters required in Table 4.3:
ti 5
τ= = = 0, 5
t 0 10
g 35
ξ= = = 0, 25
bi 140
b 200
γ = 0 = = 10
2t 0 20
b 140
β= i = = 0, 7
b0 200
The stress concentration factor (Ks) values for the brace member and the chord are
obtained separately by substituting in the formulae given in Table 4.3:
Brace member:
K si. N = 3, 62τ ( 2 − τ ) + 0, 336ξ ⋅ γ 2 (0, 3 − 0, 01ξ ⋅ γ ) +
2
 γ ⋅g 
(
0, 044γ ⋅ β 6, 38 − γ ⋅ β 2
) − 4, 18  − 2, 2
 100t 0 
= 3, 62 ⋅ 0, 5( 2 − 0, 5) + 0, 336 ⋅ 0, 25 ⋅ 10 2 (0, 3 − 0, 01 ⋅ 0, 25 ⋅ 10) +
10 ⋅ 35  2
(
0, 044 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 0, 7 6, 38 − 10 ⋅ 0, 7 2
) − 4, 18 
 100 ⋅ 10 
− 2, 2 = 2, 77
Chord:
2
 g  g  g
K s 0. N = 1, 1τ  0, 00288γ 3 +  + 5, 73ξ  1 − 0, 178ξ 2  − 0, 166 β 3   − 1, 73
 t0   t0   t0 
= 1, 1 ⋅ 0, 5 0, 00288 ⋅ 10 3 +  + 5, 73 ⋅ 0, 25 1 − 0, 178 ⋅ 0, 25 2  −

35 35
 10   10 
2
3  35 
0, 166 β − 1, 73 = 2, 46
 10 
127
Now determine the hot spot stresses, multiplying nominal stress values by the
concentration factor and by the correction factors given in Table 4.4 (in this example,
1.5):
Brace member:
Ni. max N
γ Ff K si. N + γ Ff 0 K s 0. N
Ai A0
= 1, 0 ⋅ 1, 5
190000 
⋅ 2, 77 + 1, 0 ⋅ 1, 5
100000  N
⋅ 2, 46 = 350
 2636   7260  mm 2
Chord:
Ni N
γ Ff K si. N + γ Ff 0. max K s 0. N
Ai A0
= 1, 0 ⋅ 1, 5
49000 
⋅ 2, 77 + 1, 0 ⋅ 1, 5
590000  N
⋅ 2, 46 = 377
 2636   7260  mm 2
Considering the wall thickness, obtain the following fatigue strength values at
5 ·104 stress cycles (Figure 4.9):
Brace member:
∆σR.1= 543 N/ mm2
Chord:
∆σR.0= 447 N/ mm2
Now compare the fatigue strength with the chord and brace member stress ranges.
Brace member:
N ∆σ R.1 543 N
γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ 1 = 350 2 < = = 543 OK !
mm γ Mf 1, 0 mm 2
Chord:
N ∆σ R.0 447 N
γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ 0 = 377 2 < = = 447 OK !
mm γ Mf 1, 0 mm 2
128
Chapter 4
4.6 Brittle fracture of structural hollow sections

Brittle fracture is the rapid failure of an element with no clearly distinguishable plastic
deformation. Brittle fracture initiates from a small crack initiated by fatigue or a weld defect and
propagates rapidly even in a defect-free structure. The probability of brittle fracture depends on
the following factors:
- steel strength grade
- thickness of the material
- loading rate
- service temperature
- steel toughness
A hollow section with high strength and thick walls is more sensitive to brittle fracture than one
with low strength and thin walls. A high loading rate increases the risk of brittle fracture, and so
does a low service temperature. A tougher steel grade is, however, better in low temperatures.
Vulnerability to brittle fracture is indicated by the parameters of transition temperature and
impact toughness.
The methods for calculating the minimum service temperature presented in different versions
of Eurocode 3 are contradictory and thus not recommended. This manual presents a simplified
method for calculating the minimum service temperature, which is based on tests made to cold
formed hollow sections at low temperatures [2].
4.6.1 Parameters affecting brittle fracture in structural hollow sections
The probability of brittle fracture in cold-formed hollow sections depends on both the material
and the dimensions of cross-sections and joints. This section presents conditions that must be
met to prevent brittle fracture. The conditions are valid for the Eurocode 3 service condition
category C, defined as follows:
C2: Fracture of critical members or joints, where local failure would cause complete structural
collapse with serious consequences to life or very high costs.
Mechanical properties of structural hollow sections
The ultimate strength and yield strength of structural steel must meet the following condition
[2]:
fu
≥ 1, 2 (4.16 )
fy
where
fu is the nominal ultimate strength of steel

fy is the nominal yield strength of steel
129
The elongations, measured on coupons cut longitudinally from the hollow section flange, must
fulfill the following conditions [2]:
A5 ≥ 15 % (4.17 )
Ag ≥ 20ε y (4.18 )
where
A5 is the ultimate elongation when the measured length of the test piece is 5,65 S0
S0 is the cross-sectional area of the test piece
Ag is the uniform elongation corresponding to the ultimate tensile strength (%)
εy is the elongation at yield strain (%)
For the steel grade S355J2H, the required uniform elongation is Ag ≥ 3,38%.
The impact toughness KV measured on coupons cut longitudinally from the hollow section
flange must fulfill the following condition [2]:
The test is carried out at the minimum service temperature of the structure:
J
KV ≥ 35 (4.19)
cm 2
Dimensions of the cross-section
Table 4.6 Minimum values for the corner radius of hollow sections
Wall thickness Minimum internal corner radius Minimum external corner radius
(mm)
t ≤ 6 mm 0,6 t 1,6 t
6 < t ≤ 10 mm 1,0 t 2,0 t
t > 10 mm 1,4 t 2,4 t
Furthermore, the manufacturer must show that the manufacturing method used is feasible for
the constant production of hollow sections whose internal corners do not have cracks
exceeding the allowed values. The maximum depth allowed for a flaw with a blunt notch is 0.2
mm. For flaws with a sharp crack-like tip, the maximum depth allowed is 0,05 mm [2].
The slenderness of the walls of the hollow section must fulfill the following condition [2]:
b+h
≥ 25 (4.20)
t
where
b is the width of the hollow section

h is the height of the hollow section
t is the wall thickness of the hollow section
130
Minimum gap value
In gapped N, K and KT joints, the actual gap ga (Figure 4.9) must fulfill the following condition
[2]:
ga ≥ 1, 5t 0 (4.21)
where
t0 is the wall thickness of the chord
The gap g between brace members (Figure 4.9) must fulfill the following conditions [4]:
g ≥ t1 + t 2 (4.22)
g  b 
≥ 0, 5 1- i  (4.23)
b0  b0 
g  b 
≤ 1, 5 1- i  (4.24)
b0  b0 
where
t1 and t 2 are the wall thicknesses of the brace members

bi is the width of the brace member
b0 is the width of the chord
Detail 1
;;
g
θ θ
t0
;
Detail 1 (θ ≤ 60°) Detail 1 (θ > 60°)
ga ga
t0
t0
g g
Figure 4.9 Actual gap
131
4.6.2 Minimum service temperatures of Rautaruukki structural hollow

sections
The Rautaruukki Metform hollow sections shown in Appendix 9.1 (steel grade S355J2H) fulfill
all the requirements for hollow section properties (section 1.1) stated in section 4.6.1.
According to the latest research [2], they can be used in welded structures down to a
temperature of - 40 °C.
4.7 References
[1] ENV 1993-1-1:Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu. Osa 1-1: Yleiset säännöt ja
[2] CIDECT: Project 5AQ/2: Cold formed RHS in arctic steel structures, Final report 5AQ-5-96,
1996
[3] Niemi, E.:Stress determination for fatigue analysis of welded components, IIW/ 115-1991-
93, 1995
[5] Tarjavuori, P.: Hitsin väsymislujuuden parantaminen jälkikäsittelyllä, Lappeenrannan

teknillinen korkeakoulu, Konetekniikan osasto, 1995
[7] CIDECT: Research Project 7M: Working draft: Design guide for hollow section structures
under fatigue loading, Aachen 1996
[8] IIW International conference on Performance of dynamically loaded welded structures:

Scale effects on the fatigue behaviour of tubular structures, San Francisco, 1997
132
Chapter 5
5 FIRE DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS

In fire situations, the temperature of the steel increases together with the temperature of the
gases in fire compartment. As the temperature of the steel increases, its strength and
deformation properties are transformed. According to their use, structures have different fire
resistance requirements (e.g. requirements for bearing capacity and compartmentation).
Often it is necessary to protect steel components in order to slow down the increase in
temperature during fire. Several fire retardant methods are applicable for use with hollow
sections, for instance, the use of protective materials such as mineral wool or fire-retardant
paint. The heat retention capacity of hollow sections can be improved for instance with a
concrete infill. Hollow sections are efficient in fire design, since their section factor (the ratio of
fire-exposed area to unit mass) is smaller than that of open sections. In addition, hollow
sections with their rounded corners are well-suited for fire-retardant painting. Fire retardant
methods are described in more detail in Section 5.6.
The strength of a hollow section in a fire situation can be calculated by two different methods:
either by the properties of the material (yield strength and modulus of elasticity) in a fire
situation or by determining the critical temperature of structural steel as a function of degree of
utilization. The non-uniform temperature distribution of the steel component can be taken into
account when carrying out fire design by the properties of the material. When using the critical
temperature method, the temperature distribution of structural steel is assumed uniform. The
methods are illustrated in Figures 5.1 and 5.2.
Improve structural fire retardation

or select larger hollow section
size no
Required fire Calculate max Determine Calculate

resistance steel tempera- properties of strength in fire yes
period ture during fire material situation Rfi.d Efi.d ≤ Rfi.d OK
resistance fy.θ and Eθ
period θ a.max.
Kuva 5.1 Fire design based on properties of material
Improve structural fire retardation

or select larger hollow section
size no
Required fire Calculate max Determine util- Calculate criti-

resistance steel tempera- ization ratio cal structural yes
period ture during fire µ0 temperature θa.cr ≤ θa.max OK
resistance θa.cr
period θ a.max.
Figure 5.2 Fire design based on critical temperature
133
Chapter 5 DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI HOLLOW SECTIONS
5.1 Development of temperature in fire compartments

Factors affecting the development of a real fire include the mode of combustion, the shape of
fire compartment, the magnitude and type of fire load, the supply of air needed for combustion
and the fire extinguishing system. However, the models used in practical design are simpler.
Fire design can be based on either the standard time-temperature curve [1] common to all fire
situations or on parametric temperature-time curves.
5.1.1 Standard time-temperature curve
The temperature of fire compartment varies with time. In ISO-834, this is expressed with the
following formula [1]:
θ g = 20 + 345 log ( 8t + 1) (5.1)
where
θg is the temperature of the gases in the fire compartment (°C)

t is the time (min)
1100
1000
900
800
700
Temperature (°C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Time (min)
Figure 5.3 Standard time-temperature curve according to ISO-834
134
DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI HOLLOW SECTIONS Chapter 5
5.1.2 Development of temperature according to the parametric model
An alternative method for calculating the evolution of temperature in fire compartment is the
parametric model presented in Eurocode 1, Section 2.2 [1]. This model also accounts for
openings in the fire compartment, the thermal properties of the wall materials and the
magnitude of the fire load in determining the development of the temperature. The parametric
model can be used if the fire compartment area is less than 100 m2, there are no openings in
the fire compartment ceiling, and the height of the fire compartment does not exceed 4 m [1].
The temperature of the fire compartment increases as long as there is flammable material.
Finally, the temperature reaches a maximum value of Θmax (Figure 5.4), after which the fire
compartment temperature starts decreasing. The parametric model is not explained more
extensively in this manual, since many buildings do not meet the conditions for using it.
Θg Standard time-temperature curve
Θmax
Parametric fire curve
Heating phase Cooling phase t
Figure 5.4 Temperature-time curves in standard and parametric fire models (sketch)
5.2 Development of steel temperature

In fire situations, the temperature of steel members increases slower than that of the fire
compartment. The development and distribution of steel temperature depends on the shape of
the steel member and its thermal properties. It is always necessary to calculate the steel
temperature up to the required fire resistance period, since a steel member may reach its
maximum temperature during fire at a point where the fire compartment temperature starts
decreasing according to the parametric fire model. By using a fire retardant material, the
evolution of steel temperature can be slowed down, which lengthens the fire resistance period.
135
5.2.1 Development of temperature in unprotected steel members
The increase of temperature in unprotected steel members can be determined from the formula
(5.2), when the temperature distribution in the cross-section is assumed uniform [2]:
Am
∆θ a.t = V h˙net .d ⋅ ∆t (5.2)
ca ⋅ ρ a
where
Am is the section factor of an unprotected steel member (m-1), at least 10 m-1
V (Appendices 9.1 and 9.6)
Am is the exposed surface area of the member per unit length (m2)
V is the volume of the member per unit length (m3)
ca is the specific heat of steel (J/ kgK)
h˙net .d is the net heat flux per unit area (W/ m2)
∆t is the time interval (s), maximum 5 s
ρa is the unit mass of steel (7850 kg/m3)
The net heat flux consisting of radiation and convection can be expressed as follows [1]:
h˙net .d = γ n.c ⋅ h˙net .c + γ n.r ⋅ h˙net .r  2 

W
(5.3)
m 
where
γ n.c is a factor allowing for the differences in national testing

(Eurocode 1 default value γn.c = 1,0)
γ n. r is a factor allowing for the differences in national testing
(Eurocode 1 default value γn.r = 1,0)
h˙net .c is the convective net heat flux (W/ m2)
h˙net .r is the radiative net heat flux (W/ m2)
The convective net heat flux is obtained from the following formula [1]:
h˙net .c = α c (θ g − θ m ) 2 
W
(5.4)
m 
where
αc is the convective heat transfer coefficient (Eurocode 1 default value αc= 25 W/m2K
θg is the ambient gas temperature (°C)
θm is the steel surface temperature (°C)
136
Respectively, the radiative net heat flux is determined from the following equation [1]:
[ 4 4
]
h˙net .r = Φ ⋅ ε res 5, 67 ⋅ 10 −8 (θ r + 273) − (θ m + 273)  2 
W
m 
(5.5)
where
Φ is the configuration factor (Eurocode 1 default value Φ = 1,0)

ε res is the resultant emission factor (Eurocode 1 default value εres = 0,50)
θr is the ambient radiation temperature
The constant ca= 600 J/ kgK can be used for the specific heat of steel. Alternatively, specific
heat can be determined from the following formulae [2]:
ca = 425 + 0, 773θ a − 1, 69 ⋅ 10 −3 θ a2 + 2, 22 ⋅ 10 −6 θ a3 when 20 ≤ θ a < 600 °C (5.6)

13002
ca = 666 + when 600 ≤ θ a < 735 °C (5.7)
738 − θ a
17820
ca = 545 + when 735 ≤ θ a < 900 °C (5.8)
θ a − 731
ca = 650 when 900 ≤ θ a < 1200 °C (5.9)
where
θa is the steel temperature
5.2.2 Development of temperature in fire protected steel members
The increase of temperature in fire protected steel members is calculated from the formula,
when the temperature distribution in the cross section is considered uniform [2]:
(θ g.t − θ a.t )  10φ 

Ap
λp
∆θ a.t = V ∆t −  e − 1 ∆θ g.t ≥ 0 (5.10)
 φ  
d p ⋅ ca ⋅ ρ a 1 +
 3
where
Ap is the section factor of the fire protected steel member (m-1),

V (Appendices 9.1 and 9.6)
Ap is the interior area of the fire retardant material in the member per unit lengt (m2)
V is the specific heat of steel (J/kgK)
ca is the volume of the member per unit length (m3)
dp is the thickness of the fire retardant material (m)
137
∆t is the time interval (s), maximum 30 s

θ a.t is the temperature of the steel member (°C)
θ g.t is the temperature of the fire compartment (°C)
∆θ g.t is the increase in the fire compartment temperature within interval ∆t (°C)
is the thermal conductivity of the fire retardant material (W/mK) depending on
λp
the temperature of the fire retardant material
ρa is the unit mass of steel (kg/ m3)
The parameter φ is determined as follows [2]:

cp ⋅ ρ p Ap
φ= dp (5.11)
ca ⋅ ρ p V
where
cp is the specific heat of the fire retardant material (J/kgK)

ρp is the unit mass of the fire retardant material (kg/m3)
The delay in the increase in temperature of the steel member due to moisture evaporation can
be taken into account if the moisture content of the fire retardant material is great. During
moisture evaporation, the steel member temperature is constant (= 100°C). The delay time can
be expressed as follows [3]:
p p ⋅ ρ p ⋅ d p2
tv = ( min) (5.12)
5λ p
where
pp is the moisture content of the fire retardant material (%)

ρp is the unit mass of the fire retardant material (kg/m3)
dp is the thickness of the fire retardant material (m)
λp is the thermal conductivity of the fire retardant material (W/mK)
Temperature (°C)
Fire compartment temperature
Steel member temperature
100
tv
t (min)
Figure 5.5 Effect of the moisture content of the fire retardant material to increase in
temperature
138
5.3 Strength and modulus of elasticity of steel in fire situations
As the temperature increases, the strength and the modulus of elasticity of the steel changes.
However, the room temperature values for yield strength can be used up to 400 °C. The yield
strength correponds to a total elongation of 2%. The modulus of elasticity is constant up to
100 °C. The dependence of strength and modulus of elasticity on temperature is given in Table
5.1 and Figure 5.6.
Table 5.1 Effect of temperature on the strength and modulus of elasticity of steel [2]
Temperature θa (°C) Reduction factor for yield strength Reduction factor for modulus of
ky.θ elasticity kE.θ
(fy.θ/ fy) (Ea.θ/ Ea)
20 1,0 1,0
100 1,0 1,0
200 1,0 0,9
300 1,0 0,8
400 1,0 0,7
500 0,78 0,6
600 0,47 0,31
700 0,23 0,13
800 0,11 0,09
900 0,06 0,0675
1000 0,04 0,045
1100 0,02 0,0225
1200 0,0 0,0
Intermediate values can be determined by linear interpolation
0,9
k E.θ k y.θ
0,8
0,7
0,6
k y.θ , k E.θ
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Temperature (°C)
Figure 5.6 Relative strength of steel and modulus of elasticity as a function of temperature
139
5.4 Critical temperature in hollow section structures

The critical temperature of hollow sections can be determined as a function of the degree of
utilization for Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections and for hollow sections with Class 4 cross-
sections loaded in tension [2]:
 1 
θ a.cr = 39, 19 ln − 1 + 482 (5.13)
 0, 9674 µ 0 
3,833
In critical temperature calculations, it is assumed that the temperature of the steel member is
distributed uniformly through the entire cross-section. However, the method gives a
conservative value even if the steel temperature distribution is non-uniform. For Class 4 cross-
sections of other than hollow sections in tension, the strength in fire situations is sufficient if the
steel temperature during fire is lower than 350 °C. The degree of utilization µ0 is determined
from the following formula:
E fi.d
µ0 = (5.14)
R fi.d .0
where
E fi.d is the design value for the loads in fire situations (Section 5.5.1)
R fi.d .0 is the design value of the strength at room temperature
The critical temperature for different degrees of utilization is presented in Table 5.2 and Figure
5.7.
Table 5.2 Critical temperature of steel θa.cr as a function of the degree of utilization µ0 [2]
µ0 θa.cr µ0 θa.cr µ0 θa.cr µ0 θa.cr
0,10 829 0,34 645 0,58 560 0,82 490
0,12 802 0,36 636 0,60 554 0,84 483
0,14 779 0,38 628 0,62 549 0,86 475
0,16 759 0,40 620 0,64 543 0,88 467
0,18 741 0,42 612 0,66 537 0,90 458
0,20 725 0,44 605 0,68 531 0,92 448
0,22 711 0,46 598 0,70 526 0,94 436
0,24 698 0,48 591 0,72 520 0,96 421
0,26 685 0,50 585 0,74 514 0,98 398
0,28 674 0,52 578 0,76 508 1,00 349
0,30 664 0,54 572 0,78 502
0,32 654 0,56 566 0,80 496
140
900
800
700
600
Critical temperature (°C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
1,0
Degree of utilization µ0
Figure 5.7 Critical temperature of steel
5.5 Determining the strength of hollow section structures

in fire situations
The fire design criterion is expressed as follows [2]:
E fi.d ≤ R fi.d (5.15)
where
E fi.d is the design value for the effect of loads in a fire situation
R fi.d . is the design value for hollow section strength in a fire situation (varies
according to time and temperature)
141
5.5.1 Partial safety factors in fire design
The design value of loads in a fire situation is affected by the expansion and deformation of the
material due to temperature. The simpler method is to calculate the fire situation loads by
multiplying the design value of loads in normal temperature by the fire situation reduction factor
ηfi, so the effect of the structural heat expansion need not be taken into account. The design
value for the fire situation load is as follows [2]:
E fi.d = η fi ⋅ Ed (5.16 )
where
η fi is the design load reduction factor in a fire situation

Ed is the design value for force or moment at room temperature
The fire design reduction factor ηfi is determined from the following formula [2]:
γ GA ⋅ Gk + ψ 1.1 ⋅ Qk .1
η fi = (5.17 )
γ G ⋅ Gk + γ Q ⋅ Qk .1
where
γ GA is the partial safety factor for permanent loads in an accident situation [7]
γG is the partial safety factor for permanent load [7]
γQ is the partial safety factor for variable load [7]
ψ 1.1 is the combination factor for variable loads [7]
Gk is the permanent load
Qk .1 is the principal variable load
Figure 5.8 shows various curves of the fire design reduction factor ηfi with different values of
combination factor ψ1.1 for γGA = 1,0, γG = 1,35 and γQ= 1,5 (Eurocode 3 basic values).
The values of partial safety factors may vary country by country. The partial safety
factors must be checked from national application documents (NADs).
142
0,8
0,7
ψ1,1 = 0,9
0,6
ψ1,1 = 0,7
0,5
ψ1,1 = 0,5
η fi
0,4
0,3
ψ1,1 = 0,2
0,2
0,1
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
Qk
Gk
Figure 5.8 Various reduction factor ηfi curves in fire design
5.5.2 Determining the cross-section class in fire design
For compression members, the cross-section classification is calculated as in section 2.2

(Table 2.4). For other structural members, the correction factor ε is used when determining the
cross-section limit values. The correction factor is calculated from the following formula [2]:
235 k E.θ
ε= (5.18 )
f y k y.θ
The formulae given in Sections 5.5.3 - 5.5.7 for the determination of strength are valid only for
hollow sections with Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections, and for hollow sections with Class 4
cross-sections in tension. Class 4 cross-sections of other than hollow sections in tension must
be fire protected so that the hollow section temperature does not exceed 350 °C during the fire.
143
5.5.3 Strength of hollow section subjected to tension in fire situations
The strength of a hollow section in tension is given by the following formula [2]:
γ M1
N fi.θ . Rd = k y.θ ⋅ N Rd (5.19)
γ M . fi
where
k y.θ is the reduction factor for the yield strength of steel in temperature θa
N Rd is the tension strength in normal temperature (Appendix 9.1)
γ M1 is the partial safety factor of the material
γ M . fi is the partial safety factor of the material in a fire situation (Eurocode 3 default
value γM.fi= 1,0)
5.5.4 Buckling strength of hollow sections in fire situations
The buckling strength for a hollow section in compression is given by the following formula [2]:
 χ fi  fy
N fi.θ . Rd =   ⋅ A ⋅ k y.θ (5.20)
 1, 2  γ M . fi
where
χ fi is the reduction factor for buckling in a fire situation (always calculated by the
buckling curve c)
value γM.fi = 1,0)
The modified strength properties of steel are taken into account when calculating the
slenderness of a hollow section in a fire situation [2]:
L fi k y.θ ⋅ f y
λθ = (5.21)
π ⋅ i k E.θ ⋅ E
where
L fi is the buckling length in a fire situation

i is the moment of inertia
k E.θ is the reduction factor for the modulus of elasticity of steel in temperature θa
144
The buckling length in a fire situation is calculated as at room temperatures, excluding the
following cases [2]:
- The buckling length of a column in a non-sway frame can be determined by assuming a

semi-rigid column having rigid supports at both ends above or below the fire compartment. A
pre-requisite for this is that the fire resistance of the structural members susceptible to
buckling, which limit the fire compartment, is at least the same as the fire resistance of the
columns.
- In a non-sway building in which each floor constitutes a separate fire compartment, the
buckling length of the column can be determined as follows:
a) columns in intermediate floors Lfi = 0,5 L

b) columns in the top floor Lfi = 0,7 L
The value of these buckling length may vary country by country. The values should be
checked from the national application documents (NAD's)
5.5.5 Bending strength of hollow sections in fire situations
The bending strength of a hollow section is determined by the following formula [2]:
γ M1
M fi.θ . Rd = k y.θ ⋅ M Rd (5.22)
γ M . fi ⋅ κ 1 ⋅ κ 2
where
k y.θ is the reduction factor of the yield strength of steel in temperature θa

M Rd is the bending strength at room temperature (Appendix 9.1)
valueM.fi = 1,0)
With a non-uniform temperature distribution of the hollow section cross-section, the values of
the adaptation factor κ1 are the following:
- hollow section exposed to fire on all sides κ1 = 1,0

- hollow section exposed to fire on three sides with
a concrete or a composite plate on the fourth side κ1 = 0,7
With a non-uniform longitudinal temperature distribution of the hollow section, the values of the
adaptation factor κ2 are as follows:
- supports of a statically undetermined hollow section κ2 = 0,85

- other cases κ2 = 1,0
145
5.5.6 Shear strength of hollow sections in fire situations
The shear strength of a hollow section is given by the following formula [2]:
γ M1
M fi.θ . Rd = k y.θ ⋅ VRd (5.23)
γ M . fi ⋅ κ 1 ⋅ κ 2
where
VRd is the shear strength in normal temperature
value γM.fi = 1,0)
The adaptation factors κ1 and κ2 are given as in the case of bending strength.
5.5.7 Strength of hollow sections subjected to bending moment and

compressive axial force in fire situations
The interaction expression for hollow sections subjected to bending moment and compressive
axial force is as follows [2]:
N fi. Ed k y ⋅ M y. fi. Ed k z ⋅ M z. fi. Ed
+ + ≤1 (5.24)
N fi.θ . Rd M y. fi.θ . Rd M z. fi.θ . Rd
where
N fi.θ . Rd is the compression strength of a hollow section in a fire situation in

temperature θa (5.18)
M y. fi.θ . Rd is the bending strength of a hollow section in a fire situation in temperature

θa (by y axis)
M z. fi.θ . Rd is the bending strength of a hollow section in a fire situation in temperature

θa (by z axis)
N fi. Ed is the compressive axial load in a fire situation
M y. fi. Ed is the bending load in a fire situation (by y axis)
M z. fi. Ed is the bending load in a fire situation (by z axis)
k y and k z are calculated as in Section 2.9.1.1, with the following modifications:
χ y. fi χ z. fi
λ y ⇒ λ y.θ λ z ⇒ λ z.θ χy ⇒ χz ⇒
1, 2 1, 2
146
5.6 Fire retardant methods

Steel structures can be protected against fire by insulating them or increasing their heat
retention capacity. Structural solutions can also be used to increase the fire resistance period.
In addition to the cost of materials, installation and maintenance costs should be considered
when selecting the fire retardant method.
Table 5.3 Fire retardant methods

Principle Methods
Heat insulation - insulation boards
- fire retardant paints
- sprayed insulation materials
Improvement of heat retention capacity - concrete infill
- water infill
- sprinkler systems
Structural fire retardation - ceiling screens
- placing the columns outside the fire compartment
- placing the columns inside the wall
5.6.1 Fire retardation by insulation
As compared to unprotected structures, insulated structures are slower to heat and slower to
reach the critical temperature. Structures can be insulated with boards or sprayed materials.
The thermal conductivity λp of the fire retardant material depends on the temperature of the
material, which must be taken into account when calculating the temperature of the steel
member. The thermal conductivity characteristics of the fire retardant material are usually
shown in manufacturers' brochures. The following is a description of the properties and use of
the most common fire retardant materials.
Mineral wool boards
The fire retardant properties of mineral wool are based on its good thermal conductivity. The
sintering temperature of fire protective mineral wool, that is, the temperature in which the fibres
melt, must be sufficiently high. Depending on the fire resistance period, a sintering temperature
of 800-1000 °C is required. The density of the boards varies between 100-400 kg/ m3, and their
thickness varies between 10-100 mm.
Mineral wool boards can be fixed mechanically or with glue. In mechanical fixing, nails and
bolts are used. Steel spikes and lock plates are also an alternative. Nails are fixed in place by
shooting or by resistance butt welding. Steel spikes must be fixed before installing the
insulation material. The insulation material is attached to the steel member by lock plates.
When using glue, the steel surface must be dry and clean from any dust or oil.
Vermiculite boards
The basic material in vermiculite boards is exfoliated mica. The moisture content of the boards
is high, as the binding agent is a mineral containing silicate. Vermiculite boards have a good
thermal insulation capacity, and the evaporation of moisture in fire situations increases the fire
resistance period. The density of boards varies between 350-500 kg/m3 and their thickness
between 16-80 mm.
147
Vermiculite boards can be fixed with glue or nails. Normally, boards are fixed to form a casing
around the tube. When using nails, an air slot of approximately 3 mm must be left between the
casing and the tube. When using glue, the work temperature must be over 0 °C. The surface of
a vermiculite board is smooth and fit for painting.
Calcium silicate boards

The fire retardant properties of calcium silicate boards are almost as good as those of
vermiculite boards. The density of calcium silicate boards varies between 430 - 950 kg/ m3 and
their thickness between 6 - 65 mm. Calcium silicate boards are fixed to form a casing around
the tube, normally with bolts.
Plaster board and profiled elements

The use of plaster board as a fire retardant is based on the high content of absorbed water in
plaster. After the evaporation of absorbed water, non-reinforced board fails and loses its
thermal conductivity. The strength of the board can be improved by reinforcing it with glass
fibre, which secures the insulation capacity of plaster board even after the evaporation of
absorbed water. The density of boards varies between 770 - 980 kg/m3. The profiled thickness
is normally 13 mm, and it can be installed in several layers.
Plaster board is fixed to the hollow sections with bolts. One to four board layers can be
installed. A mixture of plaster, perlite and glass fibre can be used to pre-form profiled elements,
to the shape of the hollow section, which are then fixed around the tube on-site. The profiled
elements are fixed with glue or with separate cover plates.
Wood fibre plaster boards

Wood fibre plaster boards are made by pressing a mixture of wood fibres and plaster to form a
3
hard-surface board. The density of wood fibre boards is approximately 1200 kg/m . Boards are
fixed in place with bolts or nails.
Cement cellulose boards

The material of cellulose cement boards is cellulose, and binding agents include various
materials which contain silicate. The density of the board is approximately 1100 kg/m3. Boards
are used primarily in light-weight fire-resistant partition walls. Cellulose cement boards are
usually fixed directly to the frame with bolts.
Sprayed mineral fibre

In sprayed mineral fibre, mineral wool fibres and cement are sprayed together with water on
the hollow section surface. The density of the sprayed layer is 220 - 500 kg/ m3, and the
thickness of the layer is 10 - 60 mm. If the thickness of the layer is more than 35 mm, a
reinforcement is installed around the hollow section.
The finished surface of the sprayed layer is porous. The sprayed surface can be painted, plas-
tered or clad with boards. The surface of the mineral fibre layer must be protected from oil and,
when used outdoors, from moisture.
Sprayed vermiculite
The sprayed mass consists of vermiculite aggregate and cement, lime or plaster binding agent.
The mass is sprayed in a similar manner to mineral fibres. The thickness of the insulation layer
is normally 10 - 60 mm, and it can be sprayed in one or more layers of 10 - 15 mm. The density
of the sprayed layer is 300 - 800 kg/m3. Sprayed masses with greater density form a stronger
surface.
148
Fire retardant paints

The protective effect of fire retardant paints is based on the heat-insulating foam generated as
the temperature increases to 250 - 300 °C. However, the foam layer cannot resist long periods
of fire, but is peeled off as the fire advances. Fire retardation by paint is thus suited for
maximum fire resistance periods of one hour.
The thickness of a paint layer is 0,2 - 3 mm, and several layers can be applied. Fire retardant
paint can be applied to the tube surface in the same way as normal anti-corrosive paint.
Normally, an anti-corrosive undercoat must be applied to the hollow section before the
application of fire retardant paint. During on-site work and transport, it is important to keep in
mind that the fire retardant coat must not be subjected to mechanical stress or moisture. The
compatibility of undercoat and top coats must be checked with the paint manufacturer. The
advantage of a fire retardant paint is the thin coat and a finished surface which retains the
original shape.
5.6.2 Fire retardation by increasing the heat retention capacity

of structural steel
Concrete infill of hollow sections
A concrete-filled column is a simple and effective fire retardant method which retains the
appearance and the dimensions of the hollow section. The use of reinforcement significantly
improves the fire resistance period of the hollow section. The amount of reinforcement can be
adjusted to regulate the strength of the column at normal temperature and in fire situations.
This way, the same column size can be used in multistory buildings from the ground floor to the
top.
Since the concrete infill is usually carried out on-site, the light weight of hollow sections can be
fully utilized during erection. In normal temperature, a concrete-filled hollow section functions
as a composite structure, and in a fire situation, the majority of loads is transferred by the
concrete filling and the reinforcement.
For fire situations, the tube must be provided with steam exhaust openings. During the fire, the
steam pressure is then dissapated through the openings without damaging the section. When
placing the concrete infill, sufficiently thin layers must be used and consolidation performed
with great care. Fire design tables for concrete-filled columns are shown in reference [4].
Water infill of hollow sections

Water infill in a hollow section functions as a cooling agent. The thermal energy generated by
fire is consumed by heating and vaporizing the water contained in the hollow section. The
effect of water cooling can be enhanced by connecting the hollow sections with an overhead
water tank. In a fire situation, the vaporized water ascends to the tank and returns to the hollow
sections cooled. To prevent the water from freezing, an agent such as calcium carbonate or
calcium nitrate must be added.
Water cooling is an effective fire retardant method. By arranging a water circulation, the
temperature of hollow sections normally stays at 200 - 250 °C for the entire duration of the fire.
Water cooling can be applied only when protecting columns. To prevent leakage, special
attention must be paid to sealing the tube joints of the tubes trougt which water circulates.
149
Sprinkler systems
A sprinkler is an automatic fire extinguishing system which starts operating as the temperature
increases in a fire situation. The fire compartment temperature does not increase after the
sprinkler system has started operating. National regulations include instructions on allowing for
sprinkler systems in the fire design. The profitability of installing a sprinkler system depends on
the ratio of its installation costs to the cost of other fire retardation methods.
5.6.3 Structural fire retardation
With appropriate structural solutions, separate fire retardation of hollow section structures can
be reduced or completely omitted. The use of structural solutions to improve the fire resistance
of structural elements and joints reduces the need for fire retardant materials which increase
material and installation costs. Structural fire retardation must be applied individually for each
case, and it should be taken into account at the planning stage.
Fire proof ceilings
To obtain the space required for Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning installations, the
room height can be reduced with a false ceiling. False ceilings are also used to cover pipe
installations and other services, and a fire proof ceiling can be utilized for the fire protection of
structural components (e.g. floor joists) in the intermediate space. In such a case, the fire proof
ceiling must be designed and dimensioned appropriately. Also the fixtures that connect the the
fire proof ceiling to the floor above must be sufficiently strong to bear the loads during the fire.
In practice, the fixtures often constitute governing elements in a fire situation.
Placing columns outside the fire compartment
When placing columns outside the external walls, the increase in fire compartment temperature
need not be taken into account in column design. A prerequisite for this is that the column is
placed sufficiently far from window openings. In a fire situation, the hot gases and flames
exiting through window openings increasing the temperature of steel columns that are close to
the openings. Window openings are usually placed so close to one another that a flame
retardant must be used in the columns. Sheet steel is an example of a flame retardant material.
Placing columns inside the wall
The size of the column cross-section exposed to fire is reduced if the column can be placed
partially or completely inside the fire retardant material used in the wall structure. The materials
used in the wall structure at column locations must be fire-resistant in order to be able to take
their protective effect into account in the fire design. A problem may be the connection of the
bracing members to the column placed inside the wall.
150
Example 32
Calculate the resistance of columns (180 x
180 x 5) to axial loads in the building shown
5000
in the adjacent figure. In a fire situation, the
compressive load on a hollow section is
Efi.d = Nfi.Ed = 550 kN.
The fire resistance period required for the 15000
600
building is 15 min. The steel grade used is
S355J2H and the buckling length of the
4000
column is Lfi 4,0 m. The temperature
evolution in the fire compartment is
determined with the standard time-
temperature curve [Formula (5.1)].
Development of temperature in an unprotected hollow section

The temperature increase of unprotected steel is obtained from the formula (5.2):
Am
∆θ a.t = V h˙net .d ⋅ ∆t
ca ⋅ ρ a
The net heat flux per area consists of convection and radiation:
h˙net .d = γ n.c ⋅ h˙net .c + γ n.r ⋅ h˙net .r
h˙net .c = α c (θ g − θ m ) = 25(θ g − θ m )
[
h˙net .r = Φ ⋅ ε res 5, 67 ⋅ 10 −8 (θ g + 273) − (θ m + 273)
4 4
]
[
= 1, 0 ⋅ 0, 5 ⋅ 5, 67 ⋅ 10 −8 (θ g + 273) − (θ m + 273)
4 4
]
By replacing the material constants and the section factor for steel in the formula (5.2),
we obtain:
Am
= 205m −1 (Appendix 9.6)
V
J
ca = 600
kgK
kg
ρa = 7850
m3
∆t = 5s
151
Am
∆θ a.t = V h˙net .d ⋅ ∆t
ca ⋅ ρ a
[
= 1, 088 ⋅ 10 −3 (θ g − θ m )∆t + 1, 2339 ⋅ 10 −12 (θ g + 273) − (θ m + 273) ∆t
4 4
]
∆θ a.t = 5, 4406 ⋅ 10 −3 (θ g − θ m ) + 6, 1696 ⋅ 10 −12 [(θ g + 273) − (θ m
4
+ 273) ]
4
Figure 5.9 presents the evolution of an unprotected 180 x 180 x 5 hollow section in a
standard fire. The curve is calculated using the formula above with time steps of 5
seconds. The maximum temperature conforming to the required fire resistance period
(15 min) is:
θ a. max = 673 °C
Development of temperature in a protected hollow section

A column of 180 x 180 x 5 is protected with 15 mm mineral wool boards. The
temperature increase of the fire protected steel structure conforms with the formula
(5.10):
(θ g.t − θ a.t )
Ap
λp  φ 
∆θ a.t = V ∆t −  e 10 − 1 ∆θ g.t ≥ 0
φ
d p ⋅ ca ⋅ ρ a  1 +   
 3
Calculate the properties of the fire retardant material and steel using the formula above.
Ap
= 210 m -1 (appendix 9.6)
V
J
ca = 600
kgK
dp = 15 mm
∆t = 5s
W
λp = 0, 25 (for simplicity, heat conductivity is assumed constant)
mK
kg
ρa = 7850
m3
The parameter φ is determined with the formula (5.11):
cp ⋅ ρ p Ap 1000 ⋅ 150
φ = dp = 0, 015 ⋅ 210 = 0, 1003
ca ⋅ ρ a V 600 ⋅ 7850
cp = 1000 J/kgK
ρ = 150 kg/m 3
152
By replacing the values of material properties and the parameter φ in the formula
(5.10), the following expression is obtained:
∆θ a.t = 0, 003595(θ g.t − θ a.t ) − 0, 01008 ∆θ g.t
Figure 5.9 shows the increase in temperature of a 180 x 180 x 5 hollow section protected
with 15-mm mineral wool boards during a standard fire. The curve is calculated using
the formula above with time steps of 5 seconds. The maximum temperature conforming
to the required fire resistance period (15 min) is:
θa.max = 301 °C
800
Fire compartment temperature
700
600
Temperature (°C)
500
Unprotected hollow section
temperature
400
Fire protected hollow section
temperature
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
t (min)
Figure 5.9 Increase in temperature of unprotected hollow sections and hollow sections
protected with mineral wool boards (t=15 mm) of dimensions 180 x 180 x 5
Calculating structural strength

When calculating the compression resistance, the changes in the steel strength and
modulus of elasticity caused by temperature must be taken into account. The strength is
determined by the maximum temperature during fire resistance period. The adaptation
factors for strength and the modulus of elasticity ky.θ and kE.θ are determined by linear
interpolation from Table 5.1. The results are listed in Table 5.4.
153
Table 5.4 Compression strength of columns in a fire situation

Fire situation θa.max ky.θ kE.θ λfi χfi Nfi.θ.Rd (kN)
°C Formula(5.21) Formula(5.20)
Unprotected 673 0,2948 0,1786 0,946 0,572 171,4
hollow section
Fire protected 301 1,0 0,7990 0,824 0,647 657,7
hollow section
The column can resist a 15 minute fire if a 15 mm layer of mineral wool is used, because
the compression resistance at 301°C is:
 χ fi  fy  0, 647  355
N fi.θ . Rd =   A ⋅ k y.θ =  3436 ⋅ 1, 0 = 657 , 7 kN > N fi. Ed = 550 kN
 1, 2  γ M . fi  1, 2  1, 0
An unprotected column does not meet the fire resistance requirements, because, becau-
se the compression resistance at 673°C is:
N fi.θ . Rd = 171, 4 kN < N fi. Ed = 550 kN
Critical temperature by the degree of utilization

The fire resistance period for the above structure can also be determined by the degree
of utilization. Substituting values in formula (5.14), we obtain:
fy 355
N fi.0. Rd = χ fi.0 ⋅ A = 0, 702 ⋅ 3436 = 713, 6 kN
1, 2 1, 2
N fi. Ed 550
µ0 = = = 0, 771
N fi.0. Rd 713, 6
The critical temperature is obtained from formula (5.13)
 1   1 
θ a.cr = 39, 19 ln − 1 + 482 = 39, 19 ln  − 1 + 482
 0, 9674 µ 0
3, 833
  0, 9674 ⋅ 0,7713,833 
= 505 °C
Using the critical temperature, we obtain the same result as above:
Unprotected hollow section: θa.max = 673 °C > θa.cr = 505 °C

Fire protected hollow section: θa.max = 301 °C < θa.cr = 505 °C OK !
154
5.7 Fire design of concrete-filled columns

The strength of a concrete-filled column in a fire situation is based on the slower heating of the
concrete filling and the reinforcement. The hollow sections walls and the external casing of
concrete filling heats rapidly as the fire compartment temperature increases, but the
reinforcement and the inner part of the concrete filling retain the normal temperature for a
longer period (Figure 5.10).
Relative yield strength
reinforcement
concrete
steel
time
Figure 5.10 Decrease in yield strength of a concrete-filled column in a fire situation
When designing concrete-filled columns, it is recommendable that hollow sections with large
external dimensions and thin walls are used. In this way, the portion of the column's concrete-filled
interior area is large. In a fire situation, the concrete and the reinforcement bear more load in a
larger column, since the interior temperature is lower and the strength is higher (Figure 5.11).
R = 100 mm
temperature
;;
y
R = 150 mm
90 min
60 min
;
R 30 min
y/R
0 0,25 0,50 0,75 1,0
Figure 5.11 Temperature distribution in cross-sections of concrete-filled hollow sections

of various sizes
155
5.7.1 Using tables in the fire design of concrete-filled columns
A simple conservative design method is presented in Table 5.5 which lists the minimum
dimensions for concrete-filled columns. Minimum dimensions depend on the degree of
utilization ηfi.t, calculated from the formula [5]:
N fi. Ed
η fi.t = ≤1 (5.25)
N b. Rd
where
N fi. Ed is the design value for axial force in a fire situation

N b. Rd is the buckling strength of a concrete-filled column in normal temperature [6]
In addition, reference [5] presents theoretical formulae for the fire design of concrete-filled
columns.
An alternative design method for concrete-filled columns is to use pre-calculated design tables.
Reference [4] lists the buckling strength values in a fire situation for hollow sections with
various reinforcement ratios and strength values of concrete. The tables include buckling
strength values for fire resistance periods of 60, 90 and 120 minutes.
156
Table 5.5 Minimum dimensions for columns in a fire situation [5]

Fire resistance period
As
;
;;h
As is the area of reinforcement

us
t
Ac is the area of concrete filling

Degree of Minimum dimension
Ac
d
us
R30 R60 R90 R120 R180

utilization
ηfi.t
0,3 b or d (mm) 160 200 220 260 400
Reinforcement ratio As / (Ac+ As) (%) 0 1,5 3 6 6
Reinforcement position us (mm) - 30 40 50 60
0,5 b or d 260 260 400 450 500
Reinforcement ratio As / (Ac+ As) (%) 0 3 6 6 6
Reinforcement position us (mm) - 30 40 50 60
0,7 b or d 260 450 500 - -
Reinforcement ratio As / (Ac+ As) (%) 3 6 6 - -
Reinforcement position us (mm) 25 30 40 - -
- when calculating the degree of utilization, the assumed yield strength value of steel is 235N/mm2
- the steel grade used as reinforcement is S500
- when calculating the buckling resistance Nb.Rd in normal temperature, greater reinforcement ratios than
3% are not taken into account
- the following conditions must be met:
b/ t ≥ 25 and d/ t ≥ 25
157
5.8 References
[1] ENV 1991-2-2: Eurocode 1. Suunnitteluperusteet ja rakenteiden kuormat: Osa 2-2 Palolle
altistettujen rakenteiden kuormat, 1995
(ENV 1991-2-2: Eurocode 1. Basis of design and actions on structures. Part 2-2: Actions
on structures. Actions on structures exposed to fire, 1995)
[2] ENV 1993-1-2: Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu: Osa 1-2: Rakenteellinen

palomitoitus, 1996
(ENV 1993-1-2: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-2: General rules. Structural
fire design, 1996)
[3] ECCS: Tecnical Committee 3- Fire safety of steel stability: Design manual on the European
recommendations for the fire safety of steel structures, First edition, 1985
[4] CIDECT: Design guide for structural hollow section columns exposed to fire, Verlag TÜV
Rheinland GmbH, Köln 1994
[5] ENV 1994-1-2: Design of composite steel and concrete structures:

Part 1.2: Structural fire design, 1994
[6] ENV 1994-1-1: Design of composite steel and concrete structures:

Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings, 1994
[7] ENV 1991-1: Eurocode 1: Suunnitteluperusteet ja rakenteiden kuormat:

Osa 1: Suunnitteluperusteet, 1995
(ENV 1991-1: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures. Part 1: Basis of
design, 1995)
158
Chapter 6
6 DESIGN OF HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES

A structural hollow section is a versatile structural element suitable for various parts of a
building. Hollow sections show their best characteristics in columns and lattice structures. The
design of structures made of hollow sections is uncomplicated since, due to their good torsional
stiffness, lateral-torsional buckling and torsional buckling are usually not governing factors. This
also enables the efficient utilization of design software. In this chapter, the design procedure of
hollow section structures is handled in its entirety. First, the central issues affecting the design
solutions are handled in detail, after which a design solution for a model building is presented.
gable beam
10500
eaves beam
door beam
14500
primary frame column

48 00
00 00
0 10
Figure 6.1 The model building
The model building is an exhibition hall shown in Figure 6.1. The building is used for arranging
fairs and meetings.
The frame of the building consists of hollow section columns and of primary and secondary
lattices. The building is stiffened with a horizontal lattice located in the roof and by wind bracing
in the walls.
Hollow sections were chosen as columns, because the wall structure is constructed of light-
weight wool elements which do not support the columns about the minor axis. Hollow sections
have high torsional and bending stiffness about the minor axis, which makes them a good
solution in this case.
159
Usually, it is advantageous to select a normal K, N or KT type lattice as the roof-supporting

structure. In these structures, the chords are hollow sections and the brace member joints are
uncomplicated. Usually the full depth of the roof height would be used for the lattice girder. In
this case the height between the eaves and the apex is 4,0 m, which would provide an efficient
lattice girder or truss. Due to transport requirements however the maximum depth of prefabri-
cated unit must not exceed 2,5 m; therefore a reduced depth parallel sides N girder has been
used, which follows the roof profile. A tie is provided at eaves level across the widtt of the build-
ing. See figure 6.1
A frame spacing of 10 m is chosen, as it produces an efficient solution for the model building.
Between the primary frames, there are purlin trusses with a spacing of 4 m, which enables the
use of a shallow profile for the roof. In addition, the purlin trusses are an easy way to provide
lateral restraint to the upper and lower chords of the primary lattice.
The building is braced using horizontal lattices in the roof plane (Figure 6.2). This solution
produces smaller foundations and external column dimensions than using a rigid portal solu-
tion. Hollow sections are used as bracing members due to their excellent compression
resistance.
bracing lattice
Static model of the column
Figure 6.2 Horizontal stiffening in the model building
On the external walls, there are bracing elements constructed from hollow sections, functioning
as tension members. Here, too, hollow sections are an efficient solution, as their stiffness facili-
tates installation and the elements retain their shape well. However, regarding the foundations,
the best solution would be to dimension the bracing elements both as tension and compression
members, as the load on the foundations can then be divided into two (Figure 6.3).
160
apex
rafter
compression member
tension member
Figure 6.3 Stiffeners at the end wall of the building (load in the rafter is transferred
to the tension diagonal)
The wind columns on the side walls of the building, carrying wind load, are supported at the
upper end by roof bracing to make them non-sway. The supporting force at the upper end of
the wind columns is transferred to primary frames through the roof profile.
6.1 Structural actions

The actions to which the structure is subjected are divided into permanent, variable and
accidental actions. Permanent actions include:
- self-weight of the structure

- fixed equipment
Variable actions include:
- imposed loads
- snow loads
- wind loads
Accidental actions include:
- fire loads
- seismic loads
The design values of the loads are used in structural design. A design value is obtained by
multiplying the characteristic value of the load by the partial safety factor.
For load calculation, only the formulae applicable to the model building are shown. Load
calculation is handled in more detail in references [1], [2], [3] and [4].
161
6.1.1 Self-weight and imposed loads

Design values for weights of materials and for imposed loads are given in reference [1]. The
weight of the partition walls can be distributed to generate a uniform load. When designing the
structural floor elements of a single storey building, the load must be taken into account in the
weakest area. The effect of concentrated load must be considered separately. In some cases,
the imposed loads on the, structural floor in a single storey building, can be reduced. [1].
When designing columns, the loads on storeys are assumed uniformly distributed. Also in the
case of multi-storey buildings, imposed loads can sometimes be reduced [1].
6.1.2 Snow load

The characteristic value of the snow load depends on the geographical location and shape of
the building. The following equation is obtained for the characteristic value of snow load on roof
structure [2]:
s = µ i ⋅ sk (6.1)
where
µi is the snow load shape coefficient

2
sk is the characteristic value of the snow load on the ground (kN/ m ) depending on
the geographical location of the building [2].
National application documents (NADs) may present different methods for calculating
the characteristic value of the snow load.
Reference [2] gives characteristic values for a snow load on the ground and snow load form
factor values.
6.1.3 Wind load

As in the case of snow load, the magnitude of wind load depends on the geographical location
of the building and on the shape of the structure. The total force due to wind can be expressed
as follows [3]:
Fw = qref ⋅ ce (ct , cr ) ⋅ cd ⋅ c p ⋅ Aref (6.2)
where
ce is the exposure coefficient (Figure 6.4) dependent on ct and cr

ct is the topography coefficient [3]
cr is the roughness coefficient [3]
cd is the dynamic pressure coefficient [3]
cp is the pressure coefficient [3]
Aref is the area perpendicular to the wind
162
qref = 0, 5 ρ ⋅ vref
2
ρ = 1,25 kg/mm3 (air density)

vref is the average wind velocity in a 10-minute period measured at the distance
of 10 m above the ground in terrain category II (Table 6.1). The annual probability
for exceeding the wind velocity vref is 2% [3]. National application documents
(NADs) may include different methods for calculating the characteristic
value of wind load.
Table 6.1 Terrain categories

Terrain category Description
I Rough open sea, lakes with at least 5 km fetch upwind and smooth flat country without
obstacles
II Farmland with boundary hedges, occasional small farm structures, houses or trees
III Suburban or industrial areas and permanent forests
IV Urban areas in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with buildings and their
average height exceeds 15 m
70
60
IV
I
II
ry
III
ry
ry
go
ry
go
go
go
te
te
te
50
ca
te
ca
ca
Height of building (m)
ca
in
in
in
in
rra
rra
rra
rra
Te
Te
Te
Te
40
30
20
10
0
1,4 1,6 1,8 2 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3 3,2 3,4 3,6 3,8 4
ce
Figure 6.4 Exposure coefficient ce when ct = 1,0 (building stands on level ground)
The formula for calculating the exposure coefficient ce when ct is not equal to 1,0 is given in
reference [3].
The values of the pressure coefficient cp for wall structures with wall area Aref greater than 10
m2 are shown in Table 6.3. The values for cp with Aref smaller than 10 m2 are given in
reference [3].
163
Table 6.2 Pressure coefficient cp in vertical walls (Aref > 10 m2)

Wall A B C D E
d/h ≤ 1 -1,0 -0,8 -0,5 0,8 -0,3
d/h ≥ 4 -1,0 -0,8 -0,5 0,6 -0,3
The intermediate values can be determined by linear interpolation
1. d > e 2. d < e
D wind D wind
A 0,2e A A 0,2e A
B 0,8e
d
B
d
B d-0,2e B
C d-e C
E E
b b
e is min (b, 2h)

h is the height of the building
b is the width of the building
Figure 6.5 Pressure coefficients for the wall
6.1.4 Additional horizontal forces
In addition to wind load, horizontal forces in the structure are generated by eccentricities and
installation tolerances. A further factor to be taken into account in the design are the horizontal
forces transmitted from structural member in compression to the members proving restraint.
Transverse force due to a compression structural element
The load caused by a compression structural member in compression (e.g. the upper chord of
the lattice) on restraining members (e.g. horizontal diagonal members) is determined as follows
[5]:
N L
q= when δ q ≤ (6.3)
50 L 2500
N (1 + α ) L
q= when δ q > (6.4)
60 L 2500
164
where
N is the the axial compression

L is the length of the compression member
δq is the horizontal deflection in the stiffening system caused by the force q and
external loads
500δ q
α = ≥ 0, 2
L
The use of the formula (6.4) leads to iteration. Formulae (6.3) and (6.4) are applicable for
stiffening system that support one member only. When there are several supported members,
the horizontal load is determined as follows [5]:
kr + 0, 2 L
q = ΣN when δ q ≤ (6.5)
60 L 2500
k +α L
q = ΣN r when δ q > (6.6)
60 L 2500
where
ΣN is the sum of the compressive forces of members
1
kr = 0, 2 +
nr
nr is the number of members
6.1.5 Combined loads
Chapter 2 presents combined loads in the ultimate limit state [4] [formulae (2.2a, 2.2b and
2.3)]. In the serviceability limit state, the equation for combined loads is the following [4]:
∑ Gk. j + Qk.1 + ∑ ψ 0.i ⋅ Qk.i (rare combination) (6.7)

j i >1
∑ Gk. j + ψ 1.1 ⋅ Qk.1 + ∑ ψ 2.i ⋅ Qk. j (normal combination) (6.8)

j i >1
∑ Gk. j + ∑ ψ 2.i ⋅Qk.i (long-time combination) (6.9)

j i≥1
ψ0, ψ1 and ψ2 are load combination factors obtained from Eurocode 1 [4] or from national
application documents (NADs).
Permitted deflections for various structural elements are presented in Table 6.3.
165
Table 6.3 Permitted deflections [5]

Structure Recommended limits for deflection
Horizontal deflection
Frame structure without crane gantry rails h/ 150
Other one-story building h/ 300
One story in a multi-story building h/ 300 (h is the height of one story)
Total height of a multi-story building h0/ 500 (h0 is the height of the building)
Vertical deflection
δmax δ2
Roofs in general L/ 200 L/ 250
Roofs with person load L/ 250 L/ 300
Intermediate floors in general L/ 250 L/ 300
Intermediate floors supporting brittle structures L/ 250 L/ 350
Intermediate floors supporting columns L/ 400 L/ 500
Deflection which can affect the appearance of the building L/ 250
δmax = end deflection

δ1
δ0
δ0= pre-camber
δ1 = deflection due to permanent loads
δmax
δ2 = deflection due to variable loads

δ2
6.1.6 Load determination in the model building
Self-weight
The self-weight of the purlin trusses and roof is estimated at Gk = 0,5 kN/ m2.
Snow load
The characteristic value of the
snow load on the ground in the a)
building area is 1,5 kN/ m2. The µ2, α2 µ1, α2
roof angle is 1:6 (α = 9,5°). For b)

0,5 µ1, α1
a pitched roof, the shape coeffi-
µ2, α2
cients µ1 = µ2 = 0,8, when 0° ≤ α1 c)
µ1, α1
= α2 ≤ 15°. Of the load combi-
d) 0,5 µ1, α2
nations in Figure 6.6, the most
onerous one is chosen. In this
case, the snow load is determined α1 α2
by the combination of a) and c),
since the structure is symmetrical.
Figure 6.6 Snow loads on a pitched roof
s = µ · sk = 0,8 · 1,5 = 1,2 kN/m 2
166
Wind load
In the building area, the wind velocity vref = 23 m/s. The reference mean velocity
pressure qref is determined from the formula:
kN
qref = 0, 5 ρ ⋅ vref
2
= 0, 5 ⋅ 1, 25 ⋅ 23 3 = 0, 33
m2
In terrain category III, the exposure coefficient ce has the following value with a building
height of 10,5 m measured at the eaves level (Figure 6.4):
ce = 1,816
Thus the basic value for the wind load is obtained using the formula (6.2):
qwk = qref ⋅ ce ⋅ cd ⋅ c p = 0, 33 ⋅ 1, 816 ⋅ 1, 0c p = 0, 6 c p
The following pressure coefficient values are obtained for the model building
(Figure 6.5):
Wind parallel to the side wall

(d/h = 9,52 > 4) A = – 1,0, B = – 0,8, C = – 0,5, D = +0,6, E = – 0,3
Wind parallel to the end wall

(d/h = 4,57 > 4) A = – 1,0, B = – 0,8, C = – 0,5, D = +0,6, E = – 0,3
Reference [3] also shows separate pressure coefficients for roof structures.
6.2 Designing columns

As was shown in Chapter 2, a hollow section is an efficient cross-section for a column. The
mass of a hollow section is located far from the centre, so the radius of gyration of the hollow
section is relatively large in all directions. In column design, the essential factors are the
buckling length, the effect of the joint stiffness and the column-to-foundation joint.
6.2.1 Column buckling length
The buckling length of the column is influenced by the actual length, the fixing method of the
ends and the lateral support to the member. Theoretical buckling lengths for columns are
presented in Table 6.4.
167
Table 6.4 Theoretical buckling length Lc of compression members

Pinned Fixed at one end Fixed at both ends Fixed at both ends, Fixed at one end,
at both ends one sway joint pinned at the other
L
L
Lc = 1,0 L Lc = 2,0 L Lc = 0,5 L Lc = 1,0 L Lc = 0,7 L
In frame structures with rigid joints, the benefits of structural hollow sections can be utilized
when determining the column buckling length values. Another factor influencing the buckling
length in frames is the lateral support of the frame. A non-sway structure can be stiffened either
with lattices or by supporting it with a rigid structural element (a lift shaft or a stair well).
Generally speaking, a frame structure can be classified non-sway if the following condition is
met [5]:
VSd
≤ 0, 1 (6.10)
Vcr
where
VSd is the design value of the vertical total load

Vcr is the buckling load according to the frame elasticity theory in case of sway
buckling mode
The stiffening of a sway structure is based on columns functioning as cantilevers and fixed to
foundations with a rigid joint, or on the rigidity of the joints.
In the case of a continuous column, the buckling length can be determined using Figures 6.7
and 6.8. The distribution factors η1 and η2 in the figures are determined as follows [5]:
Kc + K1
η1 = (upper assembly point) (6.11)
K c + K 1 + K 11 + K 12
Kc + K 2
η2 = (lower assembly point) (6.12)
K c + K 2 + K 21 + K 22
168
where
K1
I
Kc =
L
I K11 K12
K1 = 1 η1
L1 column in question Kc
I η2
K2 = 2
L2 K21 K22
I , I1 and I 2 are the values of inertia for
corresponding columns parallel to frame
L, L1 and L2 are the values of height for corresponding columns K2
K 11 , K 12 , K 12 and K 22 are the effective stiffness
coefficients for corresponding hollow sections (Table 6.5)
Table 6.5 Effective stiffness coefficients K for hollow sections [5]

Conditions of rotational restraint at the far end of the hollow section Effective stiffness coefficient
Fixed 1,0 Ib / Lb (1-0,4 N / Ne)
Pinned 0,75 Ib / Lb (1-1,0 N / Ne)
Rotation as at near end (double curvature) 1,5 Ib / Lb (1-0,2 N / Ne)
Rotation equal and opposite to that of near end (single curvature) 0,5 Ib / Lb (1-1,0 N / Ne)
Ib is the hollow section’s moment of inertia parallel to frame

Lb is the length of the hollow section
N is the compressive force of the hollow section
Ne = π2 · E · Ib / Lb2
In Table 6.5, the moments in the hollow section are assumed to be elastic (MSd < Wel · fy /γM0).
The hollow section is assumed pinned if its moment exceeds the elastic moment [5].
The buckling length of columns in rigid jointed structures is obtained from Figure 6.7 for non-
sway frames and from Figure 6.8 for sway frames. The curve values represent the relation of
buckling length to the actual column length.
169
Lc
L
=
pinned
1,
η1 1,0
0
0,
95
0,9
0,
9
0,8
0,
85
0,
0,7
8
0,
75
0,6
0,
7
0,5
0,
67
5
0,
65
0,4
0,
62
5
0,
6
0,3
0,
57
5
0,2
0,
55
0,1
0,
52
η2
5
rigid
0,
5
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
rigid pinned
Figure 6.7 Column buckling length values of non-sway frames Lc /L [5]
Lc
L
=
1,0
∞
pinned
η1
5, 0
0
4,
0,9
3, ,8
0
2 ,6
2
0,8
2, 2
4
2,
2,
0,7
0
1, 8
9
1,
1,
7
0,6
1,
6
1,
5
0,5
1,
4
0,4
1,
3
1,
25
0,3
1,
2
1,
15
0,2
1,
1
0,1
1,
rigid
05
η2
1,
0
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
rigid pinned
Figure 6.8 Column buckling length values of sway frames Lc /L [5]
170
6.2.2 Effect of joint stiffness on column buckling length
The joints of a frame structure can be considered rigid if the joints are stiffened as shown in
Figure 6.9. A non-stiffened joint must be considered semi-rigid when determining the column
buckling length. The calculation of the rigidity for non-stiffened hollow section frame structures
is dealt with in Appendix 9.5. The effect of a semi-rigid joint on the column buckling length
(formulae 6.11 and 6.12) is accounted for in the value of effective inertia of the hollow section.
This is determined by the following formula [6]:
1
Ib.eff = I (6.13)
3 E ⋅ Ib b
1+
S j ⋅ Lb
where
Sj is the stiffness of the joint (Nm/rad)

;; Ib is the inertia of the hollow section parallel to frame
Lb is the length of the hollow section
The stiffness of the joint varies according to the applied moment, as the increasing moment
causes the plastification of the joint components that are subjected to the greatest loads. The
total moment-rotation curve should thus be known in order to utilize the effect of semi-rigid
joints on the calculation of the column buckling length. In case this is not known, the
;;
assumption that the support of the column is pinned at the location of the joint is conservative.
2,5h
M
h
3h
≥0,75b0 ≥0,75b0
0,75b0 0,7h
h b0
;
1,4t
t
M
h
M
t
0,85h
t
Figure 6.9 Stiffened hollow section frame structures
171
6.2.3 Column-to-foundation connections

Connections between the column and the foundation were dealt with in Section 3.5. If a rigid
column-to-foundation connection is assumed in the structural model the moments transferred
into the foundation by the column must be accounted for when designing the holding down
bolts and the base plate. If a pinned joint is assumed in the model, moments need not be taken
into account.
The holding down bolts must be designed such that they are able to carry the construction
loads the column is subjected to. The thickness of the second stage concrete layer is taken into
account when calculating the buckling length for the design of the holding down bolts.
6.2.4 Column design in the model building

Design the columns in a primary frames. The column-to-foundation connection is in this
case assumed rigid. The moment transferred from the column to the foundation must thus
be taken into account when designing the connection. The horizontal loads on the
building are carried by the bracing lattices, so the columns are supported by hinges at
the upper end. The buckling length of the columns can thus be obtained directly from
Table 6.4, giving Lc.y = 0,7· 10,3 = 7,21 m.
Force quantities
The forces on the columns are determined simply by the area of load carried. The
resistance must be checked separately for two different load combinations, since at this
stage it is not known whether the dominant load is the snow load or the wind load.
In case the wind load is dominant:

NSd
kN
qwd = γ Q.2 ⋅ qwk ⋅ L f = 1, 5 ⋅ 0, 8 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ 5 = 3, 6
m qwd
(wind load)
10, 3 2
Msd = 3, 6 = 47 , 7 kNm (at the lower end of the column)
10,3 m
8
5
Vsd = ⋅ 3, 6 ⋅ 10, 3 = 23, 2 kN
8
kN
sd = ψ 0.2 ⋅ γ Q.2 ⋅ Qk .2 = 0, 6 ⋅ 1, 5 ⋅ 1, 2 = 1, 08 2
m
(snow load)
kN
Gd = γ G.1 ⋅ Gk .1 = 1, 35 ⋅ 0, 5 = 0, 68 2 (self-weight)
m
N Sd = 0, 5(Gd + sd ) L f ⋅ B = 0, 5(0, 68 + 1, 08)10 ⋅ 48 = 422 kN
where
Lf is the frame spacing

B is the width of the building
172
In case the snow load is dominant:

kN
qwd = ψ 0.2 ⋅ γ Q.2 ⋅ qwk ⋅ L f = 0, 6 ⋅ 1, 5 ⋅ 0, 8 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ 5 = 2, 16 (wind load)
m
10, 3 2
M Sd = 2, 16 ⋅ = 28, 6 kNm
8
5
VSd = ⋅ 2, 16 ⋅ 10, 3 = 13, 9 kN
8
kN
sd = γ Q.1 ⋅ Qk .1 = 1, 5 ⋅ 1, 2 = 1, 8 (snow load)
m2
;
Gd = γ G.1 ⋅ Gk .1 = 1, 35 ⋅ 0, 5 = 0, 68
8
∆M =  +
1 9 
 8 128  
q ⋅ L2 =
25
128
⋅ qL2
β MQ = 1, 3 (uniform transverse load)

kN
m2
(self-weight)
N sd = 0, 5(Gd + sd ) L f ⋅ B = 0, 5(0, 68 + 1, 8) ⋅ 10 ⋅ 48 = 595 kN
For the column in this example, the equivalent uniform

moment factors shown in Table 2.9 are obtained as follows:
1
MQ = q ⋅ L2
β Mψ = 1, 8 (restraint moment at the lower end of the column)

The final value for the equivalent uniform moment factors is
obtained from the following formula (Table 2.9):
; 128 
 MQ 
β M . y = 1, 8 + 
= 1, 8 + 
 8 ⋅ 25 
 ⋅ ( β MQ − β Mψ )
 ∆M 
⋅ (1, 3 − 1, 8) = 1, 48
The column is designed using the formula shown in Section 2 (2.57). Try a hollow
section with dimensions 300 x 200 x 6 and steel grade S355J2H. The cross-section of the
hollow section is Class 4, as h/ t= 300/ 6 = 50 > 36,6. The calculation of the effective
cross-section and the determination of column compression and bending resistance are
detailed in Chapter 2, so only the results are presented here (Appendices 9.1 and 9.2):
N b. Rd = N b.z. Rd = 815, 3 kN (about the z axis)

N b. y. Rd = 1090 kN (about the y axis)
M y. Rd = 189, 7 kNm
173
M0
∆M
y
z
Next, determine the value for parameter ky. The wind load and the snow load are
calculated separately, since NSd affects the value of parameter ky .
In case the wind load is dominant, [formula (2.58)]:

µ y = λ y ( 2β M . y − 4) = 0, 776( 2 ⋅ 1, 48 − 4) = −0, 807
N Sd 422000
ky = 1 − µ y = 1 + 0, 807 = 1, 246 < 1, 5
χ y ⋅ A ⋅ fy 0, 677 ⋅ 5763 ⋅ 355
In case the snow load is dominant, [formula (2.58)]:

µ y = λ y ( 2β M . y − 4) = 0, 776( 2 ⋅ 1, 48 − 4) = −0, 807
N Sd 595000
ky = 1 − µ y = 1 + 0, 807 = 1, 347 < 1, 5
χ y ⋅ A ⋅ fy 0, 677 ⋅ 5763 ⋅ 355
Now we have determined the necessary parameters. The column resistance can be
checked using the following condition (2.57):
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd 422 1, 246 ⋅ 47 , 7
+ = + = 0, 831 < 1 OK ! (if wind load is dominant)
N b. Rd M y. Rd 815, 3 189, 7
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd 595 1, 347 ⋅ 28, 6
+ = + = 0, 933 < 1 OK ! (if snow load is dominant)
N b. Rd M y. Rd 815, 3 189, 7
Regarding shear resistance, the wind load is dominant. We need to calculate the plastic
shear resistance, since h / t = 47,6 < 59,1 (Section 2.4.1 and Appendix 9.1):
Vpl. Rd = 644, 3 > VSd = 23, 2 kN OK!
Thus, the resistance of a 300 x 200 x 6 hollow section is sufficient.
6.2.5 Designing the column-to-foundation joint in the model building

The column-to-foundation joint is made as shown in Figure 6.10. Since the joint was
assumed rigid, it is designed according to the guidance in Section 3.5.2.
Force quantities
The dominant forces and moments are:

M Sd = 47 , 7 kNm
N Sd . min = 162 kN (construction loads)
N Sd . max = 422 kN
VSd = 23, 2 kN
174
The column location is eccentric to the base plate (e1=75 mm), so the moment due to
axial force must be taken into account:
M Sd .tot = M Sd − N Sd ⋅ e1
= 47 , 7 − 422 ⋅ 0, 075 = 16, 05 kNm
(This moment direction is dominant in the design of the base plate.)
Designing the holding down bolts MSd
The design value for the compressive resistance of

concrete in the foundation is fcd = 14 N/ mm2. The NSd
width of the compression area in the concrete is 300
;
determined by the following formula (example 28):
y

= 1− 1−


= 1− 1−

2M Sd .tot 
d
b ⋅ fcd ⋅ d 2 
2 ⋅ 16, 05 
 350 = 8, 29 mm
400 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 0, 35 2 
The axial force in the bolts is determined from the

vertical equilibrium condition (example 28):
Ns = by · fcd – NSd = 400· 8,29· 14 – 422000

= –395,6 kN ⇒ no tension in holding down bolts
During installation, however, the holding down

bolts carry the total load the column is subjected
to. The compressive force of a holding down bolt
due to construction loads is:
Fc.Sd =
N Sd . min
4
(example 28):
M + N Sd . min ⋅ e2 162
+ 0, 5 Sd
0, 3
Considering Ø 30 ⇒ As = 561 mm2:
Fv. Rd =
As ⋅ f y
3 ⋅γ M0
=
561 ⋅ 345
3 ⋅ 1, 1
 Ø > 16 mm ⇒ f = 345 N 
 y
mm 2 
=
V
4
= 101, 6 kN > Sd
4
+ 0, 5
175
400
150
100
47 , 7 + 162 ⋅ 0, 1
OK !
0, 3
e1=75
300
450
e2= 100
300
Figure 6.10 Base plate
= 147 , 0 kN
(The direction of the dominant moment is now reversed as compared to the base plate
design. e2 is the eccentricity of the column to the group of holding down bolts.)
Design the holding down bolts of steel grade S355J2 for shear force and axial force
225
200
(shear resistance per bolt)

100
tp
300
The buckling length of the holding down bolts is equal to the thickness of the second
stage concrete layer, that is, 70 mm:
Lc = 70 mm
i = 7, 5 mm ⇒ λ = 0,12 < 0, 2 ⇒ χ = 1, 0
As ⋅ f y 345
Fb.Rd = Ft.Rd = = 561 ⋅ = 176, 0 kN > Fc.Sd OK!
γ MO 1, 1
The size of holding down bolts is usually between Ø 24-36 mm. The combined load
criterion for a holding down bolt subjected to shear force and axial force is expressed as
follows:
Fv.Sd Fc.Sd 0, 25 ⋅ 23, 2 147 , 0
+ = + = 0, 612 < 1 OK!
Fv. Rd Fb. Rd 101, 6 176, 0
Designing the base plate

The resistance of the base plate is determined using the value of contact pressure
(example 28):
N Sd 6 M Sd .tot 422000 6 ⋅ 16050 N
p1 = + 2 = + = 3 , 53 (at the base plate edge)
a⋅b a ⋅b 450 ⋅ 400 450 2 ⋅ 400 mm 2
12M a 12 ⋅ 16050 150 N
p2 = p1 − 2 Sd 1 = 3, 53 − = 2, 74 (at the column edge)
a ⋅b a 450 ⋅ 400 450
2
mm 2
Using the previously calculated stresses, obtain the value for the base plate bending
moment at the column edge as follows:
 a1 2 a12   150 2 150 2 
M Sd =  p2 + ( p1 − p2 )  b =  3, 53 + ( 3, 53 − 2, 74)  400 = 18, 26 kNm
 2 3   2 3 
The thickness of the base plate is obtained by substituting the bending moment MSd
in the formula (3.40):
6 ⋅ M Sd ⋅ γ MO 6 ⋅ 18, 26 ⋅ 1, 1
tp ≥ = = 29, 6 mm ⇒ provide t p = 30 mm
b ⋅ fy 400 ⋅ 345
 t > 16 mm ⇒ f = 345 N 
 p y
mm 2 
Thus, the resistance of the base plate tp = 30 mm and that of the holding down bolts of
Ø 30 are sufficient.
176
6.3 Designing the hollow section beams

When designing a beam, the use of plastic theory is recommended whenever feasible.
Plasticity theory can be used when calculating force quantities for Class 1 cross-sections and
when calculating resistance values for Class 1 and 2 cross-sections.
Rectangular hollow sections are a more efficient alternative when the axial force is small
compared to the bending moment and the bending moment is uniaxial. Even with hollow sec-
tions with a high h/b ratio, the resistance for lateral-torsional buckling is rarely governing.
Allowing for the continuity of the hollow sections reduces span moments, which often makes it
possible to select a smaller hollow section size. It is thus recommended that continuous hollow
sections as long as possible are used. However, the effect of shop manufacture, transport and
site installation on the length of structural elements must be taken into account. By placing the
splices appropriately, the forces affecting the joints can be kept to a minimum, which makes it
possible to also select a pinned joint.
It is recommended that the end of the hollow

section is stiffened with an end plate so that F F
cross-sectional deformation is prevented in a)
transferring the reaction from the webs to the
supporting plate (Figure 6.11a). The corner
rounding in the hollow section increases the risk
of buckling in bending, even when intermediate
;;;
supports are used, if the notch below the corner
rounding is not filled with the weld (Figure
b)
6.11b). The cross-section of a hollow section
tends to become distorted if it is subjected to
torsion moment. The cross-sectional distortion
can be prevented if the torsional moment is
transferred to the hollow section as shown in
Figure 6.11c. F F Weld
c)
The semi-rigidity of the joints can be taken into
account when designing hollow sections in a
;
frame structure. However, in such a case, the
moment-rotation curve of the joint must be F
known, since the rigidity of the joint varies
according to the joint moment. Reference [6]
and Appendix 9.4 include equations for
determining the moments in a hollow section Figure 6.11 Preventing the distortion of
with semi-rigid joints at both ends and uniform a hollow section
load distribution. Appendix 9.4 also deals with
the estimation of rigidity in hollow section joints.
177
6.3.1 Designing gable beam in the model building

Now design the gable beam of the model building. The width of the building is 48 m and
the column spacing at the end of the building is 6 m. Divide the gable beam into four
parts which are joined to the end columns on-site using bolted joints. The gable beam is
vertically loaded by the support reactions of the purlin trusses. The gable beam transfers
the transverse wind load of the hall to the bracing lattices, which means it is also
subjected to axial force. Consider a load combination with dominant snow load. The
wind load is multiplied by the combination factor ψ0= 0,6.
Loads
The compressive force on the gable beam is assumed constant along the entire length of
the section:
qd = ψ 0.2 ⋅ γ Q.2 (c p.1 + c p.2 )qref ⋅ ce = 0, 6 ⋅ 1, 5 ⋅ (0, 6 + 0, 3) ⋅ 0, 6 = 0, 486

kN
2
(wind load)
m
L 100
N Sd = qd (0, 375 H1 + H 2 ) = 0, 486 ⋅ (0, 375 ⋅ 10, 5 + 4) = 193 kN
2 2
where
L is the length of the building

Cp.1 Cp.2
H2
The total portion of the roof is included in

the value of the horizontal load, which is
H1
conservative. A more accurate result can be

obtained by taking into account the effect of
the pressure coefficients of the roof’s wind
load.
With dominant snow load, the following restraining force for the purlin truss is obtained:
Fy.Sd = 0, 5(γ G.1 ⋅ Gk .1 + γ Q.1 ⋅ Qk .1 ) L p ⋅ L f = 0, 5(1, 35 ⋅ 0, 4 + 1, 5 ⋅ 1, 2) ⋅ 4 ⋅ 10 = 46, 8 kN
(self-weight and snow load)
where
Lp is the purlin spacing

The self-weight Gk.1 can be assumed smaller (0,4 kN/ m2), since the weight of the primary
lattice need not be taken into account.
178
Calculate the forces and moments using plastic theory. For vertical loading, the
following static model is obtained:
FSd FSd
4000 4000 4000
L = 6000 L = 6000
FSd FSd
θ 2θ 2θ θ
3θ 3θ
By using equalizing the internal and external work, the plastic moment can be determined:
M Sd ( 3θ + 2θ ) = FSd  L ⋅ θ  ⇒ M Sd = 2FSd ⋅
2 L
= 37 , 44 kNm
3  15
2M Sd
VSd = = 37 , 44 kN
L
3
Resistances at the ultimate limit state

The resistance of the hollow section is determined from the formula (2.39), since the
hollow section is also subjected to compression load. Consider a hollow section with
dimensions 150 x 100 x 8 and steel grade S355J2H. The cross-section of the hollow
section is Class 1. The resistance values are as follows (Appendix 9.1):
M pl. y. Rd = 54, 59 kNm
Vpl.z. Rd = 394, 0 kN > VSd OK!
N pl. Rd == 1137 kN
The bending resistance, reduced by the axial force, is (Section 2.7.1.1):

 N Sd 
= 1, 33 ⋅ 54, 59 1 −
193 
M N . y. Rd = 1, 33 M pl. y. Rd  1 −  = 60, 28 kNm > M pl.y.Rd
 N pl. Rd   1137 
⇒ M N . y. Rd = M pl. y. Rd = 54, 59 kNm
In the interaction expression, there is now only one bending load, so the effect of the
parameter α is omitted:
 M Sd 
M  = 0, 686 < 1, 0 OK!
 N . y. Rd 
179
Check that the hollow section will not buckle before the mechanism is generated. The
buckling length is 6 m. The buckling resistance is as follows (Appendix 9.2):
N b. y. Rd = 369, 9 kN > N Sd OK!
The gable beam is restrained laterally supported by the roof profile, so lateral buckling
need not be checked. In this case, the effect of bending moment on buckling need not be
taken into account, since vertical buckling leads to the expected failure mechanism.
Stresses and deflection at the serviceability limit state

Check that the stresses do not exceed the yield strength of the material with
serviceability limit state loads. The partial safety factors for loads are given by the
formula (6.7):
FSd = 0, 5(Gk + Qk .1 ) ⋅ L p ⋅ L f = 0, 5(0, 4 + 1, 2) ⋅ 4 ⋅ 10 = 32 kN (self-weight and
snow load)
Mel. y.Sd =  10 
F =  10 
32 = 35, 6 kNm
 9  Sd  9 
N Sd = ψ 0.2 ⋅ Qk 2 = 0, 6 (0, 6 + 0, 3) ⋅ 0, 6(0, 375 ⋅ 10, 5 + 4)

100 
= 128, 6 kN (wind load)
 2 
Mel. y.Sd N Sd 35, 6 128, 6 N N
σ max = + = + = 301, 4 2 < f y = 355
Wel. y A 134, 4 3524 mm mm 2
We determine the deflection of the gable beam using elasticity theory:

1 FSd ⋅ a( L − a) 2 a 1 32000 ⋅ 4(6 − 4) 2 4 L
δ= = −8 = 20, 2 mm =
6 E⋅I 2 L + a 6 2, 1 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 1008 ⋅ 10
11
2⋅ 6 + 4 297
L
δ< OK! (Table 6.3)
200
Thus, the resistance of a 150 x 100 x 8 hollow section is sufficient.
6.3.2 Designing the door beam in the model building

Design the side wall door beam which is
joined to the intermediate column and to the
column of the primary frame. The height of the
door is 5 m and its self-weight is 0,75 kN/ m2. a
;
This is a sliding door, and the assembly rail is
placed at a distance of 200 mm from the
hollow section’s z axis and at a distance of
100 mm from its y axis. The door beam is
subjected to the self-weight of the door and to
the wind load. It is assumed that the lower
edge of the door is supported by the floor, in
which case only half of the wind load is
5000
door beam
a
do
5000
or
s
Mz
Vz
a-a
Mt
200
Vy
My
100
qwd
transferred to the door beam.
180
Loads
The hollow section is subjected to biaxial bending and to torsional moment. No axial
force is present. The force quantities are determined using elasticity theory. Consider a
hollow section with dimensions of 180 x 100 x 6 and steel grade S355J2H.
(torsional load due to the weight of the door and the wind load)
qtd = γ G.1 ⋅ Gk .1 ⋅ e1 + 0, 5γ Q.1 ⋅ qwk ⋅ H d ⋅ e2

kNm
= 1, 35 ⋅ 0, 75 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 0, 2 + 0, 5 ⋅ 1, 5 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 0, 1 = 1, 15
m
where
e1 is the eccentricity of the vertical load
e2 is the eccentricity of the wind load
H d is the height of the door
Mt .Sd = 2, 88 kNm (torsional moment at the support)

qd = γ G.1 ⋅ Gk .1 ⋅ H d
= 1, 35 ⋅ 0, 75 ⋅ 5 = 5, 06 kN/m (load causing bending due to the weight of the door)
M y.Sd = 15, 8 kNm (vertical bending moment at the centre of the span)
Vz.Sd = 12, 7 kN (vertical shear force at the support)
qwd = 0, 5γ Q.1 ⋅ qwk ⋅ H d
= 0, 5 ⋅ 1, 5 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ 5 = 1, 35 kN/m (load causing bending due to wind)
M z.Sd = 4, 22 kNm (horizontal bending moment at the centre of the field)
Vy.Sd = 3, 38 kN (horizontal shear force at the support)
Resistances at the ultimate limit state

Since the hollow section has a Class 2 cross-section, the resistance values are
determined using plasticity theory (Appendix 9.1).
Mt.Rd = 33,3 kNm Vpl.z.Rd = 374,1 kNm > Vz.Sd OK!

Mpl.y.Rd = 58,4 kNm Vpl.y.Rd = 207,8 kNm > Vy.Sd OK!
Mpl.z.Rd = 38,8 kNm
The interaction expression based on plasticity theory can be used, since there is no axial
force present and the hollow section has a Class 2 cross-section [formula (2.9)]. The
portion of torsion is checked separately, since the maximum value of the torsion moment
is at a different location than that of the bending moment:
1,66 1,66
 M y.Sd   M z.Sd   15, 8 
1,66
 4, 22 
1,66
M  +  =  +  = 0, 139 < 1, 0 OK!

 pl. y. Rd   M pl.z. Rd   58, 4   38, 8 
Mt .Sd 2, 88
= = 0, 086 < 1, 0 OK!
Mt . Rd 33, 3
181
Stresses and deflection at the serviceability limit state

Check that the stresses do not exceed the yield strength of the material with
serviceability limit state loads. The load values are given by the formula (6.7):
kN
Gk = 3, 75 (self-weight)
m
Mel. y.Sd = 11, 7 kNm (vertical bending moment at the centre of the field)
kN
Qk = 0, 90 (wind)
m
Mel.z.Sd = 2, 81 kNm (horizontal bending moment at the centre of the field)
Mel. y.Sd Mel.z.Sd 11, 7 2, 81 N N
σ max = + = + = 107 , 2 < f y = 355 OK!
Wel. y Wel.z 145, 5 104, 8 mm 2 mm 2
Determine the deflection:

5 qk ⋅ L4 5 3750 ⋅ 5 4
δy = = = 11, 1 mm
384 E ⋅ I 384 2, 1 ⋅ 10 11 ⋅ 1310 ⋅ 10 −8
L L
= < = OK! (Table 6.3)
424 250
L L
δz = 6, 7 mm = < OK!
751 250
The resistance of a 180 x 100 x 6 hollow section is thus sufficient for a door beam. It is
often necessary to restrict the deflection of the door beam to ensure smooth functioning
of the door mechanism.
182
Chapter 6
6.4 Design of trusses

When designing trusses, the joints between brace members and chords are usually assumed
pinned, so the brace members are subjected to axial force only. Bending moments need not be
taken into account in the design of joints if the conditions shown in the tables of Appendix 9.3
are met. However, the chords as continuous members are also subjected to bending stresses.
The chord moment can be reduced by directing the load to the joints of the lattice. Hollow
sections function efficiently as compression and tension members, which makes the lattice a
light-weight structure in relation to its load-bearing capacity.
Table 6.6 Steps in truss design

Task Illustration
1. Determine the loads in the structure. Determine the
most severe load combination. The direction of the 1
load is an important consideration, as the tension 2
and buckling resistance values of a hollow section
differ.
2. Determine the height of the lattice. Often, this

depends on the need for space and on the functional
requirements of the building, as well as on the
h
requirements of transport and installation. Select the

type and the purlin spacing of the lattice. With these
data, generate a static model of the lattic
3. After calculating the lattice moment by treating the

lattice as a section, make a preliminary selection of
the members. Divide the maximum moment value by N0 = Mmax /h = q · L2 /(8h)
the lattice height, which gives the initial chord force
value (N0 ≈ Mmax/h). Calculate the initial value for
h
the brace member load using the shear force value V0 = 2 Vmax = 2 (q · L/2)
of the section (V0 ≈ Vmax ). Check the resistance of M
Mmax
the joint subjected to the largest load. Adapt the

dimensions of the brace members and chords so
that the relation of their widths is approximately
Vmax
V
0,7-0,8.
183
4. Determine the actual member forces using an

appropriate design software. Calculate the member
forces for all load combinations. Use a safety factor
kN -1431
of 1,0 for the self-weight in cases where the effect of -1431 kN
N
the self-weight is advantageous. In the calculation
0k
-48
68 N
model, assume that the chord is continuous and that 2k
-48
2k
0k
N 68
N
the brace members is pinned. Check the resistance 1166 kN
of selected members to actual member forces.
Calculate the resistance of brace members in terms
of either tension or buckling resistance and check
the resistance of chords from the interaction expres-
sion for moment and axial force. If the member sizes
need to be adjusted, recalculate the member forces
using the new dimensions. Check that the
dimensions of the members meet the validity criteria
shown in the tables of Appendix 9.3.
5. Calculate the local resistances of joints. Decide

detail 5
whether to reinforce the joints subjected to the
greatest loads or to select stronger members. The
reinforcement of joints is efficient if the reinforcement
costs are smaller than the increased material costs
of the members. detail 5 b0
N0
; t0
h0
θ1 θ2 t1, 2
b1, 2
h1 h2
;
N1 N2
6. Calculate the deflection and compare it with the

permitted value.
δmax
7. Design the transverse support of the lattice and the

purlin-to-lattice joints. Determine the location of
assembly joints of the lattice, taking transport into Purlin
account
;
Primary lattice
;
184
In lattice design, it is recommended that design software package are used which include
resistance data for structural hollow sections (e.g. WinRAMI, Appendix 9.8).
The costs of a lattice does not only consist of the weight of the steel, but also of shop
fabrication and on-site installation. A lattice with gapped joints and few members may thus be
less costly than a lighter weight lattice with several members and overlapped joints. The most
advantageous type of lattice and joint shape must be decided on a case by case basis.
6.4.1 Selection of truss type
The most commonly used lattice types are K, KT and N trusses.
K truss
KT truss
N truss
Figure 6.12 Various truss types
A K truss is suitable for long-spanned structures where loads can be transferred directly to
lattice joint locations. In K type trusses, the number of members is small and joints are simple.
Wide spacings between members also leaves room for tube lead-throughs. However, the
buckling length of the upper chord is large, which may result in a heavier chord than in the
other lattice types. In general, a K truss is simple and very affordable in terms of fabrication
costs.
In a KT truss, the spacing of the upper chord supports is more dense, so the resistance of the
chord is better than that of a K truss. The joints in a KT truss are, however, more complex to
prepare. The joints in the lower chord must often be made overlapped, which increases
fabrication costs.
In an N truss, the number of members is larger as compared to that of a K truss. In deep and
short lattices, the brace member forces are great in comparison with the chord forces. In such
a case, an N truss is efficient, since the compressed brace members are shorter than the ones
in KT trusses. The joints must usually be made overlapped to avoid high values of eccentricity.
185
In long-spanned structures, there are big differences in the brace member loads. Close to the
support, the loads are greater than in the central area of the lattice. To reduce the weight of the
structure, the brace members subjected to smaller loads can be made of lighter-weight hollow
sections. However, to facilitate shop fabrication, it is not advisable to use more than 2 to 4
different brace member sizes. With hollow sections having the same external diameter, only
one wall thickness should be used in one lattice to avoid confusing them during construction.
For simplicity's sake, the chord is usually made of one hollow section size, although axial force
varies according to the length of the chord. The chord section can be constructed of hollow
sections of different sizes if the lattice is divided into assembly blocks. In such a case, the size
of the chord changes at the assembly joint.
At the intermediate support of a continuous lattice girder, the supporting force and the moment
are at their maximum values. The buckling length of the lower compression chord can be
reduced by placing a vertical brace member above the support. It is an advantage if the
supporting force is received by a vertical member, since the longer diagonal members are
subjected to tension. In subsequent diagonal compression members, axial force is reduced
from the value at the support (Figure 6.13).
Figure 6.13 Intermediate support of a continuous lattice girder
Laterally joined trusses
Supports for pipes, ducts and working platforms are usually shaped as a bridge by joining the
primary lattices with horizontal wind lattices (Figure 6.14). The lattices can also be joined with
plates whose joints are designed according to the horizontal loads. It is advisable to brace a
structure constructed of two lattices with lacing perpendicular to the lattice plane if the lattices
are also subjected to torsion load. (Figure 6.14a). The distance between the lattice nodes
perpendicular to the lattice plane can be used as the buckling length of a laterally
nonsupported upper chord. In such a case, the transverse force generated by the upper chord
must be taken into account in the design. The transverse force can be estimated using the
formulae shown in Section 6.1.4. A laterally nonsupported upper chord is presented, for
instance, in Figure 6.14b.
186
a) b)
FN FN
Lc
;;;
;; ;
;;
FN FN
Mt
Figure 6.14 Laterally joined trusses (Fn is the transverse force preventing buckling)
Due to services, the lattice must sometimes be perforated. To guarantee a sufficient shear
resistance, the lattice must be reinforced at the openings. A lower lattice can be constructed
between the upper chord and the opening if the height of the opening is smaller than that of the
lattice. If the opening and the lattice are of equal height, the opening must be reinforced with a
frame. The bending moment due to shear force must be taken into account in the design of the
frame and chords. Usually, it is advisable to place the openings in areas with the least possible
shear force.
Figure 6.15 Reinforcing openings in trusses
6.4.2 Selection of the chord member
A decisive factor in the selection of chord section are the buckling lengths about different axes.
When the buckling lengths are close to equal in both directions, square hollow sections are the
most advantageous. The use of rectangular hollow sections can be efficient if the buckling
length values differ significantly. However, a broad and shallow chord is not a good solution
because of the local strength of the chord face and the shear resistance. It is advisable to
select a deep chord when the chord bears significant bending load between the lattice nodes.
187
The in-plane buckling length of the chord equals the distance between nodes. When the
direction of buckling is out of the plane, the buckling length equals the distance between
laterally supported points. The above buckling length values can be multiplied by 0,9 if the
joints are welded all round and the brace members are not flattened [5]. Lateral stiffening
elements are designed for transverse loads and transverse forces due to compression chords
(Section 6.1.4). The bending moments generated by joint eccentrities must be taken into
account in the chord design. The joints of square and rectangular hollow sections are simpler
than the joints of circular hollow sections. Exceptional cases in which the use of circular hollow
sections is advisable are triangular lattice sections and space frames.
A thick chord wall is efficient in terms of joint resistance, but in terms of the compression
resistance of the chord the situation is quite the contrary. A feasible compromise must be
reached in the design, or the chord face must be reinforced.
Lattices that are subjected to heavy loads and that have a large spacing between the lateral
restraints of the compression chord can be constructed using a double chord. In a double
chord lattice, the chords are joined to each other directly (Figure 6.16b) or through diaphragm
members (Figures 6.16a and c). The horizontal inertia of the chord increases significantly if the
chords are joined by diaphragm members. Regarding the resistance of the joint, chord face
yield is not possible, since the forces from brace members are transferred directly to chord
webs. In the design of a joint shown in Figure 6.16c, forces due to three-dimensionality must be
taken into account. When designing the joint shown in Figure 6.16b, the same formulae as with
an I profile chord can be used if the space between corner roundings is welded at joint
locations. The web thickness value of the I profile tw is replaced with the combined thickness
value of both chord webs (2 t0), and the corner radius is the inner corner radius of the chord.
The dimensions of the joint shown in Figure 6.16a must be selected so that the brace member
welds are accessible. Regarding the shear resistance of the chords in Figure 16a, the following
sectional areas are used [7]:
Av = 2, 6 ho ⋅ to when ho / bo ≥ 1 (6.14)
Av = 2, 0 ho ⋅ to when ho / bo < 1 (6.15)
where
ho is the height of the chord

bo is the width of the chord
a) b)
hitsi
;
;;;
;; ;
c)
;
Figure 6.16 Double chord

188
6.4.3 Selection of bracing members
The selection of brace members is less complex, since a brace member with thin walls and
large outer dimensions is better in terms of both joint strength and member resistance.
However, the slenderness of a brace member should be kept within the limits specified in the
tables in Appendix 9.3. Special attention must be paid to the weld between the chord and the
brace member when the chord and brace member are of almost equal width (Section 7.4.4).
Usually, it is advisable to select such dimensions for the brace member so that the ratio
between its width and the chord width falls between 0,7 and 0,8.
It is always conservative to take the actual length of the brace member as its buckling length.
However, joints welded at all sides have rigidity, and thus a buckling length of 0,75 times the
actual length of the member can be used. The buckling length of the brace members can also
be calculated with the formulae presented in reference [5], if the b1/b0 ratio is less than 0,6.
However, in joints of completely overlapped (λov = 100 %) and flattened brace members, the
buckling length is always the actual length of the member.
With large values of the joint angle θi , it is advisable to use rectangular brace members to keep
the joint eccentrities to a minimum (Figure 6.17a). With small joint angles or near the support of
a single span lattice square brace members can be used. (Figure 6.17b). Near the support of a
single span lattice, the axial forces in the chord are small, so the chord can more easily carry
the bending moments due to joint eccentrities.
a) b)
θ θ θ θ
;;;
;
;
Figure 6.17 The effect of brace member shape
6.4.4 Design of truss joints
Truss joints can be divided into two main groups: gapped and overlapped. Gapped joints are
easier to make, since the brace members can be cut to the conect angle in one go. There is
also some tolerance when assembling the lattice. In a gapped joint made of square brace
members, the eccentricity is usually large when the brace members are of the same width as
the chord. The eccentricity increases the bending load on the chord. The shear resistance of
the joint may also govern in a gapped joint. An overlapped joint is more complex to prepare,
because the overlapping member must be cut to two different angles. The tolerances of the
elements are more restricted than in gapped joints. Respectively, the resistance of the joint is
greater, and eccentricity can be removed completely if an appropriate overlap is used.
189
The smallest angle permitted for brace members in the tables is 30°. In practice, small joint
angles should be avoided, as they make the welding of the acute angle side quite difficult. With
small angles, even minor flaws in cutting the hollow section can result in large root gaps in the
joints. If the joint angle θI is smaller than 60°, the ends of brace members must be chamfered.
According to tables in Eurocode 3 Appendix K, the minimum gap for gap joints is (t1+ t2).
It is also advisable to check that the gap meets the condition given in reference [8], that is,
ga ≥ 1,5 t0, to obtain a sufficient plastic deformation capacity of the chord (ga is the distance
between the weld toes, see Figure 6.18).
t1 t2 t1 t2
ga >1,5 t0 ga >1,5 t0
θ1 > 60° θ2 > 60° θ1 ≤ 60° θ2 ≤ 60°
g > t1 + t2 g > t1 + t2
t0
t0
Figure 6.18 Minimum gap values
In the joints of hollow section lattices, local stress concentrations are generated at the joint.
However, the stress concentrations are somewhat evened out by the yielding of the brace
members and chords. Due to this, the welds at the joints must be designed to have the same
strength as the members. The welds that qualify are full penetration single-V butt welds or fillet
welds with a throat thickness meeting the following conditions [7]:
a ≥ 0, 95 t ( fy = 235 N mm 2 ) (6.16 )
a ≥ 1, 00 t ( fy = 275 N mm 2 ) (6.17 )
a ≥ 1, 07 t ( fy = 355 N mm 2 ) (6.18 )
In overlapped joints, the lower brace member need not usually be welded at the side which
remains hidden. However, in totally overlapped joints (λov = 100 %) even the hidden side must
always be welded. This is also the case when the components of the forces in the brace
member, parallel to the chord, differ from each other by more than 20 % [7].
Reinforcing truss joints
Reinforcing the joint is advantageous if the number of joints to be reinforced is small compared
to that of members in the lattice. On one hand, the reinforcement of joints increases fabrication
costs; on the other, it reduces the weight of the structure and removes the need to use too
many hollow section sizes.
190
The chord face can be reinforced with plates (Figure 6.19a). This is an effective method for
structures with brace members distinctly narrower than the chords. When determining the
resistance of joints, the thickness of the chord face t0 is replaced with the thickness of the
bracing tp, and the width of the chord is replaced with the width of the bracing bp. The
resistance of joints reinforced on the chord face is shown in Tables 9.3.13 and 9.3.15. The
bracing is prone to lamellar tearing, which must be taken into account when selecting the
bracing material.
The shear resistance of the chord can be improved with plates welded to the chord side (Figure
6.19b). The height of the plates is equal to that of the chord. When calculating the sectional
area, the thickness of the chord web t0 is replaced with the sum t0+ tp. The resistance of joints
reinforced by the chord webs is given in Tables 9.3.14 and 9.3.16. The shear resistance of the
joint often governs when the brace member and the chord are of equal width.
Overlapping of brace members increases both the resistance of the chord face and the shear
resistance of the chord. Brace members of different widths can be overlapped with
reinforcement (Figure 6.19c). The thickness of the reinforcing plate must be at least twice the
thickness of the brace member wall (tp ≥ 2t1). A further advantage gained by the use of
reinforcement is a symmetrical joint. Preparing the joint shown in Figure 6.19c without
reinforcement is not advisable, as the resistance of the joint is smaller than the results shown in
the tables in Appendix 9.3. The resistance of reinforced overlapped joints is shown in Table
;;;
9.3.17.
; a)
c)
b)
Figure 6.19 Reinforcement of truss joints
6.4.5 Truss joints at the supports

The transmission of the lattice shear force to the column must be examined carefully. If the
centre of gravity of diagonal member, chord and column do not intersect at the same point, the
reaction is transferred as a bending moment to the column. In practice, it is often advantageous
to allow a small eccentricity if this facilitates the preparation of the joint. The end of the chord is
usually sealed with a plate to achieve sufficient resistance to concentrated load. The joint
location of the chord must be designed taking into account the combined effect of axial force,
shear force and bending moment. Especially at intermediate support location in continuous
lattice sections, the effect of axial force is significant. Various methods are presented in Figure
6.20.
191
Figure 6.20 Truss joints at the support
6.4.6 Estimation of the truss rigidity
Usually, the deflection of the lattice is obtained directly from the output of the lattice design
software. In the software, the lattices can be modelled using continuous chords and pinned
brace members. In gapped joints, due to the flexibility of the joints the actual deflection can be
more than 12-15% greater than the calculated deflection [7]. In the preliminary planning stage
it may be necessary to estimate the lattice deflection by manual calculations. The stiffness of
the lattice can be calculated taking into account the effect of the chords only:
2 2
 A2   
 A1  2 1 
I = A1 ⋅ H 2  + A ⋅ H (6.19)
A2  2  A2 
 1+   1+ 
 A1   A1 
A1
where
A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of chords

H
H is the distance between the centre of gravity

axes of chords
A2
192
6.4.7 Designing the truss of the model building

Loads
Now design the primary trusses in the model building. Loads on the lattice consist of the
self-weight of the structure and the snow load. The purlin spacing is 4 m, so it is an ad-
vantage to use the same spacing in the brace member joints. With the 10 m spacing of
primary lattices, the following load on the lattice is obtained:
qd = (γ G,1 ⋅ Gk ,1 + γ Q,1 ⋅ Qk ,1 ) L f = (1, 35 ⋅ 0, 5 + 1, 5 ⋅ 1, 2)10 = 24, 8

kN
m
FSd = qd ⋅ L p = 24, 8 ⋅ 4 = 99, 2 kN (load on the node)
where
Lp is the purlin spacing
Truss shape
In a roof lattice, the lower chord can be made either straight or bent. Axial forces are
greater in a bent lower chord. With a straight lower chord, the height of the lattice is
greater in the centre of the span, which is also the location with the greatest moment.
Thus, the axial force is smaller in a straight lower chord. With to a straight lower chord,
the length of brace members is greater, which may increase the weight of the lattice as
compared to a lattice with a bent lower chord. In the model building, the lower chord is
bent, but the axial force of the lower chord is resisted by a tension rod. The use of the
tension rod reduces the amount of steel in the brace members, but increases the number
of joints in the lattice.
The span is long, which makes the shear force small compared to the bending moment.
An N lattice is thus too heavy to be used in the model building. For a better upper chord
resistance, a KT lattice is selected, since the spacing of the purlins is large. The height
of the lattice is estimated by the span. In practice, the optimal height varies between L/9-
L/12. In the model building, a lattice height of 6,5 m is selected.
diagonal N0.Sd = -1431 kN upper chord

lower chord
vertical
N0.Sd = -462 kN
α = 9,5°
H
N1.Sd = -480 kN
tension rod N0.Sd = 1166 kN
L N1.Sd = 682 kN
Figure 6.21 Primary truss
193
Determining the member forces
The initial load on chords and brace members can be determined by calculating the
lattice forces with the formulae of a simply supported section:
qd ⋅ L2 24, 8 ⋅ 48 2
N 0.Sd ≈ = = 1099 kN (load on upper chord)
(8 H ) ( 8 ⋅ 6 , 5)
N1.Sd ≈ 0, 5qd ⋅ L 2 = 0, 5 ⋅ 24, 8 ⋅ 48 2 = 841, 7 kN (load on brace member)
Based on these values, select an upper chord of 200 x 200 x 8 and brace members of 120
x 120 x 6. For the buckling length of the upper chord, take 90% of the horizontal
distance between purlins and, 90% of the vertical distance between the lattice nodes.
Thus the following buckling length for the upper chord are obtained:
2
Lc. y = 0, 9 = 1, 83 m
cos 9, 5
4
Lc.z = 0, 9 = 3, 65 m
cos 9, 5
The size of the lower chord is more complex to define manually in this particular case, so
by considering the brace member joint, select a lower chord of dimensions 140 x 140 x 5.
The axial force on the tension rod can be assumed equal to that on the upper chord.
Select a tension rod of Ø80 mm (fy = 345 N/mm2). The output from the design software
gives the following maximum values for the forces:
Upper chord: N 0.Sd = −1431 kN (compression)
M0.Sd = 4, 0 kNm
Lower chord: N 0.Sd = −462 kN (compression)
Tension rod : N 0.Sd = 1166 kN (tension)
Brace members: N1.Sd = −480 kN (compression)
Resistance of the upper chord
First, consider the resistance of the upper chord with a 200 x 200 x 8 hollow section and
the steel designation S355J2H. The hollow section has a Class 1 cross-section and its re-
sistances are as follows (Appendix 9.2):
N b. Rd = N b.z. Rd = 1484 kN (buckling resistance, Lc= 3,65 m)
N b. y. Rd = 1806 kN (buckling resistance, Lc= 1,83 m)
M pl. y. Rd = 135, 8 kNm
Substituting the resistances in the interaction expression (2.57):
N Sd k y ⋅ M y.Sd 1431 1, 182 ⋅ 4, 0
+ = + = 0, 999 < 1, 0 OK !
N b. Rd M y. Rd 1484 135, 8
194
Designing the lower chord and the tension a

rod
a
The use of the tension rod generates com-
pression in the lower chord. Compression is
;
present only in the first diagonal spacing,
a
after which the lower chord is subjected to
tension. Support the compression element of a a-a
the lower chord laterally to the lattice
purlin with stays. This way, the buckling
length of the lower chord of dimensions 140
x 140 x 5 is equal in both directions:
 4 
Lc = 0, 9  = 3, 65 m
 cos 9, 5 
χ ⋅ A ⋅ fy 355
N b. Rd = = 0, 617 ⋅ 2636
γ M1 1, 1
= 525, 1 kN > 462 kN OK!
The resistance of the tension rod (Ø80 mm) is determined by the area and the yield
strength:
A ⋅ fy 345 ( Ø > 16 mm ⇒ fy = 345 N/mm2 )

Nt . Rd = = π 40 2 ⋅
γ M0 1, 1
= 1576 kN > 1166 kN OK!
Resistance of the brace members

The resistance of a tension brace member of dimensions 120 x 120 x 6 is determined in a
similar way to that of the tension rod:
A ⋅ fy 355
Nt . Rd = = 2643 = 853 kN > 682 kN
γ M1 1, 1
The buckling length of a 120 x 120 x 6 compression brace member is 0,75L:
Lc = 0, 75 ⋅ 3, 54 = 2, 66 m
This buckling length is used to determine the buckling resistance:
χ ⋅ A ⋅ f y 0, 690 ⋅ 2643 ⋅ 355

N b.Rd = = = 589 kN > 480 kN
γ M1 1, 1
In brace members subjected to smaller loads, a smaller hollow section can be used.
195
Resistance values of joints
To simplify shop fabrication, the joints of the upper chord in the model building are
designed gapped and those of the lower chord overlapped. Thus, the eccentricities can
be kept small. In a simply supported lattice section, the shear force is at its greatest at
the supports, which is also where the brace member forces are at their greatest. Due to
this, the resistance values of joints at the two outermost purlins (corners 1 and 5 in the
calculation model) must be checked. In practical design, the resistance values of all
joints must be checked.
detail 1 b0
Joint of corner 1
;
N0 t0
h0
detail 1
t1
θ
b1
h1
N1
Figure 6.22 Joint at corner 1
The joint at corner 1 is a Y joint with a tension brace member. The formulae for this type
of joint are shown in Table 9.3.1 The geometry and forces at the joint are as follows:
Chord: 200 x 200 x 8 (A0 = 5924 mm2)

Brace member: 120 x 120 x 6
( puristusta) ⇒ kn = 1, 3 −   

0, 4 479000 
N 0.Sd = −479 kN (compression) = 1, 13 ⇒ kn = 1, 0
0, 6 5924 ⋅ 355 
N1.Sd = 682 kN (Figure 6.21)
θ = 54o
b 120
β = 1 = = 0, 6
b0 200
h 120
η = 1 = = 0, 6
b0 200
196
Chord face yield
Since β = 0,6 < 0,85, the governing failure mode is the yielding of the chord face:
f y ⋅ t 0 2  2η
+ 4 1 − β  kn
1, 1
N1. Rd =
(1 − β ) sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 8 2  2 ⋅ 0, 6 + 4 1 − 0, 6  1, 0 1 = 256, 1 kN
=
(1 − 0, 6 ) sin 54  sin 54  1, 1
The joint resistance is not sufficient, since N1.Sd = 682 kN > N1.Rd. When the chord face
value governs, reinforcement welded to the chord face helps improve the resistance of
the joint. In the model building, reinforcement is an affordable solution, since only the
outermost joints must be reinforced.
b0
t0
N0
h0
Lp bp
;;
θ
tp
t1
h1 b1
N1
Figure 6.23 Reinforcing the joint at corner 1
Yield of the reinforced chord face

Determine the resistance of the joint which has a 275 x 185 x 15 reinforcing plate
welded to the chord face (Table 9.3.13):
355 ⋅ 15 2  2 ⋅ 0, 65 + 4 1 − 0, 65  1, 0 1 = 1019 kN > 682 kN
N1. Rd =
(1 − 0, 65) sin 54  sin 54  1, 1
Check the length of the bracing:

 h 
= 275mm ≥  1  + b p (b p − b1 ) = 
120 
Lp + 185(185 − 120) = 257 mm OK!
 sin θ 1   sin 54 
= 275mm ≥ 1, 5
120 
Lp = 222 mm
 sin 54 
197
The dimensions of the chord and brace members must fall within the validity area given
in Table 9.3.13:
b1 h1 120 b0 + h0 400
= = = 0, 6 > 0, 25 OK! = = 50 > 25 OK!
b0 b0 200 t0 8
h b1 h1 120
0, 5 < 1 = 1 < 2 OK! = = = 20 < 35 OK!
b1 t1 t1 6
h b1 + h1 240
0, 5 < 0 = 1 < 2 OK! = = 40 > 25 OK!
b0 t1 6
b0 h0 200 b p = 185 mm > b0 − 2t 0 = 184 mm OK!
= = = 25 < 35 OK!
t0 t0 8
Joint at corner 5
det 5 b0
det 5
Figure 6.24 Joint at corner 5

h0
;
θ1
N1
e
h1
g
ga
h2
N0
θ2
The joint at corner 5 is a gapped K joint. The formulae for this type of joint are given in
Table 9.3.2. The geometry and forces at the joint are as follows:
N2
t0
t1, 2
b1, 2
Chord: 200 x 200 x 8, A0 = 5924 mm2

Brace members: 120 x 120 x 6
 0, 4   859100 ⋅ 1, 1
( puristusta)
N 0.Sd = −859, 1 kN (compression) ⇒ k n = 1, 3 −   = 1, 00
 0, 6   5924 ⋅ 355 
N 1.Sd = −480 kN
N 2.Sd = 480 kN
(θ < 60°, so the brace member must be welded to the chord with a V
θ 1 = θ 2 = 54 o groove)
120 + 120   1
β = = 0, 6, β < 1 −   = 0, 92, so the punching shear of the chord must
 2 ⋅ 200  γ  be checked
b0 200
γ = = = 12, 5
2t 0 16
198
The eccentricity at the joint created by the joint gap is as follows:

g = 50 mm
 h1 h2  sin θ 1 ⋅ sin θ 2 h0
e= + + g − = 36, 5 mm (eccentricity at the joint)
 2sinθ 1 2 sin θ 2  sin(θ 1 + θ 2 ) 2
Yield of the chord face

First, determine the resistance by the yield of the chord face:
 m m

2∑ i b + ∑ hi

f y ⋅ t0 i =1 i =1 1, 1
N1. Rd = 8, 9   kn γ
sin θ  2m ⋅ b0  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
 
 
355 ⋅ 8 2  120 + 120 + 120 + 120  1
= 8, 9 1, 0 12, 5 = 482, 0 kN OK!
sin 54  4 ⋅ 200  1, 1
Chord shear
Obtain the value for the shear resistance of the entire chord as follows:
Av = ( 2h0 + α ⋅ b0 )t 0 = ( 2 ⋅ 200 + 0, 137 ⋅ 200)8 = 3419 mm 2
1 1
α= 2 = = 0, 137
4g 4 ⋅ 50 2
1+ 2 1+
3t 0 3 ⋅ 82
f y ⋅ Av 1, 1 355 ⋅ 3419 1
N1. Rd = = = 787 , 4 kN
3 sin θ γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0 3 sin 54 1, 1
f y ⋅ Av
Vpl. Rd = = 637 , 1 kN
3 ⋅γ M0
VSd = 480 sin( 54) = 388, 3 kN
In the determination of the compression resistance of the chord, the effect of shear force
must be taken into account, since:
VSd > 0, 5VRd
  2VSd   fy
2
N 0. Rd =  A0 − Av  − 1 
  Vpl. Rd   γ M 0
  2 ⋅ 388, 3   355
2
=  5934 − 3419 − 1  = 1862 kN
  637 , 1   1, 1
N 0. Rd > N 0.Sd = 859, 1 kN OK!
199
Failure of the brace member

The effective width of the brace member is:
10b1 ⋅ t 02 10 ⋅ 120 ⋅ 8 2
beff = = = 64 mm < 120 mm
b0 ⋅ t1 200 ⋅ 6
= f y ⋅ t1 ( 2h1 − 4t1 + b1 + beff )

1, 1
N1. Rd
γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
1
= 355 ⋅ 6( 2 ⋅ 120 − 4 ⋅ 6 + 120 + 64) = 774, 5 kN
1, 1
Shear failure of the chord face

In this case, the shear failure resistance of the chord must also be taken into account:
10t 0 ⋅ b1 10 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 120
bep = = = 48 ≤ 120 mm
b0 200
f y ⋅ t 0  2h1
+ b1 + bep 
1, 1
N1. Rd =
3 sin θ  sin θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M 0
355 ⋅ 8  2 ⋅ 120
+ 120 + 48
1
= = 856, 1 kN
3 sin 54  sin 54  1, 1

Thus, the chord face yield was the most important governing failure mode
N1.Rd = 482,0 kN > N1.Sd = 480 kN OK !
Check the validity criteria in the joint table:
b1 120 b1 h1 120
= = 0, 6 > 0, 35 OK! = = = 20 < 35 OK!
b0 200 t1 t1 6
b1 0, 01b0 b1 + h1 240
= 0, 6 > 0, 1 + = 0, 35 OK! = = 40 > 25 OK!
b0 t0 t1 6
h
0, 5 < 1 = 1 < 2 OK!
b1
h
0, 5 < 0 = 1 < 2 OK!
b0
b0 h0 200
= = = 25 < 35 OK!
t0 t0 8
b0 + h0 400
= = 50 > 25 OK!
t0 8
200
g
b1 h1 E
= = 20 < 1, 25 = 30, 4 OK!
t1 t1 fy L L
t0
L L
e 36, 5 θ1 ga θ2
−0, 55 < = = 0, 18 < 0, 25 OK!
h0 200 t1 t2
g 50
= = 0, 25 > 0, 5(1 − β ) = 0, 5(1 − 0, 6 ) = 0, 2 OK!
b0 200
g 50
= = 0, 25 < 1, 5(1 − β ) = 1, 5(1 − 0, 6 ) = 0, 6 OK!
b0 200
ga = g − 2 L = g − 2 tan( 90 − θ )t1 = 50 − 2 tan( 90 − 54)6 OK!
ga = 41, 3 mm > 1, 5t 0 = 1, 5 ⋅ 8 = 12 mm OK!
Lattice joint at the support
200 x 200 x 8
2 x 15
a-a
300 x 200 x 6
a
;
tp
120 x 120 x 6
Figure 6.25 Lattice joint at the support
The lattice-to-column joint is made using an end plate. To facilitate the fabrication of the
joint, eccentricity is allowed about the neutral axis of the column. As a result, the upper
chord must transfer the shear force to the column. The eccentricity also causes bending
moment in the upper chord. When the eccentricity is 200 mm, the forces loading the end
of the upper chord at the diagonal/chord intersection are as follows:
VSd = 595 kN
M Sd = 595 ⋅ 0, 2 = 119 kNm
N Sd = 78 kN (joint at corner 1)
201
Resistance of the end of the chord to the combined load

The chord needs to be reinforced, because the shear resistance of a 200 x 200 x 8 hollow
section is not sufficient (Vpl.Rd = 552 kN < VSd). Reinforce the chord by plates welded to
the side of the chord. The thickness of the plates is tp= 5 mm. Reinforcing plates extend
over the joint of the diagonal member. The plates welded to the sides of the chord are
taken into account when determining the resistance of the chord end, and the plate
welded to the lower flange of the chord is taken into account when determining the
resistance of the joint (joint at corner 1). The resistance values of the reinforced upper
chord are:
Vpl. Rd =  A + 2(t p ⋅ h) =  5924 + 2( 5 ⋅ 200)

h fy 200 355
= 924, 6 kN
 b + h  3 ⋅γ M 0  200 + 200  3 ⋅ 1, 1
[ (
M pl. Rd = Wpl + 2 0, 25t p ⋅ h 2 )]
fy
γ M0 [ (
= 420900 + 2 0, 25 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 200 2
355
1, 1
)]
= 168, 1 kNm
[
N pl.Rd = A + 2(t p ⋅ h) ]γ
fy 355
= [ 5924 + 2( 5 ⋅ 200)] = 2557 kN
M0 1, 1
The shear force now exceeds half of the shear resistance; thus, its effect must be taken
into account in the interaction expression. The effect of shear force is taken into account
when calculating the resistance to bending and axial force [formula (2.46)]:
 ρ ⋅ Av2   0, 126 ⋅ 4962 2 
 pl
W −  fy  520900 −  355
 8t   8 ⋅ 13 
MV . Rd = = = 158, 5 kNm
γ M0 1, 1
fy
NV . Rd = ( A − ρ ⋅ Av ) = 2356 kN
γ M0
The effect of axial force is taken into account in the interaction expression (2.49).
Bending moment now occurs only in the other direction, so the latter term in the
condition is omitted. Buckling need not be taken into account, as it is the local resistance
of the chord which is considered here. The following value for bending resistance with
the presence of axial force is obtained:
 N 
M N . Rd = 1, 26 MV . Rd  1 − Sd  = 1, 26 ⋅ 158, 5 1 −
78 
= 193, 1 kNm > M pl , Rd
 NV . Rd   2356 
⇒ M N . Rd = MV . Rd = 158, 5 kNm ⇒ M N . Rd > M Sd = 119 kNm OK!
Resistance of the chord end to concentrated load

Next, calculate the resistance of the upper chord webs to the reaction using the formulae
shown in Section 2.10. The end of the upper chord is sealed with a plate, and the gap
between the corner rounding and the splice is filled with weld. The deformation of the
hollow section and the resulting secondary bending loads therefore need not be taken
into account.
202
The magnitude of the concentrated load to each web is:

VSd
FSd = = 297 , 5 kN
2
The resistance to concentrated load is determined by formulae (2.61) and (2.62), which
give the following results:
Ry. Rd = (ss + s y )(t 0 + t y ) = ( 2 ⋅ 6 + 4 ⋅ 15 + 2 200 ⋅ 13 )( 8 + 5)

fy 355
= 730, 0 kN > FSd OK!
γ M1 1, 1
(1 + 3 ⋅ 0, 2) (1 + 3 ⋅ 0, 2)
Ra. Rd = 0, 5(t 0 + t p ) = 0, 5( 5 + 8) 2 210000 ⋅ 355
2
E ⋅ fy
γ M1 1, 1
= 1060, 1 kN
Ra. Rd > FSd OK!
In the previous resistance calculations, the web reinforecement was included in the
thickness of the webs. The web thickness used in calculations is then t = 8 + 5 = 13 mm.
Deflection of the lattice

The second moment of area of the lattice is estimated with the formula (6.19):
2 2
 A2   
 A1   1 
I = A1 ⋅ H 2   + A2 ⋅ H 2 
A2 A2 
 1 +   1 + 
 A1   A1 
2 2
 5027   
= 5924 ⋅ 6500 2  5924  + 5027 ⋅ 6500 2   = 0, 1149 m 4
1
 5027   5027 
 1+   1+ 
 5924   5924 
where
A1 is the area of the upper chord

A2 is the area of the tension rod
At the serviceability limit state, loads are calculated using the characteristic values (6.7),
which gives the following load on the lattice:
kN
qk = (Gk + Qk ) L f = (0, 5 + 1, 2)10 = 17
m
where
The deflection is calculated by assuming the lattice section is simply supported:

5qk ⋅ L4 5 ⋅ 17000 ⋅ 48 4 L L
δ= = = 47 mm = < OK ! (Table 6.3)
384 E ⋅ I 384 ⋅ 2, 1 ⋅ 10 11 ⋅ 0, 1149 1032 200
203
6.5 Stiffening hollow section structures

To keep the displacements generated by the horizontal loads within permissible limits, the
structure must be stiffened. The stiffening methods can be divided into five groups:
- mast stiffening
- frame stiffening
- tower stiffening
- plate stiffening
- lattice stiffening
In mast stiffening, the columns function as masts fixed to the foundation with a rigid joint,
receiving the horizontal loads. When the height of the building increases, the foundations are
subjected to larger moments, and the buckling length factor of the columns is great. This
makes mast stiffening suitable only for low buildings. The advantage of this method is the
simplicity of the installation, as no separate supports are needed during installation.
Frame stiffening is a natural method to use when frame joints are rigid and lattice stiffening is
not feasible due to, for instance, openings in the walls. In frame stiffening, horizontal loads are
transferred as moments to the corners of the frame. Rigid joints are, however, more costly to
make than pinned ones.
In tower stiffening, horizontal loads are transferred through rigid elements such as lift shafts
or stairwells to the foundation. This method is well-suited for buildings in which stiffening
elements are made using slip casting. The problem is to produce a sufficiently firm joint when
joining the building frame to the stiffening elements.
In plate stiffening, horizontal forces are transferred to the ground through plates joined to the
frame. Plates can be vertical (e.g. walls cast on-site) or horizontal (e.g. profile). Plate stiffening
is an affordable method: since the plate already forms a part of the building, no separate
stiffening elements are needed. Horizontal loads must also be taken into account when
dimensioning the joining of the stiffening plates, as this makes the joining firmer than it would
be without taking the stiffening effect into account.
Lattice stiffening is an effective method in high buildings. Stiffening lattices transfer the
horizontal loads to the members as axial forces. Hollow sections make excellent stiffening
lattice members, since their radius of gyration is large about both axes. A disadvantage of the
lattice stiffening is the space needed for lacings at doors, windows and other openings made to
walls.
Several stiffening methods can be used in the same building. The buckling length values of the
structure can be determined using the model for non-sway frames (Figure 6.7) when using
tower, plate or lattice stiffening. In mast and frame stiffening, the buckling length values must
be determined using the sway-frame model (Figure 6.8).
6.5.1 Designing the stiffening elements in the model building

In the model building, the lattice stiffening method is used. This manual deals with the
design of transverse stiffening elements only for the model building. The longitudinal
stiffening elements are designed according to the same principles.
204
Lateral stiffening
The wind loads in the side wall of the building are transferred to the stiffening lattices in
the end wall through the horizontal lattice in the roof parallel to the side walls. However,
the horizontal force of the side wall wind columns is transferred to the primary columns
through the roof profile. This way, the eaves section of the side wall can be made lighter.
The joints of the stiffening profile must be checked for the loads created by the horizontal
forces.
End wall bracing
Design the bracing elements of the end wall. The horizontal load is divided evenly in the
end walls, as the building is symmetrical and the bracing in the end walls is similar. In
the pressure coefficient of the wind load, the effect of negative pressure must also be
taken into account, so cp= 0,6 + 0,3= 0,9. Thus the following value for the horizontal
force of the end wall is obtained:
L 100
FSd = γ Q.1 ⋅ c p ⋅ qref ⋅ ce (0, 375 ⋅ H1 + H 2 ) = 1, 5 ⋅ 0, 9 ⋅ 0, 6(0, 375 ⋅ 10, 5 + 4) = 321, 5 kN
2 2
where
H1 is the height of the eaves
H2 is the height of the roof structure
L is the length of the building
The bracing is made with two members, one subjected to compression and the other to
tension. The total horizontal force is transferred by the tension lacing. The tensile force
is as follows:
NSd = 321,5 / cos 48 = 480 kN
Consider a hollow section of dimensions 100 x 100 x 4:
Nt.Sd = 1495⋅355 / 1,1 = 482,5 kN
FSd
Det 1
;;;
100 x 100 x 4
Det 1
250 x 150 x 12,5
Figure 6.26 Connecting the bracing

205
The bracing-to-column connection is made as a single-lap joint through a plate. The

thickness of plates is 20 mm, and their width is 230 mm. The strength grade of the M30
bolts is 8.8. The shear resistance of bolts is calculated assuming that the shear plane
does not pass through the threaded portion of the bolt (example 25):
800
Fv. Rd = 2 ⋅ 707 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ = 543 kN > N Sd OK!
1, 25
The bearing resistance of the plate is limited by the edge distance. In the joint shown in
the example, the edge distance is 50 mm. The following bearing resistance is obtained:
20
Fb. Rd = 2 ⋅ 2, 5 ⋅ 0, 521 ⋅ 490 ⋅ 30 = 612, 7 kN > N Sd OK!
1, 25
The resistance of the column-to-end plate connection is calculated from the formulae in
Table 9.3.11:
Column flange shear failure: N1.Rd = 628,9 kN
Splice failure: N1.Rd = 463,9 kN
Column web yield: N1.Rd = 665,6 kN
The resistance of the joint is sufficient, since the horizontal component of the lacing’s
axial force is
NSd = 321,5 kN < N1.Rd
Roof Bracing
qd.2
D2
D1
qd.1
eaves section wind column
purlin section main column
Figure 6.27 Roof bracing
206
The roof bracing is subjected to transverse wind load. The loads on the wind columns
are transferred as reactions, so part of the wind load is transferred directly to the
foundation. The total wind load on the roof is transferred to the roof bracing. When
determining the wind load, it is important to distinguish between the effects of negative
and positive pressure due to the difference between the compression and tension
resistance values of hollow sections. The following wind load is obtained on the side
wall:
qd 1 = γ Q.1 ⋅ c p ⋅ qref ⋅ ce (0, 375 ⋅ H1 + H 2 )

kN
= 1, 5 ⋅ 0, 6 ⋅ 0, 6(0, 375 ⋅ 10, 5 + 4) = 4, 28 (pressure)
m
qd 2 = γ Q.1 ⋅ c p ⋅ qref ⋅ ce (0, 375 ⋅ H1 + H 2 )
kN
= 1, 5 ⋅ 0, 3 ⋅ 0, 6(0, 375 ⋅ 10, 5 + 4) = 2, 14 (negative pressure)
m
where
H1 is the height of the eaves

H2 is the height of the building at the apex
The axial force values in diagonal members D1 and D2 (Figure 6.27) is obtained from
the reaction at end of the roof bracing:
0, 5 L 0, 5 ⋅ 100
D1 : N Sd.1 = qd 1 = 4, 28 = 279, 4 kN (tension)
cos 40 cos 40
0, 5 L 0, 5 ⋅ 100
D2 : N Sd.2 = qd 2 = 2, 14 = 139, 7 kN (compression)
cos 40 cos 40
The diagonal is supported at purlin trusses, so the buckling length is:
20 2 + 24 2
Lc. y = Lc.z = = 5, 2 m
6
Consider a hollow section of dimensions 120 x 120 x 5. The following values for
tension and buckling resistance is obtained:
355
Nt.Rd = 2236 = 721, 6 kN > N Sd.1 OK!
1, 1
355
N b.Rd = 0, 328 ⋅ 2236 = 236, 4 kN > N Sd.2 OK!
1, 1
The resistance of the upper chord of the purlin truss and that of the eaves beam, to the
axial force due to wind load, must also be checked, as well as the deflection of the roof
bracing.
207
6.6 References
[1] ENV 1991-2-1: Eurocode 1: Suunnitteluperusteet ja rakenteiden kuormat, osa 2-1:
Rakenteiden kuormat, tiheydet, oma paino ja hyötykuorma, 1995
(ENV 1991-2-1:Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures. Part 2-1: Actions
on structures. densities, self-weight and imposed loads, 1995)

Rakenteiden kuormat, lumikuormat, 1995
(ENV 1991-2-3: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures. Part 2-3: Actions
on structures, Snow loads, 1995)

Rakenteiden kuormat, tuulikuormat, 1995
ENV 1991-2-4: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures. Part 2-4: Actions on
structures, Wind loads, 1995)
[4] SFS-ENV 1991-1: Eurocode 1: Suunnitteluperusteet ja rakenteiden kuormat, osa 1

Suunnitteluperusteet, 1995
(ENV 1991-1: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures. Part 1: Basis of
design, 1995)
[5] SFS-ENV-1993-1-1: Eurocode 3 Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu, Osa 1-1: Yleiset säännöt ja

rakennuksia koskevat säännöt, 1993 (Sisältää myös liitteen K: ENV 1993-1-1:1992/
A1:1994)
(Include also annex K: ENV 1993-1-1:1992/ A1:1994)
[6] ECCS: Technical Committee 8- Structural stability- Technical working group 8.1/ 8.2
Skeletal structures: Analysis and design of steel frames with semi-rigid joints, First edition
1992
[8] CIDECT: Project 5AQ/2: Cold formed RHS in arctic steel structures, Final report 5AQ-5-
96,1996
208
Chapter 7
7 SHOP FABRICATION AND ERECTION

In addition to structural design, the cost of a hollow section structure includes shop fabrication
and erection. Design aims at minimizing the weight of the structure, since the price of a hollow
section is almost directly proportional to its weight. However, the lightest structure is not
necessarily the most economical solution with regard to the whole of the construction project. A
maximally optimized structure may be expensive to manufacture and install, which may result
in losing the savings gained in material costs to increased manufacturing and erection costs.
To reach an optimal result, it is important that the designer, the shop and the site all work in
close cooperation and that all parties have sufficient knowledge about on all aspects of the
construction project.
The general principle is to perform the most demanding and complex phases in the workshop
to make the erection quick and cost-efficient. In practice this means that all welded joints are
made at the shop, and erection then consists of joining of preassembled units with bolts.
7.1 Cutting of hollow sections

Hollow sections can be ordered either standard-length ( 6, 12 or 18 m) or cut to size (even 24
m). No waste pieces are produced when ordering cut-to-size sections. The cutting is often
made at the fabricators if the structure requires slanted cutting surfaces (e.g. lattices). Square
and rectangular hollow sections are easy to cut, since the cut can usually be made in one
plane. However, various cutting planes are needed in overlapped joints. Circular hollow
sections are more complex to cut particularly for joints between several circular sections. In
such a case, the end of the circular hollow section must often be profiled.
7.1.1 Cutting of circular hollow sections
A circular hollow section can sometimes be joined to the edge of another circular section by
cutting the hollow section in one plane. A prerequisite for this is that the external dimensions of
the hollow sections differ distinctly. This way, the root gap remaining at the edges of the
smaller hollow section is sufficiently small with regard to welding. A circular hollow section can
be cut in one plane if the following conditions are met [1]:
g1 ≤ t 0 and g1 ≤ t1 (7.1)
g2 ≤ 3 mm (7.2)
where
g1 is the root gap at the external edge of the smaller hollow d1
;
section
g2 is the root gap at the internal edge of the smaller hollow t1
section
t0 is the wall thickness of the larger hollow section
g1
g2
t1 is the wall thickness of the smaller hollow section
In practice, most structures made from circular hollow sections do d0 t0

;
not meet the conditions of formulae (7.1) and (7.2).
209
The size of the root gap in circular holllow sections can also be decreased by cutting the hollow
sections at different angles. Using the expressions in Figure 7.1, the following equations for
cutting angles αg and αd are obtained [1]:
 h ⋅ sin θ 
α g = 90 o − θ + arctan  (7.3)
 r1 + h ⋅ cos θ − L ⋅ sin θ 
 h sin θ 
α d = −90 o + θ + arctan  (7.4)
 r1 − h ⋅ cos θ − L ⋅ sin θ 
where
L = r12 − (r1 − t1 )
2
d0 d02
h= − − (r1 − t1 )
2
2 4
d − 2t1
r1 = 1
2
d0 is the diameter of the larger hollow section
d1 is the diameter of the smaller hollow section
t1 is the wall thickness of the smaller hollow section
L L
;;;; d0
h
;
θ αd
;
;;
αg
d1
t1
Figure 7.1 Cutting of circular hollow sections
210
7.1.2 Cutting methods
Sawing
Sawing is the most commonly used method for cutting hollow sections. Usually, a disc saw or a
band saw is used. An increase in the sawing speed usually decreases the accuracy in cutting
and generates burrs which then need to be removed. In addition to the sawing speed, the easy
transport of sections to and from the sawing site is a factor worth considering. It is also possible
to cut both ends of a hollow section simultaneously to save time. Saw blades must be changed
often, as the decreased sharpness of the saw blade increases the dimensional deviation and
the quality of the cut seam deteriorates.
Other cutting methods

a) Thermal cutting
Thermal cutting, when made free-hand, is a less accurate cutting method than sawing. It is
suitable, for instance, for shaping the ends of circular hollow sections in lattice joints,
particularly if a profile cutting machine is used.
b) Cutting by punching
This method is feasible only with thin-walled hollow sections. Its advantage is the possibility of
generating the most complex of cutting surfaces. In circular hollow section joints, the ends can
be shaped in one go with punching.
c) Laser cutting
Laser cutting is an accurate method. A further advantage is the reduced area of temperature
change in the area of the cut. A disadvantage of laser cutting is the expensive equipment
needed.
7.1.3 Notching of hollow section ends
The use of splices in bolted joints may require notches in the hollow section wall (Figure 7.2a).
In joints subjected to small loads however it is more better cut the plate rather than the hollow
section (Figure 7.2b). In order to transfer forces in joints subjected to heavy loads, it is, con-
versly, better to cut the hollow section and keep the splice intact, since it is difficult to make a
sufficiently long weld inside the hollow section. Also in joints using small hollow sections, it is
necessary to cut the section, since welding the interior is practically impossible.
Notches can be made using the cutting methods described above.
a) b)
Figure 7.2 Joining splice plates to hollow sections
211
7.2 Bending of hollow sections

A hollow section can be bent either by cold or hot bending. Cold bending is more cost-efficient
and simpler, and thus more commonly used. Circular hollow sections are easier to bend than
square and rectangular hollow sections, since in the latter case the shape of the cross-section
tends to get distorted.
Factors affecting the success of bending include:
- the ultimate strength and yield strength of the material

- the chemical composition and ultimate elongation of the material
- the relation of the wall thickness to the height and width of the hollow section (t/h, t/b, t/d)
- the relation of the bending radius to the height and width of the hollow section (r/h, r/d, r/b)
When using square and rectangular hollow sections, the effect of the distortion of the cross-
section shape to structural appearance must be evaluated on a case by case basis. The more
critical the appearance of the structure, the greater the bending radius must be. Hollow
sections with lower ultimate strength and yield strength are easier to bend. In addition, a
greater wall thickness in relation with the height and width of the hollow section facilitates
bending. A small radius is always more complicated to produce than a greater one.
The cross-sectional properties of square and rectangular hollow sections decrease during
bending. Reduced values for second moment of area are presented in Appendix 9.7. The
distortion of a hollow section’s wall during bending must also be taken into account when
determining its compression resistance.
More demanding bending procedures usually require practical expertise, a workshop that
specializes in bending and is equipped with appropriate machinery. For successful bending,
the cooperation and expertise of the designer and the manufacturer is important.
7.2.1 Bending methods for hollow sections
Roller bending
In roller bending, the hollow section is directed through

three or four rollers. The size of the rollers is determined
by the size of hollow sections. The middle rollers
determine the magnitude of the bending radius. Normally,
one of the rollers is freely rotating. Minimum bending radii
for square and rectangular hollow sections are shown in
Appendix 9.7.
Induction bending
In induction bending, the hollow section is heated during bending with an induction coil. A small
portion at a time is simultaneously heated and bent. This is repeated until the entire hollow
section is processed. Compared to roller bending, induction bending is a more expensive
method, but it has the advantage of producing smaller minimum bending radii.
212
Curved lattice structures can be made from straight elements. The curved shape is produced
by joining the straight chord member elements together in an angle corresponding to the
bending radius (Figure 7.3).
Figure 7.3 Curved hollow section lattice
7.3 Bolted joints

The bolts used in load-bearing structures are normally of strength grade 8.8. The
recommended clearances of bolt holes are presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Recommended clearances of bolt holes [2]

Bolt diameter Clearance Bolt diameter Clearance Bolt diameter Clearance
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 1 18 2 24 2
14 1 20 2 27 3
16 2 22 2 30 3
Bolts are tightened such that the normal stress (or shank tension) Fp generated in the bolt is
equal to (7.5) [2]:
Fp = 0, 7 fub ⋅ As (7.5)
where

As is the tension cross-section area of the bolt
It is advisable to prevent the loosening of bolts by locking the nuts with an appropriate method
(e.g. torque type nuts, special washers or glue).
Holes can be made either by drilling or punching. However, in tension members the holes for
bolts must always be made by drilling. In joints subjected to lighter loads, self tapping bolts or
drill bolts can be used. With these types of bolts, the most commonly used sizes are 5,5 and
6,3 mm. The bolt is always fixed at the side of the thinner element side of the joint. The core
hole for a self tapping bolt must be slightly smaller than the bolt itself. The use of drill bolts is
simpler and faster, since no core hole needs to be drilled. When using self tapping bolts and
drill bolts, the instructions provided by the bolt manufacturer must be followed.
213
In Chapter 3, we looked at various joint details for bolted joints. The openings were usually
located in the structural element, usually a plate, joined to the hollow section. The simplest way
would be to drill the hole directly in the hollow section, but in practice, the slender walls of
hollow sections cannot bear much load. However, by using special drilling methods or special
bolts, the hollow section joints can be made directly via the hollow section wall.
7.3.1 Friction Drilling in the Wall of the Hollow Section Tube

When using friction drilling a special hard metal tool is used, which heats the wall of the hollow
tube due to friction. The heated material is first pressed to the outside of the tube surface and
after the penetration to the inside. Thus the basematerial itself forms a bushing, which can be
threaded. The threads are made in a separate workphase, either with a traditional thread cut-
ting tool or with a thread rolling peg. Due to the bushing, the thread length is almost doubled
compared to the wall thickness. The method has been tested up to material thicknesses of 12,
5 mm. With increasing material thicknesses and bolt diameters special friction drilling settings
are required from the drilling equipment. For building purposes sizes M16 - M20 are suitable.
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Kuva 7.4 Friction drilling
7.3.2 Expansion bolt joints

;;;
In expansion bolt joints, the opening to the section wall is drilled using normal
methods. The opening is then equipped with an expansion bolt which
functions in a similar way those used in connections to concrete structures.
Inside the expansion bolt is a threaded hole in which the bolt is placed. When
the bolt is tightened, the conical end of the expansion bolt clamps against the
;
section wall. Simultaneously, the cone spreads the blanket of the expansion
bolt, which generates the necessary tightening torque in the bolt. The
method is suited for M8-M20 bolts and for all wall thicknesses [4].
7.3.3 Pilot tap joints

Joints subjected to light loads only can also be made using tapped studs
which are welded to the section wall. The opening on the joined element
must be enlargened from the section wall side, so that the weld does not
bear against it after the bolts are tightened. Another alternative is the use of
washers between the element to be joined and the section. Special attention
should be paid to the protection of tapped studs during transport and
installation.
;
214
7.4 Welding of hollow sections

The structural steel used in Rautaruukki hollow sections has good weldability with all welding
methods. Weldability depends on the welding method and the chemical composition of the
material. The chemical composition of steel with regard to welding is best described by the
carbon equivalent value (CEV):
Mn Cr + Mo + V Ni + Cu
CEV = C + + + (7.6 )
6 5 15
With normal wall thickness values of Rautaruukki longitudinally welded hollow sections (< 16
mm) and with steel grade S355J2H, no special welding methods are needed (CEV ≤ 0,39).
Special methods are necessary only when the carbon equivalent value is higher than 0,4. If the
carbon equivalent value is greater than 0,45, preheating is required. When welding two
different materials together, the parameters of the welding process (temperature, welding
method and filler material) must be selected according to the material which has higher
strength. The welded elements must be dry and free from grease and oil.
7.4.1 Quality levels
Table 7.2 Quality levels for arc welding according to the European standard
Level symbol Quality level
D Moderate
C Intermediate
B Stringent
The quality level is determined by the designer responsible, who must consider structural
safety requirements and the ease of inspection and manufacture.
When determining the weld quality level, factors to be considered include post-weld surface
finishing, type of structural loading (static or dynamic), operating conditions (temperature and
environment) and the consequences of potential failure. In addition to affecting the welding
costs, the choice of quality level also has an effect on the weld inspection and testing costs.
7.4.2 Welding methods
Two principal methods used in the welding of hollow sections are manual metal arc welding
with covered electrode and gas shielded arc welding. Metal arc welding is used principally in
on-site installations. Its advantage is the light-weight and easily transportable equipment
required.
Gas shielded arc welding is the most common method used in shop fabrication. Advantages
associated with gas shielded arc welding are better productivity and the possibility for the
automation of the welding procedure.
In the welding of hollow section members, the requirements set for the welder’s performance
by the standard EN-287-1 must be considered [9].
215
7.4.3 Welding sequence
Due to the stresses generated by welding and to the deformations of the joined elements, the
correct welding sequence is important. The welding of hollow sections should not be started or
finished in a comer. The maximum throat thickness generated in one pass is 5 mm. The
welding sequence used depends on the accessability of the weld and the ability to turn the
section.
In Figure 7.5a, the section can be rotated horizontally. The welding point thus remains the
same and the element is rotated a full circle. In Figure 7.5b, the element is positioned
horizontally and can also be rotated about its axis. The welding direction is at first from the
bottom upwards. The lower side is welded after rotating the section. In Figure 7.5c, the section
is fixed in a vertical position. The welding is performed continuously over the entire section. In
Figure 7.5d, the section is fixed in a horizontal position. Now, the lower seam must be welded
from below.
;;;;
;
;;;;
a) b)
2 1 3 4
360°
;;;; 180°
3 4
1 2 180°
;
c) d)
2
1
1
2 3
1
1
2
4
Figure 7.5 Welding sequence
7.4.4 Fillet and butt welds
With hollow sections, the aim is to design joints in such a manner that fillet welds can be used.
Fillet weld are the simplest and most cost-efficient weld type, since no weld preparation is
needed. However, depending on the joint geometry, a groove must, in some cases, be made to
ensure a sufficient throat thickness of the weld. It is advisable to make the weld as symmetrical
as possible to minimize the consumption of the weld metal. Weld preparations for end-to-end
connections are treated in section 3.3. Fillet and butt welds for lattice joints made of square and
rectangular hollow sections are shown in Table 7.3.
216
Table 7.3 Fillet and butt welds in joints made of square and rectangular hollow sections
b1
X Z Y
t1
r0
;; θ
X
b0
t0
Z
θ ≤ 60° t1 < 8 mm
End chamfered after >60°
<2
cutting
<2
θ > 60°
<2
t1 < 8 mm
t1 ≥ 8 mm
θ > 60° 1-2,5 t1
> t1
t1
<2
t1 ≥ 8 mm
1-2,5
t1
<2
Y
b0-b1 ≥ 2r0
<2
r0
0 ≤ b0- b1 < 2r0 and

<2
<2
maximum root gap * 2 mm

minimum groove angle 60° >60°
>60°
0 ≤ b0- b1 < 2r0 and

root gap * more than 2 mm
The brace member end must be shaped >60°
∗
root gap = r0 − (r0 − t1)(b0 − b1) − 0, 25(b0 − b1)2 + 2t1 ⋅ r0 − t12 , when b0 − b1 < 2(r0 − t1)
r0 is the external corner radius
217
7.4.5 Preheating
The structural steels used in hollow sections do not require preheating when the maximum
nominell yield strength of the steel is 355 N/ mm2 and the wall thickness is less than 13 mm.
Hollow sections must, however, be preheated to the temperature of 40 °C for a minimum of 75
mm away from the joint, if the surface of the hollow section is damp or the temperature of the
structure to be welded is below 5 °C [1]. In thermal cutting, preheating is usually not needed if
the carbon equivalent value of steel is less than 0,45 [5].
7.4.6 Residual stresses
During welding, residual stresses due to the temperature are always generated in the steel.
This may result in permanent deformations of the member.
Deformations are generated both parallel and perpendicular to the weld direction. The
magnitude of the deformation depends on the welded material, the number of passes and the
rigidity of the structure. In addition to deformation, there is also angular distortion, in which the
angle between welded elements changes due to welding stresses.
Figure 7.6 shows the angular distortions due to welding in their unrestricted form.
Figure 7.6 Angular distortions due to welding
In practice, the elements are supported during welding in such a manner that the deformations
are restricted, which generates stresses in the material. The deformation is significantly
reduced if a fillet weld is made with a both side groove, or a double V groove is used instead of
a single V groove. In this case, welding is made from both sides in turns. A single side V
groove can also be made by placing the welded elements in an angle which eliminates the
deformation due to welding. The estimation of the angle magnitude is based on empirical
know-how.
When welding an entire structural element such as a lattice, it is recommendable to first tack
weld the joints, then make the fillet welds and finally the full penetration single-V butt welds [1].
Stress relief by heat-treatment is usually needed only in special cases. The normal stress relief
temperature is 550-650 °C [5].
218
For instance the following factors increase the residual stresses due to welding:
- large throat thickness of weld

- large distance of the weld from the neutral axis of the hollow section
- supporting the hollow sections during welding
- high rigidity of the hollow sections
- wrong weld sequence
- weld methods with high heat input
7.4.7 Inspection of welds
The determination of the weld quality depends on the required quality level, the structural
loading and the consequences of a potential failure. Non-destructive weld inspection methods
are presented in EN 10246. In fatigue loaded structures, welds are usually the weakest links,
and the improvement of the weld quality therefore increases the service life of the entire
structure. The weld quality can be ensured by various methods, which are selected on a case
by case basis.
Visual inspection
Visual inspection is the least expensive and least accurate inspection method. The inspector
must have sufficient experience in welding and the necessary expertise for the task. Visual
inspection can detect errors in the throat thickness and the largest flaws which reach the
surface. Visual inspection is not sufficient for detecting minor defects such as hairline cracks.
Magnetic particle testing
Magnetic particle testing is a method for detecting surface flaws. The inspected surface is
covered with a fine-grained ferrite powder, and a magnetic field is generated in the material by
an electric coil. The powder particles form a line at crack locations. Cracks as small as 0,1 µm
wide can be detected in the test.
Penetrant testing
Penetrant testing is another method for locating surface defects in welds. First, the inspected
surfaces are carefully cleaned, after which dye penetrant is applied on the surface. The dye
has low surface tension and high capillarity and can thus penetrate even the narrowest of
cracks. The dye is left on the surface for 5-10 minutes, after which time excess dye is wiped
off. The surface is dried and covered with developer which reacts with the dye penetrant,
bringing it to the surface. The pattern generated by the developing agent indicates the defect
types and their severity.
219
Ultrasonic inspection
Ultrasonic inspection also serves to detect internal defects. Ultrasonic inspection is a very rapid
method but it requires an experienced and qualified inspector. The test consists of sending
high-frequency waves to the point being inspected. The spectrum of the waves is examined
with an oscilloscope which shows the weld defects as intensity peaks. The minimum material
thickness feasible for ultrasonic inspection is approximately 6 mm, but with current equipment,
welds connecting plate thicknesses as low as 4 mm can be inspected provided that the weld
material itself is thicker than 6 mm. The disadvantage of the method is that defects parallel to
the sound waves are difficult to detect. Due to this, ultrasonic inspection must always be
performed in various angles.
Radiographic inspection
Radiographic inspection can also detect internal defects in the weld. In this method, the weld is
radiated with x-rays or gamma rays, and the passage of rays through the weld location is
photographed. Radiographic inspection is not feasible for inspecting joints in structures with
varying wall thickness or lattice joints. X-rays are hazardous to health, and the inspection must
be conducted in a controlled environment.
7.5 Tolerances
Tolerances in the industrial manufacture of hollow sections are dealt with in Chapter 1. Tables
7.4, 7.5 and 7.6 give the tolerances for the geometry of fabricated elements. Erection toler-
ances are shown in Table 7.7. The tables concentrate on the most important tolerances
concerning hollow sections. Quality requirements regarding fabrication procedures and
erection are discussed in more detail in references [2], [6] and [7].
220
Table 7.4 Tolerances for singular members in workshop fabrication [2]

Tolerance Parameter Permitted deviation
Hollow section length measured at Cutting length in general:
flange centre line ∆ = ± (2+ L / 5000) (mm)
Cutting length when force is

transferred by contact in bearing:
∆ = ± 1 mm
L+∆
Hollow section straightness by ∆ = L / 1000 (mm)

horizontal and vertical axes ∆ = 3 mm
Select whichever is greater
∆
Deviation of curvature in a bent ∆ = L / 1000 (mm)

hollow section measured at the ∆ = 6 mm
centre point of span Select whichever is greater
∆
∆ Squareness of hollow section end Squareness in general:

∆ = ± h / 300
Squareness when force is

transmitted by contact in bearing:
h
∆ = ± h / 1000
221
Table 7.5 Tolerances for openings and cuttings in workshop fabrication [2]
Deviation of a single bolt opening ∆ = ± 2 mm
∆
from the designed location
Deviation of a bolt group from the *

a dimension a: ∆ = +5 mm
designed location –0 mm
dimension b: ∆ = ± 2 mm
b
dimension c: ∆ = ± 5 mm
dimension d: ∆ = ± 2 mm,
c when h ≤ 1000 mm
dimension d: ∆ = ± 4 mm.
when h > 1000 mm
d
h
Deviations in the dimensions of a cut

L element +2 mm
dimension d: ∆ = -0 mm
+2 mm
dimension L: ∆ = -0 mm
d
Squareness of the cutting of hollow

∆ section wall
∆ = ± 0,1t
t
* In reference [2] tolerance is ∆ = ± 5 mm, but a negative tolerance may cause a bearing
resistance remarkably smaller than the one determined by calculations
222
Table 7.6 Tolerances for lattices in shop fabrication [2], [6]

p Straightness of brace member ∆ = L / 500 (mm)
∆ = 6 mm
L is the length of the brace member
∆ Select whichever is greater
∆
Distance between corner points ∆p = ±5 mm
L
∑∆p = ±10 mm
*
∆g, ∆ga
Gap tolerance g ≥ t1 + t2 and ga ≥ 1,5 t0
+5 mm* +5 mm*
∆g = –0 mm
and ∆ga = –0 mm
ga t1 and t2 are the thickness values of

brace member walls t
g
Lattice height, width and diagonal ∆D = ±3 mm, when D ≤ 300 mm

W + ∆W ∆D = ±5 mm, when 300 < D < 1000 mm
∆D = ±10 mm, when D ≥ 1000 mm
∆W = ±3 mm, when W ≤ 300 mm
;;
∆W = ±5 mm, when 300 < W < 1000 mm
∆W = ±10 mm, when W ≥ 1000 mm
D + ∆D
X + ∆X
∆X = ±3 mm, when X ≤ 300 mm
∆X = ±5 mm, when 300 < X < 1000 mm
∆X = ±10 mm, when X ≥ 1000 mm
;
Straightness parallel to the lattice ∆max = L / 500

plane ∆max = 12 mm
Select whichever is greater
∆2 ∆3 ∆4 ∆5
∆1 ∆6
*
Deviates from tolerances in reference [6]
223
Table 7.7 Installation tolerances of steel structures [2], [7]. The smallest tolerance value is
selected from the ones presented in references.
Tolerance Structure Permitted deviation
;;
Deviation of the distance between
adjacent columns
Slope of columns in a multi-story

building between successive
intermediate floors
e
L+e
e = ± 5 mm
e = ± 0,002h
h is the height of a floor
h
Transverse deviation of a column in
e Σh
a multi-story building at all levels of e=±
intermediate floors 300 n
h3
Σh is the height in question
Σh
measured from the base level

h2
n is the number of floors from the
h1 level in question to the base level
Slope of a column in a one-story

e h
building when the column is not e=±
supporting a crane gantry 300
h is the height of the column

h
Slope of a column in a portal frame

when the column is not supporting a
e1 + e 2
crane gantry = ±0, 002h (average)
2
e = ± 0,010h (singular value)
h
e1 e2
Slope of a column in one-story h < 5 m: e = ± 5 mm

building or in portal frame when the e
5 ≤ h ≤ 25 m: e = ± 0,001h
column is supporting a crane gantry
h > 25 m: e = ± 25 mm
h
224
7.6 Assembly of trusses

In lattice assembly, an important factor is the number of lattices to be fabricated. With large
series, it is worthwhile speding more time in the design and preparation of the assembly frame
(or jig). Also the accuracy requirements must be taken into account when designing the jig.
Regarding fabrication costs, it is important to be able to store the hollow sections close to the
assembly site, since this saves time during transport.
The jig must be made of sufficiently strong elements so that thermal and mechanical stresses
generated during the assembly do not distort it. The distances between lattice member
supports must be sufficiently short to avoid deformations in the lattice due to welding. In the jig,
it is advisable to join the flange plates of the lattice to the plates welded to the assembly frame
with bolts (Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.7 Assembly frame
To speed up the shop fabrication phase, the members in the jig can be tack welded together,
and the final welding can be done at another worksite. In such a case, attention must be paid to
the firmness of tack welding to avoid the generation of high deformations during the final
welding.
In gapped joints, attention must be paid to retaining a sufficiently large gap. Even small gaps
must meet the minimum gap tolerances shown in Table 7.6. In overlapped joints, the larger
brace member that is overlapped must always be welded first.
225
7.7 Fire protection

It is not always an advantage to prepare the fire protection in the workshop. Most fire retardant
materials will be damaged during transport and must then be repaired on-site. The fire
protection method best suited for shop fabrication is fire retardant (intumescent) painting. Even
then, sufficient care must be taken during transport to keep the damage to the painted surface
to a minimum. The damaged spots must be repaired on-site, and it may, in extreme cases be
necessary to apply a new coat of paint to ensure the required fire resistance period. Concrete
filling can be carried out in the shop, but this increases the weight of hollow sections, thus
complicating their transport and installation. Pouring of concrete is usually done on site, since
most intermediate floor slabs require a surface-cast layer in any case.
7.8 Transport and storage

During the structural design phase, the transport of structural elements must also be taken into
account. Large pre-assembled units make the erection quicker but may increase tranport costs,
especially if special transport is needed. When planning special transport, it is necessary to
keep in mind the limits to the size of units set by bridges and roads at the proximity of the site.
In international projects, it must be considered that regulations concerning maximum weight
and dimensions of the transport vary country by country. Road transport is the simplest way of
moving the material when shop and site are located relatively close to each other.
The following issues should be considered in the transport of hollow sections [3]:
- the tarpaulins used to cover the load must be dry, clean, undamaged and sufficiently large
- hollow sections must be placed in the platform of the transport vehicle so that they are not
exposed to bumps, abrasion or any other type of damage
- when loading hollow sections one over the other, the sections with the thickest walls and the
greatest length and weight must be placed the lowermost
- heavy products which might cause damage to hollow sections must not be piled on them
- the platform must be clean, dry and even
- the load must be secured to prevent shifting during transport
- the load is tied with straps so that it does not touch the side or end columns of the platform
- straps or chains must not be attached so tightly that they cause dents on the hollow
sections; if necessary, the points of contact must be covered
- suitable props must be used in the transport
The following issues must be kept in mind in the storage of hollow sections [3]:
- the depot must be clean, dry and properly ventilated

- the entry of water from condensation into the sections must be prevented
- a sufficient amount of props below and within the stack must be used
226
7.9 Erection
The erection of hollow section structures is similar to the erection of other steel structures.
However, the greater torsional stiffness of hollow sections and the greater bending stiffness
about both axes make them easier to lift and erect and the need for temporary lateral supports
is less than with conventional sections. Structures utilizing hollow sections are also less prone
to the effect of wind during erection compared to open sections.
A hollow section structure is erected according to an erection plan made by the designer or
fabricator. The plan must take into account the routes of vehicles and the craneage. Connec-
tions on site are usually bolted to allow speedy erection.
it is usual to commence erection from one of the braced bays, usually at one end. The first
frame may require temporary guys, but the usual practice is to provide 4 holding down bolts in
the baseplate to give temporary stability. Erection then proceeds witt the next frame are the
permanent bracing is erected between the frames. Purlins are then connected to provide rafter
stability. Having ensured that the end two frames are lined and levelled, erection of the other
frames can proceed. The purlins and bracing being erected to provide stability to each frame in
turn.
The stability of the roof structure under its own dead weight should be checked to ensure that it
can safetly be lifted into place. If necessary frames can be lifted in braced pairs to ensure sta-
bility of individual frames.
Hollow section structures are light-weight, and even large units can be easily lifted and installed
on the site. The bolts are tightened only after the positions of structural elements have been
checked. After this, the bolts are tightened. (Section 7.4). The assembly of large lattice
structures, especially that of space frames, is usually most easily carried out at ground level,
after which the finished lattice is erected to its final position.
227
7.10 References
[1] CIDECT: Design guide for fabrication, assembly and erection of hollow section structures,
1996
[2] ENV 1090-1: Teräsrakenteiden valmistus ja asennus- Osa 1: Yleiset säännöt ja raken-
nuksia koskevat säännöt, 1996
(ENV 1090-1: Execution of steel structures- Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings,
1996)
[3] Rautaruukinterästuotteiden käsittelyohje (The Handling Manual of Rautaruukki´s Steel

Products, in finnish), 1995
[4] CIDECT: Report 6G-14(A)/96: Hollofast and hollobolt system for hollow section
connections, 1996
[5] Rautaruukin teräkset: Hitsaajan opas (Rautaruukki´s Steels. The Welder Manual, in
finnish), 1995
[6] prENV 1090-4 Execution of steel structures: Part 4: Supplementary rules for hollow section
lattice structures, 1997
[7] ENV-1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu. Osa 1-1: Yleiset säännöt ja

[8] EN-25817: Terästen kaarihitsaus: Hitsiluokat, 1993

(EN-25817: Arc-welded joints in steel. Guidance on quality levels for imperfections, 1993)
[9] EN-287-1: Hitsaajan pätevyyskoe: Sulahitsaus: Osa 1: Teräkset, 1992

(EN-287-1: Approval testing of welders. Fusion welding. Part 1: Steels, 1992)
228
Chapter 8
8 CORROSION PROTECTION
Corrosion of steel surfaces is caused by oxygen and moisture in the air. The corrosion rate of
steel depends on air temperature and moisture as well as air pollution. The pollution factor
having the greatest effect on corrosion is the chloride and sulphur content of the air. The
decrease of temperature below zero decelerates corrosion or may prevent it completely. The
shape of a hollow section is advantageous regarding corrosion protection, since the area
requiring protection is small compared to the weight of the section.
8.1 Corrosivity categories

Based on the corrosivity of the climate, environments can be divided into categories. The
corrosivity categories presented in reference [1] are shown in Table 8.1. The temperature and
moisture content of the building also influences corrosion. The propagation of corrosion is likely
when relative humidity exceeds 80 % and temperature exceeds 0 °C. However, the likelihood
of corrosion is great even at lower humidity levels if the amount of air pollution is great or
salinity is high.
The effect of strong chemical agents (acids, alkalis, salts, organic solvents) must be taken into
account when designing the corrosion protection. The corrosion rate increases substantially if
the structure is exposed to simultaneous mechanical and chemical stress.
Table 8.1 Corrosivity categories [1]

Corrosivity Thickness loss of Thickness loss of Examples
category low-carbon steel zinc
(µm/ year) * (µm/ year) *
C1 ≤ 1,3 ≤ 0,1 Heated buildings with clean atmospheres, e.g. offices,
shops, schools, hotels.
C2 1,3- 25 0,1- 0,7 Rural areas with low level of air pollution. Unheated
buildings where condensation may occur, e.g. depots,
sports halls.
C3 25- 50 0,7- 2,1 Urban areas with moderate amount of air pollution.
Coastal areas with low salinity. Production rooms with
high humidity and some air pollution, e.g. food-
processing plants, laundries, breweries, dairies.
C4 50- 80 2,1- 4,2 Industrial and coastal areas with moderate salinity.
Chemical plants, swimming pools, coastal ship- and
boatyards.
C5-I 80- 200 4,2- 8,4 Industrial and coastal areas with high humidity and
aggressive climate. Buildings with almost permanent
condensation and with high level of pollution.
C5-M 80- 200 4,2- 8,4 Coastal and sea areas with high salinity. Buildings
with almost permanent condensation and with high
level of pollution.
* after first year of exposure
229
8.2 Surface preparation

Hollow sections are normally delivered unprotected or with a light protective oil coating.
Cleaning the surface before applying paint is thus essential for successful corrosion protection.
The cleaning method selected depends on the amount and quality of the impurity and the
shape and size of the member. Cleaning methods are summarized in Table 8.2. In workshop
and paint shop conditions, the most commonly used cleaning method is shot blasting
(preparation grades Sa 21/2 and Sa 3). Grease and salt must be removed from the surfaces
before cleaning if acid pickling or shot blasting is used. When renovating old structures, wire
brushing can be used in some special cases (St 2 and St 3).
Table 8.2 Cleaning methods for steel surfaces [3]

Preparation Cleaning method Surface quality
grade
Sa 2 1/2 Shot blasting Mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter are removed. Any
remaining traces of contamination shall show only as slight stains in
the form of spots or stripes.
Sa 3 Shot blasting Mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter are removed. The
surface shall be metallic clean.
St 2 Wire brushing Poorly adhering mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter are
removed.
St 3 Wire brushing Poorly adhering mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter are
removed. The surface shall have a metallic sheen.
Be Acid pickling Mill scale, rust and residues from paint coatings are removed
completely. Paint coatings shall be removed prior to acid pickling.
8.3 Anti-corrosive painting

Paint is applied on a dry and clean surface according to the paint manufacturer’s instructions.
The best results are obtained in controlled paint shop conditions. During site painting, the
relative humidity of air should be less than 80 % and the temperature should exceed +5 °C and
be at least 3 °C above dew point. With some paint types (e.g. epoxy paints), a higher painting
temperature is required. Recommended paint combinations for hollow sections are presented
in Table 8.3. Paint selection also depends on the special characteristics required of the paint
surface. Table 8.4 presents the applicability of different paints in cases where special
characteristics are required of the painted surface.
Prefabrication primer is a rapidly drying paint applied on the section surface in a thin layer of
approximately 15 µm. The purpose of the primer is to protect hollow sections during storage
and transport, and it must always be removed before applying the final paint.
In normal conditions, internal corrosion of hollow sections is rare. The insides of hollow
sections usually need not be protected against corrosion. However, the seepage of rain water
into the sections must be prevented. Hollow section structures must be provided with openings
for the removal of water from condensation, especially if there is a possibility of freezing.
230
In designing to prevent corrosion, one of the central issues is to avoid recesses and pockets
where water might be trapped. For instance, reinforcing the lattice corner joints with plates
welded to brace member side generates a space where water and debris may accumulate. The
joining of two metals with different electrochemical potential (e.g. steel and copper) must be
avoided, or the metals must be insulated from each other, since corrosion will take place at the
joint in the less noble of metals.
The metal surfaces to be painted must be as smooth and rounded at corners as possible. Due
to their rounded corners, hollow sections are also suitable for blast-cleaning. Weld splatter and
other irregularities must be removed before painting. The welds must also be as smooth-
surfaced as possible to avoid spots remaining inadvertently unpainted. Joints must be
designed so that the structure can easily be painted from all sides. When painting with a brush,
the space between splices must be at least as wide as the brush. The corrosion resistance of
bolts and nuts must be at least as high as that of structural materials.
Table 8.3 Recommended paint combinations in various corrosivity categories [4]

Corrosivity Surface Priming Top coats
category preparation coats
grade
Paint type Number Nominal Dry Paint type Number of Nominal Dry
of coats FilmThick- coats FilmThick-
ness(µm) ness(µm)
C1, C2 Sa 2 1/2 AK 1- 2 80 AK 1- 2 80
C1, C2 St 2 AK 2 80 AK 2- 3 120
C1, C2 Sa 2 1/2 AY, CR, PVC 1- 2 80 AY, CR, PVC 1- 2 80
C1, C2 Sa 2 1/2 EP 1- 2 80 EP, PUR 1- 2 80
C3 Sa 2 1/2 AK 1- 2 80 AK 2- 3 120
C3 Sa 2 1/2 EP 1 160 AY 1 40
C3 Sa 2 1/2 AY, CR, PVC 1- 2 80 AY, CR, PVC 2- 3 120
C3 Sa 2 1/2 EP 1- 2 80 EP, PUR 2- 3 120
C4 Sa 2 1/2 EP, PUR, Zn(R) 1 40 EP, PUR 2- 3 200
C4 Sa 2 1/2 ESI. Zn(R) 1 80 EP, PUR 2- 3 160
C4 Sa 2 1/2 EP 1- 2 80 EP, PUR 2- 3 200
C5-I Sa 2 1/2 EP, PUR 4 160 AY, CR, PVC 1 40
C5-I Sa 2 1/2 EP, PUR 1- 2 80 EP, PUR 3- 4 240
C5-I Sa 2 1/2 ESI, Zn(R) 1 80 EP, PUR 3 200
C5-M Sa 2 1/2 EP, PUR, Zn(R) 1 40 EP, PUR 2- 3 280
C5-M Sa 2 1/2 EP, PUR 1- 2 80 EP, PUR 3- 4 240
AK = Alkyd PVC = Polyvinyl chloride
CR = Chlorinated rubber PUR = Polyurethane
AY = Acrylic Zn(R) = Zinc rich primer
EP = Epoxy
ESI = Ethyl silicate
231
Table 8.4 Applicability of different paint types for conditions requiring special
characteristics [4]
Required characteristic Paint type
PVC CR AY B AK PURp PURa EP ZnS PURc CTV
Gloss retention ++ ++ +++ + ++ + +++ + - + +
Colour retention ++ ++ +++ + ++ + +++ + - - -
Resistance to:
- water immersion ++ ++ + +++ + + ++ +++ ++ +++ +++
- condensate/rain +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
- solvents + + + + + ++ + ++ +++ + +
- solvents (splash) + + + + ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ + +
- acids + + + + + ++ + + + + +
- acids (splash) ++ ++ ++ + + ++ ++ ++ + ++ +
- alkalis + + + + + + + +++ + ++ +
- alkalis (splash) ++ ++ ++ ++ + + +++ +++ + +++ ++
Resistance to dry heat:
60- 70 °C +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
70- 120 °C + + ++ + ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +
120- 150 °C + + + + + ++ ++ ++ +++ + +
>150 °C + + + + + + + + +++ + +
Physical properties:
- abrasion resistance + + + + ++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ +
- impact resistance ++ ++ ++ ++ + +++ +++ ++ + +++ ++
- flexibility ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ +++ +++ + ++ ++
- hardness ++ ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ +
Application by:
- brushing ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ +++ + ++ ++
- rollercoating + + + +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++
- spraying +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
PVC = Polyvinyl chloride PURp = Polyurethane, Zns = Zinc silicate - = not relevant
CR = Chlorinated rubber polyester type PURc = Coal tar + = poor
AY = Acrylic PURa = Polyurethane, polyurethane ++ = good
B = Bitumen acryl type CTV = Coal tar vinyl +++ = excellent
AK = Alkyd EP = Epoxy
8.4 Hot-dip galvanizing

Protecting hollow section structures with galvanization is an efficient anti-corrosive method, and
in many climates it can be sufficient on its own. The protective effect of zinc is based on its
oxidation. Due to the cathodic protective effect of zinc, minor surface flaws in the zinc layer do
not lead to the corrosion of the steel. The durability of the protective effect of zinc is directly
proportional to the thickness of the zinc layer. In severe environmental conditions (e.g.
corrosivity categories C5-I and C5-M), even a galvanized structure requires an anti-corrosive
painting.
Proper oxidation of zinc is prevented if hollow sections are placed in poorly ventilated and
humid premises directly after galvanizing. This may be the case, for instance, in tightly packed
stacks of sections where rain or water from condensation can accumulate. In such conditions,
white rust is generated on the galvanized surface. White rust can be removed by brushing or
using an appropriate detergent. To avoid white rust, hollow sections must always be stored on
props. It is also important to allow enough space between hollow sections to ensure sufficient
circulation of air and evaporation of moisture. If the zinc layer has already been oxidized, white
rust is no longer generated.
232
Hot-dip galvanized steel surfaces can be painted, for instance, using the paint combinations
shown in Table 8.5. However, the galvanized surface must be treated before painting by, for
instance, sand blasting (= light shot blasting). Sand blasting removes the impurities on the
surface and makes the surface rougher, which improves the adhesion of the paint coat. In case
shot blasting cannot be used, the galvanized surface must be cleaned with an alkaline
degreasant. After the cleaning, the surface is rinsed and dried and is then ready for painting.
Table 8.5 Recommended paint combinations for hot-dip galvanized steel surfaces [4]
Corrosivity category Priming coat(s) Top coat(s)
Paint type Number of Nominal Dry Paint type Number of Nominal Dry
coats Film Thickness coats Film Thickness
µm µm
C1, C2 - - - PVC 1 80
C1- C3 PVC 1 80 PVC 1 80
C1- C4 PVC 1 80 PVC 2 160
C1- C4 EP, PUR 1 80 EP, PUR 1 80
C1- C4, C5-I, C5-M EP, PUR 1 80 EP, PUR 2 160
Hot-dip galvanized structures must be made as open as possible to produce a smooth zinc
layer. Galvanized hollow section structures must be designed so that zinc can flow freely into
the hollow section and out of it. If necessary, the structure must be provided with openings to
ensure a sufficient flow of zinc. Site connections of hot-dip galvanized hollow sections should
preferably be bolted. Welded joints made on-site must be protected by applying zinc-rich paint
or by spraying them with zinc. Where galvanized sections are bolted the male thread must be
made slightly smaller than the female thread of the joined element to allow sufficient space for
the zinc layer. The female thread is usually made to the hot-dip galvanized element only after
galvanizing, since the galvanizing of the joined element protects the inner thread from
corrosion.
233
8.5 References
[1] ISO/ FDIS 12944-2: Paints and varnishes- Corrosion protection of steel structures by pro-
tective painting systems. Part 2: Classification of enviroments, 1997
tective painting systems. Part 3: Design considerations, 1997
tective painting systems. Part 4: Types of surfaces and surface preparation, 1997
tective painting systems. Part 5: Protective paint systems, 1997
234
Appendix 9.1
9 APPENDIX
Appendix 9.1 Cross-sectional properties and resistance

values for steel grade S355J2H
235
Table 9.1.1 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for square hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H. (fy = 355 N/mm2).
Appendix 9.1
M = weight Wt = torsional section modulus PL = cross-section class in concentric compression
b
A = cross-section area I = moment of inertia Nc.Rd = compression resistance without buckling
t Au = external area Wel = elastic section modulus Mc.Rd = bending resistance
y Am/V = cross-section factor in fire design Wpl = plastic section modulus Vpl.Rd = shear resistance
h
It = torsional modulus i = radius of gyration

r0
z
r0 = 2,0 x t when t ≤ 6,0 mm The calculated resistance values are design values (section 2.1) based on the default value (1.1) of the partial
1) = recommended r0 = 2,5 x t when 6,0 mm < t ≤ 10,0 mm safety factor of material γM0 used in Eurocode 3. The partial safety factor values may differ in each country.

series r0 = 3,0 x t when t > 10,0 mm National values must be checked from the NAD (National Application Document) of the country in question.
1) h b t M A Au Am/V It Wt I Wel Wpl i PL Nc.Rd Mc.Rd Vpl.Rd
mm mm mm kg/m mm2 m2/m 1/m mm4 mm3 mm4 mm3 mm3 mm kN kNm kN
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
x 40 40 2 2,31 2,94 0,153 521 11,28 5,23 6,94 3,47 4,13 1,54 1 94,78 1,33 27,36
x 40 40 2,5 2,82 3,59 0,151 422 13,61 6,21 8,22 4,11 4,97 1,51 1 115,8 1,60 33,44
x 50 50 2 2,93 3,74 0,193 517 22,63 8,51 14,15 5,66 6,66 1,95 1 120,6 2,15 34,81
x 50 50 2,5 3,60 4,59 0,191 417 27,53 10,22 16,94 6,78 8,07 1,92 1 148,1 2,61 42,75
x 50 50 3 4,25 5,41 0,190 351 32,13 11,76 19,47 7,79 9,39 1,90 1 174,5 3,03 50,38
x 60 60 2,5 4,39 5,59 0,231 414 48,66 15,22 30,34 10,11 11,93 2,33 1 180,4 3,85 52,07
x 60 60 3 5,19 6,61 0,230 348 57,09 17,65 35,13 11,71 13,95 2,31 1 213,3 4,50 61,56
x 60 60 4 6,71 8,55 0,226 265 72,64 21,97 43,55 14,52 17,64 2,26 1 275,9 5,69 79,64
236
x 70 70 2 4,19 5,34 0,273 512 63,96 17,48 40,73 11,64 13,52 2,76 3 172,2 3,76 49,72
x 70 70 2,5 5,17 6,59 0,271 412 78,49 21,22 49,41 14,12 16,54 2,74 1 212,7 5,34 61,39
x 70 70 3 6,13 7,81 0,270 345 92,42 24,74 57,53 16,44 19,42 2,71 1 252,0 6,27 72,74
x 70 70 4 7,97 10,15 0,266 262 118,5 31,11 72,12 20,61 24,76 2,67 1 327,5 7,99 94,54
80 80 2 4,82 6,14 0,313 510 96,34 23,16 61,70 15,42 17,85 3,17 4 180,1 4,70 57,17
x 80 80 2,5 5,96 7,59 0,311 410 118,5 28,22 75,15 18,79 21,90 3,15 2 244,9 7,07 70,70
x 80 80 3 7,07 9,01 0,310 344 139,9 33,02 87,84 21,96 25,78 3,12 1 290,7 8,32 83,92
x 80 80 4 9,22 11,75 0,306 261 180,4 41,84 111,0 27,76 33,07 3,07 1 379,1 10,67 109,5
x 80 80 5 11,3 14,36 0,303 211 217,8 49,68 131,4 32,86 39,74 3,03 1 463,3 12,82 133,8
90 90 2 5,45 6,94 0,353 509 138,1 29,64 88,86 19,75 22,78 3,58 4 187,9 5,73 64,63
x 90 90 2,5 6,74 8,59 0,351 409 170,3 36,23 108,6 24,12 28,00 3,56 3 277,2 7,79 80,02
x 90 90 3 8,01 10,21 0,350 343 201,4 42,51 127,3 28,29 33,04 3,53 2 329,5 10,66 95,10
x 90 90 4 10,5 13,35 0,346 259 260,8 54,17 161,9 35,98 42,58 3,48 1 430,8 13,74 124,4
x 90 90 5 12,8 16,36 0,343 210 316,3 64,70 192,9 42,87 51,41 3,43 1 527,9 16,59 152,4
x 90 90 6 15,1 19,23 0,339 176 367,8 74,16 220,5 49,00 59,54 3,39 1 620,7 19,22 179,2
90 90 6,3 15,5 19,73 0,333 169 382,3 76,21 221,1 49,14 60,30 3,35 1 636,7 19,46 183,8
100 100 2 6,07 7,74 0,393 508 190,5 36,92 123,0 24,60 28,30 3,99 4 194,0 6,84 72,08
x 100 100 2,5 7,53 9,59 0,391 408 235,2 45,23 150,6 30,13 34,86 3,96 4 281,4 9,17 89,33
x 100 100 3 8,96 11,41 0,390 342 278,7 53,19 177,0 35,41 41,21 3,94 2 368,2 13,30 106,3
x 100 100 4 11,7 14,95 0,386 258 362,0 68,10 226,4 45,27 53,30 3,89 1 482,4 17,20 139,3
x 100 100 5 14,4 18,36 0,383 209 440,5 81,72 271,1 54,22 64,59 3,84 1 592,4 20,85 171,0
x 100 100 6 17,0 21,63 0,379 175 514,2 94,12 311,5 62,29 75,10 3,79 1 698,2 24,24 201,5
100 100 6,3 17,5 22,25 0,373 168 536,0 97,02 314,2 62,83 76,38 3,76 1 718,1 24,65 207,3
100 100 7,1 19,4 24,65 0,370 150 589,2 105,6 340,1 68,03 83,59 3,71 1 795,6 26,98 229,7
x 100 100 8 21,4 27,24 0,366 134 644,5 114,2 365,9 73,19 91,05 3,67 1 879,2 29,38 253,8
110 110 2,5 8,31 10,59 0,431 407 314,9 55,23 202,4 36,80 42,47 4,37 4 291,3 10,78 98,65
x 110 110 3 9,90 12,61 0,430 341 373,5 65,07 238,3 43,33 50,27 4,35 3 406,9 13,98 117,5
x 110 110 4 13,0 16,55 0,426 258 486,5 83,63 305,9 55,62 65,21 4,30 1 534,1 21,05 154,2
x 110 110 5 16,0 20,36 0,423 208 593,6 100,7 367,9 66,90 79,27 4,25 1 657,0 25,58 189,6
x 110 110 6 18,9 24,03 0,419 175 694,9 116,5 424,6 77,19 92,46 4,20 1 775,6 29,84 223,9
110 110 6,3 19,4 24,77 0,413 167 725,8 120,4 430,1 78,21 94,36 4,17 1 799,4 30,45 230,8
x 120 120 3 10,8 13,81 0,470 340 487,7 78,15 312,3 52,06 60,24 4,76 4 405,1 15,85 128,6
x 120 120 4 14,3 18,15 0,466 257 636,6 100,8 402,3 67,05 78,33 4,71 2 585,7 25,28 169,1
x 120 120 5 17,6 22,36 0,463 207 778,5 121,8 485,5 80,91 95,45 4,66 1 721,5 30,80 208,3
x 120 120 5,6 19,5 24,82 0,461 186 860,3 133,6 532,3 88,71 105,3 4,63 1 800,9 33,97 231,2
x 120 120 6 20,8 26,43 0,459 174 913,5 141,2 562,2 93,69 111,6 4,61 1 853,1 36,02 246,3

120 120 6,3 21,4 27,29 0,453 166 955,5 146,2 571,6 95,26 114,2 4,58 1 880,7 36,86 254,2
120 120 7,1 23,8 30,33 0,449 148 1056 160,1 623,3 103,9 125,7 4,53 1 978,7 40,55 282,5
x 120 120 8 26,4 33,64 0,446 132 1163 174,6 676,9 112,8 137,8 4,49 1 1086 44,48 313,4
120 120 8,8 28,6 36,48 0,442 121 1252 186,5 719,9 120,0 147,9 4,44 1 1177 47,73 339,9
x 140 140 4 16,8 21,35 0,546 256 1023 139,8 651,6 93,09 108,2 5,52 3 689,0 30,04 198,9
x 140 140 5 20,7 26,36 0,543 206 1256 169,8 790,6 112,9 132,3 5,48 1 850,6 42,70 245,5
x 140 140 5,6 23,0 29,30 0,541 185 1391 186,9 869,6 124,2 146,3 5,45 1 945,5 47,20 273,0
x 140 140 6 24,5 31,23 0,539 173 1479 197,9 920,4 131,5 155,3 5,43 1 1008 50,13 291,0
140 140 6,3 25,4 32,33 0,533 165 1550 205,4 940,8 134,4 159,6 5,39 1 1043 51,51 301,2
x 140 140 7,1 28,3 36,01 0,529 147 1719 226,0 1031 147,3 176,3 5,35 1 1162 56,89 335,5
x 140 140 8 31,4 40,04 0,526 131 1901 247,7 1127 161,0 194,2 5,30 1 1292 62,67 373,1
x 140 140 8,8 34,2 43,52 0,522 120 2055 265,8 1205 172,1 209,2 5,26 1 1405 67,52 405,5
x 140 140 10 38,1 48,57 0,517 106 2274 290,9 1312 187,4 230,4 5,20 1 1567 74,35 452,5
237
x 150 150 4 18,0 22,95 0,586 255 1265 161,7 808,0 107,7 124,9 5,93 4 701,2 33,61 213,8
x 150 150 5 22,3 28,36 0,583 206 1554 196,8 982,0 130,9 153,0 5,89 2 915,1 49,37 264,2
x 150 150 6 26,4 33,63 0,579 172 1833 229,8 1146 152,8 179,9 5,84 1 1085 58,05 313,3
150 150 6,3 27,4 34,85 0,573 164 1922 238,8 1174 156,5 185,2 5,80 1 1125 59,75 324,7
150 150 7,1 30,5 38,85 0,569 147 2134 263,1 1289 171,9 204,8 5,76 1 1254 66,09 361,9
x 150 150 8 34,0 43,24 0,566 131 2364 289,0 1412 188,2 226,0 5,71 1 1396 72,92 402,9
150 150 8,8 36,9 47,04 0,562 120 2560 310,7 1513 201,7 243,9 5,67 1 1518 78,70 438,3
x 150 150 10 41,3 52,57 0,557 106 2839 341,0 1653 220,3 269,2 5,61 1 1696 86,87 489,7
160 160 4 19,3 24,55 0,626 255 1541 185,3 987,2 123,4 142,8 6,34 4 720,2 37,57 228,7
x 160 160 5 23,8 30,36 0,623 205 1896 225,8 1202 150,3 175,2 6,29 2 979,7 56,53 282,8
x 160 160 6 28,3 36,03 0,619 172 2239 264,2 1405 175,7 206,2 6,25 1 1163 66,56 335,7
160 160 6,3 29,3 37,37 0,613 164 2349 274,7 1442 180,3 212,6 6,21 1 1206 68,60 348,2
160 160 7,1 32,7 41,69 0,609 146 2611 303,2 1587 198,4 235,4 6,17 1 1345 75,97 388,4
x 160 160 8 36,5 46,44 0,606 130 2897 333,6 1741 217,7 260,1 6,12 1 1499 83,95 432,7
160 160 8,8 39,7 50,56 0,602 119 3141 359,2 1870 233,7 281,1 6,08 1 1632 90,73 471,1
x 160 160 10 44,4 56,57 0,597 106 3490 395,1 2048 256,0 311,0 6,02 1 1826 100,4 527,0
160 160 12 50,9 64,86 0,578 89 3997 443,1 2224 278,0 346,1 5,86 1 2093 111,7 604,3
160 160 12,5 52,6 67,04 0,576 86 4114 454,6 2275 284,4 355,7 5,83 1 2164 114,8 624,6
Appendix 9.1
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Table 9.1.1 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for square hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2), continued.
Appendix 9.1
b A = cross-section area I = moment of inertia Nc.Rd = compression resistance without buckling
t Au = external area Wel = elastic section modulus Mc.Rd = bending resistance
Am/V = cross-section factor in fire design Wpl = plastic section modulus Vpl.Rd = shear resistance
h
y
It = torsional modulus i = radius of gyration
r0
z
r0 = 2,0 x t when t ≤ 6,0 mm The calculated resistance values are design values (section 2.1) based on the default value (1.1) of the partial

x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
x 180 180 5 27,0 34,36 0,703 205 2724 289,8 1737 193,0 224,0 7,11 3 1109 62,28 320,1
x 180 180 6 32,1 40,83 0,699 171 3223 340,1 2037 226,3 264,4 7,06 2 1318 85,31 380,4
180 180 6,3 33,3 42,41 0,693 163 3383 354,1 2096 232,8 273,1 7,03 1 1369 88,13 395,1
180 180 7,1 37,2 47,37 0,689 146 3768 391,7 2313 257,0 303,1 6,99 1 1529 97,81 441,3
x 180 180 8 41,5 52,84 0,686 130 4189 432,2 2546 282,9 335,7 6,94 1 1705 108,3 492,3
180 180 8,8 45,2 57,60 0,682 118 4551 466,6 2742 304,6 363,6 6,90 1 1859 117,3 536,7
x 180 180 10 50,7 64,57 0,677 105 5074 515,3 3017 335,2 403,5 6,84 1 2084 130,2 601,5
180 180 12 58,5 74,46 0,658 88 5865 583,7 3322 369,1 453,6 6,68 1 2403 146,4 693,7
238
x 180 180 12,5 60,5 77,04 0,656 85 6050 600,1 3406 378,5 467,1 6,65 1 2486 150,7 717,8
x 200 200 5 30,1 38,36 0,783 204 3763 361,8 2410 241,0 278,9 7,93 4 1125 73,38 357,3
x 200 200 6 35,8 45,63 0,779 171 4459 425,5 2833 283,3 329,7 7,88 2 1473 106,4 425,1
200 200 6,3 37,3 47,45 0,773 163 4682 443,5 2922 292,2 341,2 7,85 2 1531 110,1 442,1
200 200 7,1 41,6 53,05 0,769 145 5223 491,6 3232 323,2 379,3 7,81 1 1712 122,4 494,2
x 200 200 8 46,5 59,24 0,766 129 5815 543,6 3566 356,6 420,9 7,76 1 1912 135,8 551,9
200 200 8,8 50,8 64,64 0,762 118 6328 588,1 3850 385,0 456,6 7,72 1 2086 147,4 602,2
x 200 200 10 57,0 72,57 0,757 104 7072 651,5 4251 425,1 508,1 7,65 1 2342 164,0 676,1
200 200 12 66,0 84,06 0,738 88 8230 743,4 4730 473,0 575,6 7,50 1 2713 185,8 783,1
x 200 200 12,5 68,3 87,04 0,736 85 8502 765,5 4859 485,9 593,5 7,47 1 2809 191,5 810,9
x 220 220 6 39,6 50,43 0,859 170 5976 520,6 3813 346,7 402,2 8,70 3 1628 111,9 469,9
220 220 6,3 41,2 52,49 0,853 163 6277 543,0 3940 358,2 416,8 8,66 3 1694 115,6 489,0
220 220 7,1 46,1 58,73 0,849 145 7010 602,9 4366 396,9 464,0 8,62 2 1895 149,7 547,1
x 220 220 8 51,5 65,64 0,846 129 7815 667,9 4828 438,9 515,6 8,58 1 2118 166,4 611,6
220 220 8,8 56,3 71,68 0,842 117 8514 723,6 5221 474,7 560,2 8,53 1 2313 180,8 667,8
x 220 220 10 63,2 80,57 0,837 104 9533 803,6 5782 525,7 624,7 8,47 1 2600 201,6 750,6
220 220 12 73,5 93,66 0,818 87 11149 922,3 6487 589,7 712,0 8,32 1 3023 229,8 872,6
220 220 12,5 76,2 97,04 0,816 84 11530 950,8 6674 606,7 734,9 8,29 1 3132 237,2 904,1
x 250 250 6 45,2 57,63 0,979 170 8843 681,2 5672 453,8 524,5 9,92 4 1646 136,0 536,9
250 250 6,3 47,1 60,05 0,973 162 9290 711,2 5873 469,8 544,4 9,89 4 1770 143,4 559,4
250 250 7,1 52,8 67,25 0,969 144 10388 791,0 6522 521,7 607,0 9,85 3 2170 168,4 626,5
x 250 250 8 59,1 75,24 0,966 128 11598 878,2 7229 578,3 675,8 9,80 2 2428 218,1 701,0
250 250 8,8 64,6 82,24 0,962 117 12653 953,3 7835 626,8 735,3 9,76 1 2654 237,3 766,2
x 250 250 10 72,7 92,57 0,957 103 14197 1062 8707 696,5 822,0 9,70 1 2987 265,3 862,4
250 250 12 84,8 108,1 0,938 87 16691 1226 9859 788,8 943,6 9,55 1 3487 304,5 1007
x 250 250 12,5 88,0 112,0 0,936 84 17283 1266 10161 812,9 975,2 9,52 1 3616 314,7 1044
260 260 6 47,1 60,03 1,019 170 9970 739,5 6405 492,7 568,8 10,33 4 1669 145,3 559,3
260 260 6,3 49,1 62,57 1,013 162 10475 772,3 6635 510,4 590,8 10,30 4 1797 153,4 582,9
260 260 7,1 55,0 70,09 1,009 144 11717 859,4 7373 567,1 658,9 10,26 3 2262 183,0 653,0

260 260 8 61,6 78,44 1,006 128 13087 954,7 8178 629,1 734,0 10,21 2 2532 236,9 730,8
260 260 8,8 67,3 85,76 1,002 117 14283 1037 8869 682,2 799,0 10,17 1 2768 257,9 799,0
260 260 10 75,8 96,57 0,997 103 16035 1156 9865 758,8 893,8 10,11 1 3116 288,5 899,6
260 260 11 81,9 104,4 0,983 94 17498 1247 10479 805,8 956,5 10,02 1 3368 308,7 972,3
260 260 12,5 91,9 117,0 0,976 83 19553 1381 11548 888,3 1063 9,93 1 3777 343,0 1090
x 300 300 6 54,7 69,63 1,179 169 15434 996,8 9964 664,2 764,2 11,96 4 1746 184,6 648,7
300 300 6,3 57,0 72,65 1,173 161 16218 1042 10342 689,5 794,9 11,93 4 1887 195,4 676,8
300 300 7,1 63,9 81,45 1,169 144 18161 1161 11514 767,6 887,9 11,89 4 2303 228,6 758,8
x 300 300 8 71,6 91,24 1,166 128 20312 1293 12801 853,4 990,7 11,84 4 2787 266,2 850,0
300 300 8,8 78,4 99,84 1,162 116 22195 1406 13902 927,4 1080 11,80 3 3222 299,3 930,2
x 300 300 10 88,4 112,6 1,157 103 24966 1572 15519 1035 1211 11,74 2 3633 390,8 1049
300 300 12 104 132,1 1,138 86 29514 1829 17767 1184 1402 11,60 1 4262 452,3 1230
x 300 300 12,5 108 137,0 1,136 83 30601 1892 18348 1223 1451 11,57 1 4423 468,2 1277
239

x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Appendix 9.1
Table 9.1.2 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for rectangular hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2).
Appendix 9.1
t Au = external area Wel = elastic section modulus Mc.y.Rd = bending resistance by y axis
Am/V = cross-section factor in fire design Wpl = plastic section modulus Mc.z.Rd = bending resistance by z axis
h
y
It = torsional modulus i = radius of gyration Vpl.y.Rd = shear resistance in the direction of y axis
r0
Vpl.z.Rd = shear resistance in the direction of z axis
z r0 = 2,0 x t when t ≤ 6,0 mm The calculated resistance values are design values (section 2.1) based on the default value (1.1) of the partial

1) h b t M A Au Am/V It Wt Iy Wel.y Wpl.y iy Iz Wel.z Wpl.z iz PL Nc.Rd Mc.y.Rd Mc.z.Rd Vpl.y.Rd Vpl.z.Rd
mm mm mm kg/m mm2 m2/m 1/m mm4 mm3 mm4 mm3 mm3 mm mm4 mm3 mm3 mm h b kN kNm kNm kN kN
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
40 30 2 1,99 2,54 0,133 524 7,07 3,79 5,49 2,75 3,37 1,47 3,51 2,34 2,77 1,18 1 1 81,88 1,09 0,89 20,26 27,01
x 50 30 2 2,31 2,94 0,153 520 9,77 4,84 9,54 3,81 4,74 1,80 4,29 2,86 3,33 1,21 1 1 94,78 1,53 1,07 20,52 34,20
x 60 40 2 2,93 3,74 0,193 516 20,70 8,12 18,41 6,14 7,47 2,22 9,83 4,92 5,65 1,62 2 1 120,6 2,41 1,82 27,85 41,78
x 60 40 2,5 3,60 4,59 0,191 416 25,14 9,72 22,07 7,36 9,06 2,19 11,74 5,87 6,84 1,60 1 1 148,1 2,92 2,21 34,20 51,30
x 70 50 2 3,56 4,54 0,233 513 37,45 12,20 31,48 8,99 10,80 2,63 18,76 7,50 8,58 2,03 3 1 146,4 3,49 2,42 35,22 49,31
x 70 50 2,5 4,39 5,59 0,231 413 45,75 14,72 38,01 10,86 13,16 2,61 22,59 9,04 10,45 2,01 1 1 180,4 4,25 3,37 43,39 60,75
x 70 50 3 5,19 6,61 0,230 348 53,62 17,06 44,05 12,59 15,40 2,58 26,10 10,44 12,21 1,99 1 1 213,3 4,97 3,94 51,30 71,83
240
x 80 40 2,5 4,39 5,59 0,231 413 37,58 13,24 45,11 11,28 14,15 2,84 15,26 7,63 8,72 1,65 2 1 180,4 4,56 2,81 34,71 69,43
x 80 60 2 4,19 5,34 0,273 511 61,22 17,08 49,53 12,38 14,73 3,05 31,87 10,62 12,11 2,44 4 2 163,2 4,75 3,22 42,62 56,82
x 80 60 2,5 5,17 6,59 0,271 411 75,07 20,73 60,13 15,03 18,02 3,02 38,61 12,87 14,81 2,42 2 1 212,7 5,82 4,78 52,62 70,16
x 80 60 3 6,13 7,81 0,270 346 88,35 24,14 70,05 17,51 21,16 3,00 44,89 14,96 17,37 2,40 1 1 252,0 6,83 5,61 62,35 83,14
x 80 60 4 7,97 10,15 0,266 262 113,1 30,32 87,92 21,98 26,99 2,94 56,12 18,71 22,12 2,35 1 1 327,5 8,71 7,14 81,04 108,1
80 70 2,5 5,56 7,09 0,291 410 96,21 24,47 67,64 16,91 19,96 3,09 55,11 15,75 18,23 2,79 2 1 228,8 6,44 5,88 61,64 70,45
80 70 3 6,60 8,41 0,290 345 113,4 28,58 78,94 19,74 23,47 3,06 64,26 18,36 21,43 2,76 1 1 271,4 7,57 6,91 73,11 83,56
80 70 4 8,59 10,95 0,286 261 145,9 36,08 99,48 24,87 30,03 3,01 80,84 23,10 27,40 2,72 1 1 353,3 9,69 8,84 95,19 108,8
80 70 5 10,5 13,36 0,283 212 175,5 42,67 117,4 29,34 35,99 2,96 95,21 27,20 32,81 2,67 1 1 431,0 11,61 10,59 116,1 132,7
90 50 2 4,19 5,34 0,273 511 53,37 15,88 57,88 12,86 15,74 3,29 23,37 9,35 10,50 2,09 4 1 154,2 5,08 2,66 35,52 63,93
x 90 50 2,5 5,17 6,59 0,271 411 65,3 19,24 70,26 15,61 19,25 3,27 28,24 11,29 12,82 2,07 3 1 212,7 6,21 3,64 43,85 78,92
x 90 50 3 6,13 7,81 0,270 346 76,67 22,36 81,85 18,19 22,60 3,24 32,74 13,10 15,03 2,05 2 1 252,0 7,29 4,85 51,96 93,53
90 60 2,5 5,56 7,09 0,291 410 88,99 23,48 79,84 17,74 21,44 3,36 42,75 14,25 16,24 2,46 3 1 228,8 6,92 4,60 52,84 79,25
90 60 3 6,60 8,41 0,290 345 104,8 27,39 93,21 20,71 25,21 3,33 49,77 16,59 19,08 2,43 2 1 271,4 8,14 6,16 62,67 94,00
90 60 4 8,59 10,95 0,286 261 134,4 34,50 117,5 26,11 32,26 3,28 62,40 20,80 24,36 2,39 1 1 353,3 10,41 7,86 81,60 122,4
90 70 2 4,82 6,14 0,313 510 93,2 22,76 73,37 16,30 19,26 3,46 49,98 14,28 16,24 2,85 4 3 178,8 5,26 4,11 50,03 64,32
90 70 2,5 5,96 7,59 0,311 410 114,6 27,73 89,41 19,87 23,63 3,43 60,81 17,37 19,91 2,83 3 1 244,9 7,63 5,61 61,86 79,54
90 70 3 7,07 9,01 0,310 344 135,3 32,43 104,6 23,24 27,82 3,41 71,00 20,29 23,44 2,81 2 1 290,7 8,98 7,56 73,43 94,41
90 70 4 9,22 11,75 0,306 260 174,2 41,05 132,3 29,40 35,70 3,36 89,57 25,59 30,04 2,76 1 1 379,1 11,52 9,69 95,77 123,1
90 70 5 11,3 14,36 0,303 211 210,1 48,70 156,8 34,84 42,91 3,30 105,8 30,23 36,06 2,71 1 1 463,3 13,85 11,64 117,0 150,5
90 80 2 5,13 6,54 0,333 509 115,2 26,20 81,11 18,03 21,02 3,52 67,78 16,95 19,41 3,22 4 4 184,0 5,50 4,90 57,32 64,48
90 80 2,5 6,35 8,09 0,331 409 141,8 31,98 98,98 22,00 25,81 3,50 82,66 20,66 23,83 3,20 3 2 261,1 8,33 6,67 70,93 79,79
90 80 3 7,54 9,61 0,330 343 167,6 37,47 115,9 25,76 30,43 3,47 96,74 24,19 28,09 3,17 2 1 310,1 9,82 9,07 84,25 94,78
90 80 4 9,85 12,55 0,326 260 216,5 47,61 147,1 32,69 39,14 3,42 122,6 30,65 36,11 3,13 1 1 405,0 12,63 11,65 110,0 123,8
90 80 5 12,1 15,36 0,323 210 261,9 56,70 174,9 38,86 47,16 3,37 145,5 36,38 43,49 3,08 1 1 495,6 15,22 14,03 134,7 151,5
90 80 6 14,2 18,03 0,319 177 303,8 64,78 199,3 44,28 54,50 3,32 165,6 41,41 50,23 3,03 1 1 582,0 17,59 16,21 158,1 177,9
90 80 6,3 14,5 18,47 0,313 169 315,2 66,43 199,0 44,23 55,03 3,28 165,7 41,41 50,75 2,99 1 1 596,1 17,76 16,38 162,0 182,2
100 40 2 4,19 5,34 0,273 511 41,47 13,89 65,38 13,08 16,54 3,50 15,61 7,81 8,69 1,71 4 1 144,4 5,34 2,07 28,41 71,03
x 100 40 2,5 5,17 6,59 0,271 411 50,52 16,76 79,32 15,86 20,23 3,47 18,78 9,39 10,59 1,69 4 1 198,6 6,53 2,81 35,08 87,69
100 50 2 4,50 5,74 0,293 510 61,59 17,73 74,98 15,00 18,50 3,62 25,67 10,27 11,46 2,12 4 1 157,3 5,97 2,75 35,63 71,26

x 100 50 2,5 5,56 7,09 0,291 410 75,39 21,49 91,2 18,24 22,67 3,59 31,06 12,42 14,01 2,09 4 1 214,7 7,32 3,73 44,03 88,06
x 100 50 3 6,60 8,41 0,290 345 88,56 25,01 106,5 21,29 26,66 3,56 36,06 14,42 16,44 2,07 2 1 271,4 8,60 5,30 52,22 104,4
x 100 60 2 4,82 6,14 0,313 510 84,08 21,56 84,59 16,92 20,46 3,71 38,60 12,87 14,43 2,51 4 2 170,2 6,60 3,48 42,88 71,47
x 100 60 2,5 5,96 7,59 0,311 410 103,3 26,23 103,1 20,62 25,11 3,69 46,88 15,63 17,68 2,49 4 1 230,9 8,10 4,71 53,03 88,38
x 100 60 3 7,07 9,01 0,310 344 121,7 30,64 120,6 24,11 29,57 3,66 54,65 18,22 20,79 2,46 2 1 290,7 9,54 6,71 62,94 104,9
x 100 60 4 9,22 11,75 0,306 260 156,3 38,68 152,6 30,52 37,94 3,60 68,68 22,89 26,60 2,42 1 1 379,1 12,24 8,59 82,09 136,8
100 70 2 5,13 6,54 0,333 509 108,5 25,40 94,19 18,84 22,42 3,80 54,60 15,60 17,60 2,89 4 3 181,9 6,08 4,25 50,15 71,65
100 70 2,5 6,35 8,09 0,331 409 133,5 30,98 115,0 22,99 27,55 3,77 66,50 19,00 21,60 2,87 4 1 247,0 8,89 5,74 62,06 88,66
100 70 3 7,54 9,61 0,330 343 157,7 36,27 134,7 26,94 32,48 3,74 77,74 22,21 25,45 2,84 2 1 310,1 10,48 8,21 73,72 105,3
100 70 4 9,85 12,55 0,326 260 203,4 46,03 171,0 34,20 41,78 3,69 98,29 28,08 32,68 2,80 1 1 405,0 13,48 10,55 96,27 137,5
100 70 5 12,1 15,36 0,323 210 245,7 54,73 203,4 40,67 50,34 3,64 116,4 33,25 39,31 2,75 1 1 495,6 16,25 12,69 117,8 168,3
100 80 2 5,45 6,94 0,353 509 134,6 29,24 103,8 20,76 24,38 3,87 73,87 18,47 20,97 3,26 4 4 187,0 6,35 5,07 57,45 71,81
100 80 2,5 6,74 8,59 0,351 409 165,8 35,73 126,9 25,37 29,98 3,84 90,17 22,54 25,77 3,24 4 2 263,1 9,68 6,83 71,13 88,91
241
x 100 80 3 8,01 10,21 0,350 343 196,1 41,91 148,8 29,76 35,39 3,82 105,6 26,41 30,40 3,22 2 1 329,5 11,42 9,81 84,54 105,7
x 100 80 4 10,5 13,35 0,346 259 253,8 53,38 189,5 37,89 45,62 3,77 134,2 33,54 39,15 3,17 1 1 430,8 14,72 12,64 110,5 138,2
x 100 80 5 12,8 16,36 0,343 210 307,6 63,72 225,9 45,19 55,09 3,72 159,6 39,90 47,24 3,12 1 1 527,9 17,78 15,24 135,5 169,3
x 100 80 6 15,1 19,23 0,339 176 357,4 72,98 258,4 51,68 63,82 3,67 182,1 45,53 54,67 3,08 1 1 620,7 20,60 17,64 159,3 199,1
100 80 6,3 15,5 19,73 0,333 169 371,4 74,97 258,8 51,75 64,58 3,62 182,8 45,70 55,39 3,04 1 1 636,7 20,84 17,88 163,4 204,2
110 40 2 4,50 5,74 0,293 510 46,87 15,34 83,29 15,14 19,31 3,81 17,06 8,53 9,45 1,72 4 1 146,9 6,23 2,13 28,51 78,39
110 40 2,5 5,56 7,09 0,291 410 57,12 18,52 101,2 18,41 23,65 3,78 20,54 10,27 11,53 1,70 4 1 203,6 7,63 2,92 35,22 96,86
110 40 3 6,60 8,41 0,290 345 66,77 21,45 118,1 21,47 27,80 3,75 23,73 11,86 13,49 1,68 3 1 271,4 8,97 3,83 41,78 114,9
110 50 2 4,82 6,14 0,313 510 69,94 19,57 94,95 17,26 21,47 3,93 27,98 11,19 12,42 2,14 4 1 159,8 6,93 2,83 35,73 78,61
110 50 2,5 5,96 7,59 0,311 410 85,65 23,75 115,7 21,03 26,34 3,90 33,88 13,55 15,20 2,11 4 1 219,7 8,50 3,87 44,19 97,22
110 50 3 7,07 9,01 0,310 344 100,6 27,66 135,3 24,59 31,01 3,88 39,38 15,75 17,85 2,09 3 1 290,7 10,01 5,08 52,45 115,4
110 60 2 5,13 6,54 0,333 509 95,89 23,80 106,6 19,39 23,63 4,04 41,97 13,99 15,59 2,53 4 2 172,7 7,63 3,58 42,99 78,81
110 60 2,5 6,35 8,09 0,331 409 117,8 28,99 130,1 23,66 29,03 4,01 51,02 17,01 19,12 2,51 4 1 235,9 9,37 4,89 53,20 97,52
110 60 3 7,54 9,61 0,330 343 138,9 33,89 152,5 27,72 34,22 3,98 59,52 19,84 22,50 2,49 3 1 310,1 11,04 6,40 63,19 115,8
110 60 4 9,85 12,55 0,326 260 178,5 42,86 193,5 35,19 44,01 3,93 74,96 24,99 28,84 2,44 1 1 405,0 14,20 9,31 82,52 151,3
110 70 2 5,45 6,94 0,353 509 124,2 28,04 118,3 21,51 25,79 4,13 59,23 16,92 18,96 2,92 4 3 184,4 6,94 4,37 50,27 78,99
110 70 2,5 6,74 8,59 0,351 409 152,9 34,23 144,6 26,29 31,72 4,10 72,20 20,63 23,29 2,90 4 1 252,0 10,24 5,95 62,24 97,8
110 70 3 8,01 10,21 0,350 343 180,7 40,12 169,6 30,84 37,43 4,08 84,48 24,14 27,46 2,88 3 1 329,5 12,08 7,79 73,97 116,2
Appendix 9.1
110 70 4 10,5 13,35 0,346 259 233,3 51,00 216,0 39,27 48,25 4,02 107,0 30,57 35,32 2,83 1 1 430,8 15,57 11,40 96,72 152,0
110 70 5 12,8 16,36 0,343 210 282,1 60,76 257,6 46,84 58,27 3,97 127,0 36,28 42,56 2,79 1 1 527,9 18,81 13,73 118,5 186,2
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Table 9.1.2 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for rectangular hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2), continued.
Appendix 9.1
h
y It = torsional modulus i = radius of gyration Vpl.y.Rd = shear resistance in the direction of y axis
r0 Vpl.z.Rd = shear resistance in the direction of z axis

x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
110 90 2 6,07 7,74 0,393 508 186,6 36,52 141,6 25,75 30,11 4,28 104,4 23,19 26,30 3,67 4 4 193,4 7,54 6,10 64,87 79,29
110 90 2,5 7,53 9,59 0,391 408 230,3 44,73 173,5 31,54 37,09 4,25 127,7 28,38 32,38 3,65 4 3 280,1 10,18 8,26 80,40 98,27
110 90 3 8,96 11,41 0,390 342 272,8 52,59 204,0 37,09 43,85 4,23 150,0 33,33 38,26 3,63 3 2 368,2 14,15 10,76 95,65 116,9
110 90 4 11,7 14,95 0,386 258 354,2 67,31 261,0 47,45 56,73 4,18 191,5 42,56 49,46 3,58 1 1 482,4 18,31 15,96 125,3 153,2
110 90 5 14,4 18,36 0,383 209 430,8 80,74 312,8 56,87 68,77 4,13 229,1 50,91 59,91 3,53 1 1 592,4 22,19 19,34 153,9 188,1
110 90 6 17,0 21,63 0,379 175 502,6 92,94 359,6 65,38 79,98 4,08 262,9 58,42 69,62 3,49 1 1 698,2 25,81 22,47 181,4 221,7
110 90 6,3 17,5 22,25 0,373 168 523,8 95,78 362,3 65,87 81,29 4,04 265,4 58,97 70,85 3,45 1 1 718,1 26,23 22,86 186,6 228,0
110 100 2 6,39 8,14 0,413 507 220,1 40,76 153,3 27,87 32,27 4,34 132,6 26,52 30,26 4,04 4 4 196,5 7,79 7,03 72,20 79,42
242
110 100 2,5 7,92 10,09 0,411 407 271,8 49,98 187,9 34,17 39,78 4,32 162,5 32,50 37,30 4,01 4 4 286,3 10,42 9,49 89,52 98,47
110 100 3 9,43 12,01 0,410 341 322,2 58,83 221,2 40,21 47,06 4,29 191,2 38,23 44,12 3,99 3 2 387,5 15,19 12,34 106,6 117,2
110 100 4 12,4 15,75 0,406 258 419,1 75,47 283,5 51,54 60,97 4,24 244,8 48,96 57,14 3,94 1 1 508,2 19,68 18,44 139,7 153,7
110 100 5 15,2 19,36 0,403 208 510,7 90,74 340,4 61,88 74,02 4,19 293,7 58,74 69,34 3,90 1 1 624,7 23,89 22,38 171,7 188,9
110 100 6 17,9 22,83 0,399 175 596,9 104,7 392,1 71,29 86,22 4,14 338,0 67,60 80,74 3,85 1 1 736,9 27,82 26,06 202,6 222,9
110 100 6,3 18,5 23,51 0,393 167 622,9 108,1 396,2 72,04 87,82 4,11 341,9 68,37 82,29 3,81 1 1 758,7 28,34 26,56 208,6 229,5
120 40 2 4,82 6,14 0,313 510 52,32 16,78 104,1 17,34 22,28 4,12 18,50 9,25 10,21 1,74 4 1 148,9 7,19 2,19 28,59 85,76
120 40 2,5 5,96 7,59 0,311 410 63,77 20,27 126,7 21,12 27,32 4,09 22,30 11,15 12,47 1,71 4 1 207,7 8,82 3,01 35,35 106,1
120 40 3 7,07 9,01 0,310 344 74,56 23,51 148,0 24,67 32,16 4,05 25,79 12,89 14,60 1,69 4 1 270,5 10,38 3,85 41,96 125,9
120 50 2 5,13 6,54 0,333 509 78,39 21,41 118,0 19,67 24,64 4,25 30,28 12,11 13,38 2,15 4 1 161,8 7,95 2,90 35,82 85,98
120 50 2,5 6,35 8,09 0,331 409 96,03 26,01 144,0 23,99 30,26 4,22 36,70 14,68 16,39 2,13 4 1 223,8 9,77 3,99 44,33 106,4
120 50 3 7,54 9,61 0,330 343 112,9 30,32 168,6 28,10 35,67 4,19 42,69 17,08 19,26 2,11 4 1 289,8 11,51 5,12 52,65 126,4
120 60 2 5,45 6,94 0,353 509 107,9 26,05 131,9 21,99 27,00 4,36 45,33 15,11 16,75 2,56 4 2 174,7 8,71 3,67 43,08 86,17
120 60 2,5 6,74 8,59 0,351 409 132,6 31,75 161,2 26,87 33,20 4,33 55,15 18,38 20,56 2,53 4 1 240,0 10,71 5,04 53,35 106,7
x 120 60 3 8,01 10,21 0,350 343 156,3 37,14 189,1 31,52 39,18 4,30 64,40 21,47 24,21 2,51 4 1 309,2 12,64 6,45 63,40 126,8
x 120 60 4 10,5 13,35 0,346 259 201,1 47,05 240,7 40,12 50,49 4,25 81,25 27,08 31,08 2,47 2 1 430,8 16,29 10,03 82,90 165,8
120 80 2 6,07 7,74 0,393 508 175,0 35,32 159,8 26,63 31,72 4,54 86,04 21,51 24,09 3,33 4 4 191,6 8,18 5,34 57,66 86,50
120 80 2,5 7,53 9,59 0,391 408 215,8 43,23 195,8 32,63 39,07 4,52 105,2 26,30 29,65 3,31 4 2 272,2 12,61 7,29 71,47 107,2
x 120 80 3 8,96 11,41 0,390 342 255,5 50,80 230,2 38,37 46,20 4,49 123,4 30,86 35,02 3,29 4 1 347,9 14,91 9,32 85,03 127,5
x 120 80 4 11,7 14,95 0,386 258 331,2 64,93 294,6 49,10 59,77 4,44 157,3 39,32 45,23 3,24 2 1 482,4 19,29 14,60 111,4 167,1
x 120 80 5 14,4 18,36 0,383 209 402,3 77,77 353,1 58,86 72,45 4,39 187,8 46,94 54,74 3,20 1 1 592,4 23,38 17,66 136,8 205,2
x 120 80 6 17,0 21,63 0,379 175 468,5 89,40 406,1 67,68 84,25 4,33 215,0 53,76 63,55 3,15 1 1 698,2 27,19 20,51 161,2 241,9
120 80 6,3 17,5 22,25 0,373 168 487,8 92,07 408,5 68,08 85,57 4,28 217,1 54,28 64,68 3,12 1 1 718,1 27,61 20,87 165,8 248,7
120 90 2 6,39 8,14 0,413 507 211,8 39,96 173,7 28,95 34,08 4,62 112,1 24,91 28,06 3,71 4 4 195,5 8,51 6,24 64,98 86,64
120 90 2,5 7,92 10,09 0,411 407 261,5 48,98 213,0 35,50 42,01 4,59 137,3 30,51 34,56 3,69 4 3 284,2 11,46 8,50 80,57 107,4
120 90 3 9,43 12,01 0,410 341 309,9 57,64 250,7 41,79 49,71 4,57 161,4 35,86 40,87 3,67 4 2 367,3 16,04 10,85 95,89 127,9
120 90 4 12,4 15,75 0,406 258 402,8 73,88 321,5 53,58 64,41 4,52 206,3 45,85 52,90 3,62 2 1 508,2 20,79 17,07 125,8 167,7
120 90 5 15,2 19,36 0,403 208 490,4 88,76 386,2 64,37 78,20 4,47 247,2 54,93 64,16 3,57 1 1 624,7 25,24 20,71 154,6 206,1
120 90 6 17,9 22,83 0,399 175 572,7 102,3 445,1 74,18 91,09 4,42 284,1 63,13 74,66 3,53 1 1 736,9 29,40 24,10 182,3 243,1
120 90 6,3 18,5 23,51 0,393 167 597,3 105,6 449,3 74,88 92,73 4,37 287,5 63,88 76,12 3,50 1 1 758,7 29,93 24,57 187,7 250,3
120 100 2,5 8,31 10,59 0,431 407 309,4 54,73 230,3 38,38 44,95 4,66 174,4 34,88 39,73 4,06 4 4 290,5 11,73 9,77 89,68 107,6
120 100 3 9,90 12,61 0,430 341 367,0 64,47 271,3 45,21 53,22 4,64 205,3 41,06 47,03 4,04 4 2 386,7 17,17 12,45 106,8 128,1

120 100 4 13,0 16,55 0,426 257 477,8 82,83 348,4 58,07 69,05 4,59 263,2 52,65 60,98 3,99 2 1 534,1 22,28 19,68 140,2 168,2
120 100 5 16,0 20,36 0,423 208 582,9 99,75 419,3 69,88 83,95 4,54 316,3 63,25 74,09 3,94 1 1 657,00 27,09 23,91 172,4 206,9
120 100 6 18,9 24,03 0,419 174 682,0 115,3 484,1 80,68 97,93 4,49 364,6 72,91 86,38 3,89 1 1 775,6 31,61 27,88 203,5 244,3
120 100 6,3 19,4 24,77 0,413 167 712,3 119,1 490,00 81,67 99,89 4,45 369,6 73,91 88,19 3,86 1 1 799,4 32,24 28,46 209,8 251,7
140 40 2,5 6,74 8,59 0,351 409 77,20 23,79 189,3 27,04 35,41 4,69 25,82 12,91 14,34 1,73 4 1 214,1 11,43 3,16 35,56 124,5
140 40 3 8,01 10,21 0,350 343 90,30 27,62 221,8 31,68 41,76 4,66 29,90 14,95 16,82 1,71 4 1 281,7 13,48 4,09 42,27 147,9
140 60 2,5 7,53 9,59 0,391 408 162,7 37,26 236,6 33,79 42,29 4,97 63,43 21,14 23,43 2,57 4 1 246,3 13,65 5,28 53,60 125,1
140 60 3 8,96 11,41 0,390 342 191,9 43,64 278,1 39,73 49,98 4,94 74,16 24,72 27,63 2,55 4 1 320,5 16,13 6,84 63,77 148,8
140 60 4 11,7 14,95 0,386 258 247,1 55,42 355,6 50,80 64,63 4,88 93,81 31,27 35,56 2,51 3 1 482,4 20,86 10,09 83,56 195,00
140 70 2,5 7,92 10,09 0,411 407 213,1 44,00 260,2 37,17 45,72 5,08 89,3 25,51 28,35 2,98 4 1 262,5 14,76 6,43 62,66 125,3
140 70 3 9,43 12,01 0,410 341 252,0 51,66 306,2 43,75 54,09 5,05 104,7 29,91 33,49 2,95 4 1 339,8 17,46 8,32 74,58 149,2
x 140 70 4 12,4 15,75 0,406 258 326,0 65,94 392,6 56,09 70,07 4,99 133,2 38,05 43,24 2,91 3 1 508,2 22,62 12,28 97,81 195,6
x 140 70 5 15,2 19,36 0,403 208 395,1 78,88 471,5 67,35 85,05 4,94 158,7 45,35 52,31 2,86 1 1 624,7 27,45 16,88 120,2 240,4
243
x 140 80 3 9,90 12,61 0,430 341 317,1 59,69 334,4 47,77 58,20 5,15 141,2 35,31 39,64 3,35 4 1 359,2 18,78 9,86 85,43 149,5
x 140 80 4 13,0 16,55 0,426 257 411,6 76,48 429,6 61,37 75,51 5,10 180,4 45,10 51,31 3,30 3 1 534,1 24,37 14,56 112,1 196,2
x 140 80 5 16,0 20,36 0,423 208 500,5 91,83 517,1 73,87 91,80 5,04 215,9 53,99 62,24 3,26 1 1 657,0 29,63 20,09 137,9 241,4
x 140 80 6 18,9 24,03 0,419 174 583,8 105,8 597,00 85,29 107,1 4,98 248,0 61,99 72,43 3,21 1 1 775,6 34,56 23,37 162,8 285,00
x 140 80 6,3 19,4 24,77 0,413 167 608,5 109,2 602,7 86,10 109,1 4,93 251,4 62,85 73,97 3,19 1 1 799,4 35,20 23,87 167,8 293,7
140 100 2,5 9,10 11,59 0,471 406 387,3 64,23 331,1 47,30 56,04 5,35 198,2 39,63 44,61 4,14 4 4 296,8 14,51 10,23 89,97 126,00
140 100 3 10,8 13,81 0,470 340 459,6 75,76 390,7 55,82 66,42 5,32 233,5 46,70 52,85 4,11 4 2 397,9 21,44 13,16 107,2 150,1
140 100 4 14,3 18,15 0,466 257 599,3 97,57 503,6 71,94 86,39 5,27 300,1 60,02 68,66 4,07 3 1 585,7 27,88 19,37 140,9 197,3
140 100 5 17,6 22,36 0,463 207 732,1 117,8 608,2 86,89 105,3 5,22 361,4 72,29 83,59 4,02 1 1 721,5 33,98 26,98 173,6 243,00
140 100 6 20,8 26,43 0,459 174 858,0 136,5 704,8 100,7 123,2 5,16 417,7 83,53 97,66 3,97 1 1 853,1 39,75 31,52 205,2 287,3
140 100 6,3 21,4 27,29 0,453 166 896,9 141,2 715,4 102,2 125,9 5,12 425,0 84,99 100,0 3,95 1 1 880,7 40,64 32,27 211,9 296,6
140 110 2,5 9,49 12,09 0,491 406 451,3 70,98 354,7 50,67 59,47 5,42 245,7 44,68 50,53 4,51 4 4 301,8 14,98 11,61 99,11 126,1
140 110 3 11,3 14,41 0,490 340 536,1 83,80 418,9 59,84 70,53 5,39 289,9 52,70 59,90 4,49 4 3 409,1 19,31 14,92 118,1 150,3
140 110 4 14,9 18,95 0,486 256 700,0 108,1 540,6 77,23 91,83 5,34 373,4 67,89 77,93 4,44 3 1 611,5 29,64 21,91 155,3 197,7
140 110 5 18,3 23,36 0,483 207 856,4 130,8 653,8 93,4 112,1 5,29 450,7 81,95 95,02 4,39 1 1 753,8 36,16 30,67 191,5 243,7
140 110 6 21,7 27,63 0,479 173 1005 151,8 758,7 108,4 131,2 5,24 522,0 94,91 111,2 4,35 1 1 891,8 42,34 35,88 226,5 288,3
140 110 6,3 22,4 28,55 0,473 166 1052 157,3 771,8 110,3 134,4 5,20 531,9 96,71 114,0 4,32 1 1 921,4 43,36 36,78 234,1 297,9
140 120 3 11,8 15,01 0,510 340 615,4 91,84 447,00 63,86 74,64 5,46 353,4 58,90 67,26 4,85 4 4 416,4 19,51 16,73 129,1 150,6
Appendix 9.1
140 120 4 15,5 19,75 0,506 256 804,5 118,7 577,6 82,52 97,27 5,41 456,1 76,02 87,61 4,81 3 2 637,3 31,39 24,53 169,8 198,1
140 120 5 19,1 24,36 0,503 206 985,5 143,8 699,4 99,91 118,8 5,36 551,6 91,94 107,0 4,76 1 1 786,00 38,34 34,51 209,5 244,4
140 120 6 22,6 28,83 0,499 173 1158 167,2 812,6 116,1 139,3 5,31 640,2 106,7 125,3 4,71 1 1 930,5 44,94 40,44 248,0 289,3
140 120 6,3 23,4 29,81 0,493 165 1213 173,3 828,1 118,3 142,8 5,27 653,1 108,9 128,6 4,68 1 1 962,00 46,08 41,49 256,4 299,1
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Appendix 9.1
h

x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
150 50 2,5 7,53 9,59 0,391 408 127,7 32,78 254,1 33,88 43,52 5,15 45,17 18,07 19,95 2,17 4 1 232,7 14,04 4,27 44,67 134,0
150 50 3 8,96 11,41 0,390 342 150,2 38,28 298,6 39,81 51,43 5,12 52,65 21,06 23,49 2,15 4 1 305,5 16,60 5,55 53,14 159,4
150 60 2,5 7,92 10,09 0,411 407 177,9 40,01 281,3 37,50 47,21 5,28 67,56 22,52 24,87 2,59 4 1 248,8 15,23 5,38 53,71 134,3
150 60 3 9,43 12,01 0,410 341 210,0 46,89 331,0 44,13 55,84 5,25 79,04 26,35 29,34 2,57 4 1 324,9 18,02 6,99 63,93 159,8
150 60 4 12,4 15,75 0,406 258 270,5 59,60 424,0 56,54 72,31 5,19 100,1 33,37 37,80 2,52 4 1 488,6 23,34 10,32 83,84 209,6
150 70 2,5 8,31 10,59 0,431 407 233,7 47,25 308,5 41,13 50,89 5,40 94,99 27,14 30,04 3,00 4 1 265,0 16,42 6,55 62,78 134,5
150 70 3 9,90 12,61 0,430 341 276,4 55,51 363,4 48,45 60,25 5,37 111,4 31,84 35,50 2,97 4 1 344,3 19,44 8,51 74,75 160,2
244
150 70 4 13,0 16,55 0,426 257 357,7 70,92 466,7 62,22 78,15 5,31 141,9 40,54 45,88 2,93 4 1 514,4 25,22 12,55 98,11 210,2
150 70 5 16,0 20,36 0,423 208 433,6 84,92 561,5 74,86 94,98 5,25 169,3 48,37 55,56 2,88 2 1 657,0 30,65 17,93 120,7 258,6
150 90 2,5 9,10 11,59 0,471 406 358,9 61,74 362,9 48,38 58,27 5,60 166,0 36,89 41,13 3,78 4 3 293,1 15,61 9,08 80,98 135,0
150 90 3 10,8 13,81 0,470 340 425,7 72,77 428,2 57,10 69,07 5,57 195,4 43,43 48,70 3,76 4 2 383,0 22,29 11,74 96,48 160,8
150 90 4 14,3 18,15 0,466 257 554,2 93,60 552,0 73,59 89,83 5,51 250,7 55,72 63,22 3,72 4 1 566,0 28,99 17,29 126,8 211,3
150 90 5 17,6 22,36 0,463 207 676,0 112,8 666,6 88,88 109,5 5,46 301,4 66,99 76,91 3,67 2 1 721,5 35,33 24,82 156,2 260,4
150 90 6 20,8 26,43 0,459 174 791,1 130,6 772,4 103,0 128,0 5,41 347,7 77,27 89,78 3,63 1 1 853,1 41,32 28,98 184,7 307,8
150 90 6,3 21,4 27,29 0,453 166 826,3 135,0 783,2 104,4 130,8 5,36 353,8 78,62 91,94 3,60 1 1 880,7 42,22 29,67 190,7 317,8
x 150 100 3 11,3 14,41 0,490 340 507,2 81,40 460,6 61,42 73,48 5,65 247,6 49,53 55,76 4,15 4 2 402,4 23,71 13,46 107,4 161,1
x 150 100 4 14,9 18,95 0,486 256 661,6 104,9 594,6 79,28 95,67 5,60 318,6 63,71 72,50 4,10 4 1 591,8 30,87 19,79 141,2 211,8
x 150 100 5 18,3 23,36 0,483 207 808,7 126,8 719,2 95,89 116,7 5,55 384,0 76,80 88,34 4,05 2 1 753,8 37,67 28,51 174,1 261,1
x 150 100 6 21,7 27,63 0,479 173 948,3 147,1 834,7 111,3 136,7 5,50 444,2 88,84 103,3 4,01 1 1 891,8 44,11 33,34 206,0 308,9
x 150 100 6,3 22,4 28,55 0,473 166 991,6 152,3 848,3 113,1 139,9 5,45 452,7 90,53 105,9 3,98 1 1 921,4 45,14 34,18 212,8 319,2
150 100 7,1 24,9 31,75 0,469 148 1096 166,7 926,6 123,6 154,1 5,40 493,5 98,69 116,5 3,94 1 1 1024,6 49,72 37,61 236,6 354,9
x 150 100 8 27,7 35,24 0,466 132 1206 181,9 1008 134,4 169,2 5,35 535,7 107,1 127,9 3,90 1 1 1137,4 54,59 41,26 262,7 394,0
150 110 2,5 9,88 12,59 0,511 406 498,8 76,23 417,3 55,64 65,64 5,76 260,2 47,30 53,22 4,55 4 4 304,3 16,49 11,83 99,24 135,3
150 110 3 11,8 15,01 0,510 340 592,6 90,04 493,1 65,74 77,89 5,73 307,1 55,83 63,11 4,52 4 3 413,5 21,22 15,25 118,3 161,3
150 110 4 15,5 19,75 0,506 256 774,2 116,3 637,3 84,97 101,5 5,68 395,9 71,98 82,17 4,48 4 1 617,6 32,76 22,38 155,7 212,3
150 110 5 19,1 24,36 0,503 206 947,7 140,8 771,8 102,9 124,0 5,63 478,3 86,96 100,3 4,43 2 1 786,0 40,01 32,36 192,0 261,8
150 110 6 22,6 28,83 0,499 173 1113 163,6 896,9 119,6 145,3 5,58 554,5 100,8 117,4 4,39 1 1 930,5 46,90 37,89 227,3 309,9
150 110 6,3 23,4 29,81 0,493 165 1165 169,6 913,4 121,8 148,9 5,54 565,8 102,9 120,5 4,36 1 1 962,0 48,07 38,88 235,0 320,4
160 40 2,5 7,53 9,59 0,391 408 90,78 27,31 269,0 33,63 44,5 5,30 29,34 14,67 16,22 1,75 4 1 218,7 14,36 3,27 35,73 142,9
160 40 3 8,96 11,41 0,390 342 106,2 31,74 315,9 39,49 52,57 5,26 34,02 17,01 19,04 1,73 4 1 290,0 16,97 4,27 42,51 170,1
160 50 3 9,43 12,01 0,410 341 162,8 40,93 352,9 44,11 57,28 5,42 55,97 22,39 24,90 2,16 4 1 309,4 18,49 5,67 53,27 170,5
160 60 3 9,90 12,61 0,430 341 228,2 50,14 389,9 48,73 61,99 5,56 83,91 27,97 31,05 2,58 4 1 328,7 20,01 7,14 64,07 170,9
160 60 4 13,0 16,55 0,426 257 294,0 63,79 500,4 62,54 80,38 5,50 106,4 35,46 40,04 2,54 4 1 498,1 25,94 10,61 84,09 224,2
160 70 3 10,4 13,21 0,450 341 301,0 59,36 426,8 53,35 66,70 5,68 118,2 33,76 37,51 2,99 4 1 348,1 21,53 8,68 74,9 171,2
160 70 4 13,6 17,35 0,446 257 389,7 75,90 549,0 68,63 86,62 5,63 150,6 43,04 48,52 2,95 4 1 523,9 27,96 12,91 98,38 224,9
160 70 5 16,8 21,36 0,443 207 472,5 90,96 661,6 82,70 105,4 5,57 179,9 51,39 58,81 2,90 2 1 689,2 34,02 18,98 121,1 276,8
160 80 3 10,8 13,81 0,470 340 380,3 68,59 463,8 57,98 71,41 5,80 159,0 39,76 44,26 3,39 4 1 367,5 23,05 10,29 85,76 171,5
x 160 80 4 14,3 18,15 0,466 257 494,1 88,03 597,7 74,71 92,86 5,74 203,5 50,89 57,39 3,35 4 1 549,7 29,97 15,29 112,7 225,4
x 160 80 5 17,6 22,36 0,463 207 601,3 105,9 721,7 90,21 113,2 5,68 244,1 61,03 69,74 3,30 2 1 721,5 36,52 22,51 138,9 277,7
x 160 80 6 20,8 26,43 0,459 174 702,1 122,3 836,0 104,5 132,3 5,62 280,9 70,22 81,31 3,26 1 1 853,1 42,70 26,24 164,2 328,3
160 80 6,3 21,4 27,29 0,453 166 732,3 126,3 846,5 105,8 135,1 5,57 285,7 71,43 83,25 3,24 1 1 880,7 43,60 26,87 169,5 339,0

160 90 3 11,3 14,41 0,490 340 465,4 77,82 500,8 62,60 76,12 5,90 206,8 45,95 51,31 3,79 4 2 386,8 24,57 11,97 96,65 171,8
160 90 4 14,9 18,95 0,486 256 606,2 100,2 646,4 80,80 99,1 5,84 265,5 59,01 66,66 3,74 4 1 575,5 31,98 17,77 127,1 226,0
160 90 5 18,3 23,36 0,483 207 739,7 120,9 781,8 97,72 120,9 5,79 319,5 71,00 81,16 3,70 2 1 753,8 39,02 26,19 156,7 278,5
160 90 6 21,7 27,63 0,479 173 866,0 140,0 907,2 113,4 141,6 5,73 368,9 81,98 94,82 3,65 1 1 891,8 45,69 30,60 185,4 329,5
160 90 6,3 22,4 28,55 0,473 166 904,7 144,8 920,9 115,1 144,8 5,68 375,9 83,53 97,21 3,63 1 1 921,4 46,73 31,37 191,5 340,5
x 160 90 7,1 24,9 31,75 0,469 148 997,9 158,4 1006 125,7 159,4 5,63 409,2 90,93 106,9 3,59 1 1 1025 51,45 34,50 213,0 378,6
160 100 3 11,8 15,01 0,510 340 555,5 87,05 537,8 67,22 80,83 5,99 261,8 52,35 58,67 4,18 4 2 406,2 26,09 13,73 107,6 172,1
160 100 4 15,5 19,75 0,506 256 724,9 112,3 695,1 86,88 105,3 5,93 337,0 67,40 76,34 4,13 4 1 601,3 34,00 20,33 141,5 226,4
160 100 5 19,1 24,36 0,503 206 886,4 135,8 841,9 105,2 128,7 5,88 406,6 81,32 93,09 4,09 2 1 786,0 41,52 30,04 174,6 279,3
160 100 6 22,6 28,83 0,499 173 1040 157,7 978,4 122,3 150,8 5,83 470,7 94,15 108,9 4,04 1 1 930,5 48,67 35,16 206,6 330,6
160 100 6,3 23,4 29,81 0,493 165 1088 163,3 995,4 124,4 154,5 5,78 480,4 96,07 111,8 4,01 1 1 962,0 49,85 36,08 213,6 341,8
160 120 4 16,8 21,35 0,546 256 979,5 136,6 792,4 99,06 117,8 6,09 510,0 84,99 96,89 4,89 4 2 653,0 38,02 25,73 170,5 227,3
160 120 5 20,7 26,36 0,543 206 1201 165,8 962,0 120,3 144,2 6,04 617,8 103,0 118,5 4,84 2 1 850,6 46,52 38,23 210,5 280,6
245
160 120 6 24,5 31,23 0,539 173 1414 193,2 1121 140,1 169,3 5,99 718,3 119,7 139,0 4,80 1 1 1008 54,63 44,85 249,4 332,5
160 120 6,3 25,4 32,33 0,533 165 1481 200,4 1144 143,0 173,8 5,95 734,6 122,4 142,9 4,77 1 1 1043 56,10 46,11 258,2 344,2
160 120 7,1 28,3 36,01 0,529 147 1641 220,3 1255 156,9 192,0 5,90 804,5 134,1 157,7 4,73 1 1 1162 61,96 50,90 287,5 383,4
160 120 8 31,4 40,04 0,526 131 1814 241,4 1371 171,4 211,5 5,85 877,9 146,3 173,7 4,68 1 1 1292 68,26 56,04 319,8 426,3
160 120 8,8 34,2 43,52 0,522 120 1960 258,9 1467 183,4 227,9 5,81 938,0 156,3 187,0 4,64 1 1 1405 73,55 60,36 347,6 463,4
160 120 10 38,1 48,57 0,517 106 2166 283,0 1597 199,6 251,0 5,73 1019 169,9 205,8 4,58 1 1 1567 80,99 66,42 387,8 517,1
180 100 4 16,8 21,35 0,546 256 853,9 127,1 926,0 102,9 125,9 6,59 373,9 74,78 84,02 4,18 4 1 616,9 40,63 21,26 142,1 255,7
x 180 100 5 20,7 26,36 0,543 206 1045 153,9 1124 124,9 154,0 6,53 451,8 90,35 102,6 4,14 3 1 850,6 49,71 29,16 175,4 315,7
180 100 5,6 23,0 29,30 0,541 185 1155 169,1 1237 137,4 170,3 6,50 495,7 99,14 113,3 4,11 2 1 945,5 54,95 36,56 195,0 350,9
x 180 100 6 24,5 31,23 0,539 173 1227 178,9 1310 145,5 180,8 6,48 523,8 104,8 120,2 4,10 2 1 1008 58,36 38,80 207,8 374,1
180 100 6,3 25,4 32,33 0,533 165 1283 185,5 1335 148,3 185,5 6,43 535,8 107,2 123,6 4,07 1 1 1043 59,88 39,89 215,1 387,3
x 180 100 7,1 28,3 36,01 0,529 147 1420 203,5 1463 162,6 204,9 6,38 585,6 117,1 136,3 4,03 1 1 1162 66,11 44,00 239,6 431,3
x 180 100 8 31,4 40,04 0,526 131 1565 222,5 1598 177,6 225,6 6,32 637,5 127,5 149,9 3,99 1 1 1292 72,81 48,39 266,5 479,6
180 120 4 18,0 22,95 0,586 255 1160 154,6 1050 116,7 140,0 6,76 563,8 93,97 106,2 4,96 4 2 668,6 45,17 26,88 171,0 256,6
180 120 5 22,3 28,36 0,583 206 1424 187,8 1277 141,9 171,5 6,71 684,0 114,0 130,0 4,91 3 1 915,1 55,35 36,79 211,3 317,0
180 120 6 26,4 33,63 0,579 172 1677 219,1 1491 165,7 201,7 6,66 796,3 132,7 152,7 4,87 2 1 1085 65,10 49,27 250,7 376,0
180 120 6,3 27,4 34,85 0,573 164 1757 227,6 1525 169,5 207,4 6,62 816,1 136,0 157,2 4,84 1 1 1125 66,94 50,73 259,7 389,6
180 120 7,1 30,5 38,85 0,569 146 1949 250,5 1676 186,2 229,4 6,57 895,2 149,2 173,8 4,80 1 1 1254 74,04 56,07 289,5 434,3
Appendix 9.1
180 120 8 34,0 43,24 0,566 131 2156 274,8 1835 203,9 253,1 6,51 978,4 163,1 191,6 4,76 1 1 1396 81,70 61,83 322,3 483,4
180 120 8,8 36,9 47,04 0,562 119 2332 295,1 1967 218,6 273,2 6,47 1047 174,5 206,6 4,72 1 1 1518 88,16 66,68 350,6 525,9
180 120 10 41,3 52,57 0,557 106 2582 323,3 2149 238,8 301,5 6,39 1141 190,1 227,8 4,66 1 1 1696 97,31 73,52 391,8 587,7
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Appendix 9.1
h

x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
200 80 4 16,8 21,35 0,546 256 663,6 111,1 1046 104,6 132,4 7,00 249,8 62,45 69,55 3,42 4 1 577,6 42,72 16,58 113,7 284,1
200 80 5 20,7 26,36 0,543 206 808,4 134,1 1269 126,9 161,9 6,94 300,4 75,11 84,74 3,38 4 1 794,4 52,24 22,50 140,3 350,8
x 200 80 6 24,5 31,23 0,539 173 944,8 155,2 1477 147,7 190,0 6,88 346,7 86,69 99,07 3,33 2 1 1008 61,31 31,97 166,3 415,7
200 80 6,3 25,4 32,33 0,533 165 986 160,6 1503 150,3 194,7 6,82 354,3 88,58 101,8 3,31 2 1 1043 62,84 32,86 172,1 430,3
x 200 100 5 22,3 28,36 0,583 206 1206 171,9 1459 145,9 181,4 7,17 496,9 99,39 112,1 4,19 4 1 858,9 58,53 29,87 176,1 352,2
x 200 100 6 26,4 33,63 0,579 172 1417 200,1 1703 170,3 213,3 7,12 576,9 115,4 131,5 4,14 2 1 1085 68,83 42,44 208,9 417,8
200 100 6,3 27,4 34,85 0,573 164 1483 207,6 1739 173,9 219,1 7,06 591,2 118,2 135,4 4,12 2 1 1125 70,72 43,70 216,5 432,9
200 100 7,1 30,5 38,85 0,569 146 1641 228,0 1910 191,0 242,3 7,01 647,0 129,4 149,5 4,08 1 1 1254 78,19 48,25 241,3 482,5
246
x 200 100 8 34,0 43,24 0,566 131 1811 249,6 2091 209,1 267,3 6,95 705,4 141,1 164,7 4,04 1 1 1396 86,25 53,14 268,6 537,2
x 200 120 5 23,8 30,36 0,623 205 1652 209,9 1649 164,9 200,9 7,37 750,1 125,0 141,5 4,97 4 1 923,4 64,83 37,69 212,1 353,5
x 200 120 6 28,3 36,03 0,619 172 1947 245,1 1929 192,9 236,6 7,32 874,4 145,7 166,3 4,93 2 1 1163 76,34 53,68 251,8 419,6
200 120 6,3 29,3 37,37 0,613 164 2040 254,7 1976 197,6 243,5 7,27 897,7 149,6 171,5 4,90 2 1 1206 78,60 55,36 261,1 435,2
200 120 7,1 32,7 41,69 0,609 146 2265 280,7 2174 217,4 269,7 7,22 985,8 164,3 189,8 4,86 1 1 1345 87,03 61,25 291,3 485,5
x 200 120 8 36,5 46,44 0,606 130 2507 308,3 2386 238,6 298,0 7,17 1079 179,8 209,5 4,82 1 1 1499 96,17 67,61 324,5 540,8
200 120 8,8 39,7 50,56 0,602 119 2714 331,4 2562 256,2 322,0 7,12 1156 192,7 226,2 4,78 1 1 1632 103,9 72,99 353,3 588,8
x 200 120 10 44,4 56,57 0,597 106 3007 363,7 2806 280,6 356,1 7,04 1262 210,4 249,8 4,72 1 1 1826 114,9 80,62 395,2 658,7
220 120 5 25,4 32,36 0,663 205 1885 231,9 2082 189,3 232,2 8,02 816,3 136,1 153,0 5,02 4 1 943,4 74,95 39,09 212,8 390,1
x 220 120 6 30,2 38,43 0,659 171 2222 271,1 2439 221,7 273,8 7,97 952,4 158,7 180,0 4,98 3 1 1240 88,36 51,23 252,7 463,4
220 120 6,3 31,3 39,89 0,653 164 2329 281,9 2501 227,4 282,2 7,92 979,2 163,2 185,9 4,95 3 1 1287 91,06 52,67 262,3 480,9
220 120 7,1 35,0 44,53 0,649 146 2586 310,8 2756 250,6 312,8 7,87 1076 179,4 205,8 4,92 2 1 1437 101,0 66,42 292,8 536,8
x 220 120 8 39,0 49,64 0,646 130 2864 341,7 3029 275,4 346,0 7,81 1179 196,6 227,4 4,87 1 1 1602 111,7 73,39 326,5 598,5
220 120 8,8 42,5 54,08 0,642 119 3102 367,7 3258 296,1 374,3 7,76 1265 210,9 245,8 4,84 1 1 1745 120,8 79,31 355,7 652,1
x 220 120 10 47,5 60,57 0,637 105 3440 404,1 3576 325,1 414,7 7,68 1383 230,6 271,8 4,78 1 1 1955 133,8 87,72 398,3 730,2
x 250 150 5 30,1 38,36 0,783 204 3285 336,9 3304 264,3 319,8 9,28 1508 201,1 225,5 6,27 4 2 1064 103,2 54,35 268,0 446,7
x 250 150 6 35,8 45,63 0,779 171 3886 395,7 3886 310,8 378,1 9,23 1768 235,8 266,3 6,23 4 1 1366 122,0 69,73 318,9 531,4
250 150 6,3 37,3 47,45 0,773 163 4078 412,2 4001 320,1 390,9 9,18 1825 243,3 275,7 6,20 4 1 1447 126,2 73,55 331,5 552,6
250 150 7,1 41,6 53,05 0,769 145 4543 456,3 4427 354,1 434,5 9,13 2015 268,7 306,2 6,16 3 1 1712 140,2 86,70 370,7 617,8
x 250 150 8 46,5 59,24 0,766 129 5050 504,0 4886 390,9 482,2 9,08 2219 295,9 339,6 6,12 2 1 1912 155,6 109,6 413,9 689,9
250 150 8,8 50,8 64,64 0,762 118 5488 544,5 5274 422,0 523,1 9,03 2392 318,9 368,1 6,08 1 1 2086 168,8 118,8 451,7 752,8
x 250 150 10 57,0 72,57 0,757 104 6121 602,1 5825 466,0 582,0 8,96 2634 351,2 409,2 6,02 1 1 2342 187,8 132,1 507,0 845,1
250 150 12 66,0 84,06 0,738 88 7088 684,4 6458 516,6 658,0 8,77 2925 390,0 463,3 5,90 1 1 2713 212,3 149,5 587,3 978,9
x 250 150 12,5 68,3 87,04 0,736 85 7315 704,1 6633 530,6 678,3 8,73 3002 400,3 477,5 5,87 1 1 2809 218,9 154,1 608,2 1014
x 260 140 6 35,8 45,63 0,779 171 3646 382,5 4082 314,0 385,9 9,46 1567 223,9 251,8 5,86 4 1 1339 124,6 64,79 297,6 552,7
260 140 6,3 37,3 47,45 0,773 163 3825 398,4 4202 323,2 399,0 9,41 1617 231,0 260,7 5,84 4 1 1420 128,8 68,41 309,4 574,7
260 140 7,1 41,6 53,05 0,769 145 4259 440,8 4647 357,5 443,4 9,36 1785 254,9 289,5 5,80 3 1 1712 143,1 82,27 345,9 642,5
x 260 140 8 46,5 59,24 0,766 129 4731 486,5 5129 394,5 492,0 9,30 1964 280,6 320,9 5,76 2 1 1912 158,8 103,6 386,3 717,5
260 140 8,8 50,8 64,64 0,762 118 5138 525,3 5536 425,9 533,7 9,25 2115 302,2 347,8 5,72 1 1 2086 172,3 112,2 421,6 782,9
x 260 140 10 57,0 72,57 0,757 104 5724 580,4 6113 470,2 593,8 9,18 2328 332,5 386,4 5,66 1 1 2342 191,6 124,7 473,2 878,9
x 260 180 6 39,6 50,43 0,859 170 5566 501,4 4856 373,5 446,9 9,81 2763 307,1 347,9 7,40 4 2 1494 144,2 89,50 384,4 555,3
260 180 6,3 41,2 52,49 0,853 163 5844 523,0 5013 385,6 462,9 9,77 2856 317,4 360,6 7,38 4 1 1583 149,4 94,52 400,1 577,9
260 180 7,1 46,1 58,73 0,849 145 6523 580,3 5556 427,4 515,3 9,73 3162 351,4 401,3 7,34 3 1 1895 166,3 113,4 447,6 646,6
x 260 180 8 51,5 65,64 0,846 129 7267 642,4 6145 472,7 572,7 9,68 3493 388,1 445,8 7,29 2 1 2118 184,8 143,9 500,4 722,7
260 180 8,8 56,3 71,68 0,842 117 7912 695,6 6647 511,3 622,2 9,63 3774 419,4 484,1 7,26 1 1 2313 200,8 156,2 546,4 789,3

x 260 180 10 63,2 80,57 0,837 104 8850 771,9 7363 566,4 693,8 9,56 4174 463,8 539,5 7,20 1 1 2600 223,9 174,1 614,1 887,1
260 180 12 73,5 93,66 0,818 87 10328 884,4 8245 634,2 789,9 9,38 4679 519,9 614,9 7,07 1 1 3023 254,9 198,5 713,9 1031
x 300 100 5 30,1 38,36 0,783 204 2044 262,2 4065 271,0 348,2 10,29 722,8 144,6 159,6 4,34 4 1 930,8 112,4 34,14 178,7 527,4
x 300 100 6 35,8 45,63 0,779 171 2403 306,2 4777 318,5 411,4 10,23 842,4 168,5 187,9 4,30 4 1 1222 132,8 44,43 212,6 637,7
300 100 6,3 37,3 47,45 0,773 163 2515 318,3 4907 327,1 424,9 10,17 868,1 173,6 194,5 4,28 4 1 1302 137,1 47,03 221,0 663,1
300 100 7,1 41,6 53,05 0,769 145 2787 350,7 5422 361,5 472,0 10,11 953,9 190,8 215,5 4,24 4 1 1549 152,3 55,30 247,1 741,3
x 300 100 8 46,5 59,24 0,766 129 3080 385,2 5978 398,5 523,5 10,05 1045 209,0 238,3 4,20 4 1 1833 168,9 64,48 276,0 827,9
300 150 6 40,5 51,63 0,879 170 4988 478,6 6074 404,9 499,6 10,85 2080 277,3 309,5 6,35 4 1 1416 161,2 74,32 320,7 641,4
300 150 6,3 42,2 53,74 0,873 162 5235 498,9 6264 417,6 517,3 10,80 2150 286,6 320,9 6,32 4 1 1506 167,0 78,73 333,8 667,6
300 150 7,1 47,2 60,15 0,869 144 5834 553,0 6946 463,0 576,0 10,75 2378 317,0 357,0 6,29 4 1 1778 185,9 92,65 373,6 747,1
300 150 8,8 57,7 73,44 0,862 117 7058 661,5 8312 554,1 695,7 10,64 2831 377,4 430,2 6,21 3 1 2370 224,5 121,8 456,2 912,3
300 150 10 64,8 82,57 0,857 104 7879 732,8 9209 614,0 775,9 10,56 3125 416,7 479,2 6,15 2 1 2665 250,4 154,6 512,8 1026
247
x 300 200 6 45,2 57,63 0,979 170 8115 651,2 7370 491,4 587,8 11,31 3962 396,2 446,1 8,29 4 2 1609 189,7 107,7 429,5 644,3
300 200 6,3 47,1 60,05 0,973 162 8524 679,8 7624 508,3 609,9 11,27 4104 410,4 463,2 8,27 4 2 1709 196,8 114,1 447,6 671,3
300 200 7,1 52,8 67,25 0,969 144 9524 755,7 8469 564,6 680,0 11,22 4553 455,3 516,2 8,23 4 1 2007 219,5 134,0 501,2 751,8
x 300 200 8 59,1 75,24 0,966 128 10627 838,4 9389 626,0 757,1 11,17 5042 504,2 574,5 8,19 4 1 2350 244,3 156,5 560,8 841,2
300 200 8,8 64,6 82,24 0,962 117 11586 909,5 10178 678,6 823,8 11,12 5459 545,9 624,9 8,15 3 1 2654 265,9 176,2 613,0 919,5
x 300 200 10 72,7 92,57 0,957 103 12987 1012 11313 754,2 920,9 11,05 6058 605,8 698,1 8,09 2 1 2987 297,2 225,3 689,9 1035
300 200 12 84,8 108,06 0,938 87 15236 1167 12788 852,5 1056 10,88 6854 685,4 801,2 7,96 1 1 3487 340,8 258,6 805,4 1208
x 300 200 12,5 88,0 112,04 0,936 84 15768 1204 13179 878,6 1091 10,85 7060 706,0 827,9 7,94 1 1 3616 352,2 267,2 835,1 1253
400 100 6 45,2 57,63 0,979 170 3421 412,4 10132 506,6 669,6 13,26 1108 221,6 244,3 4,38 4 1 1283 216,1 48,10 214,8 797,7
400 100 6,3 47,1 60,05 0,973 162 3579 429,1 10447 522,3 693,6 13,19 1145 229,0 253,5 4,37 4 1 1373 223,9 51,20 223,8 860,9
400 100 7,1 52,8 67,25 0,969 144 3968 473,5 11587 579,4 772,8 13,13 1261 252,2 281,4 4,33 4 1 1652 249,4 60,98 250,6 1002
400 120 6 47,1 60,03 1,019 170 4831 505,2 11063 553,2 716,9 13,58 1655 275,8 303,1 5,25 4 1 1360 231,4 60,57 258,1 797,7
400 120 6,3 49,1 62,57 1,013 162 5062 526,3 11423 571,2 743,2 13,51 1713 285,5 314,8 5,23 4 1 1455 239,9 64,50 269,0 860,9
400 120 7,1 55,0 70,09 1,009 144 5628 582,5 12683 634,2 828,6 13,45 1892 315,3 350,1 5,20 4 1 1743 267,4 76,84 301,4 1005
400 120 8 61,6 78,44 1,006 128 6245 643,1 14056 702,8 922,4 13,39 2084 347,4 388,7 5,15 4 1 2086 297,7 91,12 337,3 1124
400 120 8,8 67,3 85,76 1,002 117 6774 694,6 15231 761,6 1004 13,33 2246 374,4 421,9 5,12 4 1 2403 323,9 103,9 368,8 1229
x 400 200 6 54,7 69,63 1,179 169 12069 877,1 14789 739,5 906,0 14,57 5092 509,2 562,5 8,55 4 2 1670 292,4 116,5 432,5 797,7
400 200 6,3 57,0 72,65 1,173 161 12673 916,2 15330 766,5 941,7 14,53 5286 528,6 585,2 8,53 4 2 1780 303,9 124,0 451,2 860,9
Appendix 9.1
400 200 7,1 63,9 81,45 1,169 144 14169 1020 17068 853,4 1052 14,48 5875 587,5 653,2 8,49 4 1 2110 339,4 147,3 505,9 1012
x 400 200 8 71,6 91,24 1,166 128 15820 1133 18974 948,7 1173 14,42 6517 651,7 728,1 8,45 4 1 2499 378,7 174,4 566,7 1133
400 200 8,8 78,4 99,84 1,162 116 17260 1231 20619 1031 1279 14,37 7069 706,9 793,1 8,41 4 1 2857 412,8 199,0 620,1 1240
x 400 200 10 88,4 112,6 1,157 103 19368 1373 23003 1150 1434 14,30 7864 786,4 888,1 8,36 4 1 3408 462,7 236,2 699,1 1398
400 200 12 104 132,1 1,138 86 22782 1591 26248 1312 1656 14,10 8977 897,7 1027 8,24 2 1 4262 534,5 331,4 820,2 1640
x 400 200 12,5 108 137,0 1,136 83 23594 1644 27101 1355 1714 14,06 9260 926,1 1062 8,22 2 1 4423 553,1 342,8 851,2 1702
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Table 9.1.3 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for circular longitudinally welded hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2).
Appendix 9.1
Au = external area Wel = elastic section modulus Mc.Rd = bending resistance
Am/V = cross-section factor in fire design Wpl = plastic section modulus The effect of shear buckling has not been accounted for
d
It = torsional modulus i = radius of gyration hollow sections of cross-section class 4 (section 2.4.2.2)
t
The calculated resistance values are design values (section 2.1) based on the default value (1.1) of the partial safety factor of material γM0 used in Eurocode 3.
1) = recommended The partial safety factor values may differ in each country. National values must be checked from the NAD (National Application Document) of the country in question.

series
1) d t M A Au Am/V It Wt I Wel Wpl i PL Nc.Rd Mc.Rd Vpl.Rd
mm mm kg/m mm2 m2/m 1/m mm4 mm3 mm4 mm3 mm3 mm kN kNm kN
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
x 33,7 2 1,56 1,99 0,106 533 5,02 2,98 2,51 1,49 2,01 1,12 1 64,28 0,65 23,63
x 42,4 2 1,99 2,54 0,133 524 10,38 4,90 5,19 2,45 3,27 1,43 1 81,92 1,05 30,11
x 42,4 2,5 2,46 3,13 0,133 425 12,52 5,91 6,26 2,95 3,99 1,41 1 101,1 1,29 37,17
42,4 2,6 2,55 3,25 0,133 409 12,93 6,10 6,46 3,05 4,12 1,41 1 104,9 1,33 38,56
42,4 2,9 2,82 3,60 0,133 369 14,11 6,66 7,06 3,33 4,53 1,40 1 116,1 1,46 42,69
x 42,4 3 2,91 3,71 0,133 358 14,49 6,84 7,25 3,42 4,67 1,40 1 119,8 1,51 44,05
x 48,3 2 2,28 2,91 0,152 522 15,62 6,47 7,81 3,23 4,29 1,64 1 93,89 1,38 34,51
x 48,3 2,5 2,82 3,60 0,152 422 18,92 7,83 9,46 3,92 5,25 1,62 1 116,1 1,69 42,67
248
48,3 2,6 2,93 3,73 0,152 408 19,55 8,10 9,78 4,05 5,44 1,62 1 120,5 1,75 44,28
48,3 2,9 3,25 4,14 0,152 367 21,40 8,86 10,70 4,43 5,99 1,61 1 133,5 1,93 49,06
x 48,3 3 3,35 4,27 0,152 356 22,00 9,11 11,00 4,55 6,17 1,61 1 137,8 1,99 50,64
48,3 3,2 3,56 4,53 0,152 336 23,17 9,59 11,59 4,80 6,52 1,60 1 146,3 2,10 53,78
x 60,3 2 2,88 3,66 0,189 516 31,16 10,34 15,58 5,17 6,80 2,06 1 118,2 2,19 43,45
x 60,3 2,5 3,56 4,54 0,189 416 37,99 12,60 18,99 6,30 8,36 2,05 1 146,5 2,70 53,85
60,3 2,6 3,70 4,71 0,189 401 39,31 13,04 19,65 6,52 8,66 2,04 1 152,1 2,80 55,91
60,3 2,9 4,11 5,23 0,189 361 43,18 14,32 21,59 7,16 9,56 2,03 1 168,8 3,09 62,03
x 60,3 3 4,24 5,40 0,189 350 44,45 14,74 22,22 7,37 9,86 2,03 1 174,3 3,18 64,06
60,3 3,2 4,51 5,74 0,189 329 46,94 15,57 23,47 7,78 10,44 2,02 1 185,3 3,37 68,09
x 60,3 4 5,55 7,07 0,189 267 56,35 18,69 28,17 9,34 12,70 2,00 1 228,3 4,10 83,92
76,1 2 3,65 4,66 0,239 513 63,96 16,81 31,98 8,40 10,98 2,62 2 150,3 3,54 55,23
x 76,1 2,5 4,54 5,78 0,239 413 78,37 20,60 39,19 10,30 13,55 2,60 1 186,6 4,37 68,57
76,1 2,6 4,71 6,00 0,239 398 81,18 21,34 40,59 10,67 14,05 2,60 1 193,8 4,53 71,21
76,1 2,9 5,24 6,67 0,239 358 89,48 23,52 44,74 11,76 15,55 2,59 1 215,2 5,02 79,11
x 76,1 3 5,41 6,89 0,239 347 92,19 24,23 46,10 12,11 16,04 2,59 1 222,3 5,18 81,72
76,1 3,2 5,75 7,33 0,239 326 97,56 25,64 48,78 12,82 17,02 2,58 1 236,5 5,49 86,93
x 76,1 4 7,11 9,06 0,239 264 118,1 31,04 59,06 15,52 20,81 2,55 1 292,4 6,72 107,5
x 76,1 5 8,77 11,17 0,239 214 141,8 37,28 70,92 18,64 25,32 2,52 1 360,4 8,17 132,5
88,9 2 4,29 5,46 0,279 511 103,1 23,20 51,57 11,60 15,11 3,07 2 176,2 4,88 64,77
x 88,9 2,5 5,33 6,79 0,279 411 126,8 28,51 63,37 14,26 18,67 3,06 2 219,0 6,02 80,49
88,9 2,6 5,53 7,05 0,279 396 131,4 29,55 65,68 14,78 19,37 3,05 2 227,5 6,25 83,62
88,9 2,9 6,15 7,84 0,279 356 145,0 32,63 72,52 16,31 21,46 3,04 1 252,9 6,92 92,94
x 88,9 3 6,36 8,10 0,279 344 149,5 33,64 74,76 16,82 22,15 3,04 1 261,3 7,15 96,03
88,9 3,2 6,76 8,62 0,279 324 158,4 35,64 79,21 17,82 23,51 3,03 1 278,1 7,59 102,2
x 88,9 4 8,38 10,67 0,279 261 192,7 43,35 96,34 21,67 28,85 3,00 1 344,3 9,31 126,6
x 88,9 5 10,4 13,18 0,279 212 232,8 52,36 116,4 26,18 35,24 2,97 1 425,3 11,37 156,3
88,9 6 12,3 15,63 0,279 179 269,9 60,72 134,9 30,36 41,31 2,94 1 504,3 13,33 185,4
88,9 6,3 12,8 16,35 0,279 171 280,5 63,10 140,2 31,55 43,07 2,93 1 527,6 13,90 193,9
101,6 2 4,91 6,26 0,319 510 155,3 30,56 77,63 15,28 19,84 3,52 3 202,0 4,93 74,23

x 101,6 2,5 6,11 7,78 0,319 410 191,2 37,64 95,61 18,82 24,56 3,50 2 251,2 7,93 92,32
101,6 2,6 6,35 8,09 0,319 394 198,3 39,03 99,14 19,52 25,49 3,50 2 261,0 8,23 95,92
101,6 2,9 7,06 8,99 0,319 355 219,2 43,15 109,6 21,57 28,26 3,49 2 290,2 9,12 106,7
x 101,6 3 7,29 9,29 0,319 343 226,1 44,50 113,0 22,25 29,17 3,49 2 299,9 9,42 110,2
101,6 3,2 7,77 9,89 0,319 323 239,7 47,19 119,9 23,59 31,00 3,48 1 319,3 10,00 117,3
x 101,6 4 9,63 12,26 0,319 260 292,6 57,59 146,3 28,80 38,12 3,45 1 395,8 12,30 145,5
x 101,6 5 11,9 15,17 0,319 210 354,9 69,87 177,5 34,93 46,70 3,42 1 489,7 15,07 180,0
101,6 6 14,2 18,02 0,319 177 413,4 81,37 206,7 40,68 54,91 3,39 1 581,6 17,72 213,8
101,6 6,3 14,8 18,86 0,319 169 430,1 84,67 215,1 42,34 57,30 3,38 1 608,7 18,49 223,7
108 2 5,23 6,66 0,339 509 187,2 34,66 93,58 17,33 22,47 3,75 3 214,9 5,59 79,00
x 108 2,5 6,50 8,29 0,339 409 230,7 42,72 115,4 21,36 27,83 3,73 2 267,4 8,98 98,29
108 2,6 6,76 8,61 0,339 394 239,3 44,31 119,6 22,15 28,89 3,73 2 277,8 9,32 102,1
108 2,9 7,52 9,58 0,339 354 264,6 49,00 132,3 24,50 32,04 3,72 2 309,0 10,34 113,6
249
x 108 3 7,77 9,90 0,339 342 273,0 50,55 136,5 25,28 33,08 3,71 2 319,4 10,68 117,4
108 3,2 8,27 10,54 0,339 322 289,6 53,62 144,8 26,81 35,16 3,71 2 340,0 11,35 125,0
x 108 4 10,3 13,07 0,339 259 353,9 65,54 177,0 32,77 43,29 3,68 1 421,8 13,97 155,0
108 5 12,7 16,18 0,339 210 430,1 79,65 215,1 39,83 53,09 3,65 1 522,2 17,13 191,9
108 6 15,1 19,23 0,339 176 501,8 92,93 250,9 46,46 62,50 3,61 1 620,5 20,17 228,1
108 6,3 15,8 20,13 0,339 168 522,5 96,75 261,2 48,38 65,24 3,60 1 649,6 21,06 238,8
114,3 2 5,54 7,06 0,359 508 222,5 38,94 111,3 19,47 25,23 3,97 3 227,7 6,28 83,70
x 114,3 2,5 6,89 8,78 0,359 409 274,5 48,03 137,3 24,02 31,25 3,95 2 283,4 10,09 104,2
114,3 2,6 7,16 9,12 0,359 394 284,8 49,82 142,4 24,91 32,45 3,95 2 294,5 10,47 108,2
114,3 2,9 7,97 10,15 0,359 354 315,1 55,13 157,6 27,57 36,00 3,94 2 327,5 11,62 120,4
x 114,3 3 8,23 10,49 0,359 342 325,1 56,88 162,6 28,44 37,17 3,94 2 338,5 12,00 124,4
114,3 3,2 8,77 11,17 0,359 321 344,9 60,36 172,5 30,18 39,51 3,93 2 360,5 12,75 132,5
114,3 4 10,9 13,86 0,359 259 422,1 73,86 211,1 36,93 48,69 3,90 1 447,3 15,71 164,4
x 114,3 5 13,5 17,17 0,359 209 513,8 89,91 256,9 44,96 59,77 3,87 1 554,1 19,29 203,7
x 114,3 6 16,0 20,41 0,359 176 600,4 105,1 300,2 52,53 70,45 3,83 1 658,8 22,73 242,2
114,3 6,3 16,8 21,38 0,359 168 625,4 109,4 312,7 54,72 73,57 3,82 1 689,8 23,74 253,6
Appendix 9.1
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Table 9.1.3 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for circular longitudinally welded hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2)
Appendix 9.1
continued.
d
t It = torsional modulus i = radius of gyration hollow sections of cross-section class 4 (section 2.4.2.2)

series
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
127 2 6,17 7,85 0,399 508 306,9 48,33 153,4 24,16 31,25 4,42 4 224,1 6,93 93,16
x 127 2,5 7,68 9,78 0,399 408 379,1 59,70 189,5 29,85 38,76 4,40 3 315,6 9,63 116,0
127 2,6 7,98 10,16 0,399 393 393,3 61,94 196,7 30,97 40,24 4,40 3 327,9 9,99 120,5
127 2,9 8,88 11,31 0,399 353 435,6 68,59 217,8 34,30 44,67 4,39 2 364,9 14,42 134,1
x 127 3 9,17 11,69 0,399 341 449,5 70,79 224,8 35,39 46,14 4,39 2 377,2 14,89 138,6
127 3,2 9,77 12,45 0,399 320 477,2 75,15 238,6 37,57 49,06 4,38 2 401,7 15,83 147,6
x 127 4 12,1 15,46 0,399 258 585,2 92,16 292,6 46,08 60,54 4,35 1 498,8 19,54 183,4
250
127 5 15,0 19,16 0,399 208 714,3 112,5 357,1 56,24 74,46 4,32 1 618,5 24,03 227,3
127 6 17,9 22,81 0,399 175 836,9 131,8 418,4 65,90 87,92 4,28 1 736,1 28,37 270,6
127 6,3 18,8 23,89 0,399 167 872,4 137,4 436,2 68,70 91,86 4,27 1 771,0 29,65 283,4
133 2 6,46 8,23 0,418 508 353,2 53,11 176,6 26,56 34,32 4,63 4 233,9 7,59 97,64
x 133 2,5 8,05 10,25 0,418 408 436,5 65,64 218,3 32,82 42,58 4,61 3 330,8 10,59 121,6
133 2,6 8,36 10,65 0,418 392 453,0 68,12 226,5 34,06 44,22 4,61 3 343,7 10,99 126,3
133 2,9 9,30 11,85 0,418 353 501,8 75,46 250,9 37,73 49,09 4,60 2 382,5 15,84 140,6
133 3 9,62 12,25 0,418 341 517,9 77,88 259,0 38,94 50,71 4,60 2 395,4 16,37 145,3
133 3,2 10,2 13,05 0,418 320 550,0 82,70 275,0 41,35 53,92 4,59 2 421,1 17,40 154,8
x 133 4 12,7 16,21 0,418 258 675,1 101,5 337,5 50,76 66,59 4,56 2 523,2 21,49 192,3
133 5 15,8 20,11 0,418 208 824,8 124,0 412,4 62,02 81,96 4,53 1 648,9 26,45 238,5
133 6 18,8 23,94 0,418 175 967,4 145,5 483,7 72,74 96,85 4,50 1 772,6 31,25 284,0
133 6,3 19,7 25,08 0,418 167 1008,9 151,7 504,4 75,85 101,2 4,49 1 809,3 32,67 297,5
139,7 2,9 9,78 12,46 0,439 352 583,4 83,52 291,7 41,76 54,28 4,84 3 402,2 13,48 147,8
x 139,7 3 10,1 12,88 0,439 341 602,2 86,21 301,1 43,11 56,07 4,83 3 415,8 13,91 152,8
139,7 3,2 10,8 13,72 0,439 320 639,6 91,56 319,8 45,78 59,63 4,83 2 442,9 19,25 162,8
x 139,7 4 13,4 17,05 0,439 257 785,7 112,5 392,9 56,24 73,68 4,80 2 550,3 23,78 202,3
x 139,7 5 16,6 21,16 0,439 207 961,1 137,6 480,5 68,80 90,76 4,77 1 682,9 29,29 251,0
x 139,7 6 19,8 25,20 0,439 174 1129 161,6 564,3 80,78 107,3 4,73 1 813,3 34,64 298,9
139,7 6,3 20,7 26,40 0,439 166 1177 168,5 588,6 84,27 112,2 4,72 1 852,1 36,21 313,2
x 139,7 8 26,0 33,10 0,439 133 1441 206,2 720,3 103,1 138,9 4,66 1 1068 44,84 392,6
x 139,7 10 32,0 40,75 0,439 108 1724 246,8 861,9 123,4 168,6 4,60 1 1315 54,40 483,3
152 2,9 10,7 13,58 0,478 352 755,2 99,37 377,6 49,69 64,48 5,27 3 438,4 16,04 161,1
152 3 11,0 14,04 0,478 340 779,7 102,6 389,9 51,30 66,61 5,27 3 453,2 16,56 166,6
152 3,2 11,7 14,96 0,478 320 828,4 109,0 414,2 54,50 70,86 5,26 3 482,8 17,59 177,4
152 4 14,6 18,60 0,478 257 1019 134,1 509,6 67,05 87,64 5,23 2 600,2 28,28 220,6
152 5 18,1 23,09 0,478 207 1249 164,3 624,4 82,16 108,1 5,20 1 745,2 34,88 273,9
152 6 21,6 27,52 0,478 174 1469 193,3 734,5 96,65 128,0 5,17 1 888,2 41,30 326,4
152 6,3 22,6 28,84 0,478 166 1533 201,8 766,6 100,9 133,8 5,16 1 930,7 43,19 342,1
159 2,9 11,2 14,22 0,500 352 866,7 109,0 433,3 54,51 70,67 5,52 3 459,0 17,59 168,7
159 3 11,5 14,70 0,500 340 894,8 112,6 447,4 56,28 73,02 5,52 3 474,5 18,16 174,4
159 3,2 12,3 15,66 0,500 319 950,9 119,6 475,4 59,8 77,69 5,51 3 505,5 19,30 185,8
x 159 4 15,3 19,48 0,500 257 1171 147,3 585,3 73,63 96,12 5,48 2 628,6 31,02 231,1

159 5 19,0 24,19 0,500 207 1436 180,6 717,9 90,30 118,6 5,45 1 780,7 38,28 286,9
159 6 22,6 28,84 0,500 173 1690 212,6 845,2 106,3 140,5 5,41 1 930,7 45,35 342,1
159 6,3 23,7 30,22 0,500 165 1765 222,0 882,4 111,0 147,0 5,40 1 975,4 47,44 358,5
168,3 2,9 11,8 15,07 0,529 351 1031 122,5 515,5 61,26 79,34 5,85 3 486,3 19,77 178,8
168,3 3 12,2 15,58 0,529 340 1065 126,5 532,3 63,25 81,98 5,85 3 502,8 20,41 184,8
168,3 3,2 13,0 16,60 0,529 319 1131 134,5 565,7 67,23 87,24 5,84 3 535,7 21,70 196,9
168,3 4 16,2 20,65 0,529 256 1394 165,7 697,1 82,84 108,0 5,81 2 666,3 34,85 244,9
x 168,3 5 20,1 25,65 0,529 206 1712 203,4 855,9 101,7 133,4 5,78 2 827,8 43,04 304,3
x 168,3 6 24,0 30,59 0,529 173 2017 239,7 1009 119,9 158,1 5,74 1 987,3 51,03 362,9
168,3 6,3 25,2 32,06 0,529 165 2107 250,4 1053 125,2 165,4 5,73 1 1035 53,39 380,3
x 168,3 8 31,6 40,29 0,529 131 2595 308,3 1297 154,2 205,7 5,67 1 1300 66,40 477,9
x 168,3 10 39,0 49,73 0,529 106 3128 371,7 1564 185,9 250,9 5,61 1 1605 80,98 589,9
193,7 4 18,7 23,84 0,609 255 2146 221,5 1073 110,8 144,0 6,71 3 769,3 35,75 282,8
251
193,7 5 23,3 29,64 0,609 205 2640 272,6 1320 136,3 178,1 6,67 2 956,6 57,47 351,6
x 193,7 6 27,8 35,38 0,609 172 3119 322,1 1560 161,1 211,5 6,64 1 1142 68,24 419,7
193,7 6,3 29,1 37,09 0,609 164 3260 336,6 1630 168,3 221,3 6,63 1 1197 71,43 440,0
x 193,7 8 36,6 46,67 0,609 130 4031 416,2 2016 208,1 276,1 6,57 1 1506 89,09 553,6
x 193,7 10 45,3 57,71 0,609 106 4883 504,2 2442 252,1 337,8 6,50 1 1862 109,0 684,6
193,7 12 53,8 68,50 0,609 89 5678 586,3 2839 293,2 396,8 6,44 1 2211 128,0 812,5
193,7 12,5 55,9 71,16 0,609 86 5869 606,0 2934 303,0 411,1 6,42 1 2296 132,7 844,1
219,1 4 21,2 27,03 0,688 255 3128 285,5 1564 142,8 185,1 7,61 3 872,3 46,07 320,6
219,1 5 26,4 33,63 0,688 205 3856 352,0 1928 176,0 229,2 7,57 2 1085 73,98 398,9
x 219,1 6 31,5 40,17 0,688 171 4564 416,6 2282 208,3 272,5 7,54 2 1296 87,96 476,5
219,1 6,3 33,1 42,12 0,688 163 4772 435,6 2386 217,8 285,4 7,53 2 1359 92,10 499,6
x 219,1 8 41,7 53,06 0,688 130 5919 540,3 2960 270,2 356,7 7,47 1 1712 115,1 629,3
x 219,1 10 51,6 65,69 0,688 105 7197 657,0 3598 328,5 437,6 7,40 1 2120 141,2 779,2
219,1 12 61,3 78,07 0,688 88 8400 766,8 4200 383,4 515,3 7,33 1 2520 166,3 926,1
x 219,1 12,5 63,7 81,13 0,688 85 8689 793,2 4345 396,6 534,2 7,32 1 2618 172,4 962,4
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Appendix 9.1
Table 9.1.3 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for circular longitudinally welded hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2),
Appendix 9.1
continued.
d
It = torsional modulus i = radius of gyration hollow sections of cross-section class 4 (section 2.4.2.2)
t

series
x x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
273 5 33,1 42,10 0,858 204 7562 554,0 3781 277,0 359,2 9,48 3 1359 89,39 499,4
x 273 6 39,5 50,33 0,858 170 8974 657,5 4487 328,7 427,8 9,44 2 1624 138,1 597,0
273 6,3 41,4 52,79 0,858 163 9392 688,0 4696 344,0 448,2 9,43 2 1704 144,6 626,1
x 273 8 52,3 66,60 0,858 129 11703 857,4 5852 428,7 562,0 9,37 2 2149 181,4 790,0
x 273 10 64,9 82,62 0,858 104 14308 1048 7154 524,1 692,0 9,31 1 2667 223,3 980,1
273 12 77,2 98,39 0,858 87 16792 1230 8396 615,1 818,0 9,24 1 3175 264,0 1167
x 273 12,5 80,3 102,3 0,858 84 17395 1274 8697 637,2 848,9 9,22 1 3301 274,0 1213
252
323,9 5 39,3 50,09 1,018 203 12739 786,6 6369 393,3 508,5 11,28 4 1427 112,6 594,2
x 323,9 6 47,0 59,92 1,018 170 15145 935,2 7572 467,6 606,4 11,24 3 1934 150,9 710,8
323,9 6,3 49,3 62,86 1,018 162 15858 979,2 7929 489,6 635,6 11,23 3 2029 158,0 745,6
x 323,9 8 62,3 79,39 1,018 128 19820 1224 9910 611,9 798,5 11,17 2 2562 257,7 941,8
x 323,9 10 77,4 98,61 1,018 103 24317 1501 12158 750,8 985,7 11,10 1 3183 318,1 1170
323,9 12 92,3 117,6 1,018 87 28639 1768 14320 884,2 1168 11,04 1 3795 376,9 1395
x 323,9 12,5 96,0 122,3 1,018 83 29693 1833 14847 916,7 1213 11,02 1 3947 391,4 1451
DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS Appendix 9.1
253
Table 9.1.4 Cross-sectional properties and resistance values for circular spirally welded hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2).
Appendix 9.1
(Technical delivery conditions to be agreed when ordering)
M = weight I = moment of inertia PL = cross-section class in concentric compression
A = cross-section area Wel = elastic section modulus Nc.Rd = compression resistance without buckling
Au = external area Wpl = plastic section modulus Mc.Rd = bending resistance
Am/V = cross-section factor in fire design i = radius of gyration Vpl.Rd = shear resistance
d
It = torsional modulus The effect of shear buckling has not been accounted for
t
Wt = torsional section modulus hollow sections of cross-section class 4 (section 2.4.2.2)

The partial safety factor values may differ in each country. National values must be checked from the NAD (National Application Document) of the country in question.
d t M A Au Am/V It Wt I Wel Wpl i PL Nc.Rd Mc.Rd Vpl.Rd

x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
355,6 5,6 48,3 61,58 1,117 181 18862 1061 9431 530,4 686,1 12,38 4 1757 152,2 730,4
355,6 6 51,7 65,90 1,117 170 20141 1133 10071 566,4 733,4 12,36 3 2127 182,8 781,7
355,6 6,3 54,3 69,13 1,117 162 21094 1186 10547 593,2 768,8 12,35 3 2231 191,4 820,1
355,6 8 68,6 87,36 1,117 128 26403 1485 13201 742,5 966,8 12,29 2 2819 312,0 1036
355,6 10 85,2 108,6 1,117 103 32447 1825 16224 912,5 1195 12,22 2 3504 385,6 1288
355,6 12 102 129,5 1,117 86 38279 2153 19139 1076,0 1417 12,16 1 4180 457,4 1537
355,6 12,5 106 134,7 1,117 83 39704 2233 19852 1117 1472 12,14 1 4348 475,1 1598
254
406,4 6 59,3 75,47 1,277 169 30257 1489 15128 744,5 962 14,16 4 2141 212,4 895,3
406,4 6,3 62,2 79,19 1,277 161 31699 1560 15849 780,0 1009 14,15 4 2256 223,5 939,3
406,4 8 78,6 100,1 1,277 128 39748 1956 19874 978,1 1270 14,09 3 3231 315,6 1188
406,4 10 97,8 124,5 1,277 103 48952 2409 24476 1205 1572 14,02 2 4019 507,2 1477
406,4 12 117 148,7 1,277 86 57874 2848 28937 1424 1867 13,95 2 4798 602,6 1764
406,4 12,5 121 154,7 1,277 83 60061 2956 30031 1478 1940 13,93 1 4992 626,1 1835
457 6 66,7 85,01 1,436 169 43236 1892 21618 946,1 1220 15,95 4 2383 267,0 1008
457 6,3 70,0 89,20 1,436 161 45308 1983 22654 991,4 1280 15,94 4 2513 281,1 1058
457 8 88,6 112,9 1,436 127 56893 2490 28446 1245 1613 15,88 3 3642 401,8 1339
457 10 110 140,4 1,436 102 70183 3071 35091 1536 1998 15,81 2 4532 645,0 1666
457 12 132 167,8 1,436 86 83113 3637 41556 1819 2377 15,74 2 5414 767,1 1990
457 12,5 137 174,6 1,436 82 86290 3776 43145 1888 2470 15,72 2 5633 797,3 2071
508 6 74,3 94,62 1,596 169 59623 2347 29812 1174 1512 17,75 4 2622 327,8 1122
508 6,3 78,0 99,30 1,596 161 62493 2460 31246 1230 1586 17,74 4 2767 345,3 1178
508 8 98,7 125,7 1,596 127 78560 3093 39280 1546 2000 17,68 4 3586 443,6 1491
508 10 123 156,5 1,596 102 97040 3820 48520 1910 2480 17,61 3 5049 616,5 1856
508 12 147 187,0 1,596 85 115072 4530 57536 2265 2953 17,54 2 6035 952,9 2218
508 12,5 153 194,6 1,596 82 119511 4705 59755 2353 3070 17,52 2 6280 990,7 2308
559 6 81,8 104,2 1,756 168 79702 2852 39851 1426 1835 19,55 4 2856 394,0 1236
559 6,3 85,9 109,4 1,756 161 83552 2989 41776 1495 1925 19,54 4 3015 415,3 1298
559 8 109 138,5 1,756 127 105130 3761 52565 1881 2429 19,48 4 3916 535,1 1643
559 10 135 172,5 1,756 102 130002 4651 65001 2326 3014 19,41 3 5566 750,5 2046
559 12 162 206,2 1,756 85 154327 5522 77164 2761 3591 19,34 3 6655 891,0 2446
559 12,5 169 214,6 1,756 82 160324 5736 80162 2868 3734 19,33 2 6926 1205 2546
610 8 119 151,3 1,916 127 137103 4495 68551 2248 2899 21,29 4 4242 634,3 1795
610 10 148 188,5 1,916 102 169693 5564 84847 2782 3600 21,22 4 5398 800,6 2236
610 12 177 225,4 1,916 85 201627 6611 100814 3305 4292 21,15 3 7276 1067 2674
610 12,5 184 234,6 1,916 82 209509 6869 104755 3435 4463 21,13 3 7572 1108 2783
610 14,2 209 265,8 1,916 72 236008 7738 118004 3869 5042 21,07 2 8578 1627 3153
660 8 129 163,9 2,073 127 174176 5278 87088 2639 3401 23,05 4 4555 738,9 1944
660 10 160 204,2 2,073 102 215741 6538 107870 3269 4225 22,98 4 5806 934,7 2422
660 12 192 244,3 2,073 85 256534 7774 128267 3887 5039 22,91 3 7884 1254 2898
660 12,5 200 254,3 2,073 82 266613 8079 133306 4040 5241 22,90 3 8206 1304 3016

660 14,2 226 288,1 2,073 72 300526 9107 150263 4553 5923 22,84 3 9298 1470 3417
711 8 139 176,7 2,234 126 218324 6141 109162 3071 3954 24,86 4 4869 853,0 2096
711 10 173 220,2 2,234 101 270603 7612 135301 3806 4914 24,79 4 6218 1081 2612
711 12 207 263,5 2,234 85 321981 9057 160991 4529 5864 24,72 3 8504 1461 3126
711 12,5 215 274,3 2,234 81 334686 9415 167343 4707 6099 24,70 3 8852 1519 3254
711 14,2 244 310,9 2,234 72 377470 10618 188735 5309 6895 24,64 3 10032 1713 3687
762 8 149 189,5 2,394 126 269366 7070 134683 3535 4548 26,66 4 5178 974,4 2248
762 10 186 236,3 2,394 101 334057 8768 167028 4384 5655 26,59 4 6623 1237 2802
762 12 222 282,7 2,394 85 397710 10439 198855 5219 6751 26,52 4 8068 1497 3354
762 12,5 231 294,3 2,394 81 413462 10852 206731 5426 7023 26,50 4 8429 1562 3491
762 14,2 262 333,6 2,394 72 466542 12245 233271 6123 7942 26,44 3 10766 1976 3957
813 8 159 202,3 2,554 126 327801 8064 163901 4032 5184 28,46 4 5481 1103 2400
813 10 198 252,3 2,554 101 406728 10006 203364 5003 6448 28,39 4 7024 1403 2992
255
813 12 237 302,0 2,554 85 484469 11918 242235 5959 7700 28,32 4 8565 1700 3582
813 12,5 247 314,4 2,554 81 503721 12392 251860 6196 8011 28,31 4 8951 1774 3729
813 14,2 280 356,4 2,554 72 568630 13988 284315 6994 9062 28,25 3 11500 2257 4227
813 16 315 400,6 2,554 64 636443 15657 318222 7828 10165 28,18 3 12929 2526 4752
914 10 223 284,0 2,871 101 580294 12698 290147 6349 8172 31,96 4 7800 1758 3369
914 12 267 340,1 2,871 84 691779 15137 345890 7569 9764 31,89 4 9534 2136 4034
914 12,5 278 354,0 2,871 81 719417 15742 359708 7871 10159 31,88 4 9967 2230 4199
914 14,2 315 401,4 2,871 72 812689 17783 406344 8892 11498 31,82 4 11440 2548 4761
914 16 354 451,4 2,871 64 910283 19919 455142 9959 12904 31,75 3 14567 3214 5354
1016 10 248 316,0 3,192 101 799699 15742 399850 7871 10121 35,57 4 8562 2153 3749
1016 12 297 378,5 3,192 84 953969 18779 476984 9389 12097 35,50 4 10490 2622 4490
1016 12,5 309 394,1 3,192 81 992246 19532 496123 9766 12588 35,48 4 10972 2739 4674
1016 14,2 351 446,9 3,192 71 1121524 22077 560762 11039 14252 35,42 4 12610 3134 5301
1016 16 395 502,7 3,192 64 1256959 24743 628479 12372 16001 35,36 4 14343 3549 5962
1219 10 298 379,8 3,830 101 1388029 22773 694014 11387 14617 42,75 4 10017 3040 4505
1219 12 357 455,0 3,830 84 1657432 27193 828716 13597 17483 42,68 4 12328 3719 5398
1219 12,5 372 473,8 3,830 81 1724362 28291 862181 14146 18196 42,66 4 12906 3888 5620
1219 14,2 422 537,5 3,830 71 1950668 32004 975334 16002 20613 42,60 4 14872 4462 6375
Appendix 9.1
1219 16 475 604,7 3,830 63 2188182 35901 1094091 17951 23157 42,54 4 16953 5066 7173
d t M A Au Am/V It Wt I Wel Wpl i PL Nc.Rd Mc.Rd Vpl.Rd
x 102 x 104 x 103 x 104 x 103 x 103 x 10
Appendix 9.1
256
Appendix 9.2 Buckling tables for steel grade S355J2H
257
Buckling resistance values for square hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2) in buckling category c.
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.1
b 1) = recommended series
The calculated resistance values are design values (section 2.1) based on the default value (1.1) of the partial
h = height safety factor of material γM1 used in Eurocode 3. The partial safety factor values may differ in each country.
t
b = width National values must be checked from the NAD (National Application Document) of the country in question.
y
h
t = wall thickness
r0 Lc = buckling length
z Nb.Rd = buckling resistance
1) h b t Nb.Rd (kN) h b t
mm mm mm Lc (m) mm mm mm

x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 40 40 2 94,78 83,79 59,80 37,88 24,44 16,75 12,12 9,156 40 40 2
x 40 40 2,5 115,8 101,9 71,86 45,03 28,91 19,78 14,30 10,79 40 40 2,5
x 50 50 2 120,6 112,3 89,54 64,65 44,80 31,75 23,39 17,86 14,05 11,33 50 50 2
x 50 50 2,5 148,1 137,5 109,0 78,05 53,78 38,02 27,96 21,33 16,77 13,52 50 50 2,5
x 50 50 3 174,5 161,7 127,7 90,92 62,42 44,04 32,36 24,67 19,39 15,63 50 50 3
x 60 60 2,5 180,4 173,0 145,7 114,6 85,13 62,71 47,16 36,44 28,90 23,43 19,35 60 60 2,5
x 60 60 3 213,3 204,2 171,7 134,6 99,58 73,20 54,98 42,46 33,65 27,27 22,53 60 60 3
x 60 60 4 275,9 263,3 220,1 170,8 125,3 91,61 68,61 52,89 41,87 33,91 28,00 60 60 4
x 70 70 2 172,2 169,0 147,7 123,6 98,25 75,92 58,73 46,16 36,99 30,21 25,08 18,05 70 70 2
x 70 70 2,5 212,7 208,4 181,9 151,9 120,4 92,84 71,72 56,32 45,11 36,82 30,57 21,99 70 70 2,5
x 70 70 3 252,0 246,7 214,8 178,8 141,1 108,4 83,59 65,56 52,46 42,80 35,52 25,54 70 70 3
258
x 70 70 4 327,5 320,0 277,9 230,2 180,6 138,1 106,2 83,15 66,48 54,20 44,96 32,30 70 70 4
80 80 2 180,1 180,1 162,2 142,4 120,7 98,89 79,76 64,39 52,49 43,37 36,31 26,40 20,00 80 80 2
x 80 80 2,5 244,9 244,0 217,8 189,0 157,4 126,8 101,0 80,79 65,49 53,89 45,00 32,61 24,65 80 80 2,5
x 80 80 3 290,7 289,3 257,9 223,3 185,4 148,9 118,3 94,51 76,54 62,95 52,54 38,05 28,76 80 80 3
x 80 80 4 379,1 376,6 334,9 288,8 238,6 190,6 150,8 120,2 97,23 79,87 66,62 48,20 36,41 80 80 4
x 80 80 5 463,3 459,5 407,9 350,6 288,3 229,4 181,0 144,0 116,3 95,45 79,56 57,52 43,43 80 80 5
90 90 2 187,9 187,9 175,0 158,1 139,6 120,0 100,9 84,03 69,99 58,67 49,63 36,56 27,92 21,97 90 90 2
x 90 90 2,5 277,2 277,2 253,4 225,6 194,8 163,0 133,8 109,3 89,9 74,67 62,77 45,87 34,86 27,34 90 90 2,5
x 90 90 3 329,5 329,5 300,7 267,2 230,2 192,2 157,4 128,4 105,5 87,54 73,54 53,71 40,80 31,99 90 90 3
x 90 90 4 430,8 430,8 392,0 347,4 298,2 247,9 202,2 164,6 134,9 111,8 93,88 68,49 51,99 40,75 90 90 4
x 90 90 5 527,9 527,9 478,8 423,2 361,8 299,4 243,4 197,5 161,6 133,8 112,3 81,81 62,06 48,62 90 90 5
x 90 90 6 620,7 620,7 561,5 495,1 421,9 347,8 281,9 228,4 186,6 154,4 129,4 94,22 71,44 55,95 90 90 6
90 90 6,3 636,7 636,7 574,5 505,3 429,1 352,5 284,8 230,2 187,9 155,3 130,1 94,63 71,72 56,15 90 90 6,3
100 100 2 194,0 194,0 185,2 170,6 154,9 137,8 120,3 103,4 88,28 75,35 64,57 48,37 37,29 29,52 23,91 100 100 2
x 100 100 2,5 281,4 281,4 264,9 241,4 215,9 188,5 161,0 135,8 114,2 96,39 81,94 60,75 46,55 36,71 29,66 100 100 2,5
x 100 100 3 368,2 368,2 343,4 310,7 274,9 236,8 199,5 166,4 138,8 116,4 98,55 72,67 55,51 43,69 35,24 100 100 3
x 100 100 4 482,4 482,4 448,9 405,4 357,7 307,0 257,9 214,5 178,5 149,6 126,5 93,14 71,10 55,93 45,10 100 100 4
x 100 100 5 592,4 592,4 549,9 495,7 436,0 372,9 312,2 259,0 215,1 180,0 152,1 111,9 85,33 67,09 54,08 100 100 5
x 100 100 6 698,2 698,2 646,4 581,5 510,0 434,6 362,6 300,0 248,7 207,8 175,4 128,9 98,23 77,20 62,21 100 100 6
100 100 6,3 718,1 718,1 663,8 596,4 522,1 443,9 369,6 305,3 252,8 211,1 178,1 130,7 99,61 78,26 63,05 100 100 6,3
100 100 7,1 795,6 795,6 733,6 657,6 573,8 486,1 403,3 332,2 274,6 229,0 193,0 141,5 107,8 84,62 68,15 100 100 7,1
x 100 100 8 879,2 879,2 808,9 723,8 629,9 532,0 440,1 361,7 298,6 248,7 209,5 153,5 116,8 91,68 73,82 100 100 8
110 110 2,5 291,3 291,3 280,0 259,1 236,8 212,7 187,5 162,8 140,1 120,4 103,6 78,12 60,45 47,97 38,91 32,16 110 110 2,5
x 110 110 3 406,9 406,9 386,0 353,9 319,2 281,7 243,4 207,4 175,8 149,3 127,4 94,97 73,01 57,69 46,66 38,49 110 110 3
x 110 110 4 534,1 534,1 505,7 463,0 416,7 366,7 316,1 268,6 227,3 192,6 164,3 122,3 93,91 74,17 59,97 49,45 110 110 4
x 110 110 5 657,0 657,0 620,9 567,6 509,7 447,4 384,5 326,0 275,2 232,9 198,4 147,5 113,2 89,35 72,22 59,54 110 110 5
x 110 110 6 775,6 775,6 731,6 667,8 598,4 523,8 448,8 379,5 319,7 270,2 229,9 170,7 130,9 103,3 83,44 68,77 110 110 6
110 110 6,3 799,4 799,4 753,1 686,8 614,6 537,0 459,3 387,8 326,3 275,5 234,3 173,8 133,2 105,1 84,88 69,95 110 110 6,3
x 120 120 3 405,1 405,1 392,3 365,0 336,0 304,7 271,7 238,7 207,5 179,7 155,7 118,3 91,99 73,22 59,52 49,27 120 120 3
x 120 120 4 585,7 585,7 562,5 520,3 475,2 426,4 375,5 325,7 280,1 240,4 206,9 155,8 120,5 95,61 77,54 64,08 120 120 4
x 120 120 5 721,5 721,5 691,9 639,3 582,9 521,9 458,5 396,7 340,5 291,8 250,8 188,6 145,8 115,6 93,71 77,42 120 120 5
x 120 120 5,6 800,9 800,9 767,3 708,5 645,3 577,1 506,3 437,4 375,0 321,1 275,8 207,2 160,1 126,9 102,8 84,94 120 120 5,6
x 120 120 6 853,1 853,1 816,7 753,7 686,1 613,1 537,2 463,8 397,2 339,9 291,8 219,1 169,2 134,1 108,7 89,75 120 120 6

120 120 6,3 880,7 880,7 842,3 776,9 706,5 630,4 551,6 475,5 406,8 347,7 298,4 223,8 172,7 136,8 110,9 91,56 120 120 6,3
120 120 7,1 978,7 978,7 934,5 860,8 781,5 695,7 607,2 522,1 445,8 380,5 326,1 244,3 188,4 149,1 120,8 99,73 120 120 7,1
x 120 120 8 1086 1086 1035 952,7 863,6 767,5 668,4 573,6 489,0 416,9 356,9 267,1 205,8 162,9 131,9 108,9 120 120 8
120 120 8,8 1177 1177 1121 1030 932,0 826,2 717,7 614,4 522,6 444,9 380,5 284,3 218,9 173,1 140,1 115,6 120 120 8,8
x 140 140 4 689,0 689,0 676,0 634,2 590,7 544,1 494,5 443,3 393,0 345,9 303,7 234,9 184,6 148,0 120,8 100,3 140 140 4
x 140 140 5 850,6 850,6 833,8 781,9 727,6 669,5 607,7 544,1 481,7 423,5 371,4 286,9 225,3 180,4 147,3 122,3 140 140 5
x 140 140 5,6 945,5 945,5 926,2 868,2 807,4 742,4 673,2 602,1 532,5 467,7 409,8 316,3 248,2 198,7 162,2 134,6 140 140 5,6
x 140 140 6 1008 1008 986,9 924,8 859,8 790,1 716,0 639,9 565,5 496,4 434,8 335,3 263,0 210,5 171,8 142,6 140 140 6
140 140 6,3 1043 1043 1021 955,8 887,9 815,1 737,7 658,3 580,9 509,3 445,6 343,2 269,0 215,2 175,5 145,6 140 140 6,3
x 140 140 7,1 1162 1162 1136 1063 986,5 904,7 817,6 728,6 642,0 562,2 491,4 377,9 295,9 236,6 192,9 160,0 140 140 7,1
x 140 140 8 1292 1292 1261 1180 1094 1002 903,7 803,7 707,0 618,1 539,6 414,3 324,1 259,0 211,0 175,0 140 140 8
x 140 140 8,8 1405 1405 1370 1280 1186 1085 977,3 867,8 762,3 665,7 580,5 445,1 347,9 277,8 226,3 187,7 140 140 8,8
x 140 140 10 1567 1567 1526 1425 1318 1204 1082 958,6 840,2 732,3 637,7 487,9 380,9 304,0 247,5 205,1 140 140 10
259
x 150 150 4 701,2 701,2 696 657,6 618,2 576,5 532,1 485,6 438,4 392,5 349,5 276,1 219,8 177,6 145,9 121,6 150 150 4
x 150 150 5 915,1 915,1 904,8 853 799,4 742,6 682,0 618,8 555,2 494,2 437,8 343,3 272,0 219,1 179,6 149,5 150 150 5
x 150 150 6 1085 1085 1072 1010 946,0 877,8 805,1 729,4 653,5 580,8 513,9 402,2 318,3 256,3 209,9 174,7 150 150 6
150 150 6,3 1125 1125 1110 1045 978,0 907,0 831,0 752,0 672,8 597,3 528,0 412,6 326,3 262,5 214,9 178,8 150 150 6,3
150 150 7,1 1254 1254 1236 1164 1088 1008 922,7 833,9 745,2 660,7 583,5 455,3 359,7 289,2 236,7 196,9 150 150 7,1
x 150 150 8 1396 1396 1375 1293 1208 1118 1022 922,0 822,7 728,4 642,4 500,4 394,9 317,3 259,6 215,8 150 150 8
150 150 8,8 1518 1518 1494 1405 1312 1213 1107 998,0 889,1 786,2 692,7 538,8 424,8 341,1 279,0 231,9 150 150 8,8
x 150 150 10 1696 1696 1668 1567 1461 1349 1230 1106 983,0 867,9 763,6 592,6 466,7 374,4 306,0 254,3 150 150 10
160 160 4 720,2 720,2 720,2 685,4 648,7 610,3 569,7 526,9 482,7 438,4 395,6 319,0 257,5 210,0 173,5 145,2 160 160 4
x 160 160 5 979,7 979,7 975,6 923,8 870,7 814,7 755,3 692,8 628,9 566,0 506,4 403,0 322,4 261,3 215,0 179,5 160 160 5
x 160 160 6 1163 1163 1157 1095 1032 964,9 893,7 818,9 742,6 667,6 596,7 474,2 379,0 307,0 252,5 210,7 160 160 6
160 160 6,3 1206 1206 1199 1135 1068 998,4 923,9 845,8 766,1 688,0 614,4 487,4 389,2 315,0 259,0 216,1 160 160 6,3
160 160 7,1 1345 1345 1337 1264 1190 1111 1027 939,4 850,0 762,5 680,2 538,9 429,9 347,8 285,8 238,4 160 160 7,1
x 160 160 8 1499 1499 1488 1407 1323 1234 1140 1041 940,5 842,5 750,7 593,6 472,9 382,3 314,0 261,9 160 160 8
160 160 8,8 1632 1632 1619 1530 1438 1340 1237 1128 1018 911,1 811,0 640,4 509,7 411,8 338,1 281,8 160 160 8,8
x 160 160 10 1826 1826 1809 1708 1604 1494 1377 1254 1129 1009 896,7 706,4 561,5 453,2 371,9 309,9 160 160 10
160 160 12 2093 2093 2068 1949 1826 1695 1556 1410 1264 1124 995,2 779,4 617,2 497,0 407,1 338,9 160 160 12
160 160 12,5 2164 2164 2137 2013 1885 1749 1603 1452 1301 1156 1022 799,7 632,8 509,4 417,1 347,1 160 160 12,5
Appendix 9.2
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Buckling resistance values for square hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2) in buckling category c, continued.
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.1
b 1) = recommended series The calculated resistance values are design values (section 2.1) based on the default value (1.1) of the partial
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 180 180 5 1109 1109 1109 1066 1013 959,1 901,8 841,4 778,5 714,5 651,3 534,3 436,5 358,8 298,0 250,5 180 180 5
x 180 180 6 1318 1318 1318 1266 1203 1138 1069 996,4 920,9 844,3 768,8 629,6 513,7 421,8 350,2 294,2 180 180 6
180 180 6,3 1369 1369 1369 1314 1248 1180 1108 1033 953,8 873,9 795,2 650,5 530,3 435,3 361,2 303,4 180 180 6,3
180 180 7,1 1529 1529 1529 1466 1392 1316 1235 1150 1061 971,4 883,2 721,5 587,6 481,9 399,7 335,6 180 180 7,1
x 180 180 8 1705 1705 1705 1634 1551 1465 1374 1278 1178 1077 978,4 797,7 648,8 531,7 440,7 369,8 180 180 8
180 180 8,8 1859 1859 1859 1779 1688 1594 1494 1389 1279 1169 1060 863,3 701,5 574,4 475,9 399,2 180 180 8,8
x 180 180 10 2084 2084 2084 1992 1889 1782 1668 1549 1425 1300 1178 957,1 776,4 635,1 525,8 440,9 180 180 10
180 180 12 2403 2403 2403 2288 2167 2039 1905 1763 1616 1469 1326 1071 865,1 705,7 583,2 488,4 180 180 12
x 180 180 12,5 2486 2486 2486 2366 2240 2107 1967 1819 1666 1513 1366 1102 889,2 725,0 598,9 501,5 180 180 12,5
x 200 200 5 1125 1125 1125 1105 1060 1014 966,0 916,3 864,1 809,9 754,5 644,8 544,1 457,6 386,3 328,4 200 200 5
x 200 200 6 1473 1473 1473 1436 1374 1310 1243 1173 1100 1024 947,0 798,2 665,7 555,1 465,7 394,2 200 200 6
260
200 200 6,3 1531 1531 1531 1492 1427 1360 1291 1218 1141 1062 981,7 826,5 688,8 574,1 481,4 407,4 200 200 6,3
200 200 7,1 1712 1712 1712 1667 1594 1519 1441 1358 1272 1183 1093 919,0 765,0 637,1 534,0 451,7 200 200 7,1
x 200 200 8 1912 1912 1912 1860 1778 1694 1605 1513 1415 1315 1214 1019 847,3 704,9 590,4 499,2 200 200 8
200 200 8,8 2086 2086 2086 2029 1938 1846 1749 1647 1540 1430 1319 1106 918,3 763,4 639,1 540,1 200 200 8,8
x 200 200 10 2342 2342 2342 2275 2172 2067 1957 1841 1720 1595 1469 1229 1019 845,6 707,3 597,4 200 200 10
200 200 12 2713 2713 2713 2628 2507 2382 2251 2113 1969 1821 1673 1392 1149 951,4 794,2 669,8 200 200 12
x 200 200 12,5 2809 2809 2809 2719 2594 2464 2328 2184 2034 1881 1727 1435 1184 979,3 817,2 689,0 200 200 12,5
x 220 220 6 1628 1628 1628 1606 1544 1481 1416 1348 1277 1203 1127 974,0 829,8 703,3 597,1 509,7 220 220 6
220 220 6,3 1694 1694 1694 1671 1606 1540 1472 1400 1326 1248 1169 1009 859,0 727,6 617,3 526,7 220 220 6,3
220 220 7,1 1895 1895 1895 1869 1795 1721 1644 1564 1480 1393 1304 1124 956,0 809,0 686,0 585,1 220 220 7,1
x 220 220 8 2118 2118 2118 2087 2005 1922 1835 1745 1651 1553 1452 1251 1063 898,7 761,5 649,2 220 220 8
220 220 8,8 2313 2313 2313 2278 2188 2096 2001 1902 1798 1690 1580 1359 1153 973,7 824,5 702,5 220 220 8,8
x 220 220 10 2600 2600 2600 2558 2456 2352 2244 2132 2014 1892 1766 1517 1285 1084 917,1 780,9 220 220 10
220 220 12 3023 3023 3023 2967 2846 2723 2595 2461 2321 2176 2027 1733 1462 1230 1038 882,6 220 220 12
220 220 12,5 3132 3132 3132 3073 2947 2819 2686 2547 2401 2249 2095 1789 1508 1268 1070 909,3 220 220 12,5
x 250 250 6 1646 1646 1646 1646 1606 1554 1501 1447 1391 1333 1273 1147 1019 895,6 782,3 682,5 250 250 6
250 250 6,3 1770 1770 1770 1770 1722 1665 1607 1548 1486 1422 1356 1218 1078 943,7 821,9 715,2 250 250 6,3
250 250 7,1 2170 2170 2170 2170 2098 2024 1949 1871 1791 1707 1620 1441 1262 1094 945,7 818,0 250 250 7,1
x 250 250 8 2428 2428 2428 2428 2345 2263 2178 2091 2000 1906 1808 1606 1405 1217 1051 908,6 250 250 8
250 250 8,8 2654 2654 2654 2653 2562 2471 2378 2283 2183 2079 1972 1750 1530 1324 1143 987,3 250 250 8,8
x 250 250 10 2987 2987 2987 2984 2881 2778 2673 2564 2451 2334 2212 1960 1711 1480 1276 1101 250 250 10
250 250 12 3487 3487 3487 3477 3356 3234 3109 2979 2845 2704 2559 2260 1967 1696 1458 1257 250 250 12
x 250 250 12,5 3616 3616 3616 3605 3478 3351 3221 3086 2946 2800 2649 2338 2033 1751 1506 1297 250 250 12,5
260 260 6 1669 1669 1669 1669 1639 1590 1539 1488 1435 1380 1323 1204 1081 960,0 846,0 743,5 260 260 6
260 260 6,3 1797 1797 1797 1797 1761 1706 1651 1594 1536 1475 1412 1281 1146 1014 890,7 780,7 260 260 6,3
260 260 7,1 2262 2262 2262 2262 2199 2125 2050 1973 1894 1811 1725 1547 1367 1195 1039 903,2 260 260 7,1
260 260 8 2532 2532 2532 2532 2459 2376 2292 2206 2116 2023 1926 1725 1523 1330 1156 1004 260 260 8
260 260 8,8 2768 2768 2768 2768 2687 2596 2504 2409 2310 2208 2102 1881 1659 1448 1257 1092 260 260 8,8
260 260 10 3116 3116 3116 3116 3023 2920 2816 2708 2596 2480 2359 2109 1858 1619 1405 1219 260 260 10
260 260 11 3368 3368 3368 3368 3263 3151 3037 2919 2797 2670 2538 2265 1991 1732 1501 1301 260 260 11
260 260 12,5 3777 3777 3777 3777 3655 3529 3398 3265 3126 2982 2832 2523 2214 1923 1664 1440 260 260 12,5
x 300 300 6 1746 1746 1746 1746 1746 1710 1667 1624 1580 1535 1489 1393 1292 1187 1082 979,0 300 300 6
300 300 6,3 1887 1887 1887 1887 1887 1843 1795 1748 1699 1650 1599 1492 1380 1264 1148 1036 300 300 6,3
300 300 7,1 2303 2303 2303 2303 2295 2235 2175 2114 2051 1987 1921 1784 1638 1490 1343 1203 300 300 7,1

x 300 300 8 2787 2787 2787 2787 2766 2690 2613 2536 2456 2375 2290 2113 1928 1740 1557 1387 300 300 8
300 300 8,8 3222 3222 3222 3222 3186 3096 3004 2911 2816 2718 2616 2404 2181 1958 1743 1545 300 300 8,8
x 300 300 10 3633 3633 3633 3633 3590 3488 3384 3279 3171 3059 2944 2702 2450 2197 1955 1731 300 300 10
300 300 12 4262 4262 4262 4262 4206 4084 3961 3836 3707 3574 3437 3149 2849 2550 2263 2001 300 300 12
x 300 300 12,5 4422 4422 4422 4422 4363 4236 4108 3978 3844 3706 3563 3262 2951 2639 2342 2069 300 300 12,5
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
261
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2 Buckling resistance values for rectangular hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2) in buckling category c.
Appendix 9.2
t h = height safety factor of material γM1 used in Eurocode 3. The partial safety factor values may differ in each country.
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

40 30 2 y-y 81,88 71,51 49,63 30,66 19,57 13,35 9,636 7,268 40 30 2
z-z 81,88 66,50 39,28 21,88 13,43 9,003
x 50 30 2 y-y 94,78 86,87 67,11 46,40 31,29 21,89 16,01 12,17 9,550 7,687 50 30 2
z-z 94,78 77,73 46,86 26,37 16,24 10,91 7,81
x 60 40 2 y-y 120,6 114,8 95,48 73,54 53,56 39,00 29,14 22,44 17,75 14,36 11,85 60 40 2
z-z 120,6 108,0 79,29 51,67 33,77 23,28 16,90 12,79 10,01
x 60 40 2,5 y-y 148,1 140,7 116,5 89,17 64,59 46,88 34,97 26,90 21,26 17,20 14,19 60 40 2,5
z-z 148,1 132,2 96,40 62,38 40,63 27,97 20,29 15,35 12,00
x 70 50 2 y-y 146,4 142,8 123,6 101,9 79,49 60,54 46,42 36,28 28,98 23,61 19,57 14,05 70 50 2
z-z 146,4 137,3 111,1 81,92 57,62 41,15 30,44 23,29 18,35 14,82 12,20
262
x 70 50 2,5 y-y 180,4 175,7 151,9 124,9 97,10 73,78 56,49 44,12 35,22 28,68 23,77 17,06 70 50 2,5
z-z 180,4 168,8 136,1 99,90 69,97 49,88 36,85 28,18 22,20 17,91 14,75
x 70 50 3 y-y 213,3 207,5 178,9 146,5 113,4 85,86 65,61 51,18 40,82 33,23 27,53 19,75 70 50 3
z-z 213,3 199,3 160,1 116,8 81,57 58,04 42,84 32,74 25,78 20,80
x 80 40 2,5 y-y 180,4 177,6 156,0 131,7 105,8 82,49 64,18 50,62 40,66 33,25 27,64 19,92 15,01 80 40 2,5
z-z 180,4 162,2 120,2 79,14 51,98 35,92 26,10 19,77 15,47
x 80 60 2 y-y 163,2 162,5 145,0 125,6 104,5 84,04 66,82 53,43 43,29 35,61 29,73 21,54 16,28 80 60 2
z-z 163,2 158,2 135,6 109,8 84,04 63,12 48,00 37,34 29,73 24,17 20,01 14,34
x 80 60 2,5 y-y 212,7 210,8 187,0 160,6 131,9 104,9 82,68 65,75 53,09 43,57 36,31 26,25 19,81 80 60 2,5
z-z 212,7 205,0 174,4 139,3 105,1 78,17 59,12 45,83 36,42 29,56 24,45 17,50
x 80 60 3 y-y 252,0 249,7 221,2 189,7 155,4 123,3 97,07 77,12 62,23 51,05 42,53 30,74 23,20 80 60 3
z-z 252,0 242,7 206,0 164,0 123,3 91,50 69,13 53,56 42,53 34,52 28,54
x 80 60 4 y-y 327,5 323,7 286,0 243,9 198,4 156,4 122,6 97,10 78,21 64,09 53,35 38,51 29,05 80 60 4
z-z 327,5 314,4 265,5 209,6 156,2 115,3 86,84 67,16 53,27 43,20 35,70
80 70 2,5 y-y 228,8 227,4 202,4 174,9 144,7 115,9 91,85 73,29 59,30 48,74 40,66 29,43 22,24 80 70 2,5
z-z 228,8 224,8 196,8 165,3 131,9 102,3 79,29 62,40 50,05 40,89 33,97 24,46
80 70 3 y-y 271,4 269,4 239,5 206,4 170,3 135,9 107,5 85,64 69,23 56,86 47,42 34,30 25,91 80 70 3
z-z 271,4 266,2 232,6 194,8 154,8 119,6 92,5 72,73 58,29 47,60 39,53 28,44
80 70 4 y-y 353,3 350,2 310,5 266,4 218,6 173,6 136,7 108,7 87,73 71,98 59,98 43,35 32,72 80 70 4
z-z 353,3 346,0 301,6 251,3 198,6 152,8 117,9 92,48 74,03 60,41 50,14 36,06
80 70 5 y-y 431,0 426,4 377,1 322,1 262,8 207,5 162,9 129,2 104,1 85,34 71,07 51,32 38,71 80 70 5
z-z 431,0 421,2 365,7 302,9 237,7 181,9 139,8 109,5 87,51 71,35 59,18 42,52
90 50 2 y-y 154,2 154,2 140,3 124,4 106,7 88,68 72,35 58,87 48,25 40,00 33,58 24,49 18,59 14,57 90 50 2
z-z 154,2 146,7 121,8 93,60 68,03 49,48 36,95 28,43 22,49 18,20 15,01
x 90 50 2,5 y-y 212,7 212,6 190,8 167,0 140,8 114,8 92,18 74,21 60,39 49,83 41,68 30,28 22,92 17,94 90 50 2,5
z-z 212,7 200,1 162,9 121,3 85,95 61,63 45,67 35,00 27,59 22,29 18,36
x 90 50 3 y-y 252,0 251,7 225,6 197,0 165,6 134,6 107,9 86,74 70,52 58,15 48,62 35,30 26,71 20,90 90 50 3
z-z 252,0 236,7 192,1 142,4 100,5 71,92 53,24 40,77 32,14 25,95 21,38
90 60 2,5 y-y 228,8 228,8 206,6 181,8 154,5 127,1 102,7 83,09 67,83 56,08 46,98 34,19 25,91 20,29 90 60 2,5
z-z 228,8 221,1 188,7 151,8 115,3 86,12 65,29 50,70 40,32 32,75 27,10 19,41
90 60 3 y-y 271,4 271,4 244,5 214,8 182,1 149,3 120,5 97,28 79,33 65,54 54,88 39,91 30,24 23,67 90 60 3
z-z 271,4 261,8 222,8 178,4 134,8 100,4 75,94 58,9 46,81 38,01 31,44 22,50

90 60 4 y-y 353,3 353,3 317,2 277,8 234,4 191,3 153,8 123,9 100,8 83,21 69,62 50,58 38,30 29,97 90 60 4
z-z 353,3 340,1 288,3 229,2 172,0 127,6 96,30 74,56 59,20 48,04 39,72
90 70 2 y-y 178,8 178,8 164,3 146,8 127,5 107,5 88,72 72,82 60,04 49,98 42,07 30,80 23,43 18,39 90 70 2
z-z 178,8 177,2 157,0 134,6 110,3 87,50 68,88 54,72 44,15 36,22 30,18 21,81
90 70 2,5 y-y 244,9 244,9 222,2 196,3 167,9 138,9 112,9 91,65 75,00 62,11 52,09 37,96 28,80 22,56 90 70 2,5
z-z 244,9 241,0 211,6 178,5 143,2 111,5 86,70 68,35 54,88 44,87 37,30 26,87
90 70 3 y-y 290,7 290,7 263,4 232,5 198,4 163,9 133,1 107,9 88,22 73,02 61,22 44,60 33,82 26,50 90 70 3
z-z 290,7 285,9 250,6 210,9 168,8 131,2 101,8 80,21 64,37 52,61 43,72 31,49
90 70 4 y-y 379,1 379,1 342,3 301,3 256,1 210,6 170,3 137,7 112,4 92,94 77,86 56,66 42,94 33,62 90 70 4
z-z 379,1 372,0 325,1 272,1 216,3 167,1 129,3 101,6 81,44 66,50 55,23
90 70 5 y-y 463,3 463,3 416,6 365,3 308,8 252,5 203,3 163,9 133,5 110,2 92,26 67,06 50,79 39,75 90 70 5
z-z 463,3 453,5 395,0 328,8 259,5 199,4 153,7 120,6 96,50 78,71 65,33
263
90 80 2 y-y 184,0 184,0 170,2 152,9 134,0 114,0 94,99 78,50 65,04 54,32 45,83 33,65 25,65 20,15 90 80 2
z-z 184,0 184,0 167,1 147,8 126,6 104,9 85,40 69,39 56,81 47,07 39,49 28,79 21,85 17,12
90 80 2,5 y-y 261,1 261,1 237,8 211,0 181,4 151,1 123,4 100,6 82,48 68,42 57,45 41,93 31,84 24,96 90 80 2,5
z-z 261,1 260,5 233,0 202,9 169,9 137,6 109,9 88,20 71,61 58,99 49,30 35,76 27,05
90 80 3 y-y 310,1 310,1 282,0 249,8 214,2 177,9 145,1 118,0 96,68 80,14 67,26 49,06 37,24 29,18 90 80 3
z-z 310,1 309,1 276,1 240,0 200,3 161,7 128,9 103,3 83,78 68,98 57,61 41,77 31,58
90 80 4 y-y 405,0 405,0 367,1 324,3 277,0 229,0 186,0 150,9 123,4 102,2 85,70 62,44 47,37 37,10 90 80 4
z-z 405,0 403,1 359,5 311,5 259,0 208,2 165,5 132,3 107,2 88,17 73,60 53,31 40,30
90 80 5 y-y 495,6 495,6 447,8 394,4 335,4 276,1 223,4 180,8 147,6 122,1 102,3 74,46 56,44 44,20 90 80 5
z-z 495,6 492,4 438,1 378,2 312,7 250,1 198,1 158,0 127,8 105,0 87,59 63,39 47,88
90 80 6 y-y 582,0 582,0 524,0 460,0 389,6 319,1 257,3 207,6 169,3 139,8 117,1 85,11 64,48 50,47 90 80 6
z-z 582,0 577,2 512,3 440,3 362,1 288,1 227,3 180,8 146,0 119,9 99,92 72,25 54,54
90 80 6,3 y-y 596,1 596,1 535,2 468,7 395,4 322,7 259,4 208,9 170,1 140,4 117,4 85,32 64,61 50,55 90 80 6,3
z-z 596,1 590,3 522,9 447,9 366,6 290,5 228,5 181,4 146,4 120,0 100,0 72,25 54,52
100 40 2 y-y 144,4 144,4 133,9 120,6 106,0 90,58 75,74 62,78 52,11 43,59 36,81 27,06 20,64 16,23 100 40 2
z-z 144,4 133,3 104,6 73,79 50,37 35,44 26,00 19,80 15,56 12,53
Appendix 9.2
x 100 40 2,5 y-y 198,6 198,6 181,9 162,2 140,3 117,8 96,87 79,29 65,26 54,25 45,62 33,37 25,37 19,90 100 40 2,5
z-z 198,6 180,9 137,9 93,8 62,68 43,65 31,86 24,19 18,96 15,25
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Buckling resistance values for rectangular hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2) in buckling category c, continued.
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

100 50 2 y-y 157,3 157,3 146,6 132,6 117,3 100,9 84,99 70,84 59,04 49,52 41,91 30,89 23,59 18,57 14,97 100 50 2
z-z 157,3 150,6 126,4 98,9 73,08 53,66 40,28 31,10 24,64 19,97 16,49
x 100 50 2,5 y-y 214,7 214,7 197,9 177,4 154,8 131,1 108,7 89,53 73,99 61,69 51,99 38,12 29,02 22,79 100 50 2,5
z-z 214,7 203,4 167,8 127,5 91,80 66,4 49,44 37,99 30,01 24,27 20,01
x 100 50 3 y-y 271,4 271,4 248,1 220,8 190,7 159,6 131,0 107,1 88,01 73,11 61,46 44,91 34,13 26,77 100 50 3
z-z 271,4 255,3 207,9 154,8 109,7 78,65 58,29 44,66 35,22 28,44 23,44
x 100 60 2 y-y 170,2 170,2 159,2 144,4 128,2 110,9 93,81 78,50 65,63 55,16 46,74 34,52 26,39 20,78 16,77 100 60 2
z-z 170,2 166,6 145,1 120,7 95,30 73,18 56,41 44,23 35,4 28,88 23,97 17,23
x 100 60 2,5 y-y 230,9 230,9 213,9 192,5 168,9 144,1 120,3 99,58 82,59 69,04 58,28 42,83 32,65 25,66 20,68 100 60 2,5
z-z 230,9 224,4 193,3 157,9 121,9 92,20 70,36 54,85 43,73 35,59 29,48 21,15
264
x 100 60 3 y-y 290,7 290,7 267,3 239,1 208,0 175,5 145,1 119,2 98,34 81,90 68,96 50,51 38,43 30,17 24,29 100 60 3
z-z 290,7 281,0 239,8 192,9 146,5 109,4 82,97 64,42 51,23 41,62 34,44 24,66
x 100 60 4 y-y 379,1 379,1 347,5 309,9 268,4 225,4 185,5 151,9 125,1 104,0 87,48 63,99 48,65 38,17 30,72 100 60 4
z-z 379,1 365,6 310,9 248,4 187,4 139,4 105,4 81,72 64,93 52,71 43,60 31,20
100 70 2 y-y 181,9 181,9 170,8 155,4 138,6 120,5 102,6 86,26 72,37 60,98 51,77 38,32 29,34 23,12 18,67 100 70 2
z-z 181,9 181,0 161,3 139,5 115,8 92,90 73,78 58,93 47,72 39,24 32,75 23,71 17,92
100 70 2,5 y-y 247,0 247,0 229,7 207,3 182,8 156,7 131,5 109,3 90,93 76,16 64,38 47,40 36,17 28,45 22,94 100 70 2,5
z-z 247,0 244,3 215,9 184,3 150,1 118,5 92,9 73,64 59,34 48,63 40,49 29,23 22,05
100 70 3 y-y 310,1 310,1 286,4 257,1 224,8 190,8 158,7 130,9 108,3 90,41 76,23 55,94 42,61 33,47 26,97 100 70 3
z-z 310,1 305,3 268,1 226,4 181,9 141,8 110,3 87,02 69,89 57,16 47,52 34,24 25,80
100 70 4 y-y 405,0 405,0 373,0 334,1 291,1 246,2 204,0 167,9 138,7 115,6 97,36 71,36 54,32 42,66 34,35 100 70 4
z-z 405,0 398,0 348,7 293,2 234,3 181,9 141,1 111,1 89,12 72,83 60,51 43,57 32,81
100 70 5 y-y 495,6 495,6 455,2 406,8 353,3 297,7 245,7 201,7 166,3 138,4 116,5 85,29 64,88 50,92 40,99 100 70 5
z-z 495,6 486,0 424,4 354,9 281,7 217,4 168,1 132,1 105,8 86,38 71,73 51,60
100 80 2 y-y 187,0 187,0 176,7 161,4 144,9 127,1 109,1 92,42 77,97 65,97 56,17 41,74 32,02 25,28 20,43 100 80 2
z-z 187,0 187,0 171,1 152,3 131,6 110,2 90,51 74,00 60,85 50,56 42,50 31,06 23,61 18,52
100 80 2,5 y-y 263,1 263,1 245,4 222,1 196,5 169,3 142,7 119,0 99,24 83,26 70,48 51,97 39,70 31,24 25,20 100 80 2,5
z-z 263,1 263,1 237,0 208,2 176,4 144,6 116,6 94,10 76,75 63,40 53,09 38,60 29,25 22,89
x 100 80 3 y-y 329,5 329,5 305,5 275,2 241,8 206,5 172,6 143,1 118,7 99,31 83,86 61,66 47,02 36,96 29,79 100 80 3
z-z 329,5 328,9 294,5 256,9 215,5 174,8 139,9 112,4 91,29 75,23 62,89 45,64 34,53 27,01
x 100 80 4 y-y 430,8 430,8 398,5 358,1 313,7 267,0 222,4 183,8 152,3 127,2 107,3 78,80 60,05 47,18 38,02 100 80 4
z-z 430,8 429,4 383,6 333,4 278,3 224,7 179,1 143,5 116,4 95,80 80,03 58,02 43,88
x 100 80 5 y-y 527,9 527,9 487,0 436,8 381,4 323,3 268,4 221,3 183,0 152,6 128,6 94,35 71,85 56,43 45,45 100 80 5
z-z 527,9 525,2 468,2 405,4 336,7 270,4 214,8 171,6 139,0 114,3 95,40 69,10 52,22

x 100 80 6 y-y 620,7 620,7 571,1 511,0 444,7 375,5 310,7 255,4 210,8 175,6 147,9 108,3 82,43 64,72 52,11 100 80 6
z-z 620,7 616,8 548,7 473,6 391,6 313,2 248,0 197,8 160,0 131,5 109,7 79,36 59,95
100 80 6,3 y-y 636,7 636,7 584,2 521,5 452,3 380,4 313,6 257,1 211,8 176,2 148,3 108,5 82,52 64,75 52,12 100 80 6,3
z-z 636,7 631,8 561,0 482,6 397,3 316,5 249,9 198,9 160,7 131,9 110,0 79,53 60,05
110 40 2 y-y 146,9 146,9 139,0 127,2 114,3 100,5 86,52 73,46 62,09 52,60 44,83 33,35 25,61 20,22 16,35 110 40 2
z-z 146,9 136,5 108,5 77,93 53,81 38,08 28,02 21,38 16,82
110 40 2,5 y-y 203,6 203,6 190,5 172,8 153,4 132,7 112,3 94,02 78,61 66,08 56,01 41,37 31,63 24,91 20,10 110 40 2,5
z-z 203,6 186,6 144,2 99,75 67,28 47,07 34,43 26,18 20,54
110 40 3 y-y 271,4 271,4 250,7 225,2 197,0 167,4 139,3 115,0 95,18 79,45 67,01 49,18 37,47 29,44 23,71 110 40 3
z-z 271,4 245,0 183,3 121,9 80,46 55,73 40,55 30,74 24,07
110 50 2 y-y 159,8 159,8 151,7 139,2 125,7 111,1 96,13 82,03 69,60 59,14 50,51 37,67 28,97 22,90 18,53 110 50 2
z-z 159,8 153,7 130,2 103,4 77,52 57,43 43,33 33,55 26,63 21,61 17,86
265
110 50 2,5 y-y 219,7 219,7 206,5 188,1 167,9 146,2 124,7 105,0 88,14 74,32 63,13 46,76 35,81 28,23 22,80 110 50 2,5
z-z 219,7 209,3 174,2 134,3 98,00 71,39 53,37 41,10 32,51 26,32 21,72
110 50 3 y-y 290,7 290,7 270,4 244,1 215,2 184,6 155,0 128,8 107,2 89,79 75,92 55,89 42,66 33,56 27,05 110 50 3
z-z 290,7 274,0 223,8 167,4 119,1 85,55 63,47 48,66 38,39 31,01 25,56
110 60 2 y-y 172,7 172,7 164,5 151,3 137,1 121,7 105,8 90,71 77,25 65,81 56,32 42,11 32,44 25,66 20,78 17,15 110 60 2
z-z 172,7 169,7 148,7 125,0 99,80 77,44 60,07 47,29 37,93 31,00 25,75 18,54
110 60 2,5 y-y 235,9 235,9 222,6 203,4 182,4 159,8 137,1 116,0 97,83 82,73 70,42 52,30 40,12 31,66 25,58 21,09 110 60 2,5
z-z 235,9 230,1 199,4 164,6 128,6 98,02 75,21 58,81 46,98 38,28 31,75 22,80
110 60 3 y-y 310,1 310,1 289,7 262,6 232,8 201,0 169,9 142,0 118,6 99,61 84,38 62,28 47,60 37,48 30,24 110 60 3
z-z 310,1 300,2 256,9 207,6 158,4 118,8 90,21 70,13 55,81 45,36 37,55 26,90
110 60 4 y-y 405,0 405,0 377,5 341,5 302,0 259,9 218,9 182,5 152,1 127,6 108,0 79,59 60,79 47,84 38,58 110 60 4
z-z 405,0 390,9 333,1 267,0 202,1 150,7 114,1 88,51 70,35 57,14 47,27 33,83
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

110 70 2 y-y 184,4 184,4 176,2 162,4 147,5 131,5 114,9 98,89 84,50 72,18 61,89 46,39 35,78 28,34 22,96 18,95 110 70 2
z-z 184,4 184,1 164,8 143,7 120,6 97,80 78,24 62,82 51,04 42,06 35,16 25,51 19,30
110 70 2,5 y-y 252,0 252,0 238,6 218,5 196,6 173,1 149,1 126,8 107,2 90,91 77,52 57,70 44,32 35,00 28,30 23,34 110 70 2,5
z-z 252,0 250,0 222,1 191,0 157,3 125,3 98,96 78,78 63,65 52,26 43,57 31,51 23,79
110 70 3 y-y 329,5 329,5 309,2 281,2 250,6 217,8 185,2 155,6 130,5 109,9 93,29 69,03 52,84 41,64 33,62 27,69 110 70 3
z-z 329,5 324,9 286,0 242,5 195,8 153,3 119,7 94,50 76,02 62,22 51,75 37,32 28,13
110 70 4 y-y 430,8 430,8 403,2 366,0 325,1 281,5 238,5 199,8 167,1 140,5 119,1 88,01 67,31 53,01 42,78 35,23 110 70 4
z-z 430,8 423,9 372,1 313,9 251,9 196,1 152,5 120,2 96,50 78,92 65,60 47,26 35,60
110 70 6,3 y-y 636,7 636,7 591,6 533,7 470,0 402,6 337,5 280,3 233,0 195,1 164,9 121,3 92,56 72,79 58,68 110 70 6,3
z-z 636,7 623,3 542,8 451,8 356,6 274,0 211,2 165,6 132,6 108,2 89,76 64,53
266
110 90 2 y-y 193,4 193,4 186,6 173,2 158,9 143,4 127,2 111,1 96,13 82,91 71,61 54,19 42,03 33,40 27,13 22,44 110 90 2
z-z 193,4 193,4 182,2 166,2 148,7 130,0 111,1 93,80 78,97 66,69 56,71 42,06 32,24 25,43 20,54
110 90 2,5 y-y 280,1 280,1 266,9 245,5 222,3 197,4 171,7 147,2 125,3 106,8 91,38 68,33 52,63 41,64 33,71 27,82 110 90 2,5
z-z 280,1 280,1 260,0 234,3 206,1 176,2 147,5 122,3 101,6 85,00 71,81 52,81 40,28 31,67 25,53
110 90 3 y-y 368,2 368,2 347,7 317,7 285,0 249,9 214,5 181,7 153,3 129,6 110,4 82,00 62,92 49,66 40,13 33,08 110 90 3
z-z 368,2 368,2 338,0 301,9 262,0 220,6 181,9 149,2 123,0 102,4 86,14 63,05 47,96 37,64 30,30
110 90 4 y-y 482,4 482,4 454,7 414,8 371,3 324,7 277,8 234,7 197,6 166,9 142,0 105,3 80,74 63,69 51,46 42,41 110 90 4
z-z 482,4 482,4 441,6 393,4 340,3 285,3 234,5 191,8 157,8 131,2 110,3 80,63 61,29 48,07
110 90 5 y-y 592,4 592,4 557,2 507,5 453,3 395,2 337,1 284,1 238,7 201,3 171,0 126,7 97,08 76,55 61,82 50,93 110 90 5
z-z 592,4 592,4 540,7 480,5 414,0 345,6 283,1 231,0 189,7 157,4 132,3 96,6 73,38 57,54
110 90 6 y-y 698,2 698,2 655,2 595,8 530,9 461,4 392,4 329,7 276,5 232,9 197,6 146,2 112,0 88,23 71,23 58,67 110 90 6
z-z 698,2 698,2 635,6 563,7 484,2 402,8 328,9 267,8 219,6 182,1 152,9 111,5 84,69 66,38
110 90 6,3 y-y 718,1 718,1 672,7 610,9 543,3 471,0 399,6 335,0 280,5 236,0 200,1 147,9 113,2 89,15 71,96 59,26 110 90 6,3
z-z 718,1 718,1 652,1 577,0 494,1 409,6 333,5 270,9 221,9 183,8 154,2 112,4 85,32 66,85
110 100 2 y-y 196,5 196,5 190,4 177,2 163,3 148,2 132,3 116,3 101,2 87,75 76,07 57,85 45,01 35,83 29,13 24,12 110 100 2
z-z 196,5 196,5 188,5 174,2 158,9 142,3 125,1 108,3 93,00 79,74 68,56 51,58 39,87 31,61 25,63 21,18
110 100 2,5 y-y 286,3 286,3 274,1 253,0 230,2 205,7 180,2 155,6 133,2 114,0 97,86 73,48 56,73 44,95 36,43 30,09 110 100 2,5
z-z 286,3 286,3 270,9 247,9 222,8 195,9 168,6 143,1 120,9 102,5 87,32 64,95 49,87 39,38 31,83 26,25
110 100 3 y-y 387,5 387,5 366,8 335,8 302,0 265,7 228,9 194,4 164,4 139,3 118,8 88,38 67,88 53,61 43,34 35,74 110 100 3
z-z 387,5 387,5 362,3 328,4 291,3 251,8 212,9 178,0 148,7 125,0 105,9 78,17 59,76 47,05 37,96
110 100 4 y-y 508,2 508,2 480,1 438,8 393,9 345,6 296,8 251,5 212,2 179,6 152,9 113,6 87,21 68,84 55,64 45,87 110 100 4
z-z 508,2 508,2 474,0 428,9 379,5 326,8 275,5 229,7 191,6 160,7 136,1 100,3 76,63 60,31 48,65
110 100 5 y-y 624,7 624,7 589,0 537,5 481,4 421,2 360,6 304,8 256,7 216,9 184,5 136,9 105,0 82,84 66,93 55,16 110 100 5
z-z 624,7 624,7 581,5 525,4 463,8 398,4 334,9 278,7 232,1 194,5 164,5 121,2 92,51 72,78 58,68

110 100 6 y-y 736,9 736,9 693,3 631,7 564,5 492,4 420,3 354,3 297,8 251,2 213,5 158,2 121,2 95,60 77,21 63,62 110 100 6
z-z 736,9 736,9 684,3 617,1 543,1 464,9 389,4 323,2 268,6 224,8 190,0 139,7 106,6 83,84 67,58
110 100 6,3 y-y 758,7 758,7 713,0 649,0 579,2 504,3 429,7 361,6 303,6 255,9 217,3 160,9 123,3 97,17 78,46 64,64 110 100 6,3
z-z 758,7 758,7 703,2 633,1 555,9 474,5 396,4 328,3 272,4 227,7 192,3 141,3 107,8 84,71 68,27
120 40 2 y-y 148,9 148,9 143,2 132,6 121,3 109,0 96,17 83,58 72,00 61,88 53,30 40,20 31,12 24,70 20,04 16,56 120 40 2
z-z 148,9 139,4 112,3 82,32 57,65 41,08 30,35 23,21 18,28
120 40 2,5 y-y 207,7 207,7 197,7 181,7 164,4 145,8 126,6 108,4 92,24 78,52 67,16 50,19 38,64 30,56 24,74 20,41 120 40 2,5
z-z 207,7 191,5 149,9 105,4 71,80 50,47 37,01 28,18 22,14
120 40 3 y-y 270,5 270,5 255,1 232,9 208,7 182,6 156,5 132,3 111,5 94,21 80,16 59,50 45,63 36,00 29,09 23,98 120 40 3
z-z 270,5 246,5 188,1 128,1 85,62 59,65 43,54 33,06 25,92
120 50 2 y-y 161,8 161,8 156,1 144,8 132,8 119,9 106,3 92,77 80,23 69,17 59,73 45,19 35,04 27,85 22,61 18,70 120 50 2
z-z 161,8 156,4 133,4 107,2 81,34 60,75 46,04 35,74 28,42 23,09 19,10
267
120 50 2,5 y-y 223,8 223,8 213,9 197,2 179,2 159,7 139,6 120,2 102,7 87,77 75,27 56,43 43,54 34,48 27,93 23,06 120 50 2,5
z-z 223,8 214,2 179,9 140,7 104,0 76,35 57,31 44,25 35,06 28,41 23,46
120 50 3 y-y 289,8 289,8 274,8 251,9 227,0 200,1 172,8 147,1 124,6 105,8 90,25 67,24 51,68 40,83 33,02 27,23 120 50 3
z-z 289,8 275,1 227,7 174,0 125,8 91,26 68,04 52,32 41,35 33,45 27,59
120 60 2 y-y 174,7 174,7 169,0 157,0 144,3 130,6 116,2 101,8 88,36 76,37 66,08 50,12 38,93 30,97 25,16 20,82 120 60 2
z-z 174,7 172,4 152,0 129,1 104,5 81,97 64,05 50,65 40,74 33,36 27,75 20,02
120 60 2,5 y-y 240,0 240,0 230,1 212,5 193,8 173,5 152,3 131,8 113,1 96,88 83,27 62,61 48,38 38,36 31,09 25,69 120 60 2,5
z-z 240,0 235,0 204,8 170,6 134,9 103,7 80,02 62,78 50,25 41,00 34,04 24,47
x 120 60 3 y-y 309,2 309,2 294,3 270,5 244,7 216,9 188,4 161,3 137,2 116,8 99,89 74,64 57,46 45,45 36,79 30,36 120 60 3
z-z 309,2 300,9 259,8 213,0 165,1 125,2 95,70 74,72 59,61 48,53 40,22 28,86
x 120 60 4 y-y 430,8 430,8 407,1 372,2 334,3 293,4 252,1 213,8 180,5 152,8 130,1 96,71 74,23 58,60 47,36 39,05 120 60 4
z-z 430,8 416,6 355,9 286,7 218,0 163,1 123,7 96,10 76,45 62,12 51,4 36,81
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

120 80 2 y-y 191,6 191,6 186,5 174,0 161,0 146,9 132,0 116,8 102,3 89,16 77,61 59,35 46,32 36,96 30,09 24,94 120 80 2
z-z 191,6 191,6 177,5 159,7 140,2 119,6 99,9 82,67 68,58 57,32 48,39 35,56 27,11 21,31
120 80 2,5 y-y 272,2 272,2 262,3 243,2 222,8 200,8 177,8 155,0 133,8 115,3 99,45 75,16 58,25 46,27 37,56 31,06 120 80 2,5
z-z 272,2 272,2 248,5 220,8 190,2 158,8 130,0 106,1 87,12 72,31 60,75 44,37 33,70 26,43
x 120 80 3 y-y 347,9 347,9 333,2 307,6 280,1 250,3 219,5 189,6 162,4 139,0 119,4 89,67 69,25 54,88 44,48 36,74 120 80 3
z-z 347,9 347,9 314,6 277,4 236,2 194,7 157,7 127,7 104,3 86,31 72,33 52,66 39,93 31,27
x 120 80 4 y-y 482,4 482,4 459,2 422,0 381,9 338,5 294,1 251,7 214,2 182,3 155,9 116,5 89,70 70,95 57,42 47,39 120 80 4
z-z 482,4 481,9 431,9 377,2 317,1 257,7 206,6 166,0 135,0 111,3 93,07 67,57 51,14 40,00
x 120 80 5 y-y 592,4 592,4 562,9 516,6 466,6 412,6 357,4 305,2 259,1 220,3 188,2 140,4 108,0 85,39 69,09 57,00 120 80 5
z-z 592,4 591,0 528,8 460,5 385,6 312,2 249,5 200,2 162,5 133,9 111,9 81,15 61,39 48,00
268
x 120 80 6 y-y 698,2 698,2 661,8 606,5 546,4 481,7 415,9 354,0 299,8 254,4 217,0 161,7 124,2 98,16 79,39 65,47 120 80 6
z-z 698,2 695,4 620,7 538,6 448,7 361,5 287,8 230,3 186,7 153,6 128,3 92,95 70,27
120 80 6,3 y-y 718,1 718,1 679,4 621,7 559,0 491,5 423,1 359,3 303,7 257,2 219,3 163,1 125,2 98,90 79,96 65,93 120 80 6,3
z-z 718,1 714,5 636,9 551,4 457,9 367,8 292,1 233,4 189,1 155,5 129,8 93,98 71,03
120 90 2 y-y 195,5 195,5 191,1 178,8 166,0 152,3 137,6 122,7 108,1 94,70 82,78 63,68 49,87 39,88 32,52 26,98 120 90 2
z-z 195,5 195,5 185,1 169,5 152,5 134,3 115,7 98,40 83,20 70,53 60,14 44,76 34,39 27,16 21,96
120 90 2,5 y-y 284,2 284,2 274,6 255,1 234,4 211,9 188,4 164,9 142,9 123,5 106,8 80,92 62,82 49,96 40,58 33,58 120 90 2,5
z-z 284,2 284,2 265,2 240,1 212,5 183,1 154,4 128,9 107,5 90,22 76,38 56,33 43,04 33,88 27,32
120 90 3 y-y 367,3 367,3 352,6 326,0 297,6 266,9 234,8 203,5 174,9 150,1 129,1 97,19 75,16 59,61 48,34 39,95 120 90 3
z-z 367,3 367,3 339,7 305,3 267,5 227,6 189,6 156,7 129,8 108,4 91,50 67,18 51,19 40,23 32,41
120 90 4 y-y 508,2 508,2 485,1 446,7 405,4 360,8 314,7 270,5 230,9 197,0 168,8 126,4 97,46 77,15 62,48 51,58 120 90 4
z-z 508,2 508,2 466,3 416,3 361,0 303,7 250,3 205,2 169,1 140,7 118,4 86,61 65,87 51,69 41,61
120 90 5 y-y 624,7 624,7 595,2 547,5 496,0 440,3 383,1 328,4 279,8 238,3 204,0 152,6 117,5 92,98 75,27 62,13 120 90 5
z-z 624,7 624,7 571,5 508,9 439,8 368,4 302,6 247,4 203,5 169,1 142,1 103,9 78,96 61,94 49,84
120 90 6 y-y 736,9 736,9 700,9 643,8 582,1 515,5 447,3 382,5 325,2 276,6 236,5 176,6 135,9 107,5 86,98 71,77 120 90 6
z-z 736,9 736,9 672,5 597,7 515,0 429,9 352,0 287,2 235,9 195,8 164,5 120,1 91,25 71,55 57,56
120 90 6,3 y-y 758,7 758,7 720,3 660,8 596,4 526,8 455,8 388,8 329,9 280,2 239,3 178,4 137,2 108,5 87,74 72,38 120 90 6,3
z-z 758,7 758,7 691,2 613,3 527,2 439,0 358,7 292,2 239,7 198,8 167,0 121,9 92,52 72,53 58,34
120 100 2,5 y-y 290,5 290,5 281,8 262,4 241,9 219,9 196,6 173,1 150,9 130,9 113,6 86,51 67,34 53,64 43,63 36,13 120 100 2,5
z-z 290,5 290,5 276,1 253,5 229,1 202,7 175,7 150,2 127,6 108,5 92,70 69,20 53,24 42,10 34,06 28,11
120 100 3 y-y 386,7 386,7 371,9 344,4 315,0 283,2 250,0 217,4 187,3 161,0 138,7 104,6 81,01 64,31 52,17 43,13 120 100 3
z-z 386,7 386,7 363,9 331,6 296,4 258,6 220,8 186,2 156,5 132,1 112,2 83,2 63,75 50,27 40,60 33,46
120 100 4 y-y 534,1 534,1 510,9 471,3 428,8 382,8 335,1 289,0 247,4 211,5 181,5 136,2 105,2 83,31 67,50 55,75 120 100 4
z-z 534,1 534,1 499,2 452,6 401,5 346,9 293,4 245,3 205,0 172,2 145,9 107,7 82,35 64,84 52,31
120 100 5 y-y 657,0 657,0 627,5 578,2 525,1 467,7 408,4 351,4 300,1 256,2 219,7 164,6 126,9 100,5 81,42 67,22 120 100 5
z-z 657,0 657,0 612,7 554,5 490,5 422,5 356,1 297,0 247,7 207,8 175,9 129,7 99,06 77,96 62,88
120 100 6 y-y 775,6 775,6 739,5 680,5 616,9 548,2 477,5 409,7 349,3 297,8 255,0 190,8 147,0 116,3 94,19 77,75 120 100 6
z-z 775,6 775,6 721,7 651,8 575,0 493,6 414,6 344,8 287,0 240,5 203,3 149,7 114,3 89,91 72,50

120 100 6,3 y-y 799,4 799,4 761,1 699,7 633,4 561,8 488,2 418,2 355,9 303,0 259,2 193,8 149,2 118,0 95,53 78,84 120 100 6,3
z-z 799,4 799,4 742,7 670,0 590,1 505,5 423,7 351,9 292,5 244,9 207,0 152,3 116,2 91,39 73,67
140 40 2,5 y-y 214,1 214,1 209,1 195,7 181,6 166,5 150,4 133,9 118,0 103,3 90,23 69,36 54,30 43,41 35,39 29,36 140 40 2,5
z-z 214,1 199,6 159,8 115,9 80,61 57,24 42,20 32,24 25,37
140 40 3 y-y 281,7 281,7 273,2 254,4 234,4 212,9 190,3 167,5 145,9 126,5 109,7 83,51 64,99 51,76 42,09 34,85 140 40 3
z-z 281,7 259,6 202,8 142,3 96,80 67,99 49,84 37,95 29,8
140 60 2,5 y-y 246,3 246,3 241,9 227,2 211,8 195,3 177,8 159,7 141,8 125,0 109,9 85,16 67,00 53,73 43,90 36,47 140 60 2,5
z-z 246,3 242,9 213,9 181,3 146,5 114,7 89,49 70,71 56,85 46,53 38,71 27,91
140 60 3 y-y 320,5 320,5 312,8 292,5 271,2 248,3 224,0 199,2 175,2 153,1 133,7 102,6 80,25 64,12 52,25 43,33 140 60 3
z-z 320,5 314,0 273,9 228,6 181,0 139,5 107,7 84,55 67,70 55,26 45,88 33,00
140 60 4 y-y 482,4 482,4 465,7 432,3 396,8 358,4 318,1 278,0 240,7 207,7 179,5 135,9 105,4 83,81 68,06 56,30 140 60 4
z-z 482,4 467,5 400,9 324,9 248,7 186,9 142,1 110,6 88,04 71,58 59,26 42,47
269
140 70 2,5 y-y 262,5 262,5 258,3 242,8 226,7 209,5 191,2 172,2 153,4 135,6 119,4 92,86 73,20 58,77 48,05 39,94 140 70 2,5
z-z 262,5 262,5 236,3 207,5 175,7 143,9 116,0 93,60 76,32 63,04 52,78 38,37 29,07
140 70 3 y-y 339,8 339,8 332,5 311,4 289,2 265,6 240,4 214,5 189,3 166,0 145,3 111,9 87,70 70,16 57,22 47,48 140 70 3
z-z 339,8 338,5 302,2 262,2 218,5 176,0 140,1 112,1 90,90 74,80 62,46 45,26 34,22
x 140 70 4 y-y 508,2 508,2 492,1 457,8 421,4 382,2 340,8 299,3 260,2 225,3 195,2 148,3 115,3 91,79 74,61 61,76 140 70 4
z-z 508,2 501,8 442,5 376,3 305,0 239,6 187,4 148,3 119,3 97,71 81,30 58,66 44,23
x 140 70 5 y-y 624,7 624,7 604,1 561,4 516,1 467,2 415,7 364,3 316,2 273,3 236,5 179,4 139,4 110,9 90,08 74,54 140 70 5
z-z 624,7 615,5 541,2 458,0 368,9 288,2 224,6 177,3 142,5 116,6 96,9 69,87 52,65
x 140 80 3 y-y 359,2 359,2 352,1 330,2 307,3 282,8 256,7 229,8 203,5 178,9 156,9 121,2 95,18 76,24 62,23 51,67 140 80 3
z-z 359,2 359,2 328,5 292,5 252,7 211,6 173,7 142,0 116,8 97,02 81,56 59,61 45,30 35,53
x 140 80 4 y-y 534,1 534,1 518,7 483,5 446,2 406,2 363,8 321,0 280,3 243,5 211,5 161,3 125,7 100,2 81,50 67,50 140 80 4
z-z 534,1 534,1 480,2 421,1 355,9 291,0 234,3 188,9 153,9 127,1 106,3 77,29 58,54 45,81
x 140 80 5 y-y 657,0 657,0 637,0 593,1 546,7 496,6 443,7 390,5 340,2 295,1 255,9 194,8 151,6 120,7 98,17 81,29 140 80 5
z-z 657,0 656,7 589,0 515,1 433,8 353,4 283,6 228,2 185,7 153,2 128,1 93,03 70,43 55,1
x 140 80 6 y-y 775,6 775,6 750,8 698,3 642,6 582,5 519,2 455,8 396,2 342,9 297,0 225,6 175,4 139,6 113,4 93,89 140 80 6
z-z 775,6 774,1 692,8 603,8 506,0 410,1 328,0 263,2 213,8 176,2 147,2 106,8 80,81 63,2
Appendix 9.2
x 140 80 6,3 y-y 799,4 799,4 772,8 718,1 659,9 597,2 531,1 465,3 403,6 348,8 301,8 228,8 177,7 141,4 114,8 95,03 140 80 6,3
z-z 799,4 797,3 713,0 620,5 519 419,8 335,2 268,8 218,2 179,7 150,1 108,9 82,35
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

140 100 2,5 y-y 296,8 296,8 294,1 277,6 260,7 242,7 223,5 203,5 183,2 163,6 145,4 114,5 90,96 73,4 60,22 50,17 140 100 2,5
z-z 296,8 296,8 284,5 262,8 239,5 214,4 188,2 162,8 139,6 119,6 102,8 77,26 59,70 47,32 38,36 31,69
140 100 3 y-y 397,9 397,9 391,3 367,7 343,2 317,0 289,0 260,1 231,4 204,4 179,9 139,7 110,1 88,36 72,23 60,03 140 100 3
z-z 397,9 397,9 377,5 346,1 312,1 275,4 238,0 202,8 171,9 146,0 124,6 92,86 71,39 56,41 45,63 37,64
140 100 4 y-y 585,7 585,7 571,3 534,0 494,8 452,7 408,0 362,5 318,5 278,2 242,7 186,1 145,5 116,2 94,71 78,53 140 100 4
z-z 585,7 585,7 549,4 499,5 444,9 386,4 328,4 275,8 231,2 194,7 165,2 122,2 93,53 73,7 59,50 49,01
140 100 5 y-y 721,5 721,5 702,9 656,5 607,7 555,1 499,4 442,8 388,4 338,7 295,1 226,0 176,5 140,9 114,7 95,10 140 100 5
z-z 721,5 721,5 675,4 612,9 544,5 471,5 399,4 334,6 279,9 235,3 199,5 147,4 112,7 88,79 71,66 59,01
140 100 6 y-y 853,1 853,1 829,8 774,2 715,6 652,6 585,8 518,1 453,4 394,7 343,4 262,4 204,7 163,2 132,9 110,1 140 100 6
z-z 853,1 853,1 796,7 721,7 639,5 551,9 466,1 389,3 325,0 272,9 231,1 170,6 130,3 102,6 82,78
270
140 100 6,3 y-y 880,7 880,7 855,8 798,0 736,9 671,1 601,5 531,2 464,2 403,5 350,7 267,6 208,6 166,3 135,3 112,1 140 100 6,3
z-z 880,7 880,7 821,8 743,9 658,5 567,5 478,6 399,4 333,2 279,6 236,7 174,6 133,4 105,0 84,68
140 110 2,5 y-y 301,8 301,8 299,9 283,6 266,8 249,2 230,3 210,6 190,5 170,8 152,4 120,7 96,25 77,86 63,98 53,37 140 110 2,5
z-z 301,8 301,8 293,3 273,5 252,7 230,2 206,4 182,3 159,3 138,6 120,4 91,93 71,67 57,14 46,50 38,52
140 110 3 y-y 409,1 409,1 403,3 379,6 354,9 328,7 300,7 271,6 242,6 215,1 189,9 148,1 117,0 94,02 76,94 63,99 140 110 3
z-z 409,1 409,1 393,8 364,9 334,0 300,6 265,7 231,3 199,5 171,7 148,0 111,7 86,54 68,72 55,76 46,11
140 110 4 y-y 611,5 611,5 597,5 559,1 518,9 475,7 429,8 382,8 337,2 295,2 258,0 198,3 155,3 124,1 101,2 83,95 140 110 4
z-z 611,5 611,5 582,0 534,9 484,1 429,1 372,7 319,1 271,5 231,1 197,6 147,7 113,7 89,93 72,79 60,07
140 110 5 y-y 753,8 753,8 735,6 687,8 637,6 583,7 526,5 468,1 411,6 359,8 314,0 241,0 188,5 150,6 122,7 101,8 140 110 5
z-z 753,8 753,8 716,2 657,4 593,7 525,0 454,8 388,4 329,7 280,2 239,4 178,7 137,4 108,6 87,90 72,52
140 110 6 y-y 891,8 891,8 869,2 812,1 752,0 687,4 618,9 549,1 482,0 420,6 366,6 280,9 219,5 175,2 142,7 118,3 140 110 6
z-z 891,8 891,8 846,0 775,7 699,5 617,3 533,5 454,6 385,3 327,1 279,2 208,1 160,0 126,4 102,3 84,35
140 110 6,3 y-y 921,4 921,4 897,2 837,7 775,0 707,6 636,1 563,5 493,9 430,5 374,9 286,8 223,9 178,7 145,5 120,6 140 110 6,3
z-z 921,4 921,4 873,1 799,9 720,4 634,8 547,7 466,0 394,5 334,6 285,4 212,6 163,3 129,0 104,3 86,05
140 120 3 y-y 416,4 416,4 411,7 388,1 363,7 337,9 310,3 281,5 252,6 224,8 199,2 156,2 123,7 99,68 81,68 68,00 140 120 3
z-z 416,4 416,4 405,8 379,1 350,9 320,7 288,6 256,0 224,7 196,0 170,8 130,8 102,2 81,59 66,45 55,09
140 120 4 y-y 637,3 637,3 623,7 584,3 543,0 498,7 451,7 403,4 356,2 312,5 273,6 210,8 165,3 132,3 107,9 89,55 140 120 4
z-z 637,3 637,3 614,0 569,1 521,3 469,7 415,5 362,1 312,6 269,2 232,2 175,4 135,9 108,0 87,62 72,46
140 120 5 y-y 786,0 786,0 768,4 719,3 667,7 612,5 553,8 493,6 435,2 381,2 333,3 256,4 200,8 160,6 130,9 108,6 140 120 5
z-z 786,0 786,0 756,1 700,2 640,4 575,8 508,3 441,9 380,8 327,3 282,0 212,7 164,7 130,7 106,1 87,69
140 120 6 y-y 930,5 930,5 908,5 849,8 788,1 721,8 651,5 579,6 510,1 446,1 389,5 299,1 234,1 187,0 152,5 126,4 140 120 6
z-z 930,5 930,5 893,7 826,7 754,9 677,4 596,5 517,4 444,9 381,9 328,6 247,5 191,5 151,9 123,2 101,8
140 120 6,3 y-y 962,0 962,0 938,4 877,2 812,8 743,6 670,2 595,4 523,2 457,0 398,6 305,7 239,0 190,9 155,5 129,0 140 120 6,3
z-z 962,0 962,0 923,1 853,3 778,5 697,7 613,5 531,4 456,4 391,4 336,6 253,3 195,8 155,3 125,9 104,0

150 50 2,5 y-y 232,7 232,7 230,3 217,2 203,7 189,4 174,2 158,3 142,2 126,8 112,5 88,34 70,08 56,50 46,32 38,58 150 50 2,5
z-z 232,7 225,4 193,2 156,4 119,6 89,76 68,23 53,07 42,25 34,34 28,43
150 50 3 y-y 305,5 305,5 300,4 282,3 263,4 243,2 221,7 199,4 177,4 156,7 137,9 107,0 84,31 67,65 55,30 45,95 150 50 3
z-z 305,5 293,5 248,1 196,2 146,5 108,3 81,58 63,11 50,07 40,61 33,57
150 60 2,5 y-y 248,8 248,8 246,7 233,0 218,9 203,9 188,0 171,3 154,4 138,0 122,7 96,74 76,93 62,11 50,98 42,48 150 60 2,5
z-z 248,8 246,2 217,7 186,1 151,8 119,9 94,2 74,67 60,18 49,34 41,08 29,67
150 60 3 y-y 324,9 324,9 320,2 301,3 281,7 260,8 238,5 215,4 192,3 170,4 150,4 117,2 92,56 74,40 60,87 50,63 150 60 3
z-z 324,9 319,4 280,0 235,6 188,4 146,4 113,6 89,48 71,80 58,68 48,76 35,11
150 60 4 y-y 488,6 488,6 476,8 445,9 413,4 378,4 341,4 303,5 267,0 233,4 203,7 156,3 122,3 97,70 79,62 66,03 150 60 4
z-z 488,6 475,0 409,3 334,6 258,6 195,6 149,4 116,5 92,90 75,61 62,64 44,93
150 70 2,5 y-y 265,0 265,0 263,2 248,8 234 218,4 201,7 184,3 166,6 149,3 133,0 105,2 83,88 67,82 55,71 46,46 150 70 2,5
z-z 265,0 265,0 240,0 211,8 180,7 149,3 121,1 98,2 80,29 66,45 55,71 40,58 30,78
271
150 70 3 y-y 344,3 344,3 340,0 320,4 300,0 278,4 255,3 231,3 207,2 184,1 162,9 127,5 100,9 81,24 66,54 55,38 150 70 3
z-z 344,3 343,8 307,9 268,8 225,7 183,3 146,7 117,9 95,80 78,98 66,03 47,92 36,26
150 70 4 y-y 514,4 514,4 503,4 471,6 438,3 402,6 364,6 325,6 287,5 252,3 220,8 170,2 133,4 106,8 87,11 72,29 150 70 4
z-z 514,4 509,3 451,0 386,2 315,9 250,2 196,8 156,2 126,0 103,3 86,08 62,19 46,93
150 70 5 y-y 657,0 657,0 640,5 598,5 554,3 506,9 456,5 405,3 355,8 310,6 270,8 207,6 162,2 129,5 105,5 87,49 150 70 5
z-z 657,0 647,9 570,3 483,6 390,5 305,8 238,6 188,5 151,6 124,1 103,2 74,41 56,08
150 90 2,5 y-y 293,1 293,1 292,1 276,7 260,9 244,3 226,6 208,0 189,0 170,3 152,5 121,5 97,29 78,90 64,95 54,24 150 90 2,5
z-z 293,1 293,1 277,2 253,6 227,9 200,3 172,3 146,2 123,6 104,6 89,18 66,32 50,92 40,20 32,50
150 90 3 y-y 383,0 383,0 379,5 358,3 336,4 313,2 288,5 262,7 236,5 211,2 187,7 147,8 117,5 94,80 77,76 64,80 150 90 3
z-z 383,0 383,0 359,1 326,3 290,4 252,0 214,0 179,6 150,4 126,6 107,4 79,44 60,79 47,89 38,66
150 90 4 y-y 566,0 566,0 556,4 522,6 487,5 450,0 410,0 368,7 327,8 289,3 254,5 197,5 155,5 124,7 101,9 84,71 150 90 4
z-z 566,0 566,0 523,9 471,2 413,1 351,9 293,5 242,7 201,2 168,1 141,9 104,2 79,43 62,42 50,29
150 90 5 y-y 721,5 721,5 706,9 662,7 616,5 567,0 514,3 460,2 407,1 357,7 313,5 242,0 190,0 152,1 124,2 103,1 150 90 5
z-z 721,5 721,5 663,8 594,0 517,0 436,6 361,2 296,9 245,1 204,1 171,9 125,9 95,8 75,25 60,59
150 90 6 y-y 853,1 853,1 834,9 782,1 726,8 667,5 604,5 539,9 476,8 418,3 366,1 282,2 221,2 177,0 144,4 119,8 150 90 6
z-z 853,1 853,1 783,1 699,4 607,0 511,0 421,5 345,7 284,9 237,1 199,5 146,1 111,1 87,18 70,18
Appendix 9.2
150 90 6,3 y-y 880,7 880,7 860,9 805,9 748,2 686,2 620,4 553,1 487,6 427,1 373,4 287,2 225,0 179,9 146,7 121,7 150 90 6,3
z-z 880,7 880,7 807,1 719,8 623,4 523,5 430,9 352,9 290,5 241,6 203,2 148,6 113,0 88,66 71,35
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

x 150 100 3 y-y 402,4 402,4 399,2 377,1 354,4 330,4 304,8 278,0 250,8 224,4 199,8 157,7 125,5 101,4 83,22 69,38 150 100 3
z-z 402,4 402,4 383,3 352,4 319,2 283,2 246,3 211,1 179,7 153,1 131,0 97,90 75,43 59,68 48,31 39,87
x 150 100 4 y-y 591,8 591,8 582,8 548,1 512,0 473,6 432,7 390,1 347,9 307,8 271,4 211,3 166,7 133,9 109,5 91,04 150 100 4
z-z 591,8 591,8 557,5 508,4 454,9 397,4 339,9 286,9 241,4 203,8 173,3 128,5 98,50 77,72 62,78 51,74
x 150 100 5 y-y 753,8 753,8 740,0 694,6 647,3 596,7 542,8 487,2 432,3 380,9 334,6 259,2 203,8 163,4 133,5 110,9 150 100 5
z-z 753,8 753,8 706,5 641,8 571,1 495,4 420,5 352,8 295,5 248,7 210,9 156,0 119,3 94,02 75,89 62,50
x 150 100 6 y-y 891,8 891,8 874,6 820,3 763,7 703,1 638,6 572,1 506,8 445,9 391,2 302,4 237,6 190,3 155,4 129,0 150 100 6
z-z 891,8 891,8 834,4 757,0 672,1 581,6 492,4 412,2 344,7 289,7 245,6 181,4 138,7 109,2 88,15 72,58
x 150 100 6,3 y-y 921,4 921,4 902,6 846,0 786,8 723,4 656,0 586,7 518,9 455,8 399,4 308,2 241,9 193,6 158,0 131,2 150 100 6,3
z-z 921,4 921,4 860,9 780,2 691,7 597,3 504,7 421,9 352,3 295,9 250,7 185,0 141,4 111,3 89,83
272
150 100 7,1 y-y 1025 1025 1002 939,0 872,4 801,1 725,3 647,5 571,6 501,3 438,7 338,0 265,0 212,0 172,9 143,5 150 100 7,1
z-z 1025 1025 955,6 864,7 765,0 658,9 555,3 463,1 386,2 324,0 274,3 202,2 154,5 121,6 98,1
x 150 100 8 y-y 1137 1137 1112 1040 965,6 885,4 800,3 713,1 628,4 550,3 481,0 369,9 289,6 231,6 188,8 156,6 150 100 8
z-z 1137 1137 1059 957,0 844,4 725,3 609,7 507,4 422,4 354,0 299,4 220,6 168,4 132,5 106,8
150 110 2,5 y-y 304,3 304,3 304,3 289,6 274,2 258,0 240,8 222,8 204,1 185,4 167,3 135,0 109,0 88,85 73,41 61,46 150 110 2,5
z-z 304,3 304,3 296,7 277,3 256,9 235,0 211,7 187,9 165,1 144,1 125,7 96,4 75,31 60,14 49,00 40,62
150 110 3 y-y 413,5 413,5 411,2 389,0 366,2 342,2 316,6 289,7 262,4 235,6 210,3 166,8 133,2 107,8 88,61 73,93 150 110 3
z-z 413,5 413,5 399,3 370,8 340,4 307,6 273,2 238,9 206,9 178,6 154,4 116,9 90,75 72,14 58,60 48,48
150 110 4 y-y 617,6 617,6 609,2 573,5 536,5 497,0 455,1 411,4 367,7 326,1 288,1 224,9 177,7 142,9 117,0 97,31 150 110 4
z-z 617,6 617,6 590,1 543,9 494,1 440,3 384,7 331,2 283,0 241,7 207,2 155,4 119,8 94,90 76,87 63,47
150 110 5 y-y 786,0 786,0 773,1 726,4 677,9 626,1 570,9 513,8 457,2 403,8 355,5 276,1 217,5 174,6 142,7 118,6 150 110 5
z-z 786,0 786,0 747,9 687,2 621,6 550,8 478,2 409,1 347,9 296,1 253,2 189,1 145,6 115,1 93,19 76,90
150 110 6 y-y 930,5 930,5 914,2 858,4 800,3 738,3 672,2 603,9 536,5 473,1 415,9 322,4 253,7 203,5 166,3 138,1 150 110 6
z-z 930,5 930,5 884,1 811,5 732,9 648,1 561,4 479,3 407,0 345,9 295,5 220,5 169,6 134,1 108,5 89,51
150 110 6,3 y-y 962,0 962,0 944,3 886,2 825,7 760,9 692,0 620,8 550,8 485,1 426,0 329,8 259,3 207,9 169,8 141,0 150 110 6,3
z-z 962,0 962,0 913,0 837,4 755,4 667,0 576,8 491,8 417,0 354,1 302,3 225,4 173,3 137,0 110,8 91,39
160 40 2,5 y-y 218,7 218,7 217,9 206,3 194,5 182,1 168,8 154,9 140,7 126,6 113,4 90,25 72,23 58,56 48,19 40,24 160 40 2,5
z-z 218,7 206 168,0 125,5 89,09 63,95 47,42 36,35 28,67
160 40 3 y-y 290,0 290,0 286,9 270,6 253,8 235,9 216,9 197,0 177,0 157,7 139,8 109,8 87,06 70,17 57,52 47,90 160 40 3
z-z 290,0 270,0 215,3 155,4 107,7 76,32 56,21 42,92 33,76
160 50 3 y-y 309,4 309,4 306,9 289,9 272,4 253,9 234,2 213,6 192,7 172,3 153,4 121,0 96,30 77,79 63,86 53,23 160 50 3
z-z 309,4 298,3 253,6 202,5 152,7 113,6 85,87 66,57 52,89 42,93 35,51
160 60 3 y-y 328,7 328,7 326,8 309,1 290,9 271,8 251,4 230,0 208,2 186,8 166,7 132,2 105,5 85,34 70,14 58,52 160 60 3
z-z 328,7 324,1 285,1 241,5 194,8 152,4 118,8 93,84 75,43 61,72 51,33 37,01
160 60 4 y-y 498,1 498,1 490,5 461,3 431,0 398,7 364,2 328,5 292,9 259,2 228,5 177,9 140,4 112,8 92,23 76,68 160 60 4
z-z 498,1 485,7 420,5 346,6 270,3 205,9 157,8 123,4 98,5 80,28 66,56 47,79
160 70 3 y-y 348,1 348,1 346,7 328,2 309,3 289,4 268,3 246,1 223,3 201,0 179,8 143,1 114,4 92,75 76,31 63,71 160 70 3
z-z 348,1 348,1 313,2 274,8 232,5 190,2 153,2 123,6 100,7 83,18 69,63 50,61 38,34
160 70 4 y-y 523,9 523,9 517,2 487,2 456,1 423,1 387,9 351,2 314,4 279,3 247,0 193,2 152,8 123,0 100,7 83,81 160 70 4
z-z 523,9 520,0 462,0 397,7 327,8 261,4 206,5 164,5 132,9 109,1 90,99 65,81 49,70
160 70 5 y-y 689,2 689,2 677,0 635,6 592,5 546,5 497,4 446,7 396,7 349,8 307,4 238,2 187,4 150,3 122,8 102,0 160 70 5
z-z 689,2 680,2 599,5 509,3 412,4 323,6 252,9 200,0 160,9 131,7 109,6 79,05 59,6

160 80 3 y-y 367,5 367,5 366,6 347,4 327,8 307,3 285,4 262,4 238,8 215,5 193,2 154,3 123,8 100,5 82,76 69,15 160 80 3
z-z 367,5 367,5 339,2 304,4 266,1 225,8 187,6 154,8 128,0 106,8 90,07 66,08 50,33 39,54
x 160 80 4 y-y 549,7 549,7 543,8 512,9 481,0 447,1 411,0 373,3 335,3 298,7 264,9 208,0 164,9 132,9 109,0 90,75 160 80 4
z-z 549,7 549,7 499,5 442,2 378,9 314,3 256,0 208,1 170,5 141,3 118,5 86,43 65,59 51,4
x 160 80 5 y-y 721,5 721,5 710,3 667,9 623,9 576,9 526,8 474,9 423,3 374,4 330,0 256,7 202,5 162,6 133,0 110,6 160 80 5
z-z 721,5 721,5 648,7 568,9 480,9 393,2 316,5 255,2 207,9 171,7 143,7 104,4 79,08 61,89
x 160 80 6 y-y 853,1 853,1 838,8 788,1 735,3 678,9 618,9 556,8 495,3 437,3 384,8 298,8 235,3 188,8 154,3 128,3 160 80 6
z-z 853,1 852,7 764,8 668,9 563,3 458,8 368,2 296,3 241,0 198,8 166,3 120,8 91,43 71,53
160 80 6,3 y-y 880,7 880,7 865,0 812,2 757,1 698,3 635,6 570,8 506,9 446,9 392,8 304,4 239,5 192,1 156,9 130,3 160 80 6,3
z-z 880,7 879,8 788,4 688,6 578,8 470,5 377,1 303,1 246,4 203,2 169,9 123,3 93,35 73,02
160 90 3 y-y 386,8 386,8 386,4 366,5 346,2 324,8 302,2 278,4 253,9 229,6 206,3 165,3 132,8 107,9 88,99 74,41 160 90 3
z-z 386,8 386,8 364,2 332,0 296,9 259,2 221,5 186,9 157,1 132,6 112,8 83,61 64,07 50,53 40,82
273
160 90 4 y-y 575,5 575,5 570,4 538,6 505,7 471,0 434,0 395,2 356,0 318,1 282,7 222,7 177,0 142,9 117,2 97,69 160 90 4
z-z 575,5 575,5 534,6 482,2 424,6 363,5 304,6 252,9 210,2 176,0 148,7 109,4 83,48 65,65 52,92
160 90 5 y-y 753,8 753,8 743,8 700,4 655,4 607,5 556,5 503,3 450,3 399,6 353,1 275,9 218,1 175,4 143,6 119,5 160 90 5
z-z 753,8 753,8 694,6 622,4 542,8 459,5 380,9 313,6 259,2 216,0 182,0 133,5 101,6 79,79 64,26
160 90 6 y-y 891,8 891,8 878,9 826,9 773,0 715,6 654,4 590,8 527,5 467,2 412,3 321,4 253,7 203,9 166,9 138,8 160 90 6
z-z 891,8 891,8 819,6 732,7 636,8 536,9 443,5 364,2 300,3 250,1 210,5 154,2 117,3 92,06 74,11
160 90 6,3 y-y 921,4 921,4 907,1 852,9 796,7 736,6 672,7 606,4 540,5 478,1 421,3 327,8 258,5 207,6 169,8 141,2 160 90 6,3
z-z 921,4 921,4 845,8 755,4 655,7 551,9 455,3 373,4 307,8 256,1 215,5 157,8 120,0 94,17 75,81
x 160 90 7,1 y-y 1025 1025 1008 946,8 883,6 816,1 744,2 669,7 595,9 526,3 463,3 359,8 283,5 227,5 186,0 154,6 160 90 7,1
z-z 1025 1025 938,4 836,5 724,0 607,4 499,6 409,0 336,6 279,8 235,3 172,1 130,8 102,6
160 100 3 y-y 406,2 406,2 406,2 385,5 364,5 342,4 319,0 294,3 268,9 243,6 219,2 176,1 141,8 115,4 95,20 79,64 160 100 3
z-z 406,2 406,2 388,3 358,0 325,4 290,1 253,7 218,5 186,8 159,6 136,9 102,7 79,22 62,74 50,83 41,97
160 100 4 y-y 601,3 601,3 596,9 564,1 530,4 494,7 456,7 416,9 376,5 337,2 300,3 237,3 189,0 152,8 125,5 104,6 160 100 4
z-z 601,3 601,3 568,4 519,7 466,7 409,7 352,1 298,5 252,1 213,4 181,7 135,1 103,7 81,85 66,16 54,54
160 100 5 y-y 786,0 786,0 777,0 732,4 686,4 637,4 585,3 530,9 476,2 423,7 375,3 294,2 233,0 187,7 153,8 128,0 160 100 5
z-z 786,0 786,0 738,0 671,4 598,6 520,5 443,0 372,4 312,4 263,2 223,5 165,4 126,6 99,80 80,58 66,37
Appendix 9.2
160 100 6 y-y 930,5 930,5 918,9 865,7 810,6 752,0 689,5 624,5 559,3 496,9 439,6 343,9 272,1 219,0 179,4 149,3 160 100 6
z-z 930,5 930,5 871,8 791,7 704,1 610,4 517,8 434,1 363,4 305,8 259,3 191,7 146,6 115,5 93,24 76,78
160 100 6,3 y-y 962,0 962,0 949,1 893,6 836,0 774,7 709,5 641,6 573,7 509,0 449,7 351,2 277,6 223,2 182,7 152,0 160 100 6,3
z-z 962,0 962,0 900,1 816,6 725,1 627,4 531,2 444,7 371,8 312,6 264,9 195,7 149,6 117,8 95,10 78,31
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

160 120 4 y-y 653,0 653,0 649,9 615,2 579,5 542 502,1 460,1 417,3 375,2 335,4 266,6 213,1 172,6 142,0 118,5 160 120 4
z-z 653,0 653,0 632,9 589,1 542,7 492,7 439,9 386,9 336,8 292,0 253,1 192,6 149,8 119,3 97,00 80,30
160 120 5 y-y 850,6 850,6 843,4 796,5 748,1 697,0 642,5 585,5 527,7 471,7 419,5 330,7 263,0 212,3 174,3 145,2 160 120 5
z-z 850,6 850,6 820,2 760,7 697,4 629,0 557,3 486,2 420,3 362,2 312,7 236,5 183,3 145,7 118,3 97,80
160 120 6 y-y 1008 1008 998,5 942,4 884,6 823,3 758,0 689,7 620,8 554,1 492,1 387,3 307,6 248,2 203,6 169,6 160 120 6
z-z 1008 1008 970,7 899,7 823,8 741,9 656,0 571,4 493,1 424,4 366,0 276,5 214,2 170,1 138,0 114,1
160 120 6,3 y-y 1043 1043 1033 974,3 914,0 850,0 781,9 710,6 638,8 569,6 505,4 397,1 315,1 254,1 208,3 173,5 160 120 6,3
z-z 1043 1043 1004 929,8 850,7 765,2 675,7 587,7 506,7 435,7 375,5 283,3 219,4 174,2 141,3 116,8
160 120 7,1 y-y 1162 1162 1149 1083 1016 943,6 866,8 786,7 706,2 628,7 557,1 437,0 346,4 279,1 228,7 190,4 160 120 7,1
z-z 1162 1162 1117 1033 944,4 848,1 747,5 649,0 558,6 479,7 413,0 311,3 240,9 191,1 155,0 128,1
274
160 120 8 y-y 1292 1292 1277 1203 1127 1046 959,5 869,5 779,2 692,7 613,1 480,0 380,0 305,9 250,6 208,6 160 120 8
z-z 1292 1292 1240 1146 1046 937,0 824,1 713,8 613,1 525,7 452,1 340,2 263,0 208,6 169,1 139,7
160 120 8,8 y-y 1405 1405 1387 1306 1222 1134 1039 940,3 841,6 747,3 660,8 516,5 408,6 328,8 269,2 224,0 160 120 8,8
z-z 1405 1405 1346 1243 1133 1013 889,4 768,9 659,4 564,7 485,2 364,7 281,7 223,3 181,0 149,5
160 120 10 y-y 1567 1567 1545 1453 1359 1258 1150 1038 927,1 821,3 724,7 564,9 446,0 358,5 293,3 243,9 160 120 10
z-z 1567 1567 1499 1383 1257 1122 982,0 846,2 724,0 618,9 531,0 398,4 307,4 243,5 197,3 163,0
180 100 4 y-y 616,9 616,9 616,9 591,3 561,4 530,4 497,7 463,1 427,2 390,9 355,2 289,8 235,9 193,4 160,3 134,6 180 100 4
z-z 616,9 616,9 586,7 538,9 487,3 431,5 374,3 320,1 272,0 231,4 197,8 147,7 113,7 89,90 72,75 60,03
x 180 100 5 y-y 850,6 850,6 850,4 807,1 762,9 716,6 667,4 615,7 562,4 509,3 458,3 368,0 296,1 241,0 198,8 166,3 180 100 5
z-z 850,6 850,6 800,3 729,2 651,7 568,4 485,2 409,0 343,8 290,1 246,5 182,7 140,0 110,4 89,15 73,45
180 100 5,6 y-y 945,5 945,5 944,9 896,5 847,1 795,3 740,4 682,5 622,9 563,7 506,9 406,5 326,9 265,9 219,3 183,4 180 100 5,6
z-z 945,5 945,5 888,5 808,8 721,8 628,4 535,5 450,6 378,3 318,9 270,9 200,6 153,6 121,1 97,78 80,56
x 180 100 6 y-y 1008 1008 1007 955,2 902,4 846,9 788,1 726,1 662,4 599,1 538,5 431,6 346,9 282,0 232,5 194,4 180 100 6
z-z 1008 1008 946,8 861,6 768,4 668,7 569,4 478,9 401,9 338,7 287,6 212,9 163,0 128,5 103,8 85,48
180 100 6,3 y-y 1043 1043 1041 987,5 932,3 874,4 812,9 748,1 681,6 615,7 552,7 442,1 355,0 288,3 237,6 198,6 180 100 6,3
z-z 1043 1043 978,8 889,8 792,5 688,3 585,0 491,3 411,8 346,7 294,3 217,7 166,6 131,3 106,0 87,29
x 180 100 7,1 y-y 1162 1162 1159 1098 1036 971,2 902,0 829,2 754,5 680,6 610,3 487,3 390,7 317,2 261,2 218,2 180 100 7,1
z-z 1162 1162 1088 987,9 878,1 760,8 645,0 540,5 452,3 380,5 322,6 238,4 182,4 143,6 115,9 95,47
x 180 100 8 y-y 1292 1292 1288 1220 1150 1077 998,6 916,6 832,7 750,0 671,5 535,0 428,3 347,3 285,9 238,7 180 100 8
z-z 1292 1292 1208 1095 971,4 839,4 709,8 593,6 495,9 416,7 353,0 260,6 199,2 156,9 126,6
180 120 4 y-y 668,6 668,6 668,6 642,8 611,2 578,4 543,9 507,5 469,6 431,1 393,0 322,5 263,5 216,6 179,9 151,2 180 120 4
z-z 668,6 668,6 651,3 608,4 563,1 514,4 462,8 410,4 359,9 313,9 273,5 209,4 163,5 130,5 106,3 88,13
180 120 5 y-y 915,1 915,1 915,1 872,1 826,0 777,8 726,8 673,0 617,4 561,6 507,4 410,2 331,7 270,7 223,8 187,4 180 120 5
z-z 915,1 915,1 884,2 821,3 754,4 682,2 606,2 530,6 459,9 397,2 343,5 260,3 202,1 160,7 130,5 108,0
180 120 6 y-y 1085 1085 1085 1033 978,0 920,3 859,2 794,8 728,2 661,6 597,1 481,8 389,0 317,2 262,1 219,5 180 120 6
z-z 1085 1085 1047 972,2 892,0 805,4 714,5 624,2 540,2 466,0 402,5 304,7 236,4 187,9 152,6 126,2
180 120 6,3 y-y 1125 1125 1125 1069 1012 951,7 887,9 820,7 751,2 681,8 614,8 495,3 399,6 325,6 268,9 225,1 180 120 6,3
z-z 1125 1125 1084 1006 922,1 831,7 736,8 642,9 555,7 478,9 413,4 312,6 242,4 192,6 156,3 129,3
180 120 7,1 y-y 1254 1254 1254 1191 1126 1058 986,4 910,7 832,7 754,8 679,9 546,7 440,5 358,6 296,0 247,7 180 120 7,1
z-z 1254 1254 1207 1119 1025 922,8 816,0 710,7 613,4 528,0 455,3 343,9 266,4 211,6 171,7 142,0

180 120 8 y-y 1396 1396 1395 1323 1251 1174 1093 1008 920,4 833,1 749,3 601,2 483,6 393,4 324,5 271,4 180 120 8
z-z 1396 1396 1342 1243 1137 1022 902,3 784,4 675,9 581,1 500,6 377,6 292,4 232,1 188,3 155,6
180 120 8,8 y-y 1518 1518 1516 1438 1359 1275 1186 1093 996,6 901,1 809,7 648,7 521,3 423,7 349,3 292,1 180 120 8,8
z-z 1518 1518 1459 1349 1233 1107 975,0 846,0 727,8 624,9 537,9 405,3 313,5 248,7 201,8 166,7
180 120 10 y-y 1696 1696 1692 1604 1514 1419 1318 1212 1103 995,2 892,6 712,9 571,8 464,2 382,3 319,5 180 120 10
z-z 1696 1696 1627 1503 1371 1227 1078 932,9 800,7 686,2 589,8 443,6 342,8 271,8 220,3 182,1
200 80 4 y-y 577,6 577,6 577,6 560,9 535,7 509,7 482,5 453,9 424,0 393,2 362,2 302,9 251,0 208,4 174,3 147,2 200 80 4
z-z 577,6 577,6 533,3 478,6 418,3 355,0 295,1 243,4 201,4 168,0 141,7 104,0 79,19 62,20
200 80 5 y-y 794,4 794,4 794,4 764,7 727,6 689,1 648,6 605,9 561,4 516,0 471,1 387,5 317,2 261,0 217,0 182,5 200 80 5
z-z 794,4 794,4 723,6 641,9 551,8 459,3 375,3 305,7 250,7 208,0 174,6 127,4 96,80 75,85
x 200 80 6 y-y 1008 1008 1008 964,2 914,8 863,4 809,0 751,7 692,2 632,0 573,3 466,4 378,7 310,0 256,8 215,4 200 80 6
z-z 1008 1008 908,2 797,9 676,3 554,5 447,4 361,3 294,6 243,4 203,8 148,2 112,3 87,90
275
200 80 6,3 y-y 1043 1043 1043 996,8 945,1 891,3 834,4 774,3 712,1 649,4 588,2 477,5 387,1 316,6 262,0 219,7 200 80 6,3
z-z 1043 1043 938,8 823,7 696,9 570,4 459,5 370,7 302,1 249,4 208,8 151,8 115,0 89,99
x 200 100 5 y-y 858,9 858,9 858,9 830,4 791,5 751,4 709,3 664,9 618,6 571,0 523,6 434,1 357,4 295,4 246,2 207,5 200 100 5
z-z 858,9 858,9 814,1 745,9 671,9 592,2 511,1 435,0 368,4 312,5 266,6 198,6 152,6 120,5 97,50 80,40
x 200 100 6 y-y 1085 1085 1085 1044 992,4 939,3 883,3 824,3 762,8 700,2 638,4 523,9 428,2 352,0 292,4 245,8 200 100 6
z-z 1085 1085 1021 930,5 831,5 725,3 619,1 521,9 438,7 370,1 314,5 233,1 178,6 140,8 113,7 93,7
200 100 6,3 y-y 1125 1125 1125 1080 1026 970,9 912,2 850,4 786,0 720,6 656,2 537,4 438,4 360,0 298,9 251,1 200 100 6,3
z-z 1125 1125 1057 962,8 859,6 748,9 638,5 537,6 451,5 380,7 323,4 239,6 183,5 144,7 116,8 96,20
200 100 7,1 y-y 1254 1254 1254 1203 1143 1080 1014 944,4 872,0 798,6 726,4 593,8 483,9 397,0 329,3 276,6 200 100 7,1
z-z 1254 1254 1177 1070 953,5 828,6 704,7 592,2 496,5 418,2 355,0 262,7 201,1 158,5 127,9 105,4
x 200 100 8 y-y 1396 1396 1396 1337 1269 1199 1125 1046 965,0 882,6 801,8 653,9 532,0 436,0 361,5 303,4 200 100 8
z-z 1396 1396 1307 1187 1056 915,4 776,5 651,1 545,1 458,6 388,9 287,5 219,9 173,3 139,8 115,2
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

x 200 120 5 y-y 923,4 923,4 923,4 895,9 855,3 813,4 769,5 723,4 675,2 625,5 575,6 480,4 397,6 329,7 275,6 232,6 200 120 5
z-z 923,4 923,4 897,3 836,7 772,6 703,6 630,6 556,9 486,6 423,1 367,7 280,6 218,7 174,3 141,9 117,5
x 200 120 6 y-y 1163 1163 1163 1123 1069 1014 956,4 895,4 831,8 766,7 701,8 580,2 476,7 393,3 327,5 275,8 200 120 6
z-z 1163 1163 1124 1045 960,0 868,7 772,6 676,8 587,1 507,4 438,9 332,9 258,5 205,6 167,0 138,2
200 120 6,3 y-y 1206 1206 1206 1163 1107 1050 989,3 925,5 859,0 790,9 723,3 596,9 489,7 403,7 336,0 282,8 200 120 6,3
z-z 1206 1206 1165 1082 993,4 898,0 797,6 697,8 604,6 522,0 451,3 341,9 265,4 211,0 171,4 141,8
200 120 7,1 y-y 1345 1345 1345 1296 1234 1169 1101 1029 954,0 877,6 801,8 660,4 541,2 445,7 370,7 311,9 200 120 7,1
z-z 1345 1345 1298 1204 1105 997,2 884,2 772,2 668,0 576,1 497,5 376,5 292,0 232,0 188,4 155,8
x 200 120 8 y-y 1499 1499 1499 1443 1372 1300 1223 1142 1058 972,3 887,4 729,6 597,1 491,3 408,3 343,4 200 120 8
z-z 1499 1499 1444 1339 1227 1106 979,0 853,2 736,9 634,7 547,6 413,9 320,7 254,8 206,8 171,0
276
200 120 8,8 y-y 1632 1632 1632 1569 1492 1412 1328 1239 1147 1053 959,7 787,7 643,7 529,2 439,6 369,5 200 120 8,8
z-z 1632 1632 1571 1455 1332 1198 1059 921,1 794,4 683,3 589,0 444,6 344,3 273,4 221,8 183,4
x 200 120 10 y-y 1826 1826 1826 1752 1665 1575 1479 1378 1273 1167 1062 869,2 708,8 581,9 482,9 405,6 200 120 10
z-z 1826 1826 1754 1623 1482 1331 1172 1017 875,3 751,5 646,8 487,3 377,0 299,1 242,6 200,5
220 120 5 y-y 943,4 943,4 943,4 927,8 890,5 852,7 813,4 772,4 729,5 684,9 639,2 548,3 464,1 391,3 330,9 281,7 220 120 5
z-z 943,4 943,4 920,5 860,6 797,6 730,0 658,2 585,0 514,3 449,4 392,1 300,8 235,3 187,9 153,1 127,0
x 220 120 6 y-y 1240 1240 1240 1211 1159 1106 1051 992,6 931,7 868,8 804,9 680,4 568,8 475,1 399,1 338,1 220 120 6
z-z 1240 1240 1201 1117 1028 932 830,3 728,9 633,6 548,4 475,0 360,8 280,5 223,2 181,4 150,2
220 120 6,3 y-y 1287 1287 1287 1256 1202 1146 1088 1027 963,8 898,0 831,2 701,5 585,7 488,8 410,3 347,4 220 120 6,3
z-z 1287 1287 1245 1157 1064 964 857,9 752,2 653,1 564,7 488,8 370,9 288,2 229,2 186,3 154,2
220 120 7,1 y-y 1437 1437 1437 1401 1340 1277 1212 1144 1072 998,1 923,2 777,8 648,5 540,7 453,6 383,9 220 120 7,1
z-z 1437 1437 1389 1290 1185 1072 953,0 834,8 723,9 625,4 540,9 410,1 318,4 253,2 205,7 170,2
x 220 120 8 y-y 1602 1602 1602 1560 1492 1421 1348 1271 1190 1107 1023 860,0 715,9 596,2 499,7 422,7 220 120 8
z-z 1602 1602 1546 1435 1317 1189 1055 921,0 797,4 687,8 594,2 449,7 348,9 277,3 225,2 186,3
220 120 8,8 y-y 1745 1745 1745 1698 1623 1546 1466 1381 1292 1201 1108 930,4 773,4 643,5 539,0 455,7 220 120 8,8
z-z 1745 1745 1683 1561 1431 1291 1143 998,0 862,4 743,2 641,6 485,2 376,1 298,8 242,6 200,7
x 220 120 10 y-y 1955 1955 1955 1899 1814 1727 1635 1539 1439 1335 1231 1030 854,6 709,9 594,0 501,8 220 120 10
z-z 1955 1955 1881 1743 1595 1435 1268 1103 952,0 818,5 705,6 532,6 412,5 327,5 265,7 219,7
x 250 150 5 y-y 1064 1064 1064 1064 1031 995,1 959 921,7 883,1 842,9 801,2 714,9 628,3 546,6 473,5 410,4 250 150 5
z-z 1064 1064 1064 1015 961,9 906,4 847,8 785,9 721,8 657,4 594,7 481,7 390,0 318,6 263,5 220,9
x 250 150 6 y-y 1366 1366 1366 1362 1315 1267 1218 1168 1116 1061 1004 887,8 772,9 666,9 573,9 494,8 250 150 6
z-z 1366 1366 1364 1294 1222 1147 1067 982,9 896,4 810,5 728,3 583,5 468,9 381,1 314,2 262,7
250 150 6,3 y-y 1447 1447 1447 1442 1391 1339 1287 1232 1175 1116 1055 929,7 806,8 694,1 596,0 513,0 250 150 6,3
z-z 1447 1447 1444 1368 1291 1210 1123 1032 939,4 847,4 759,8 606,6 486,3 394,7 325,1 271,6
250 150 7,1 y-y 1712 1712 1712 1699 1637 1574 1509 1442 1371 1298 1223 1069 921,0 787,5 672,9 577,1 250 150 7,1
z-z 1712 1712 1701 1609 1513 1413 1306 1194 1080 968,7 864,0 684,2 545,7 441,4 362,7 302,5
x 250 150 8 y-y 1912 1912 1912 1896 1826 1755 1683 1607 1528 1446 1361 1188 1022 873,3 745,6 639,2 250 150 8
z-z 1912 1912 1898 1794 1687 1574 1454 1328 1200 1075 957,6 757,2 603,3 487,7 400,5 334,0

250 150 8,8 y-y 2086 2086 2086 2068 1991 1913 1833 1750 1663 1573 1480 1291 1109 946,2 807,3 691,6 250 150 8,8
z-z 2086 2086 2070 1956 1838 1714 1581 1442 1302 1165 1037 818,6 651,6 526,4 432,2 360,3
x 250 150 10 y-y 2342 2342 2342 2319 2232 2144 2054 1959 1861 1759 1653 1439 1234 1052 896,3 767,3 250 150 10
z-z 2342 2342 2321 2192 2058 1917 1766 1608 1449 1294 1150 906,3 720,3 581,4 477,1 397,5
250 150 12 y-y 2713 2713 2713 2680 2577 2473 2365 2253 2136 2014 1888 1635 1396 1185 1007 860,1 250 150 12
z-z 2713 2713 2683 2529 2371 2203 2024 1837 1649 1468 1301 1020 808,5 651,4 533,9 444,5
x 250 150 12,5 y-y 2809 2809 2809 2774 2667 2558 2446 2329 2207 2080 1949 1686 1438 1219 1036 884,3 250 150 12,5
z-z 2809 2809 2776 2617 2452 2276 2090 1895 1699 1511 1338 1049 830,5 668,8 548,0 456,2
x 260 140 6 y-y 1339 1339 1339 1339 1295 1250 1204 1157 1108 1056 1003 893,6 783,9 680,8 589,0 509,9 260 140 6
z-z 1339 1339 1330 1257 1183 1104 1020 932,4 843,0 755,7 673,8 533,3 425,2 343,8 282,5 235,6
260 140 6,3 y-y 1420 1420 1420 1420 1371 1323 1273 1222 1169 1113 1056 937,2 819,4 709,6 612,4 529,2 260 140 6,3
z-z 1420 1420 1409 1331 1251 1166 1075 980 884,2 790,9 703,7 555,3 441,8 356,9 292,9 244,2
277
260 140 7,1 y-y 1712 1712 1712 1703 1643 1581 1518 1453 1385 1315 1242 1092 945,6 812,3 696,5 599,0 260 140 7,1
z-z 1712 1712 1690 1591 1489 1381 1265 1145 1024 909,0 803,7 628,1 496,7 399,6 327,2 272,2
x 260 140 8 y-y 1912 1912 1912 1901 1833 1764 1693 1620 1543 1464 1381 1213 1049 899,9 771,0 662,5 260 140 8
z-z 1912 1912 1885 1775 1660 1537 1407 1272 1136 1008 889,8 694,3 548,6 441,1 361,0 300,3
260 140 8,8 y-y 2086 2086 2086 2073 1998 1923 1845 1764 1680 1593 1502 1317 1138 975,0 835,0 717,1 260 140 8,8
z-z 2086 2086 2056 1934 1807 1673 1529 1380 1232 1091 962,5 749,9 592,0 475,7 389,2 323,6
x 260 140 10 y-y 2342 2342 2342 2325 2241 2155 2067 1976 1880 1781 1679 1469 1267 1085 928,0 796,0 260 140 10
z-z 2342 2342 2305 2167 2023 1870 1706 1537 1369 1210 1066 828,9 653,5 524,7 429,0 356,6
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

x 260 180 6 y-y 1494 1494 1494 1494 1451 1403 1353 1302 1250 1195 1138 1020 900,8 787,2 684,4 594,8 260 180 6
z-z 1494 1494 1494 1452 1388 1321 1252 1179 1103 1024 944,9 792,2 658,0 547,0 458,0 387,1
260 180 6,3 y-y 1583 1583 1583 1583 1535 1483 1430 1375 1318 1259 1198 1071 943,3 822,2 713,3 618,9 260 180 6,3
z-z 1583 1583 1583 1537 1468 1396 1322 1243 1161 1077 991,5 828,8 686,7 569,9 476,5 402,4
260 180 7,1 y-y 1895 1895 1895 1894 1829 1764 1697 1628 1557 1483 1406 1247 1089 942,2 812,7 701,9 260 180 7,1
z-z 1895 1895 1895 1830 1744 1654 1560 1461 1358 1252 1147 948,7 779,8 643,7 536,2 451,5
x 260 180 8 y-y 2118 2118 2118 2115 2043 1969 1895 1817 1737 1653 1567 1388 1211 1047 902,1 778,7 260 180 8
z-z 2118 2118 2118 2044 1946 1846 1740 1628 1511 1392 1274 1052 863,5 712,0 592,8 499,0
260 180 8,8 y-y 2313 2313 2313 2309 2229 2149 2066 1981 1893 1801 1706 1509 1316 1136 978,3 844,0 260 180 8,8
z-z 2313 2313 2313 2231 2124 2013 1897 1774 1646 1516 1386 1143 937,6 772,7 643,0 541,2
278
x 260 180 10 y-y 2600 2600 2600 2593 2503 2412 2318 2222 2122 2017 1909 1687 1468 1266 1089 939,0 260 180 10
z-z 2600 2600 2600 2504 2383 2257 2125 1986 1841 1692 1546 1272 1042 857,7 713,2 599,9
260 180 12 y-y 3023 3023 3023 3008 2901 2793 2682 2568 2448 2324 2195 1931 1673 1438 1233 1061 260 180 12
z-z 3023 3023 3023 2903 2760 2610 2453 2287 2114 1939 1766 1447 1181 969,7 805,0 676,4
x 300 100 5 y-y 930,8 930,8 930,8 930,8 921,0 895,0 868,8 842,1 814,8 786,6 757,5 696,5 632,7 568,5 506,6 449,3 300 100 5
z-z 930,8 930,8 901,7 839,0 772,6 701,0 625,4 549,7 478,2 414,3 359,0 272,9 212,3 169,0 137,4 113,7
x 300 100 6 y-y 1222 1222 1222 1222 1202 1165 1129 1092 1053 1013 972,3 886,2 797,1 708,9 625,8 550,7 300 100 6
z-z 1222 1222 1174 1086 992 890,8 784,9 681,1 585,9 503,1 433,0 326,3 252,4 200,3 162,4 134,2
300 100 6,3 y-y 1302 1302 1302 1302 1278 1238 1199 1158 1116 1073 1028 934,1 837,3 742,1 653,1 573,2 300 100 6,3
z-z 1302 1302 1248 1153 1050 940,0 824,8 713,1 611,6 523,8 450,0 338,3 261,3 207,1 167,9 138,7
300 100 7,1 y-y 1549 1549 1549 1549 1513 1464 1415 1364 1312 1258 1202 1085 965,6 849,9 743,4 649,2 300 100 7,1
z-z 1549 1549 1475 1356 1228 1090 947 811,8 691,1 588,6 503,6 376,5 290,0 229,4 185,7 153,2
x 300 100 8 y-y 1833 1833 1833 1833 1782 1722 1662 1600 1535 1468 1399 1254 1108 968,6 842,4 732,3 300 100 8
z-z 1833 1833 1735 1588 1429 1257 1082 919 777,5 658,8 561,6 417,9 320,9 253,5 204,9 169,0
300 150 6 y-y 1416 1416 1416 1416 1400 1360 1319 1279 1237 1193 1148 1055 956,8 858,4 763,9 676,7 300 150 6
z-z 1416 1416 1416 1355 1285 1213 1137 1057 973,0 888,8 806,3 656,2 533,0 436,3 361,5 303,2
300 150 6,3 y-y 1506 1506 1506 1506 1486 1443 1399 1355 1309 1262 1214 1112 1006 900,1 798,9 706,1 300 150 6,3
z-z 1506 1506 1506 1437 1362 1284 1201 1114 1024 933,0 844,1 684,3 554,3 452,9 374,7 314,1
300 150 7,1 y-y 1778 1778 1778 1778 1748 1696 1642 1588 1532 1475 1415 1290 1160 1032 910,8 801,4 300 150 7,1
z-z 1778 1778 1778 1689 1597 1501 1399 1292 1181 1071 965,0 775,7 625,0 508,9 420,0 351,4
300 150 8,8 y-y 2370 2370 2370 2370 2315 2241 2165 2088 2009 1926 1840 1662 1479 1302 1139 994,7 300 150 8,8
z-z 2370 2370 2357 2230 2100 1962 1816 1662 1506 1352 1207 958,0 764,8 619,1 509,0 424,7
300 150 10 y-y 2665 2665 2665 2665 2600 2516 2431 2343 2253 2159 2062 1859 1652 1452 1269 1107 300 150 10
z-z 2665 2665 2647 2503 2355 2198 2032 1857 1679 1505 1342 1063 847,2 685,2 562,9 469,5

x 300 200 6 y-y 1609 1609 1609 1609 1597 1553 1509 1464 1418 1371 1322 1220 1113 1004 898,5 799,8 300 200 6
z-z 1609 1609 1609 1593 1533 1472 1409 1344 1276 1205 1132 984 843,1 717,7 611,2 523,0
300 200 6,3 y-y 1709 1709 1709 1709 1693 1646 1598 1550 1501 1450 1397 1286 1171 1054 941,3 836,3 300 200 6,3
z-z 1709 1709 1709 1689 1625 1559 1492 1421 1348 1271 1193 1034 883,5 750,5 638,1 545,3
300 200 7,1 y-y 2007 2007 2007 2007 1982 1925 1868 1809 1749 1687 1622 1488 1348 1207 1073 949,0 300 200 7,1
z-z 2007 2007 2007 1977 1899 1820 1738 1652 1562 1469 1374 1182 1004 848,5 718,8 612,7
x 300 200 8 y-y 2350 2350 2350 2350 2313 2244 2175 2104 2031 1956 1878 1715 1546 1378 1219 1074 300 200 8
z-z 2350 2350 2350 2307 2213 2117 2018 1914 1805 1692 1577 1348 1137 956,9 807,8 686,9
300 200 8,8 y-y 2654 2654 2654 2654 2606 2527 2447 2365 2280 2193 2103 1913 1718 1525 1344 1181 300 200 8,8
z-z 2654 2654 2654 2599 2491 2380 2264 2144 2017 1886 1753 1490 1252 1049 883,7 750,0
x 300 200 10 y-y 2987 2987 2987 2987 2931 2841 2751 2658 2562 2463 2360 2145 1924 1706 1502 1318 300 200 10
z-z 2987 2987 2987 2923 2799 2674 2543 2406 2262 2113 1962 1664 1396 1169 983,6 834,3
279
300 200 12 y-y 3487 3487 3487 3487 3415 3309 3201 3090 2976 2858 2736 2480 2217 1960 1721 1508 300 200 12
z-z 3487 3487 3487 3405 3259 3109 2953 2789 2618 2441 2261 1910 1597 1334 1120 948,9
x 300 200 12,5 y-y 3616 3616 3616 3616 3540 3429 3317 3202 3083 2961 2833 2567 2294 2027 1779 1558 300 200 12,5
z-z 3616 3616 3616 3529 3377 3222 3059 2889 2711 2526 2339 1976 1650 1378 1157 980,0
400 100 6 y-y 1283 1283 1283 1283 1283 1280 1253 1226 1199 1172 1144 1087 1027 965,0 899,6 833,6 400 100 6
z-z 1283 1283 1252 1170 1084 992,0 894,2 794,5 698,2 609,9 532,1 408,1 319,1 254,9 207,7 172,2
400 100 6,3 y-y 1373 1373 1373 1373 1373 1367 1338 1309 1279 1250 1219 1157 1091 1022 950,9 878,9 400 100 6,3
z-z 1373 1373 1337 1248 1154 1054 947,0 838,6 734,8 640,3 557,4 426,4 332,8 265,6 216,2 179,2
400 100 7,1 y-y 1652 1652 1652 1652 1652 1637 1601 1564 1527 1490 1452 1372 1289 1201 1112 1022 400 100 7,1
z-z 1652 1652 1598 1486 1367 1238 1103 967,7 841 727,2 629,6 478 371,4 295,5 240,2 198,8
axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Appendix 9.2
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.2
t
y
h
t = wall thickness

axis
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10

400 120 6 y-y 1360 1360 1360 1360 1360 1359 1331 1303 1275 1247 1218 1159 1096 1031 963,0 894,3 400 120 6
z-z 1360 1360 1354 1282 1208 1130 1047 959,5 870,4 782,8 700,0 556,5 445 360,5 296,6 247,6
400 120 6,3 y-y 1455 1455 1455 1455 1455 1450 1420 1390 1359 1328 1297 1232 1163 1092 1018 943,0 400 120 6,3
z-z 1455 1455 1445 1367 1286 1201 1110 1015 918,0 823,3 734,4 581,6 463,8 375,2 308,3 257,2
400 120 7,1 y-y 1743 1743 1743 1743 1743 1731 1694 1656 1617 1579 1539 1457 1371 1281 1189 1095 400 120 7,1
z-z 1743 1743 1725 1627 1525 1418 1303 1184 1063 947,0 839,8 659,2 522,8 421,4 345,4 287,6
400 120 8 y-y 2086 2086 2086 2086 2086 2063 2016 1969 1921 1873 1823 1720 1612 1499 1383 1268 400 120 8
z-z 2086 2086 2054 1931 1803 1667 1522 1372 1222 1081 952,5 740,9 584,2 469,2 383,7 319,0
400 120 8,8 y-y 2403 2403 2403 2403 2403 2367 2312 2256 2199 2141 2082 1959 1829 1694 1556 1419 400 120 8,8
z-z 2403 2403 2356 2210 2057 1893 1720 1540 1364 1200 1053 813,7 639,2 512,1 418,1 347,1
280
x 400 200 6 y-y 1670 1670 1670 1670 1670 1670 1643 1610 1577 1544 1510 1441 1368 1292 1214 1133 400 200 6
z-z 1670 1670 1670 1670 1616 1560 1502 1443 1382 1318 1252 1115 978,0 849,0 734,4 635,7
400 200 6,3 y-y 1780 1780 1780 1780 1780 1780 1748 1712 1677 1641 1604 1529 1451 1368 1283 1196 400 200 6,3
z-z 1780 1780 1780 1779 1719 1658 1596 1532 1465 1396 1324 1176 1029 891,3 769,4 665,0
400 200 7,1 y-y 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2107 2064 2021 1977 1933 1888 1795 1698 1597 1491 1384 400 200 7,1
z-z 2110 2110 2110 2102 2028 1954 1877 1798 1716 1630 1541 1359 1180 1016 873,1 751,8
x 400 200 8 y-y 2499 2499 2499 2499 2499 2488 2435 2381 2328 2274 2219 2104 1985 1859 1729 1598 400 200 8
z-z 2499 2499 2499 2481 2391 2299 2205 2108 2006 1900 1790 1567 1351 1156 988,6 848,3
400 200 8,8 y-y 2857 2857 2857 2857 2857 2836 2774 2711 2649 2585 2520 2385 2243 2095 1942 1789 400 200 8,8
z-z 2857 2857 2857 2828 2722 2614 2503 2388 2267 2142 2012 1750 1500 1278 1088 931,5
x 400 200 10 y-y 3408 3408 3408 3408 3408 3370 3294 3217 3139 3060 2979 2812 2635 2450 2261 2073 400 200 10
z-z 3408 3408 3408 3360 3229 3096 2958 2814 2663 2507 2346 2024 1722 1457 1236 1054
400 200 12 y-y 4262 4262 4262 4262 4262 4192 4092 3991 3889 3784 3677 3455 3220 2976 2728 2483 400 200 12
z-z 4262 4262 4262 4179 4007 3831 3648 3457 3257 3050 2838 2419 2037 1711 1443 1226
x 400 200 12,5 y-y 4423 4423 4423 4423 4423 4349 4245 4139 4033 3924 3813 3581 3337 3082 2824 2570 400 200 12,5
z-z 4423 4423 4423 4335 4156 3973 3783 3584 3376 3160 2939 2505 2108 1770 1492 1267
281
Buckling resistance values for circular longitudinally welded hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2) in buckling category c.
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.3
1) = recommended series The calculated resistance values are design values (section 2.1) based on the default value (1.1) of the
d = external diameter partial safety factor of material γM1 used in Eurocode 3. The partial safety factor values may differ in
d
t = wall thickness each country. National values must be checked from the NAD (National Application Document) of the
t country in question.
Lc = buckling length
Nb.Rd = buckling resistance
1) d t Nb.Rd (kN) d t

mm mm Lc (m) mm mm
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 33,7 2 64,28 51,07 28,85 15,74 9,597 6,413 33,7 2
x 42,4 2 81,92 70,98 48,39 29,46 18,69 12,72 9,166 6,907 42,4 2
x 42,4 2,5 101,1 87,25 58,89 35,58 22,50 15,29 11,01 8,293 42,4 2,5
42,4 2,6 104,9 90,53 61,12 36,93 23,36 15,87 11,43 8,611 42,4 2,6
42,4 2,9 116,1 100,0 67,21 40,47 25,56 17,36 12,50 9,413 42,4 2,9
x 42,4 3 119,8 103,2 69,31 41,72 26,35 17,89 12,88 9,701 42,4 3
x 48,3 2 93,89 84,3 62,29 40,87 26,80 18,50 13,44 10,18 7,965 48,3 2
x 48,3 2,5 116,1 103,9 76,32 49,73 32,50 22,41 16,27 12,31 9,631 48,3 2,5
48,3 2,6 120,5 107,8 79,15 51,56 33,69 23,22 16,86 12,76 9,980 48,3 2,6
48,3 2,9 133,5 119,3 87,34 56,72 37,01 25,50 18,50 14,00 10,95 48,3 2,9
x 48,3 3 137,8 123,2 90,13 58,52 38,18 26,30 19,09 14,44 11,29 48,3 3
282
x 60,3 2 118,2 111,1 90,33 67,08 47,43 33,97 25,16 19,27 15,19 12,27 10,11 60,3 2
x 60,3 2,5 146,5 137,6 111,7 82,77 58,42 41,81 30,95 23,70 18,68 15,08 12,43 60,3 2,5
60,3 2,6 152,1 142,7 115,7 85,47 60,21 43,04 31,85 24,38 19,21 15,51 12,78 60,3 2,6
60,3 2,9 168,8 158,3 128,0 94,39 66,39 47,41 35,07 26,83 21,14 17,07 14,06 60,3 2,9
x 60,3 3 174,3 163,4 132,2 97,47 68,55 48,96 36,21 27,71 21,83 17,62 14,51 60,3 3
60,3 3,2 185,3 173,6 140,2 103,1 72,36 51,63 38,16 29,20 23,00 18,56 15,29 60,3 3,2
x 60,3 4 228,3 213,5 171,8 125,7 87,90 62,59 46,22 35,34 27,83 22,45 18,49 60,3 4
76,1 2 150,3 146,5 126,7 104,3 81,25 61,82 47,36 37,01 29,55 24,07 19,95 14,33 76,1 2
x 76,1 2,5 186,6 181,6 156,9 128,8 100,0 75,89 58,07 45,33 36,18 29,46 24,41 17,52 76,1 2,5
76,1 2,6 193,8 188,7 162,9 133,7 103,8 78,79 60,28 47,06 37,56 30,58 25,34 18,19 76,1 2,6
76,1 2,9 215,2 209,5 180,8 148,2 114,9 87,11 66,61 51,98 41,47 33,76 27,98 20,08 76,1 2,9
x 76,1 3 222,3 216,4 186,8 153,1 118,7 89,98 68,80 53,69 42,84 34,88 28,90 20,74 76,1 3
76,1 3,2 236,5 230,1 198,4 162,4 125,7 95,22 72,76 56,76 45,27 36,85 30,53 21,91 76,1 3,2
x 76,1 4 292,4 284,0 244,3 199,1 153,4 115,8 88,31 68,80 54,84 44,61 36,95 26,50 76,1 4
x 76,1 5 360,4 349,5 299,9 243,4 186,7 140,4 106,9 83,17 66,23 53,86 44,60 31,96 76,1 5
88,9 2 176,2 175,0 155,6 134,2 110,9 88,59 70,1 55,88 45,19 37,12 30,96 22,40 16,92 88,9 2
x 88,9 2,5 219,0 217,5 193,3 166,6 137,4 109,7 86,77 69,13 55,89 45,90 38,28 27,69 20,92 88,9 2,5
88,9 2,6 227,5 225,8 200,6 172,7 142,4 113,5 89,69 71,43 57,72 47,40 39,52 28,59 21,59 88,9 2,6
88,9 2,9 252,9 250,9 222,8 191,7 157,8 125,7 99,27 79,02 63,84 52,41 43,70 31,60 23,86 88,9 2,9
x 88,9 3 261,3 259,3 230,2 198,1 163,1 129,9 102,6 81,64 65,96 54,15 45,15 32,65 24,65 88,9 3
88,9 3,2 278,1 275,8 244,8 210,4 173,0 137,7 108,6 86,44 69,81 57,31 47,77 34,54 26,08 88,9 3,2
x 88,9 4 344,3 341,1 302,3 259,2 212,4 168,5 132,6 105,4 85,02 69,75 58,11 41,99 31,69 88,9 4
x 88,9 5 425,3 420,9 372,4 318,4 260,0 205,6 161,5 128,1 103,3 84,68 70,53 50,94 38,43 88,9 5
88,9 6 504,3 498,5 440,4 375,5 305,5 240,8 188,7 149,5 120,4 98,69 82,16 59,30 44,73 88,9 6
88,9 6,3 527,6 521,3 460,3 392,1 318,6 250,9 196,5 155,6 125,3 102,6 85,43 61,65 46,49 88,9 6,3
101,6 2 202,0 202,0 184,2 163,6 140,9 117,5 96,18 78,43 64,38 53,43 44,88 32,77 24,89 19,52 101,6 2

x 101,6 2,5 251,2 251,2 228,8 203,0 174,5 145,3 118,7 96,72 79,33 65,80 55,25 40,33 30,62 24,00 101,6 2,5
101,6 2,6 261,0 261,0 237,8 211,0 181,4 151,0 123,4 100,5 82,48 68,42 57,45 41,93 31,84 24,96 101,6 2,6
101,6 2,9 290,2 290,2 264,2 234,3 201,2 167,4 136,7 111,3 91,26 75,68 63,54 46,36 35,20 27,59 101,6 2,9
x 101,6 3 299,9 299,9 273,0 242,1 208,0 173,0 141,3 115,0 94,31 78,21 65,66 47,91 36,37 28,51 101,6 3
101,6 3,2 319,3 319,3 290,5 257,4 221,0 183,7 149,8 121,9 100,0 82,87 69,56 50,75 38,52 30,19 101,6 3,2
x 101,6 4 395,8 395,8 359,5 318,1 272,3 225,7 183,8 149,3 122,3 101,3 84,98 61,95 47,01 36,84 101,6 4
x 101,6 5 489,7 489,7 443,9 392,1 334,9 276,9 224,9 182,4 149,2 123,5 103,6 75,48 57,26 44,85 101,6 5
101,6 6 581,6 581,6 526,1 463,9 395,3 325,9 264,2 214,0 174,8 144,6 121,2 88,27 66,93 52,42 101,6 6
101,6 6,3 608,7 608,7 550,3 485,0 412,8 340,1 275,4 223,0 182,1 150,6 126,2 91,91 69,68 54,57 101,6 6,3
108 2 214,9 214,9 198,6 178,3 156,0 132,6 110,3 91,06 75,38 62,92 53,07 38,95 29,67 23,31 18,78 108 2
x 108 2,5 267,4 267,4 246,8 221,5 193,5 164,2 136,4 112,5 93,08 77,65 65,47 48,03 36,58 28,74 23,15 108 2,5
108 2,6 277,8 277,8 256,5 230,1 201,1 170,6 141,7 116,9 96,68 80,66 68,00 49,89 38,00 29,85 24,04 108 2,6
108 2,9 309,0 309,0 285,1 255,7 223,3 189,3 157,2 129,5 107,1 89,36 75,32 55,25 42,07 33,04 26,62 108 2,9
283
x 108 3 319,4 319,4 294,5 264,0 230,4 195,2 161,9 133,4 110,3 91,95 77,49 56,83 43,27 33,98 27,37 108 3
108 3,2 340,0 340,0 313,5 281,1 245,3 207,8 172,4 142,0 117,4 97,89 82,50 60,50 46,07 36,18 29,14 108 3,2
x 108 4 421,8 421,8 388,3 347,6 302,7 255,8 211,8 174,2 143,8 119,8 100,9 73,97 56,30 44,20 35,59 108 4
108 5 522,2 522,2 479,9 429,0 372,9 314,4 259,7 213,2 175,9 146,4 123,3 90,27 68,68 53,91 43,40 108 5
108 6 620,5 620,5 569,0 507,7 440,0 369,8 304,6 249,6 205,6 171,0 143,8 105,2 80,02 62,79 50,54 108 6
108 6,3 649,6 649,6 595,3 530,9 459,8 386,1 317,8 260,3 214,3 178,2 149,9 109,6 83,35 65,40 52,63 108 6,3
114,3 2 227,7 227,7 212,7 192,7 170,7 147,4 124,5 104,0 86,81 72,89 61,74 45,55 34,82 27,41 22,11 114,3 2
x 114,3 2,5 283,4 283,4 264,4 239,4 211,9 182,6 154,0 128,5 107,2 89,96 76,16 56,17 42,91 33,78 27,25 114,3 2,5
114,3 2,6 294,5 294,5 274,7 248,7 220,1 189,7 160,0 133,5 111,4 93,45 79,12 58,35 44,58 35,09 28,30 114,3 2,6
114,3 2,9 327,5 327,5 305,5 276,4 244,6 210,6 177,5 148,1 123,5 103,6 87,68 64,65 49,39 38,87 31,35 114,3 2,9
x 114,3 3 338,5 338,5 315,7 285,7 252,8 217,7 183,5 153,0 127,6 107,1 90,62 66,82 51,04 40,17 32,40 114,3 3
114,3 3,2 360,5 360,5 336,0 304,0 268,8 231,3 194,8 162,4 135,4 113,6 96,10 70,84 54,11 42,58 34,34 114,3 3,2
114,3 4 447,3 447,3 416,4 376,2 332,1 285,3 239,8 199,5 166,1 139,2 117,8 86,75 66,23 52,10 42,01 114,3 4
x 114,3 5 554,1 554,1 515,1 464,8 409,6 351,1 294,5 244,7 203,5 170,4 144,1 106,0 80,92 63,65 51,31 114,3 5
x 114,3 6 658,8 658,8 611,2 550,7 484,2 413,8 346,2 287,0 238,3 199,3 168,4 123,8 94,43 74,24 59,84 114,3 6
114,3 6,3 689,8 689,8 639,7 576,2 506,3 432,4 361,5 299,6 248,7 207,9 175,6 129,1 98,46 77,40 62,38 114,3 6,3
x d t Nb.Rd (kN) d t
mm mm Lc (m) mm mm
Appendix 9.2
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Buckling resistance values for circular longitudinally welded hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2) in buckling category c, continued.
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.3
d = external diameter partial safety factor of material γM1 used in Eurocode 3. The partial safety factor values may differ in
d
t = wall thickness each country. National values must be checked from the NAD (National Application Document) of the
t country in question.
Lc = buckling length
x d t Nb.Rd (kN) d t

mm mm Lc (m) mm mm
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
127 2 224,1 224,1 215,2 199,0 181,7 162,9 143,4 124,3 106,9 91,70 78,89 59,40 45,94 36,44 29,55 24,42 127 2
x 127 2,5 315,6 315,6 299,9 275,4 248,8 220,1 190,8 163,0 138,5 117,7 100,6 75,08 57,76 45,67 36,95 30,49 127 2,5
127 2,6 327,9 327,9 311,7 286,2 258,5 228,7 198,2 169,4 143,8 122,3 104,5 78,00 60,01 47,45 38,39 31,67 127 2,6
127 2,9 364,9 364,9 346,7 318,2 287,4 254,2 220,2 188,0 159,6 135,7 115,9 86,49 66,54 52,60 42,56 35,11 127 2,9
x 127 3 377,2 377,2 358,4 328,9 297,1 262,7 227,6 194,3 165,0 140,2 119,8 89,40 68,77 54,37 43,99 36,29 127 3
127 3,2 401,7 401,7 381,5 350,1 316,1 279,4 241,9 206,4 175,2 148,9 127,2 94,85 72,95 57,67 46,66 38,49 127 3,2
x 127 4 498,8 498,8 473,3 433,9 391,3 345,3 298,5 254,3 215,6 183,0 156,2 116,4 89,52 70,74 57,22 47,19 127 4
127 5 618,5 618,5 586,1 536,9 483,5 426,0 367,6 312,8 264,8 224,6 191,6 142,7 109,6 86,60 70,03 57,75 127 5
127 6 736,1 736,1 696,5 637,3 573,1 503,8 433,7 368,3 311,3 263,7 224,8 167,2 128,4 101,4 81,97 67,58 127 6
127 6,3 771,0 771,0 729,2 667,1 599,5 526,8 453,3 384,7 325,0 275,3 234,6 174,4 133,9 105,7 85,48 70,48 127 6,3
133 2 233,9 233,9 226,1 210,1 193,1 174,8 155,5 136,2 118,2 102,2 88,39 67,04 52,07 41,42 33,65 27,84 133 2
284
x 133 2,5 330,8 330,8 316,7 292,3 266,1 237,7 208,3 179,8 154,0 131,8 113,2 84,98 65,61 51,99 42,14 34,80 133 2,5
133 2,6 343,7 343,7 329,1 303,7 276,5 247,0 216,5 186,9 160,1 137,0 117,6 88,30 68,18 54,02 43,78 36,16 133 2,6
133 2,9 382,5 382,5 366,1 337,8 307,4 274,5 240,4 207,5 177,6 151,9 130,4 97,90 75,58 59,88 48,52 40,08 133 2,9
133 3 395,4 395,4 378,4 349,2 317,7 283,8 248,5 214,4 183,6 157,1 134,8 101,2 78,13 61,90 50,16 41,43 133 3
133 3,2 421,1 421,1 402,9 371,7 338,1 301,8 264,2 227,9 195,0 166,8 143,1 107,4 82,92 65,69 53,23 43,96 133 3,2
x 133 4 523,2 523,2 500,0 460,9 418,9 373,4 326,4 281,1 240,3 205,3 176,1 132,0 101,8 80,66 65,34 53,95 133 4
133 5 648,9 648,9 619,6 570,7 518,1 461,3 402,6 346,2 295,6 252,3 216,2 162,0 124,9 98,90 80,10 66,13 133 5
133 6 772,6 772,6 736,9 678,3 615,1 546,9 476,5 409,2 348,9 297,6 254,8 190,8 147,0 116,4 94,22 77,77 133 6
133 6,3 809,3 809,3 771,7 710,1 643,8 572,1 498,2 427,6 364,5 310,7 266,1 199,1 153,4 121,4 98,31 81,15 133 6,3
139,7 2,9 402,2 402,2 387,8 359,7 329,8 297,4 263,5 229,9 198,7 171,2 147,8 111,8 86,67 68,86 55,90 46,23 139,7 2,9
x 139,7 3 415,8 415,8 400,8 371,7 340,6 307,1 271,9 237,1 204,9 176,5 152,3 115,2 89,30 70,92 57,57 47,61 139,7 3
139,7 3,2 442,9 442,9 426,9 395,9 362,8 327,1 289,6 252,6 218,3 188,0 162,3 122,7 95,09 75,54 61,33 50,72 139,7 3,2
x 139,7 4 550,3 550,3 530,0 491,2 449,8 405,0 358,2 312,0 269,2 231,7 199,8 150,9 116,9 92,86 75,37 62,32 139,7 4
x 139,7 5 682,9 682,9 657,0 608,6 556,8 500,8 442,3 384,7 331,6 285,1 245,7 185,4 143,6 114,0 92,49 76,46 139,7 5
x 139,7 6 813,3 813,3 781,6 723,3 661,0 593,6 523,2 454,2 390,9 335,7 289,1 217,8 168,6 133,8 108,5 89,67 139,7 6
139,7 6,3 852,1 852,1 818,6 757,4 691,9 621,1 547,2 474,8 408,5 350,7 301,9 227,4 176,0 139,6 113,2 93,58 139,7 6,3
x 139,7 8 1068 1068 1024 946,5 863,0 772,7 678,8 587,4 504,2 432,0 371,4 279,3 215,8 171,1 138,7 114,6 139,7 8
x 139,7 10 1315 1315 1259 1161 1057 943,8 826,7 713,3 610,7 522,4 448,4 336,6 259,9 205,9 166,9 137,8 139,7 10
152 2,9 438,4 438,4 427,6 399,7 370,4 338,8 305,4 271,3 238,4 208,2 181,6 139,3 108,9 86,97 70,86 58,76 152 2,9
152 3 453,2 453,2 442,1 413,2 382,9 350,3 315,7 280,5 246,4 215,2 187,8 144,0 112,6 89,92 73,26 60,75 152 3
152 3,2 482,8 482,8 470,8 440,0 407,6 372,8 335,9 298,3 262,0 228,8 199,5 153,0 119,6 95,5 77,80 64,50 152 3,2
152 4 600,2 600,2 584,9 546,4 505,8 462,2 416,0 369,0 323,8 282,5 246,1 188,5 147,3 117,6 95,76 79,38 152 4
152 5 745,2 745,2 725,6 677,5 626,8 572,3 514,5 455,8 399,5 348,2 303,2 232,0 181,1 144,5 117,7 97,53 152 5
152 6 888,2 888,2 864,2 806,4 745,6 680,1 610,7 540,4 473,1 412,0 358,5 274,0 213,8 170,5 138,8 115,0 152 6
152 6,3 930,7 930,7 905,3 844,7 780,8 712,0 639,1 565,3 494,7 430,7 374,6 286,3 223,3 178,1 145,0 120,1 152 6,3
159 2,9 459,0 459,0 450,3 422,5 393,5 362,4 329,4 295,3 261,8 230,4 202,3 156,5 123,0 98,56 80,48 66,84 159 2,9
159 3 474,5 474,5 465,5 436,8 406,8 374,7 340,5 305,3 270,6 238,2 209,1 161,8 127,1 101,9 83,20 69,09 159 3
159 3,2 505,5 505,5 495,8 465,1 433,1 398,8 362,4 324,7 287,8 253,3 222,2 171,9 135,0 108,2 88,35 73,37 159 3,2
x 159 4 628,6 628,6 616,2 577,8 537,7 494,8 449,1 402,1 356,0 313,0 274,5 212,0 166,5 133,4 108,9 90,38 159 4
159 5 780,7 780,7 764,7 716,8 666,7 613,0 555,9 497,1 439,6 386,2 338,4 261,1 204,9 164,1 133,9 111,1 159 5
159 6 930,7 930,7 910,9 853,3 793,0 728,4 659,6 589,1 520,2 456,4 399,5 307,9 241,4 193,2 157,6 130,8 159 6
159 6,3 975,4 975,4 954,3 893,9 830,5 762,6 690,4 616,3 544,1 477,2 417,6 321,7 252,2 201,8 164,6 136,6 159 6,3
168,3 2,9 486,3 486,3 480,4 452,7 424,0 393,6 361,1 327,2 293,3 260,7 230,7 180,6 143,0 115,1 94,32 78,50 168,3 2,9
168,3 3 502,8 502,8 496,7 468,0 438,4 406,9 373,3 338,3 303,2 269,5 238,6 186,8 147,9 119,0 97,51 81,16 168,3 3
168,3 3,2 535,7 535,7 529,1 498,5 466,8 433,2 397,3 360,0 322,5 286,6 253,6 198,5 157,1 126,5 103,6 86,21 168,3 3,2
168,3 4 666,3 666,3 657,8 619,5 579,9 537,7 492,9 446,1 399,3 354,6 313,5 245,1 193,9 156,0 127,7 106,3 168,3 4

x 168,3 5 827,8 827,8 816,7 768,9 719,4 666,7 610,5 552,0 493,7 437,9 386,9 302,2 238,8 192,1 157,2 130,8 168,3 5
x 168,3 6 987,3 987,3 973,2 915,8 856,3 792,8 725,2 655,0 584,9 518,3 457,5 356,7 281,7 226,4 185,3 154,1 168,3 6
168,3 6,3 1035 1035 1020 959,5 897,0 830,3 759,3 685,5 612,0 542,2 478,4 372,9 294,4 236,6 193,6 161,0 168,3 6,3
x 168,3 8 1300 1300 1280 1203 1124 1039 948,3 854,5 761,4 673,3 593,3 461,4 363,8 292,2 238,9 198,6 168,3 8
x 168,3 10 1605 1605 1578 1482 1383 1276 1163 1046 930,2 821,1 722,4 560,6 441,5 354,2 289,5 240,6 168,3 10
193,7 4 769,3 769,3 769,3 733,1 694,4 653,9 611 565,8 519,0 472,1 426,6 344,8 278,8 227,5 188,1 157,6 193,7 4
193,7 5 956,6 956,6 956,6 910,7 862,2 811,4 757,7 701,1 642,5 583,8 527,1 425,4 343,6 280,3 231,6 193,9 193,7 5
x 193,7 6 1142 1142 1142 1086 1028 967,2 902,6 834,6 764,4 694,1 626,2 504,9 407,5 332,1 274,4 229,7 193,7 6
193,7 6,3 1197 1197 1197 1139 1077 1013 945,6 874,2 800,4 726,6 655,4 528,2 426,2 347,4 286,9 240,2 193,7 6,3
x 193,7 8 1506 1506 1506 1431 1353 1271 1185 1094 1000 906,8 816,8 656,8 529,1 430,8 355,6 297,5 193,7 8
x 193,7 10 1862 1862 1861 1766 1669 1567 1458 1344 1227 1110 998,4 800,7 644,0 523,7 431,9 361,2 193,7 10
193,7 12 2211 2211 2207 2093 1976 1854 1724 1587 1446 1306 1173 938,8 753,8 612,5 504,8 421,9 193,7 12
193,7 12,5 2296 2296 2292 2173 2051 1923 1788 1645 1498 1353 1214 971,2 779,4 633,1 521,6 436,0 193,7 12,5
285
219,1 4 872,3 872,3 872,3 846,6 808,3 768,9 727,6 684,1 638,7 591,9 544,9 455,1 376,8 312,6 261,3 220,6 219,1 4
219,1 5 1085 1085 1085 1053 1005 955,3 903,6 849,1 792,2 733,7 674,9 562,9 465,5 385,9 322,4 272,1 219,1 5
x 219,1 6 1296 1296 1296 1257 1199 1140 1078 1012 944 873,8 803,4 669,3 553,1 458,2 382,7 322,9 219,1 6
219,1 6,3 1359 1359 1359 1317 1257 1195 1129 1061 989,1 915,3 841,4 700,7 578,9 479,5 400,4 337,8 219,1 6,3
x 219,1 8 1712 1712 1712 1658 1581 1502 1419 1331 1240 1146 1052 874,7 721,5 597,0 498,1 420,0 219,1 8
x 219,1 10 2120 2120 2120 2050 1954 1855 1751 1641 1527 1409 1292 1071 882,0 728,8 607,6 511,9 219,1 10
219,1 12 2520 2520 2520 2433 2318 2198 2073 1941 1804 1663 1523 1259 1035 853,9 711,2 598,9 219,1 12
x 219,1 12,5 2618 2618 2618 2528 2408 2284 2153 2016 1873 1726 1580 1306 1073 885,5 737,5 621,0 219,1 12,5
273 5 1359 1359 1359 1354 1306 1258 1209 1158 1105 1050 992,8 875,5 760,4 654,7 562,5 484,4 273 5
x 273 6 1624 1624 1624 1618 1560 1503 1444 1383 1319 1253 1184 1043 905,1 778,7 668,6 575,5 273 6
273 6,3 1704 1704 1704 1696 1636 1576 1514 1450 1383 1313 1241 1093 948,3 815,7 700,2 602,7 273 6,3
x 273 8 2149 2149 2149 2139 2063 1986 1907 1825 1740 1651 1560 1372 1189 1021 875,8 753,2 273 8
x 273 10 2667 2667 2667 2652 2557 2460 2362 2260 2153 2042 1928 1693 1465 1257 1077 925,5 273 10
273 12 3175 3175 3175 3155 3041 2926 2807 2684 2556 2423 2285 2003 1730 1483 1269 1090 273 12
x 273 12,5 3301 3301 3301 3280 3161 3040 2917 2789 2655 2516 2373 2079 1795 1537 1315 1129 273 12,5
323,9 5 1427 1427 1427 1427 1414 1374 1335 1294 1253 1210 1166 1074 977,9 880,5 786,2 698,5 323,9 5
x 323,9 6 1934 1934 1934 1934 1902 1844 1787 1728 1667 1604 1539 1403 1262 1123 991,4 872,4 323,9 6
323,9 6,3 2029 2029 2029 2029 1994 1934 1874 1812 1748 1682 1614 1471 1323 1177 1039 914,1 323,9 6,3
Appendix 9.2
x 323,9 8 2562 2562 2562 2562 2517 2441 2364 2285 2204 2121 2034 1852 1664 1479 1304 1147 323,9 8
x 323,9 10 3183 3183 3183 3183 3125 3029 2933 2834 2733 2628 2519 2292 2057 1825 1608 1413 323,9 10
323,9 12 3795 3795 3795 3795 3723 3609 3493 3375 3253 3127 2997 2723 2442 2165 1905 1673 323,9 12
x 323,9 12,5 3947 3947 3947 3947 3871 3752 3632 3508 3382 3250 3114 2829 2536 2247 1978 1735 323,9 12,5
1) d t Nb.Rd (kN) d t
mm mm Lc (m) mm mm
x 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 6 7 8 9 10
Buckling resistance values for circular spirally welded hollow sections of steel grade S355J2H (fy = 355 N/mm2) in buckling category c, continued.
Appendix 9.2
Table 9.2.4
(Technical delivery conditions to be agreed when ordering)
d = external diameter partial safety factor of material γM1 used in Eurocode 3. The partial safety factor values may differ in each
t = wall thickness country. National values must be checked from the NAD (National Application Document) of the country in
d
t Lc = buckling length question.


d t Nb.Rd (kN) d t
mm mm Lc (m) mm mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
355,6 5,6 1757 1757 1757 1669 1579 1484 1384 1278 1169 1060 955 857 768 689 619 558 504 355,6 5,6
355,6 6 2127 2127 2114 1999 1882 1758 1625 1487 1345 1207 1077 959 854 762 681 612 551 355,6 6
355,6 6,3 2231 2231 2218 2097 1974 1843 1704 1559 1411 1265 1129 1005 895 798 714 641 578 355,6 6,3
355,6 8 2819 2819 2801 2648 2491 2325 2149 1963 1775 1591 1419 1262 1123 1001 895 804 724 355,6 8
355,6 10 3504 3504 3479 3288 3091 2884 2663 2431 2196 1966 1752 1557 1385 1234 1103 990 891 355,6 10
355,6 12 4180 4180 4148 3919 3683 3434 3168 2890 2608 2334 2078 1846 1640 1461 1306 1171 1055 355,6 12
355,6 12,5 4348 4348 4314 4075 3829 3570 3293 3003 2709 2424 2157 1916 1702 1516 1355 1215 1094 355,6 12,5
406,4 6 2141 2141 2141 2076 1981 1883 1781 1673 1560 1445 1328 1215 1107 1007 915 833 759 406,4 6
406,4 6,3 2256 2256 2256 2187 2086 1983 1875 1761 1642 1519 1397 1277 1163 1057 961 874 796 406,4 6,3
406,4 8 3231 3231 3231 3102 2948 2788 2619 2441 2255 2067 1881 1704 1540 1390 1256 1137 1031 406,4 8
286
406,4 10 4019 4019 4019 3855 3663 3462 3250 3027 2795 2560 2329 2108 1903 1718 1551 1403 1273 406,4 10
406,4 12 4798 4798 4798 4600 4368 4127 3873 3605 3326 3044 2767 2503 2259 2037 1839 1663 1508 406,4 12
406,4 12,5 4992 4992 4992 4784 4543 4292 4027 3748 3457 3163 2874 2600 2346 2115 1909 1726 1565 406,4 12,5
457 6 2383 2383 2383 2348 2255 2161 2063 1962 1855 1744 1631 1517 1404 1295 1192 1096 1007 457 6
457 6,3 2513 2513 2513 2475 2377 2277 2174 2066 1953 1836 1716 1595 1476 1361 1252 1151 1058 457 6,3
457 8 3642 3642 3642 3554 3401 3245 3081 2910 2730 2545 2356 2170 1990 1820 1662 1518 1388 457 8
457 10 4532 4532 4532 4421 4229 4033 3829 3614 3390 3157 2922 2689 2465 2253 2057 1878 1716 457 10
457 12 5414 5414 5414 5278 5048 4813 4567 4310 4040 3761 3478 3199 2930 2677 2443 2230 2037 457 12
457 12,5 5633 5633 5633 5491 5252 5006 4750 4482 4200 3909 3615 3325 3045 2781 2538 2316 2116 457 12,5
508 6 2622 2622 2622 2616 2525 2433 2339 2242 2141 2036 1928 1816 1704 1592 1483 1378 1279 508 6
508 6,3 2767 2767 2767 2759 2663 2566 2466 2364 2257 2145 2030 1912 1793 1675 1560 1449 1345 508 6,3
508 8 3586 3586 3586 3570 3443 3315 3184 3048 2907 2760 2607 2452 2295 2140 1990 1846 1710 508 8
508 10 5049 5049 5049 4990 4799 4606 4407 4199 3982 3756 3523 3288 3054 2827 2610 2406 2217 508 10
508 12 6035 6035 6035 5961 5732 5500 5261 5011 4751 4479 4200 3917 3637 3365 3105 2861 2635 508 12
508 12,5 6280 6280 6280 6203 5964 5722 5473 5213 4941 4658 4367 4073 3781 3497 3227 2973 2738 508 12,5
559 6 2856 2856 2856 2856 2788 2699 2608 2514 2418 2318 2214 2108 1998 1888 1778 1669 1564 559 6
559 6,3 3015 3015 3015 3015 2942 2847 2751 2652 2550 2444 2334 2221 2105 1988 1871 1756 1645 559 6,3
559 8 3916 3916 3916 3916 3814 3688 3561 3430 3295 3154 3008 2858 2705 2550 2396 2246 2100 559 8
559 10 5566 5566 5566 5560 5369 5177 4981 4779 4568 4349 4122 3889 3654 3419 3190 2969 2759 559 10
559 12 6655 6655 6655 6645 6416 6186 5951 5707 5454 5191 4918 4639 4356 4075 3800 3536 3284 559 12
559 12,5 6926 6926 6926 6915 6677 6437 6192 5939 5675 5401 5117 4826 4532 4239 3953 3677 3416 559 12,5
610 8 4242 4242 4242 4242 4179 4055 3931 3804 3673 3538 3399 3255 3106 2955 2803 2651 2501 610 8
610 10 5398 5398 5398 5398 5309 5149 4989 4824 4655 4481 4300 4113 3921 3726 3529 3333 3140 610 10
610 12 7276 7276 7276 7276 7100 6871 6638 6400 6153 5898 5633 5359 5080 4797 4516 4239 3970 610 12
610 12,5 7572 7572 7572 7572 7389 7150 6908 6659 6403 6136 5860 5575 5284 4989 4696 4408 4128 610 12,5
610 14,2 8578 8578 8578 8578 8366 8095 7820 7538 7246 6943 6629 6305 5974 5640 5306 4979 4662 610 14,2
660 8 4555 4555 4555 4555 4530 4408 4286 4162 4035 3905 3771 3632 3489 3343 3194 3043 2893 660 8
660 10 5806 5806 5806 5806 5765 5608 5450 5289 5125 4956 4781 4601 4416 4226 4033 3838 3644 660 10
660 12 7884 7884 7884 7884 7770 7541 7310 7075 6833 6584 6325 6058 5784 5504 5222 4940 4661 660 12
660 12,5 8206 8206 8206 8206 8087 7848 7608 7363 7112 6851 6582 6304 6019 5727 5433 5139 4850 660 12,5
660 14,2 9298 9298 9298 9298 9159 8889 8616 8338 8051 7756 7450 7134 6809 6478 6144 5810 5481 660 14,2

711 8 4869 4869 4869 4869 4869 4762 4641 4520 4397 4271 4141 4008 3871 3730 3585 3439 3290 711 8
711 10 6218 6218 6218 6218 6218 6069 5913 5756 5596 5432 5263 5089 4911 4727 4539 4348 4156 711 10
711 12 8504 8504 8504 8504 8453 8225 7995 7763 7525 7280 7028 6768 6500 6225 5945 5663 5380 711 12
711 12,5 8852 8852 8852 8852 8799 8560 8321 8079 7831 7576 7313 7042 6763 6476 6185 5891 5597 711 12,5
711 14,2 10032 10032 10032 10032 9968 9697 9426 9150 8869 8579 8280 7972 7655 7329 6998 6663 6329 711 14,2
762 8 5178 5178 5178 5178 5178 5110 4991 4872 4751 4628 4503 4374 4242 4106 3966 3824 3679 762 8
762 10 6623 6623 6623 6623 6623 6524 6370 6215 6058 5898 5734 5566 5394 5216 5034 4849 4660 762 10
762 12 8068 8068 8068 8068 8068 7936 7746 7555 7361 7164 6962 6754 6540 6321 6096 5866 5633 762 12
762 12,5 8429 8429 8429 8429 8429 8289 8090 7889 7686 7479 7267 7050 6826 6596 6360 6120 5875 762 12,5
762 14,2 10766 10766 10766 10766 10766 10506 10235 9962 9683 9399 9106 8804 8494 8175 7849 7517 7183 762 14,2
813 8 5481 5481 5481 5481 5481 5451 5334 5217 5098 4978 4856 4731 4603 4472 4338 4200 4060 813 8
813 10 7024 7024 7024 7024 7024 6973 6820 6667 6513 6357 6197 6034 5866 5695 5519 5338 5155 813 10
813 12 8565 8565 8565 8565 8565 8493 8304 8115 7925 7731 7534 7332 7125 6912 6694 6471 6243 813 12
287
813 12,5 8951 8951 8951 8951 8951 8872 8675 8477 8278 8075 7868 7656 7439 7216 6988 6754 6515 813 12,5
813 14,2 11500 11500 11500 11500 11500 11315 11045 10773 10497 10216 9928 9633 9329 9017 8697 8370 8039 813 14,2
813 16 12929 12929 12929 12929 12929 12717 12412 12105 11795 11478 11153 10820 10478 10125 9765 9396 9023 813 16
914 10 7800 7800 7800 7800 7800 7800 7694 7544 7394 7243 7090 6935 6776 6614 6448 6279 6105 914 10
914 12 9534 9534 9534 9534 9534 9534 9391 9206 9020 8833 8643 8450 8253 8052 7846 7635 7420 914 12
914 12,5 9967 9967 9967 9967 9967 9967 9815 9621 9426 9230 9031 8828 8622 8411 8195 7974 7748 914 12,5
914 14,2 11440 11440 11440 11440 11440 11440 11254 11030 10804 10577 10347 10112 9873 9628 9378 9121 8859 914 14,2
914 16 14567 14567 14567 14567 14567 14522 14217 13912 13605 13294 12977 12654 12324 11985 11638 11282 10919 914 16
1016 10 8562 8562 8562 8562 8562 8562 8552 8406 8259 8112 7964 7814 7663 7508 7351 7191 7027 1016 10
1016 12 10490 10490 10490 10490 10490 10490 10463 10281 10099 9916 9732 9546 9357 9165 8969 8770 8566 1016 12
1016 12,5 10972 10972 10972 10972 10972 10972 10941 10749 10559 10367 10174 9979 9780 9579 9373 9163 8949 1016 12,5
1016 14,2 12610 12610 12610 12610 12610 12610 12563 12342 12120 11898 11674 11448 11218 10983 10745 10501 10252 1016 14,2
1016 16 14343 14343 14343 14343 14343 14343 14278 14025 13771 13517 13260 13000 12736 12467 12193 11913 11627 1016 16
1219 10 10017 10017 10017 10017 10017 10017 10017 10017 9908 9767 9626 9485 9343 9200 9055 8908 8759 1219 10
1219 12 12328 12328 12328 12328 12328 12328 12328 12328 12172 11997 11821 11644 11466 11287 11105 10922 10735 1219 12
1219 12,5 12906 12906 12906 12906 12906 12906 12906 12906 12739 12554 12369 12184 11997 11808 11618 11425 11228 1219 12,5
1219 14,2 14872 14872 14872 14872 14872 14872 14872 14872 14663 14448 14233 14018 13800 13581 13359 13133 12905 1219 14,2
1219 16 16953 16953 16953 16953 16953 16953 16953 16947 16700 16453 16206 15958 15708 15455 15200 14940 14677 1219 16
Appendix 9.2
d t Nb.Rd (kN) d t
mm mm Lc (m) mm mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Appendix 9.2 DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS
288
Appendix 9.3
Appendix 9.3 Calculation tables for truss joints

This appendix includes formulae for calculating uniplanar lattice structure joints, based on
Eurocode 3 (ENV-1993-1-1:1992) annex K. The tables also include values from references [2]
and [3].
Table Joint type Chord Brace member
9.3.1 T-, Y- and X-joint Square Rectangular
Rectangular Square
Circular
9.3.2 Gap Square Rectangular
N-, K and KT-joint Rectangular Square
Circular
9.3.3 Overlap Square Rectangular
Circular
9.3.4 T-, Y- and X-joint Circular Circular
9.3.5 Gap Circular Circular
N-, K and KT-joint
9.3.6 Overlap Circular Circular
N-, K and KT-joint
9.3.7 Gap I-profile Rectangular
N- and K-joints and Square
T-, Y- and X-joint Circular
9.3.8 Overlap I-profile Rectangular
N- and K-joint Square
Circular
9.3.9 T and X-joint Square Rectangular
bending resistance Rectangular Square
9.3.10 T-, Y- and X-joint Circular Circular
bending resistance
9.3.11 Plate joint Square Plate
Rectangular
9.3.12 Plate joint Circular Plate
with reinforced chord face Rectangular Square
Circular
with reinforced chord web Rectangular Square
Circular
with reinforced chord face Circular
N-, K and KT-joint, Rectangular Square
with reinforced chord web Circular
9.3.17 Overlap Square Rectangular
N- and K-joint, reinforced Rectangular Square
with intermediate plate Circular
289
Appendix 9.3
Symbols
Ai is the cross-sectional area of the chord member

Av is the shear area of the chord
E is the modulus of elasticity for steel
Mip.i.Rd is the design value of the joint bending resistance parallel to the plane of
the joint (table 9.3.9)
Mip.i.Sd is the design value of the bending resistance perpendicular to the plane of
Mop.i.Rd is the design value of the bending resistance perpendicular to the plane of
Mop.i.Sd is the design value of the bending moment perpendicular to the plane of
Ni.Rd is the design value of the joint’s resistance to axial force
Ni.Sd is the design value of the brace member axial force
Wel.i is the elastic section modulus of the brace member
Wpl.i is the plastic section modulus of the brace member
bi is the width of the brace member
b0 is the width of the chord
beff is the effective width of the brace member in calculating the brace member
resistance
be(ov) is the effective width of the overlapping brace member in overlapped joint
be.p is the effective width of the brace member in calculating the shear failure
resistance of the chord
bp is the width of the bracing
bw is the effective width of the chord web with an I profile chord
di is the diameter of the circular brace member
d0 is the diameter of the circular chord
dw is the height of the chord when the chord is an I profile
e is the eccentricity of the joint
fb is the buckling length of the chord web
fyi is the design value of the brace member yield strength
(In Eurocode 3 Annex K, fyi is the design value of yield resistance)
fy0 is the design value of the chord yield strength
(In Eurocode 3 Annex K, fy0 is the design value of yield resistance)
g is the theoretical gap of the joint (table 9.3.2)
ga is the actual gap of the joint (table 9.3.2)
hi is the height of the brace member
i is the number of the brace member (1, 2, 3)
kg is the reduction factor for the resistance of gap and overlap joints with circular
hollow sections
km is the reduction factor for the resistance of joints between plates and square or
rectangular hollow sections
kn is the reduction factor for the resistance of joints with square or rectangular chords
kp is the reduction factor for the resistance of joints with circular hollow
sections
M0.Sd is the design value for the chord bending moment
m is the number of brace members
290
n is the compression stress to yield resistance with square and rectangular

chords
np is the compression stress due to Np.Sd and M0.Sd to the yield resistance with
circular hollow sections
N0.Sd is the design value with the greatest absolute value of the chord axial force
Np.Sd is the normal force passing through the chord joint
r is the rounding radius of the I profile
tf is the thickness of the I profile flange
ti is the wall thickness of the brace member
tp is the thickness of the bracing
tw is the thickness of the I profile
β is the brace member diameter or width to the chord diameter or width.
The width of the brace member is taken as an average if the joint contains
several brace members.
m m
∑ bi ∑ di
β= i =1 tai β = i =1
m ⋅ b0 m ⋅ d0
βp is the brace member width to the bracing width
βp = bi/ bp
γ is the chord width to chord wall thickness divided by two

γ = 0,5d0/ t0,
= 0,5b0/ t0 or
= 0,5b0/ tf
γMj is the partial safety factor for lattice structures
η is the brace member height to the chord width
η = hi/ b0
ηp is the brace member height to the bracing width
ηp = hi/ bp
λov is the relative magnitude of the overlap
λov = q · sin(θi)/ hi
θi is the smaller angle between brace member and chord
In all tables of this appendix, the following limitations apply:
• fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2
• t0 ≥ 2,5 mm
• ti ≥ 2,5 mm
• θi ≥ 30° (also for the angle between brace members)
• -0,55 ≤ e/h0 ≤ 0,25 or -0,55 ≤ e/d0 ≤ 0,25
• the cross-sections of compression elements of members must belong to
Class 1 or 2 when subjected to bending only (section 2.2)
• the brace member ends must not be flattened
Depending on the joint type, the tables may include additional limitations.
291
Table 9.3.1 Resistance of T, Y and X joints. Chords are square or rectangular hollow
sections. Brace members are square, rectangular or circular hollow sections
[1], [3].
N1
h1
θ1
N0 N0
h0
M0 M0
h1
N1 b1
t1
;;
t0
;
b0
292
Resistance Parameters Validity area

β ≤ 0,85, chord face yield Square and rectangular
β = bi / b0 brace members:
k n ⋅ fy0 ⋅ t 0 2  2 η  11
, Brace members in
Ni.Rd =  + 4 1− β  η = hi / b0
(1 − β)sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 general:
Tension chord:

bi + hi
≥ 25 )
kn = 1 1
Compression chord: ti
kn = 1,3- (0,4 / β)n ≤ 1 bi / b0, hi / b0 ≥ 0,25 3)
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  N0.Sd M  0,5 ≤ hi / bi ≤ 2
n=  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0  Tension brace
member:
0,85 < β < 1,0 bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
Use the values β = 0,85 and β =1,0 when calculating Compression brace
the resistance. Resistance is defined by linear member:
interpolation based on the original value of β. bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
3)
β = 1,0, chord web buckling or yield bi hi E
, ≤ 1, 25
fb ⋅ t 0  2hi  11
, Tension chord: fb = fy0 ti ti fyi
Ni.Rd =  + 10t 0  Compression chord:
sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 Circular brace
fb = χ· fyo (T and Y joints)
members:
fb = 0,8χ(sinθi)fy0 (X joints)
Brace members in
χ = reduction factor for buckling general:
using buckling curve when the 0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
slenderness is:
Tension brace
member:
h  fy0 1 3)
10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
λ = 3, 46 0 − 2
 0
t  E(sin θ i ) π Compression brace
member:
0,85 ≤ β ≤ 1 - (1/γ), punching shear failure of the chord face
10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
fy0 ⋅ t 0  2hi 10t 0 ⋅ b1
 11
, b ep = ≤ b1 3)
Ni.Rd =  + 2b ep  b0 di
≤ 1, 5
E
3 sin θi  sin θ i  γ Mj γ M0
⋅ ti fyi
b0
γ=
2t 0 Chords:
b 0 + h0
β > 0,85, brace member failure ≥ 25
t0
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti (2hi − 4ti + 2b eff )
11
, 10b1 ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b eff = ≤ b1 h
0, 5 ≤ 0 ≤ 2
b 0 ⋅ t1 ⋅ fy1 b0
β = 1,0, X joints when θ < 90°, chord shear b 0 h0
, ≤ 35
t0 t0
fy0 ⋅ A v 11
, Av = 2h0 · t0
Ni.Rd =
3 sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
With circular brace members, the resistance values are multiplied by π / 4, and bi and hi are replaced with the
diameter di.
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2, 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
1
These limit values are defined in reference [2].
2)
Eurocode 3 does not define a lower limit for this parameter.
3)
293
Table 9.3.2 Resistance of gap N, K and KT lattice joints. Chords are square or
rectangular hollow sections. Brace members are square, rectangular or
circular hollow sections [1], [3].
b1, 2
N1 N2
;; ;
Det 1
h
g 2
t1, 2
θ1 h1 θ2
M0
; N0
M0 t0
h0
b0
N3
N1 N2
g1 g2
h3 h
2
θ3
h1
θ1 θ2
M0 N0 M0
e
Det 1
Det 1
θ ≤ 60° θ > 60°
ga ga
t0
g g
294

Chord face yield (in KT joints, select the distance between the brace members Square and rectangular
subjected to the greatest load as the gap) brace members:
Brace members in
 m m  m
∑ ∑ ∑ bi
general:
bi +
2 
hi 
fy0 ⋅ t 0  b 0 3)
= 8, 9 i =1 i =1  k 11
,
β= i =1 ,η =
hi η, β ≥ 0,1 +
Ni.Rd n γ
sin θi  2m ⋅ b 0  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 m ⋅ b0 b0 100t 0
  β ≥ 0,35
  m is the number of brace members
  0,5 ≤ hi / bi ≤ 2
γ = b0 /(2t0)
bi + hi
Tension chord: ≥ 25
kn = 1 ti
Compression chord: Tension brace member:
kn = 1,3- (0,4/ β)n ≤ 1 bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  N0.Sd M  Compression brace
n=  + 0.Sd  member:
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0 
bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
Chord shear 3)
bi hi E
fy0 ⋅ A v 11
, Av = (2h0 + α · b0)t0 (square and , ≤ 1, 25
Ni.Rd = rectangular brace members)
ti ti fyi
3 sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
Av = 2h0 · t0 (circular brace Circular brace members:
When VSd > 0,5 Vpl.Rd members) Brace members in
1 fy0 ⋅ A v general:
  2VSd   fy0
2
α= , Vpl.Rd =
 0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
− 1  3 ⋅ γ M0
2
N0.Rd = A0 − A v  1+ 2
4g
  Vpl.Rd   γ M0 Tension
  3t 0
Brace member:
When VSd ≤ 0,5 Vpl.Rd 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
VSd is the chord shear failure at
fy0 Compression brace
N0.Rd = A 0 joint member:
γ M0
10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
Brace member failure 3)
di E
11
, 10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0 ≤ 1, 5
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti (2hi − 4ti + bi + b eff ) b eff = ≤ bi ti fyi
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi
Chords:
0,5 ≤ h0 / b0 ≤ 2
In a KT joint, also check the following conditions:
N1.Rd · sinθ1 ≥ N1.Sd · sinθ1 + N3.Sd · sinθ3 b0 / t0, h0 / t0 ≤ 35
b 0 + h0
N1.Rd · sinθ1 ≥ N2.Sd · sinθ2 ≥ 25 )
1
t0
β ≤ 1- (1/ γ), chord shear failure Gap:

10t 0 ⋅ bi g / b0 ≥ 0,5(1-β)
fy0 ⋅ t 0  2hi  11
, b ep = ≤ b1 g / b0 ≤ 1,5(1-β)
Ni.Rd =  + bi + b ep  b0
3 sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 g ≥ t1+ t2
b0
γ= ga / t0 ≥ 1,51)
2t 0
With circular brace members, the resistance values are multiplied by π/ 4, and bi and hi are replaced with the
diameter di.
If g / b0 > 1,5(1-β), the joint is treated as two separate T or Y joints in calculations.
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
1)
2)
Eurocode 3 does not define a lower limit for this value
3)
295
Table 9.3.3 Resistance of overlap N, K and KT lattice joints. Chords are square or
circular hollow sections [1], [3]. With in the range of validity presented in this
table, only brace member failure is considered a failure mode. The
resistance needs to be checked for the overlapping brace member only.
b1, 2
N1 N2
;; ;
h
2 t1, 2
θ1 h1 θ2
M0 q
; N0
M0 t0
h0
-e
b0
N3
N1 N2
h3
h
2
h1 θ3
θ1 θ2
M0 N0 M0
q1 q2
-e
296

0,25 ≤ λov < 0,5, brace member failure Square and rectangular
brace members:
N and K joints N and K joint: Brace members in general:
[
N1.Rd = fy1 ⋅ t1 2λ ov (2h1 − 4t1) + b eff + b e(ov ) ] 11
,
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 λ ov =
q ⋅ sin(θ1) bi hi
,
b0 b0
≥ 0, 25 3)
h1
KT joints 10b1 ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0 0,5 ≤ hi / bi ≤ 2
b eff = ≤ b1
[
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti 2λ ov (2hi − 4ti ) + b eff + b e(ov ) ]γ 11
,
Mj γ M0
⋅
b 0 ⋅ t1 ⋅ fy1 bi + hi
t i
≥ 25 )
1
10b1 ⋅ t 22 ⋅ fy 2
(i = 1,2) b e(ov ) = ≤ b1 N and K joints:
b 2 ⋅ t1 ⋅ fy1 t1 / t2 ≤ 1,0
KT joint: b1 / b2 ≥ 0,75
q ⋅ sin(θi ) KT joints:
λ ov = i (i = 1,2) t / t ≤ 1,0 (i = 1,2)
hi i 3
b i / b3 ≥ 0,75 (i = 1,2)
10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0
b eff = ≤ bi (i = 1,2) Tension brace member:
b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
2
10bi ⋅ t 3 ⋅ fy 3 Compression brace mem-
b e(ov ) = ≤ b1 (i = 1,2) ber:
b 3 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi
bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
0,5 ≤ λov < 0,8, brace member failure 3)
bi hi E
N and K joints , ≤ 11
,
[ ]γ 11
, ti ti fyi
N1.Rd = fy1 ⋅ t1 2h1 − 4t1 + b eff + b e(ov )
Mj γ M0
⋅ Circular brace members:
KT joints Brace members in general:
0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
[
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti 2hi − 4ti + b eff + b e(ov ) ]γ 11
,
Mj γ M0
⋅ Tension brace member:
10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
(i = 1,2)
Compression brace mem-
λov ≥ 0,8, brace member failure ber:
N and K joints 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
(
N1.Rd = fy1 ⋅ t1 2h1 − 4t1 + b1 + b e(ov ) )γ 11
,
Mj γ M0
⋅
di
≤ 1, 5
E
3)
ti fyi
KT joints
( )γ 11
, Chords:
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti 2hi − 4ti + bi + b e(ov ) 0,5 ≤ h0 / b0 ≤ 2
Mj ⋅ γ M0
b0 / t0, h0 / t0 ≤ 35
(i = 1,2) b 0 + h0
≥ 25 )
1
In a KT joint, also check the following conditions: t0
N1.Rd · sinθ1 ≥ N1.Sd · sinθ1 + N3.Sd · sinθ3
Overlap:
N1.Rd · sinθ1 ≥ N2.Sd · sinθ2
0,25 ≤ λov ≤ 1,0
Overlap:
With circular brace members, the resistance values are multiplied by π/ 4, and bi and hi are replaced with the
diameter di. 0,25 ≤ λov ≤ 1,0
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
1)
2)
Eurocode 3 does not define a lower limit for this value.
3)
297
Table 9.3.4 Resistance of T, Y, and X joints. Chords and brace members are circular
hollow sections [1].
;; ; N1
;;
;
d1 θ1 t1
;;;
;
t0
Np Np
M0 M0
;;
;;
;
d0
;
298

T and Y joints, chord face yield T, Y and X joints:
0,2 ≤ di / d0 ≤ 1,0
β = di / d0
Ni.Rd =
fy0 ⋅ t 0 2
sin θi
(2, 8 + 14, 2β )γ
2 0,2
kp
11
,
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
γ = d0 / (2 t0)
10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50
Tension chord:
kp = 1
Compression chord:
kp = 1,0- 0,3(np + np ) ≤ 1
2
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  Np.Sd M 
np =  + 0.Sd  T and Y joints:
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0 
10 ≤ d0 / t0 ≤ 50
X joints, chord face yield X joints:
fy0 ⋅ t 0 2  5, 2  11
, β = di / d0 10 ≤ d0 / t0 ≤ 40
Ni.Rd =   kp γ = d0 / (2 t0)
sin θi  1 − 0, 81β  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
Tension chorde
kp = 1
Compression chord:
( )
k p = 1, 0 − 0, 3 np + np2 ≤ 1
np =  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy W0 ⋅ fy0 
di ≤ d0 - 2t0, T, Y and X joints, punching shear failure of the chord face

fy0 ⋅ t 0 ⋅ π ⋅ di  1 + sin θ  ,
11
Ni.Rd =  
3  2 sin2 θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm

2
299
Table 9.3.5 Resistance of gap N, K and KT joints. Chords and brace members are
circular hollow sections [1].
N1 N2
d1, 2
;
;;
; ;;;
;; g
d2
; t1, 2
;;;
d1
θ1 θ2
Det 1 t0
Np
M0 M0
;;
;
e
;
d0
N3
N1 N2
g1 g2
;
;
;
d3
d
;
;
θ3 2
d1
θ1 θ2
M0 Np M0
;;;
;
e
Det 1
;
;;
Det 1
θ ≤ 60° θ > 60°
ga ga
t0
g g
300

Chord face yield 0,2 ≤ di / d0 ≤ 1,0
γ = d0 / (2 t0) 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50
fy0 ⋅ t 0 2 11
,
Ni.Rd = (1, 8 + 10, 2β)k g ⋅ k p Tension chord:
sin θ1 γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 10 ≤ d0 / t0 ≤ 50
kp = 1
Compression chord: Gap:
( )≤1
Tension member:
N2.Rd = N1.Rd [sin(θ1)/ sin(θ2)] k p = 1, 0 − 0, 3 np + np2
g ≥ t1+ t2
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  Np.Sd M0.Sd 
np =  A ⋅f + W ⋅f 
0 y 0  ga / t0 ≥ 1,5
1)
11
,  0 y0
 
 0, 024 ⋅ γ 12
, 
k g = γ 0,2 1 + 
 g 
  , 
−133
 1+ e 2t 0  
m
∑ di
β= i =1
m ⋅ d0
m is the number of brace mem-
bers
di ≤ d0 - 2t0, punching shear failure of the chord face

fy0 ⋅ t 0 ⋅ π ⋅ di  1 + sin θ  ,
11
Ni.Rd =  
3  2 sin2 θ  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0

fy ≤ 355 N/ mm , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm

2
1) These limit values are defined in reference [2].
301
Table 9.3.6 Resistance of overlap N, K and KT joints. Chords and brace members
are circular hollow sections [1].
d1, 2
N1 N2
;;
;
;;
;;;;
; θ1
1
d
2
θ2
t1, 2
d
t0
Np M0
;;; ;;;
M0
;;;
q
-e
;
;
; N1
N3
N2
d0
;
;; ;
; ;
;
d3
d2
θ3
d1
θ1 θ2
-e
M0 Np M0
;
;
;
q1 q2
302

Chord face yield 0,2 ≤ di / d0 ≤ 1,0
Compression member: m
10 ≤ d0 / t0 ≤ 50
N1.Rd =
fy0 ⋅ t 0 2
(1, 8 + 10, 2β)k g ⋅ k p
11
, ∑ di 10 ≤ d1 / t1 ≤ 50
β= i =1
sin θ1 γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
m ⋅ d0
m is the number of brace members Overlap:
Tension member: γ = d0 / (2 t0) λov ≥ 0,25
sin(θ1) Tension chord:
N2.Rd = N1.Rd
sin(θ 2 ) kp = 1
Compression chord:
( )
k p = 1, 0 − 0, 3 np + np2 ≤ 1
np =  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0 
 
 
 
 0, 024 ⋅ γ 12 , 
k g = γ 0,2 1 + 
   −q
−
 
  133
, 
  2t 0  
 1 + e 
  
  
q ⋅ sin(θi )
λ ov =
di

fy ≤ 355 N/ mm , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm

2
303
Table 9.3.7 Resistance of T, Y and X joints and gap N and K joints. Chords are I
profiles. Brace members are square, rectangular or circular hollow sections
[1].
N1 N2 b1, 2
h
g 2
t1, 2
1
h
θ1 θ2
;; ;;;
;;;;;
Det 1 r tw
dw
e
tf
; ; h
1
N1
θ1
t1
r
b0
b1, 2
tw
dw
tf
b0
Det 1
θ ≤ 60° θ > 60°
ga ga
tf
g g
304

T, X and Y joints, chord web yield All joint types in the table:
Square and rectangular brace Brace members in
fy0 ⋅ t w ⋅ b w 11
,
Ni.Rd = members: general:
sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 bi + hi
bw = (hi / sinθi)+ 5(tf + r) ≥ 25 )
1
bw ≤ 2ti + 10(tf + r) ti
Circular brace members:
Compression brace
bw = (di / sinθi)+ 5(tf + r)
member:
bw ≤ 2ti + 10(tf + r)
bi hi E
, ≤ 11
,
ti ti fyi
T, X and Y joints, brace member failure di E

10 ≤ ≤ 1, 5
11
,  fyo  ti fyi
Ni.Rd = 2fyi ⋅ ti ⋅ b eff b eff = t w + 2r +   7t f ≤ bi 0r di
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
 fyi  Tension brace
member:
N and K joints, chord web yield hi / ti ≤ 35
bi / ti ≤ 35
fy0 ⋅ t w ⋅ b w 11
,
Ni.Rd = 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
Chords:
N and K joints, brace member failure b0 E
≤ 0, 75
Ni.Rd = 2fyi ⋅ ti ⋅ b eff
11
,  fyo  tf fy0
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b eff = t w + 2r +   7t f ≤ bi or di
 fyi  d w ≤ 400 mm
m m T and Y joints and
∑ bi ∑ di
b0
N and K joints:
Brace members:
β= i = 1 tai i = 1 ,γ =
m ⋅ b0 m ⋅ b0 2t f hi / bi = 1
m is the number of brace members Chords:
Checking is not necessary if the dw E
following conditions are true: ≤ 1, 5
tw fy0
β ≤ 1,0 - (0,03γ)
g/ tf ≥ 20 - (28β), X joints:
Brace members:
Square and rectangular brace
0 ,5 < hi / bi ≤ 2,0
members:
0,75 ≤ b1/ b2 ≤ 1,33 Chords:
Circular brace members: dw E
≤ 1, 2
0,75 ≤ d1/ d2 ≤ 1,33 tw fy0
N and K joints, chord shear Gap:
fy0 ⋅ A v 11
, Av = A0 - (2- α)b0 · tf + (tw + 2r)tf
Ni.Rd = ga ≥ 1,5 tf 1)
3 sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 Square and rectangular brace
members:
1
α=
4 g2
1+
3t 2f
Circular brace members: α = 0
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, ti ≥ 2,5 mm

1)
This limit value is defined in reference [2]
2)
305
Table 9.3.8 Resistance of overlap N, K and KT joints. Chords are I profiles. Brace
members are square, rectangular or circular hollow sections [1]. The
resistance needs to be checked for the overlapping brace member only.
N1 N2 b1, 2
h
2 t1, 2
θ1 θ2
1
h
;;
;; ; q
r tw
dw
-e
; tf
b0
306

0,25 ≤ λov < 0,5, brace member failure Brace members in general:
0,5 < hi / bi ≤ 2,0
[
N1.Rd = fy1 ⋅ t1 2λ ov (2h1 − 4t1) + b eff + b e(ov ) ]γ 11
,
Mj γ M0
⋅
λ ov =
q ⋅ sin θ1
h1 b1/ b2 ≥ 0,75
bi + hi
≥ 25 )
fy0 1
b eff = t w + 2r + 7t f ≤ b1 ti
fyi
10b1 ⋅ t 22 ⋅ fy 2 Compression brace mem-
b e(ov ) = ≤ b1 ber:
b 2 ⋅ t1 ⋅ fy1
bi hi E
, ≤ 11
,
0,5 ≤ λov < 0,8, brace member failure ti ti fyi
[
N1.Rd = fy1 ⋅ t1 2h1 − 4t1 + b eff + b e(ov ) ]γ 11
,
Mj ⋅ γ M0
λ ov =
q ⋅ sin θ1
h1 10 ≤
di
ti
≤ 1, 5
E
fyi
fy0
b eff = t w + 2r + 7t f ≤ b1 Tension brace member:
fyi
hi / ti ≤ 35
10b1 ⋅ t 22 ⋅ fy 2 bi / ti ≤ 35
b e(ov ) = ≤ b1
b 2 ⋅ t1 ⋅ fy1 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
Chords:
λov ≥ 0,8, brace member failure dw E
≤ 1, 2
[
N1.Rd = fy1 ⋅ t1 2h1 − 4t1 + b1 + b e(ov ) ]γ 11
,
Mj ⋅ γ M0
λ ov =
q ⋅ sin θ1
h1
tw fy0
d w ≤ 400 mm
10b1 ⋅ t 22 ⋅ fy 2
b e(ov ) = ≤ b1 b0
≤ 0, 75
E
b 2 ⋅ t1 ⋅ fy1 tf fy0
Overlap:
0,25 ≤ λov ≤ 1,0
With circular brace members, the resistance values are multiplied by π/ 4, and b1 and h1 are replaced with the
section diameter d1.
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
Member 1 = overlapping member
Member 2 = overlapped member
1)
This limit value is defined in reference [2].
2)
307
Table 9.3.9 Bending resistance of T and X joints. Chords and brace members are
square or rectangular hollow sections [1], [3].
Mip.1 Mop.1
h1 b1
M0 N0
;;;
; θ1
N0 M0
t1
t0
h0
b0
308

In-plane bending moment, β ≤ 0,85, chord face yield Brace members in
Mip.1.Rd = β = bi / b0 general:
Tension chord: bi / b0 ≥ 0,25
 (1 − β)b 0 2 h1  11
, kn = 1 0,5 ≤ h1 / b1 ≤ 2
fy0 ⋅ t 0 2 ⋅ h1 + +  kn b1 + h1
 2h1 1 − β b 0 (1 − β)  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 ≥ 25 )
Compression brace member: 1
 0, 4  t1
k n = 1, 3 −  n ≤ 1
 β  Tension brace
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  N0.Sd M  member:
n=  + 0.Sd  b1 / t1, h1 / t1 ≤ 35
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0 
In-plane bending moment, 0,85 < β ≤ 1,0, brace member failure Compression brace
member:
  b   11
, 10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0
Mip.1.Rd = fy1Wpl.1 − 1 − eff  b1 ⋅ h1 ⋅ t1 b eff = ≤ bi b1 / t1, h1 / t1 ≤ 35
  b1   Mj γ M0
γ ⋅ b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi 2)
b1 h1 E
, ≤ 1, 25
t1 t1 fyi
In-plane bending moment, 0,85 < β ≤ 1,0, chord web yield
11
, T joints:
Mip.1.Rd = 0, 5fyk ⋅ t 0 (h1 + 5t 0 )
2 Chords:
γ ⋅γ fyk = fy0
b 0 + h0
≥ 25 )
Mj M0 1
X joints: t0
fyk = 0,8fy0 h
0, 5 ≤ 0 ≤ 2
b0
Out-of-plane bending moment,
β ≤ 0,85, chord face yield [3] b 0 h0
, ≤ 35
t0 t0
 h1(1 + β) 2b 0 ⋅ b1(1 + β)  ,
11
Mop.1.Rd = fy0 ⋅ t 02  +  kn
 (
2 1 − β ) 1 − β  γ Mj γ M0
⋅

0,85 < β ≤ 1,0, brace member failure
  b  
2
11
, 10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0
Mop.1.Rd = fy1Wpl.1 − 0, 5t1 ⋅ b12 1 − eff   b eff = ≤ bi
  b1   Mj γ M0
γ ⋅ b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi

0,85 < β ≤ 1,0, chord web yield
11
, T joints:
Mop.1.Rd = 0, 5fyk ⋅ t 0 (h1 + 5t 0 )(b 0 − t 0 ) fyk = fy0
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
X joints:
fyk = 0,8fy0
T joints, distortion of the chord section
[
Mop.1.Rd = 2fy0 ⋅ t 0 h1 ⋅ t 0 + b 0 ⋅ h0 ⋅ t 0 (b 0 + h0 ) ]γ 11
,
Mj γ M0
⋅
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2, θ ≈ 90°, ti ≥ 2,5 mm, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm

1)
2)
309
Table 9.3.10 Bending resistance of T, Y and X joints. Chords and brace members are
circular hollow sections [1].
Mip.1 Mop.1
;; ;
;;
;
d1 d1
θ1
;;;
;
t1
M0 M0 t0
Np Np
;;
; ;
;
d0
;
310

In-plane bending moment, chord face yield T ,Y and X joints:
kp β = d1/ d0
Mip.1.Rd = 4, 85fy0 ⋅ t 02 ⋅ γ 0,5 ⋅ β ⋅ d1 ⋅
11
, 0,2 ≤ d1 / d0 ≤ 1,0
sin(θ1) γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 γ = d0 / (2 t0)
Tension chord: 10 ≤ d1 / t1 ≤ 50
kp = 1
Compression chord:
( )
k p = 1, 0 − 0, 3 np + np 2 ≤ 1
np =  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0 
Out-of-plane bending moment, T and Y joints:
chord face yield
10 ≤ d0 / t0 ≤ 50
kp 2, 7 11
,
Mop.1.Rd = fy0 ⋅ t 02 ⋅ di ⋅
sin(θi ) 1 − 0, 81β γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
di ≤ d0 - 2 t0, In-plane or out-of-plane bending moment,

punching shear failure of the chord
fyo 1 + 3 sin(θ1) 11
, X joints:
Mip.1.Rd = t 0 ⋅ d12
3 4 sin2 (θ1) γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
10 ≤ d0 / t0 ≤ 40
fyo 3 + sin(θ1) ,
11
Mop.1.Rd = t 0 ⋅ d12
3 4 sin2 (θ1) γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, ti ≥ 2,5 mm, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm

2
311
Table 9.3.11 Joints between plates and square or rectangular hollow sections [1].
Mip.1
N1
;; ; ; ;
h1
t1
M0 N0
; N0 M0 t0
h0
b0
N1
b1
t1
;
t0
h0
b0
312

Plate longitudinal to hollow section Longitudinal plates:
β ≤ 0,85, chord face yield
t1
η = h1 / b0 ≤ 0, 2
fy0 ⋅ t 02   t  11
, b0
N1.Rd =  2η + 4 1−  1   ⋅ k m Tension chord:
t  
 b0   γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
1− 1  km = 1
b0
Compression chord:
Mip.1.Rd = 0, 5N1.Rd ⋅ h1 km = 1,3(1- n) ≤ 1
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  N0.Sd M 
n=  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0 
Plate transverse to hollow section Transverse plates:

0,5 ≤ β ≤ 1,0
b1 ≥ b0 - 2t0, chord web yield
11
,
N1.Rd = fy0 ⋅ t 0 (2t1 + 10t 0 )
b1
β=
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b0
Plate transverse to hollow section

bi ≤ b0 - 2t0, punching shear failure of the chord Chords:
h
0, 5 ≤ 0 ≤ 2
b0
fy0 ⋅ t 0
(2t1 + 2bep ) γ Mj11
, b1
N1.Rd = b ep = 10t 0 ≤ b1 h0
3 ⋅ γ M0 b0 ≤ 35
t0
b0
≤ 30
Plate transverse to hollow section t0
0,5 ≤ β ≤ 1, failure of the plate b 0 + h0 1)
≥ 25
t0
N1.Rd = fy1 ⋅ t1 ⋅ b eff

11
, 10t 02 ⋅ b1 ⋅ fyo
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b eff = ≤ b1
b 0 ⋅ t1 ⋅ fy1
2
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm , t0 ≥ 2,5 mm
1)
This limit value is defined in reference [2].
313
Table 9.3.12 Joints between plates and circular hollow sections [1].
Mip.1
N1
h1
;;; ;;;
t1
t0
;;; M0 Np Np M0
;;;
;
;
;
d0
Mop.1
N1
t1 b1
t0
M0 Np Np M0
;; ;
;; ;
;
;
d0
314

Longitudinal plate on one side of the hollow section, Longitudinal plates:
chord face yield
t1
11
, η = h1 / d0 ≤ 0, 2
N1.Rd = 5k p ⋅ fy0 ⋅ t 02 (1 + 0, 25 η) d0
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 Tension chord:
η≤4
kp = 1
Mip.1.Rd = 0, 5N1.Rd ⋅ h1
Compression chord:
Transverse plates:
Mop.1.Rd = 0
( )
k p = 1, 0 − 0, 3 np + np2 ≤ 1 β ≤ 0,4
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  N0.Sd M 
np =  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0  Chords:
d
Longitudinal plate on both sides of the hollow section, 10 ≤ 0 ≤ 50
t0
chord face yield
11
,
N1.Rd = 5k p ⋅ fy0 ⋅ t 02 (1 + 0, 25 η)
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
Mip.1.Rd = 0, 5N1.Rd ⋅ h1
Mop.1.Rd = 0
Transverse plate on one side of the hollow section,
chord face yield
(
N1.Rd = k p ⋅ fy0 ⋅ t 02 4 + 20β 2 )γ 11
,
Mj ⋅ γ M0
β = b1/ d0
Mop.1.Rd = 0, 5N1.Rd ⋅ b1
Mip.1.Rd = 0
Transverse plate on both sides of the hollow section,

chord face yield
5k p ⋅ fy0 ⋅ t 02 ,
11
N1.Rd =
1 − 0, 81β γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
Mop.1.Rd = 0, 5N1.Rd ⋅ b1
Mip.1.Rd = 0
Longitudinal or transverse plate,

punching shear failure of the chord
 N1.Sd M1.Sd  2t 0 ⋅ fyo 11

,
 +  t1 ≤
 A1 W1.el  3 γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm
315
Table 9.3.13 Resistance of T, Y and X joints with chord flange plate reinforcement.
Chords are square or rectangular hollow sections. Brace members are
square, rectangular or circular hollow sections [1], [3].
N1 b1
h1
t1
θ1
M0
N0
;;; Lp
N0
M0
tp
bp
h0
t0
;
b0
316

Yield in the tie beam surface 4) Square and rectangular
bi brace members:
fyp ⋅ t p2  2 ηp  11
, βp = Brace members in
Ni.Rd =  + 4 1 − βp 
(1− βp )
bp
sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 general:
ηp =
hi hi / b0, bi / b0 ≥ 0,25
bp 0,5 ≤ hi / bi ≤ 2
bi + hi
≥ 25 )
1
ti
Tension brace member:
bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
Buckling or yield in the tie beam web 4) Compression brace
member:
fb ⋅ t 0  2hi  Tension chord:
Ni.Rd = + 10t 0 
11
, bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
 fb = fy0
sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 3)
compression chord: bi hi E
, ≤ 1, 25
fb = χ · fy0 (T and Y joints) ti ti fyi
fb = 0,8χ(sinθi)fy0 (X joints) Circular brace members:
χ = reduction factor for buckling Brace members in
in buckling class C when general:
slenderness is: 0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
h  fy0 1 3) Tension brace member:
λ = 3, 46 0 − 2
 t0  E(sin θi ) π 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
Compression brace
Punching shear failure in the tie beam 4) member:
fyp ⋅ t p  2hi  11
, 10t p ⋅ bi 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
Ni.Rd =  + 2b ep  b ep = ≤ bi 3)
3 sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 bp di E
≤ 1, 5
bp ti fyi
γ=
2t p
Chords:
0,5 ≤ h0 / b0 ≤ 2
Failure in the strut
b0 / t0, h0 / t0 ≤ 35
11
, 10bi ⋅ t p2 ⋅ fyp b 0 + h0
b eff = ≤ bi ≥ 25 )
1
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 bp ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi t0
Plate:
X-joints when θ < 90°, tie beam shear yield 4)
Lp ≥ 1,5 hi / sinθi
fy0 ⋅ A v 11
, Av = 2h0 · t0
Ni.Rd =
3 sin θi Mj γ M0
γ ⋅ bp ≥ b0 - 2t0
Lp ≥
hi
sinθi
(
+ b p b p − bi )
With circular brace members, resistance values are multiplied by π/ 4, and bi and hi are replaced with the
diameter di.
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
1)
2)
3)
4) The values in the table are valid, when β ≤ 0,85. The smallest value calculated from the different failure
p
modes is selected to be the joints strength.
317
Table 9.3.14 Resistance of T, Y and X joints with chord side plate reinforcement. Chords
are square or rectangular hollow sections. Brace members are square,
rectangular or circular hollow sections [1], [3].
N1 b1
h1
t1
θ1
M0
N0
;; ;;; N0
M0 t0
h0
hp
;
;
Lp tp b0
318

β ≤ 0,85, chord face yield Square and rectangular
β = bi/ b0 brace members:
k n ⋅ fy0 ⋅ t 02  2 η  11
, Brace members in
Ni.Rd =  + 4 1− β  η = hi/ b0
(1− β) sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
Tension chord:
general:
hi / b0, bi / b0 ≥ 0,25 3)
kn = 1
0,5 ≤ hi / bi ≤ 2
Compression chord:
bi + hi
kn = 1,3- (0,4/ β)n ≤ 1 ≥ 25 )
1
ti
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  N0.Sd M 
n=  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 fy0  Tension brace
member:
0,85 < β ≤1,0 bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
Calculate the resistance using the values β = 0,85 Compression brace
and β = 1,0. Use the original value of β in linear member:
interpolation. bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
3)
bi hi E
β = 1,0, chord web buckling , ≥ 1, 25
ti ti fyi
( )
fb t 0 + t p  2hi 
Tension chord:
Ni.Rd = 
sin θi  sin θi
(
+ 10 t 0 + t p  )
11
,
 γ Mj ⋅ γ M0
fb = fy0 circular brace members:
brace members in
compression chord:
fb = χ · fy0 (T and Y joints) general:
0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
fb = 0,8χ(sinθi)fy0 (X joints)
χ = reduction factor for buckling in
buckling class C when slenderness 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
is: Compression brace
member:
 h0  fy0 1 3)
λ = 3, 46 − 2 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
t +
 0 p t  E( sin θ i ) π 3)
di E
≤ 1, 5
0,85 ≤ βp ≤ 1- (1/ γ), punching shear failure of the chord ti fyi
fy0 ⋅ t 0  2hi  11
, 10t 0 ⋅ b1
Ni.Rd = + 2b ep  b ep = ≤ b1
 b0
3 sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 Chords:
b 0,5 ≤ h0 / b0 ≤ 2
γ= 0
2t 0 b0 / t0, h0 / t0 ≤ 35
b 0 + h0
≥ 25 )
1
t0
βp > 0,85, brace member failure
Plate:
11
, 10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0
b eff = ≤ bi Lp ≥ 1,5 hi / sinθi
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi
β = 1,0, X-joints, when θ < 90°, chord shear

fyo ⋅ A v 0 + fyp ⋅ A vp 11
, Av0 = 2h0 · t0
Ni.Rd =
3 sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 Avp = 2hp · tp
diameter di.
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
1)
2)
3)
319
Table 9.3.15 Resistance of gap K, N and KT joints with chord flange plate reinforcement.
square, rectangular or circular hollow sections [1].
b1, 2
N1 N2
;;;
Det 1
g h
2
t1, 2
1
h
θ1 θ2
; M0 bp
tp
M0
N0
h0
t0
e
Lp b0
N3
N1 N2
g1 g2
h3 h2
θ3
1
h
θ1 θ2
M0
tp
M0 N0
Det 1
e
Lp
Det 1 θ ≤ 60° θ > 60°
ga ga
tp
t0
g g
320

Brace members in general:
 m m  m b 0 3)

fyp ⋅ t p2 
∑ ∑
bi + hi  ∑ bi η, β ≥ 0,1+
100t 0
= 8, 9 i =1 i =1  k 11
,
β= i =1 , η=
hi
Ni.Rd n γ β ≥ 0,35
sin θi  2m ⋅ bp  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 m ⋅ b0 b0
  0,5 ≤ hi / bi ≤ 2
 
  m is the number of brace members bi + hi
≥ 25 )
1
γ = b0/(2t0) ti
Tension chord:
kn = 1
bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
Compression chord:
Compression brace
kn = 1,3- (0,4/ β)n ≤ 1
member:
γ M0 ⋅ γ Mj  N0.Sd M0.Sd  bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
n=  A ⋅f + W ⋅f  3)
11
,  0 y0 0 y0  bi hi E
, ≤ 1, 25
Chord shear ti ti fyi
fy0 ⋅ A v 11
, Av = (2h0+ α · b0)t0 (square and Circular brace members:
Ni.Rd =
3 sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 rectangular brace members) Brace members in general:
Av = 2h0 · t0 (circular brace mem- 0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
When VSd > 0, 5Vpl.Rd bers) Tension brace member:
  2V   fy0
2
1 fyo ⋅ A v 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 502)
N0.Rd = A 0 − A v  Sd − 1  α= , Vpl.Rd =
  Vpl.Rd   γ M0 4g 2 3 ⋅ γ M0 Compression brace
  1+ member:
3t 02
fy0 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
When VSd ≤ 0, 5Vpl.Rd , N0.Rd = A 0 VSd is the chord shear force at 3)
γ M0 di
≤ 1, 5
E
joint
ti fyi
In a KT joint, also check the following conditions: Chords:
N1.Rd · sinθ1 ≥ N1.Sd · sinθ1 + N3.Sd · sinθ3 0,5 ≤ h0 / b0 ≤ 2
b0 / t0, h0 / t0 ≤ 35
b 0 + h0
≥ 25 )
Brace member failure 1
t0
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti (2hi − 4ti + bi + b eff )
11
, 10bi ⋅ t p2 ⋅ fyp
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b eff = ≤ bi
bp ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi Plate:
m h m −1 
βp ≤ 1- (1/ γ), punching shear failure of the chord
∑
L p ≥ 1, 5  i
+ ∑ gi 
 i =1 sinθi i =1 
bp ≥ b0- 2t0, tp ≥ 2ti
fyp ⋅ t p  2hi  11
, 10t p ⋅ bi
Ni.Rd =  + bi + b ep  b ep = ≤ bi Gap:
3 sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 bp
g / b0 ≥ 0,5(1-β)
bp g / b0 ≤ 1,5(1-β)
γ=
2t p g ≥ t1 + t2
ga ≥ 1,5tp1)
diameter di . If g/ b0 > 1,5(1-β), the joint is treated as two separate T or Y joints in the calculation.
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
1)
2)
3)
321
Table 9.3.16 Resistance of gap K, N and KT joints with chord side plate reinforcement.
square, rectangular or circular hollow sections [1], [3].
N1 N2 b1, 2
;;;
Det 1
h
g 2
t1, 2
1
θ1 θ2
h
;;
M0 M0
; N0 t0
hp
h0
;
e
Lp tp b0
N3
N1 N2
g1 g2
h3 h2
θ3 θ2
1
θ1
h
M0 N0 M0
Det 1
e
Lp
Det 1 θ ≤ 60° θ > 60°
ga ga
t0
g g
322

 m m  m b 0 3)
2 
fy0 ⋅ t 0 
∑ bi + ∑ hi 
 11
,
∑ bi
h
η, β ≥ 0,1 +
100t 0
i =1 i =1 β= i =1 , η= i
Ni.Rd = 8, 9 kn γ β ≥ 0,35
sin θi  2m ⋅ b 0  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 m ⋅ b0 b0
  0,5 ≤ hi / bi ≤ 2
  m is the number of brace bi + hi
 
≥ 25 )
1
members ti
Tension chord:
kn = 1
bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
Compression chord:
Compression brace
kn = γ1,3- ⋅(0,4/ β)n ≤ 1
M0 γ Mj  N0.Sd M  member:
n=  + 0.Sd 
11
,  A 0 ⋅ fy0 W0 ⋅ fy0  bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
3)
Chord shear bi hi E
, ≤ 1, 25
fy0 ⋅ A v 0 + fyp ⋅ A vp 11
, Av0 = (2h0+ α · b0)t0 ti ti fyi
Ni.Rd = Avp = 2hp · tp
3 sin θi γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 Circular brace members:
(square and rectangular brace Brace members in general:
When VSd > 0, 5VRd members) 0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
  2VSd   fy0
2 Av0 = 2h0 · t0 Tension brace member:
N0.Rd 
= A 0 − A v0  − 1  +

Avp = 2hp · tp 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
 Vpl.Rd   γ M0
  (circular brace members) Compression brace member:
    f
2
1 10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
2hp ⋅ t p − A vp 2VSd − 1  yp α=
 V  4 g2
3)
 pl.Rd   γ M0 1+
di
≤ 1, 5
E
  3t 02 ti fyi
When VSd ≤ 0, 5VRd fy0 ⋅ A vo + fyp ⋅ A vp Chords:
Vpl.Rd = 0,5 ≤ h0 / b0 ≤ 2
fy0 fyp 3 ⋅ γ M0
N0.Rd = A 0 + 2hp ⋅ t p
γ M0 γ M0 VSd is the chord shear force at b0 / t0, h0 / t0 ≤ 35
b 0 + h0
joint ≥ 25 )
1
Brace member failure t0
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti (2hi − 4ti + bi + b eff )

11
, 10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0 Plate:
γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b eff = ≤ bi
b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi m h m −1 

∑
L p ≥ 1, 5  i
+ ∑ gi 
 i =1 sinθi i =1 
Gap:
βp ≤ 1- (1/ γ), punching shear of chord g/ b0 ≥ 0,5(1-β)
10t 0 ⋅ bi g/ b0 ≤ 1,5(1-β)
fy0 ⋅ t 0  2hi  11
, b ep = ≤ bi
Ni.Rd =  + bi + b ep  g ≥ t1+ t2
3 sin θi  sin θi  γ Mj ⋅ γ M0 b0
b0 ga ≥ 1,5t01)
γ=
2t 0
With circular brace members, the resistance values are multiplied by π / 4, and bi and hi are replaced with the
diameter di. If g/ b0 > 1,5(1-β), the joint is treated as two separate T or Y joints in the calculation.
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, t0 ≥ 2,5 mm, ti ≥ 2,5 mm
1)
These limit values are defined in referencereference [2].
2)
3)
These limit values are defined in referencereference [3].
323
Table 9.3.17 Resistance of reinforced overlap N and K joints. Chords are square or
circular hollow sections [1]. In the validity area presented in this table, only
the brace member failure is a governing failure mode.
b1, 2
N1 h1 N2
h2
M0
θ1
tp
;;;
;
q
θ2
N0 M0
t1, 2
bp
h0
t0
-e
b0
324

0,25 ≤ λov < 0,5, brace member failure Square and rectangular
brace members:
[
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti 2λ ov (2hi − 4ti ) + b eff + b e(ov ) ]γ 11
,
Mj ⋅ γ M0
λ ov =
q ⋅ sin θi
hi
bi hi
, ≥ 0, 25 3)
10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0 b0 b0
b eff = ≤ bi
b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi
0,5 < hi / bi ≤ 2,0
10bi ⋅ t p2 ⋅ fyp bi + hi
≥ 25 )
1
b e(ov ) = ≤ bi
bp ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi ti
0,5 ≤ λov < 0,8, brace member failure b1 / bp ≥ 0,75
[ ]γ q ⋅ sin θi
11
, Tension brace member:
Ni.Rd = fyi ⋅ ti 2hi − 4ti + b eff + b e(ov ) λ ov = bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
Mj ⋅ γ M0 hi
Compression brace
10bi ⋅ t 02 ⋅ fy0
b eff = ≤ bi member:
b 0 ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi bi / ti, hi / ti ≤ 35
3)
10bi ⋅ t p2 ⋅ fyp bi hi E
b e(ov ) = ≤ bi , ≥ 11
,
bp ⋅ ti ⋅ fyi ti ti fyi
Circular brace members:

0,4 ≤ di / b0 ≤ 0,8
10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
Compression brace
member:
10 ≤ di / ti ≤ 50 2)
3)
di E
≤ 1, 5
With circular brace members, the resistance values are multiplied by π/ 4, and bi ti fyi
and hi are replaced with the diameter di.
Chords:
fy ≤ 355 N/ mm2 , 30° ≤ θi ≤ 90°, ti ≥ 2,5 mm t0 ≥ 2,5 mm 0,5 ≤ h0 / b0 ≤ 2
1)
These limit values are defined in reference [2]. b0 / t0, h0 / t0 ≤ 40
2)
b 0 + h0
≥ 25 )
3) 1
t0
Plate:
tp ≥ 2ti
Overlap:
0,25 ≤ λov < 0,8
325
References
[1] ENV 1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu: Liite K: Putkipalkeista
valmistettujen tasoristikoiden liitokset, 1994
(ENV 1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Annex K: Hollow section lattice
girder connections, 1994)
[2] CIDECT: Project 5AQ/2: Cold formed RHS in arctic steel structures, Final report 5AQ-5-96,
1996
[3] CIDECT: CIDECT: Design guide for rectangular hollow section joints under predominantly
static loading, Verlag TÜV Rheinland GmbH, Köln 1992
326
Appendix 9.4
Appendix 9.4 Estimating the stiffness of moment connections

In framed structures, the stiffness of the joints can be taken into account, and the bending
moments transferred across the joint. This reduces the span moments and therefore produces
an efficient design. The following formulae are obtained for the bending moments of a beam
subjected to uniform load and with a semi-rigid joint at both ends, when the supports are
assumed non-deflecting [1]:
2
 c  q ⋅L
M1 =   (restraint moment) (9.4.1)
 c + 2  12
2
 c + 6  q ⋅ L (field moment)
M0 =   (9.4.2)
 c + 2  24
where
Sj ⋅ L
c=
E ⋅I
Sj is the rotational stiffness of the joint

L is the length of the section
I is the second moment of area of the section
Sj Sj
q
M1 M1
M0
Figure 9.4.1 A beam with semi-rigid joints.
The rotational stiffness of a welded T joint in square and rectangular hollow sections can be
determined according to the guidance in reference [2]:
1000 ⋅ C* ⋅ t 03
Sj = (9.4.3)
52
where
Sj is the rotational stiffness of the joint (Nm/Rad)

t0 is the wall thickness of the hollow section (mm)
C* is the constant obtained from figures 9.4.3- 9.4.7 (N/ mm2)
327
Appendix 9.4
With square hollow sections, the constant C* is taken from figure 9.4.3 when b1/ b0 is less than
or equal to 0.7. In other cases, it is taken from figures 9.4.4- 9.4.7.
With rectangular hollow sections, the constant C* is calculated as for square hollow sections.
This result is multiplied by the correction factor shown in figure 9.4.7.
Formula (9.4.3) yields for rotational stiffness an approximation which best corresponds with the
bending moment values of the joint, up to the yield moment (Mel.c) of the joint.
Mc
Mel.c
Sj
Ø
Figure 9.4.2 The moment-rotation curve of a semi-rigid joint.
328
1000/ C*
b1
25
h1
t1
20
t0
h0
t0
/t
15 1=
2, b0
1,7 0
5
1,5
1,2
5
10 1,0
0,7
5
0,5
0,4 0,45 0,50 0,55 0,60 0,65 0,70 b1/b0
Figure 9.4.3 Values of constant 1000/ C* for T joints in square hollow sections,
when b1/ b0 ≤ 0,7 and b0/ t0 ≥ 10 [2].
329
1000· C* b0/t0 = 15 1000· C* b0/t0 = 20

b1/b0 ≥ 0,7 b1/b0 ≥ 0,7
2,0 2,0 0,5
0,5
1,5 1,5 0,75

t0 / t 1 0,75 t0 / t 1
1,0
1,0 1,0
1,25 1,0
1,5
1,5
2,0 2,0
0,5 0,5 3,0
3,0
0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 b1/b0 0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 b1/b0
Figure 9.4.4 Values of constant C* for T joints in square hollow sections,

when b1/ b0 ≥ 0,7 and b0/ t0 = 15 or b0/ t0 = 20 [2].
1000· C* 1000· C*
b0/t0 = 25 b0/t0 = 30
b1/b0 ≥ 0,7 b1/b0 ≥ 0,7 0,5
2,5 2,5
0,5
2,0 2,0 0,75

0,75 t0 / t 1
t0 / t 1
1,5 1,5 1,0
1,0
1,5
1,0 1,5 1,0
2,0
2,0 3,0
0,5 3,0 0,5
0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 b1/b0 0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 b1/b0

330
1000· C* b0/t 0 = 35 1000· C* b0/t 0 = 40

b1/b0 ≥ 0,7
b1/b0 ≥ 0,7 0,5
4,0 4,0
0,5
0,75
3,0 3,0
t0 / t 1
1,0
t0 / t 1 0,75
2,0 1,0 2,0 1,5
2,0
1,5
3,0
1,0 2,0 1,0
3,0
0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 b1/b0 0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 b1/b0

C* / C*
5 h1
4
b1 b1 h1
b1/h1
0 0,25 0,5 0,75 1,0 1,25 1,5 1,75
Figure 9.4.7 Values of constant C* for rectangular hollow sections to those for square,
hollow sections [2].
331
References
[1] ECCS: Technical Committee 8- Structural stability- Technical working group 8.1/ 8.2 Skele-
tal structures: Analysis and design of steel frames with semi-rigid joints, First edition 1992
[2] Mang, F et al: The development of recommendations for the design of welded joints bet-
ween steel structural hollow sections (T- and X- type joints). Final Report No. 5 AD. CI-
DECT Düsseldorf, 1983
332
Appendix 9.5
Appendix 9.5 Fatigue categories

Tables 9.5.1-9.5.4 present the fatigue categories for hollow sections which are valid when
using the nominal stress method in fatigue design.
Table 9.5.1 Fatigue categories for hollow sections and splice joints [3].
Fatigue category Structure Description
140 Cold-formed machine-welded hollow
sections.
;; ;;;;
Weld must be free from defects [1] with no
stop/start positions.
71
; ;; ;
;
End-to-end joint with circular hollow
sections.

;
discontinuities.
The height of the weld convexity must not

be greater than 10% of the weld width, with
smooth transition to section surface.
;
A fatigue category of 90 can be selected if
the wall thickness is greater than 8 mm.
56 End-to-end joint with square and
;
rectangular hollow sections.
discontinuities.
The height of the weld convexity must not

be greater than 10% of the weld width, with
smooth transition to section surface.

;
50 End-to-end joint with intermediate plate with

; ;
circular hollow sections.

;;

discontinuities.

333
;; ; ;; ;
45 End-to-end joint with intermediate plate with
;
;; ;; ;;
square and rectangular hollow sections.
discontinuities.
40
36
;
;; ; ; End-to-end joint with intermediate plate
(fillet weld) with circular hollow sections.
Wall thickness is less than 8 mm.
End-to-end joint with intermediate plate (fil-

let weld) with square and rectangular hollow
sections.
Wall thickness is less than 8 mm.
71 Hollow section welded directly to another

;
cross-section.
Weld is non-load-carrying.
The cross-section width parallel to stress is

less than 100 mm.
≤ 100 mm
;
334
Table 9.5.2 Fatigue categories for hollow section-to-plate joints [3].

80 L ≤ 50 mm Longitudinal non-load-carrying plates
welded to hollow section.
71 50 < L ≤ 100mm
50 L > 100 mm
80
71
;;;;
;
t ≤ 12 mm
t > 12 mm
; L
> 10 mm
t
> 10 mm
Transverse non-load-carrying plates welded
to hollow section.
Welds end at a minimum distance of 10 mm

from the hollow section edge.
80 Shear connectors welded to hollow section

flange.
;
335
Table 9.5.3 Fatigue categories for joints of hollow section lattice structures [3].
90 t0 / ti ≥ 2,0 N1 N2 Gap K or N joints. Members are
;;;;
circular hollow sections.
45 t0 / ti = 1 d1,2
ga 1)
d1 d2 ga ≥ 1,5t0
;
;; ;
Intermediate
θ1
t1,2
;
;;
71
36
values
determined by
linear
;
interpolation
t0 / ti ≥ 2,0
t0 / ti = 1
Intermediate
values
determined by
linear
interpolation
h0
d0
N1
;; ;
θ1
; e
e
h1
ga
N0
h2
N0
g
g
θ2
t0
N2
θ2
t1,2
b1,2
t0
b0
Gap K or N joints. Members are
square and rectangular hollow
sections.
The gap must meet the following
conditions:
0,5(b0- b1) ≤ g ≤ 1,1(b0- b1)
g ≥ 2 t0
ga ≥ 1,5t0
1)
71 t0 / ti ≥ 1,4 Overlap K joints with overlap

between
56 t0 / ti = 1 N1 N2 b1,2 0,3 ≤ λov ≤ 1,0
Intermediate h1 h2 Square and rectangular hollow

t1,2 sections:
values θ1 θ2
determined by q · sin(θ )
linear q t0 λov = q / sin(θ11)h1
h1
h0
interpolation
-e
N0
Circular hollow sections:
;
b0 q · sin(θ1)
λov =
d1
N1 N2 d1,2
;
; ; ;;
; ;;
d1 d2 t1,2
;;
θ1 θ2
t0
N0
d0
-e
336
71 t0 / ti ≥ 1,4 Overlap N joints

N1 N2 b1,2
50 t0 / ti = 1 h1
;;
h2
Intermediate t1,2
θ1 θ2
values
determined by q N0 t0
linear h0
-e
interpolation
;;;;
;;; ;
;;
d0
;
N1
d1
θ1
q
N0
d2
N2
-e
θ2
t1,2
t0
d1,2
b0
Validity area of this table:

0,4 ≤ bi / b0 ≤ 1,0, 0,25 ≤ di / d0 ≤ 1,0
b0 ≤ 200 mm, d0 ≤ 200 mm
-0,5 h0 ≤ e ≤ 0,25 h0
-0,5 d0 ≤ e ≤ 0,25 d0
t0 ≤ 12,5 mm, ti ≤ 12,5 mm
35° ≤ θ ≤ 50°, b0 / t0 ≤ 25
b 0 + h0 bi + hi 1)
, ≥ 25
t0 ti
Eccentricity perpendicular to lattice plane: eop < 0,02b0 and eop < 0,02d0
Fillet welds allowed when ti ≤ 8 mm
1) These limit values are determined in reference [2].
337
Appendix 9.5
Table 9.5.4 Fatigue categories for bolted joints [3].

112 Bolted joint with prestressed or non-
prestressed bolts transferring shear force.
Resistance for prestressed bolts is
determined by gross cross-section and for
non-prestressed bolts by tension area.
100 Bolted joint with bearing type adjusting bolts

Adjusting bolt transferring shear force.
Bolt resistance is determined by gross cross-
;; section.
36 Bolted joint transferring tensile force.
Bolt resistance is determined by tension

area.
;
References
[1] ENV 1090-1: Teräsrakenteiden valmistus ja asennus. Osa 1: Yleiset säännöt ja raken-
nuksia koskevat säännöt, 1996
(ENV 1090-1: Execution of steel structures- Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings,
1996)
[2] CIDECT: Project 5AQ/2: Cold formed RHS in arctic steel structures,
Final report 5AQ-5-96, 1996
[3] SFS-ENV 1993-1-1:Eurocode 3: Teräsrakenteiden suunnittelu. Osa 1-1: Yleiset säännöt

ja rakennuksia koskevat säännöt, 1993
338
Appendix 9.6
Appendix 9.6 Cross-section factors in fire design

The calculation of cross-section factors is presented in this appendix as general formulae. The
cross-section factors for hollow sections exposed to fire on all sides are given in the tables in
Appendix 9.1.
9.6.1 Hollow section exposed to fire on all sides
;
;;;; Fire protection follows
the surface Am / V
t
h
Fire protection does not follow
the surface Am / V
h
ri ri
;
r0 r0
b
b
;
t
d
Hollow section Am / V Ap / V
Square or 2(b + h − 4r0 + πr0 ) 2(b + h)
rectangular 2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) (r02 − ri2 ) (

2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
Circular d
d ⋅ t − t2
339
9.6.2 Hollow section exposed to fire on three sides

the surface Am / V
t
the surface Am / V
;; r0
ri
b
h
r0
ri
h
;
t t
b
b
ri ri
r0 r0
h h
Square (b + 2h − 6r0 + 2πr0 ) b + 2h
2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) (
r02 − ri2 ) (
2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
Rectangular with (b + 2h − 6r0 + 2πr0 ) b + 2h
non-exposed short side 2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π)(r02 − ri2 ) (

2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
Rectangular with (2b + h − 6r0 + 2πr0 ) 2b + h
non-exposed long side 2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π)(r02 − ri2 ) (

2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
340
9.6.3 Hollow section exposed to fire on two opposite sides

the surface Am / V
t
the surface Am / V
;; r0
ri
b
h
r0
ri
h
;
t t
b
b
ri ri
r0 r0
h h
Square (2h − 4r0 + 2π ⋅ r0 ) 2h
2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π)(r02 − ri2 ) (
2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
Rectangular with (2h − 4r0 + 2π ⋅ r0 ) 2h
non-exposed short sides 2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π)(r02 − ri2 ) (

2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
Rectangular with (2b − 4r0 + 2π ⋅ r0 ) 2b
non-exposed long sides 2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π)(r02 − ri2 ) (

2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
341
9.6.4 Hollow section exposed to fire on two adjacent sides
;; Fire protection follows

the surface Am / V
t
the surface Am / V
;
Hollow section
Square or
rectangular
r0
Am / V
ri
b
h
(b + h − 4r0 + 1, 5π ⋅ r0 )
2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π)(r02 − ri2 )
r0
ri
Ap / V
b
b+h
h
(
2t(b + h − 2t) − (4 − π) r02 − ri2 )
342
Appendix 9.7
Appendix 9.7 Minimum bending radii for square and

rectangular hollow sections
Tables 9.7.1 and 9.7.2 present the minimum bending radii for square and rectangular hollow
sections when bending is made in room temperature with three-roller cold bending. The values
;;
in these tables are guideline minimum values that can be obtained with good equipment
and careful workmanship.
Table 9.7.1 Guideline values for minimum bending radii of square hollow sections
in three-roller cold bending [1]
b b1 Pb is the flow of cross-section [%]
b1 − b
t Pb = 100
b Pe is the inverted deflection of the compression flange [%]
h2
h1
y y y y e Rt is internal bending radius [m]

h
;h
mm
40
50
50
60
60
70
70
80
80
80
90
b
mm
40
50
50
60
60
70
70
80
80
80
90
t
mm
4,0
4,0
5,0
4,0
5,0
4,0
5,0
4,0
5,0
6,3
4,0
Pb = 1 %
Rt
m
1,44
2,88
2,72
5,07
4,79
8,17
7,72
12,36
11,68
11,02
17,80
%
e
a) before bending b) after bending
Ired Rt
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
Pb = 2,5 %
m
0,31
0,61
0,58
1,08
1,02
1,74
1,65
2,64
2,49
2,35
3,80
Ired Rt
%
1
2
1
2
2
3
2
3
3
2
3
Pe = 100
m
h
Pb = 5 %
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,34
0,32
0,54
0,51
0,82
0,77
0,73
1,18
%
1
3
2
3
3
5
3
6
5
3
7
Ired is the reduction of the second moment of inertia
Iy due to cross-sectional distortion [%]
Ired Rt
Pb = 7,5 %
m
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,27
0,26
0,41
0,39
0,73
0,60
%
1
3
2
5
3
7
6
8
7
5
10
Pe = 0,5 %
Ired Rt
m
0,22
0,79
0,43
2,55
1,37
6,85
3,68
16,12
8,66
4,55
34,29
Ired Rt
%
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Pe = 1 %
m
0,22
0,29
0,22
0,95
0,51
2,55
1,37
5,99
3,22
1,69
12,75
%
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Pe = 2,5 %
Ired Rt
m
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,26
0,22
0,69
0,37
1,62
0,87
0,46
3,45
Ired Rt
%
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
Pe = 5 %
m
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,26
0,22
0,60
0,32
0,22
1,28
Ired
%
8
7
8
7
7
7
7
6
7
7
6
90 90 5,0 16,83 2 3,59 3 1,11 6 0,56 8 18,42 1 6,85 2 1,85 4 0,69 7
90 90 6,3 15,87 1 3,38 3 1,05 4 0,53 6 9,68 1 3,60 2 0,97 4 0,36 7
100 100 4,0 24,67 2 5,26 4 1,63 8 0,82 12 67,38 1 25,05 2 6,77 3 2,52 6
100 100 5,0 23,32 2 4,97 4 1,54 6 0,78 9 36,20 1 13,46 2 3,64 4 1,35 6
100 100 6,3 22,00 1 4,69 3 1,46 6 0,74 7 19,03 1 7,07 2 1,91 4 0,71 7
100 100 8,0 20,71 1 4,42 2 1,37 3 0,69 6 9,78 1 3,64 2 0,98 4 0,37 7
120 120 4,0 43,41 3 9,26 6 2,88 12 1,45 18 216,84 1 80,60 2 21,79 3 8,10 6
120 120 5,0 41,03 3 8,75 5 2,72 8 1,37 13 116,51 1 43,31 2 11,71 3 4,35 6
120 120 6,3 38,70 2 8,25 4 2,56 7 1,29 11 61,23 1 22,76 2 6,15 4 2,29 7
120 120 8,0 36,44 1 7,77 3 2,41 6 1,22 7 31,49 1 11,70 2 3,16 4 1,18 7
150 150 5,0 81,91 3 17,47 7 5,43 13 2,74 20 487,11 1 181,06 2 48,94 3 18,19 6
150 150 6,3 77,27 3 16,48 5 5,12 9 2,58 14 255,98 1 95,15 2 25,72 3 9,56 6
150 150 8,0 72,75 2 15,51 4 4,82 7 2,43 11 131,64 1 48,93 2 13,23 4 4,92 7
150 150 10,0 68,76 2 14,66 3 4,55 6 2,30 8 70,73 1 26,29 2 7,11 4 2,64 7
180 180 6,3 123,65 3 20,04 6 5,06 11 2,26 17 831,60 1 251,71 2 51,86 3 15,70 6
180 180 8,0 81,47 3 13,21 6 3,33 10 1,49 15 416,40 1 126,03 2 25,96 4 7,86 6
180 180 10,0 55,18 3 8,94 6 2,26 10 1,01 14 218,22 1 66,05 2 13,61 4 4,12 7
200 200 6,3 176,76 3 28,66 6 7,24 10 3,23 16 1046,76 1 316,83 2 65,27 3 19,76 6
200 200 8,0 116,47 3 18,88 5 4,77 9 2,13 14 524,13 1 158,64 2 32,68 3 9,89 6
200 200 10,0 78,88 3 12,79 5 3,23 9 1,44 13 274,69 1 83,14 2 17,13 4 5,18 7
250 250 6,3 376,81 3 61,08 5 15,42 9 6,89 14 1704,11 1 515,80 2 106,26 3 32,16 6
250 250 8,0 248,27 3 40,25 4 10,16 8 4,54 12 853,27 1 258,27 2 53,21 3 16,10 6
250 250 10,0 168,15 2 27,26 4 6,88 7 3,08 10 447,18 1 135,35 2 27,88 3 8,44 6
300 300 8,0 460,71 2 74,69 4 18,86 7 8,43 11 1270,17 1 384,45 2 79,20 3 23,97 6
300 300 10,0 312,03 2 50,58 3 12,77 6 5,71 9 665,71 1 201,50 2 41,51 3 12,56 6
343
;;
Appendix 9.7
t
b
Table 9.7.2 Guideline values for minimum bending radii of rectangular hollow sections
in three-roller cold bending [1]
b1
h2
b1 − b
b
Pb =100
Pb is the flow of cross-section [%]
Pe is the inverted deflection of the compression flange [%]
Rt is internal bending radius [m]
h1
e
;H
y
mm
50
60
80
80
90
90
100
100
100
100
100
120
120
120
120
120
120
150
150
150
B
mm
30
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
60
60
60
60
60
60
80
80
80
100
100
100
y
T
h
mm m
4,0
4,0
4,0
5,0
4,0
5,0
4,0
5,0
4,0
5,0
6,3
4,0
5,0
6,3
4,0
5,0
6,3
4,0
5,0
6,3
y
Pb = 1 %
Rt
2,18
4,07
8,48
8,01
12,93
12,22
16,92
15,99
18,69
17,66
16,66
29,77
28,14
26,54
34,81
32,90
31,04
69,50
65,69
61,97
e
% m
y
a) before bending b) after bending
Ired Rt
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
Pe = 100
0,47
0,87
1,81
1,71
2,76
2,61
3,61
3,41
3,98
3,77
3,55
6,35
6,00
5,66
7,42
7,02
6,62
3 14,82
3 14,01
2 13,21
h
% m
1
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
4
3
3
5
5
3
0,22
0,27
0,56
0,53
0,86
0,81
1,12
1,06
1,24
1,17
1,10
1,97
1,86
1,76
2,31
2,18
2,06
Ired is the reduction of the second moment of inertia
Iy due to cross-sectional distortion [%]
Pb = 2,5 % Pb = 5 %
Ired Rt
% m
4,60 11
4,35
4,10
2
3
3
3
4
3
5
3
5
4
3
5
5
3
7
6
4
8
6
Pb = 7,5 %
Ired Rt
0,22
0,22
0,28
0,27
0,43
0,41
0,57
0,53
0,62
0,59
0,56
1,00
0,94
0,89
% m
2
3
4
3
5
4
5
Pe = 0,5 %
Ired Rt
0,26
1,06
3,59
1,93
9,61
5,16
5 15,02
8,07
7 22,30
6 11,98
4
1,16 11 90,14
1,10
1,04
6,30
8 48,35
6 25,98
6 13,65
9 48,43
6 25,45
2,32 18 376,84
2,20 12 202,48
2,07 9 106,41
% m
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Pe = 1 %
Ired Rt
0,22
0,39
1,34
0,72
3,57
1,92
5,58
3,00
8,29
4,45
2,34
1 17,97
1 9,66
5,07
1 33,50
1 18,00
9,46
1 140,08
1 75,26
1 39,55
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
Pe = 2,5 %
Ired Rt
% m
0,22
0,22
0,36
0,22
0,97
0,52
1,51
0,81
2,24
1,20
0,63
4,86
2,61
1,37
9,06
4,87
2,56
2 37,86
2 20,34
2 10,69
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Pe = 5 %
Ired Rt
% m
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,22
0,36
0,22
0,56
0,30
0,83
0,45
0,24
1,81
0,97
0,51
3,37
1,81
0,95
3 14,07
7,56
3,97
Ired
%
7
6
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
6
6
5
5
6
5
6
6
5
5
6
150 100 8,0 58,34 1 12,44 3 3,86 6 1,95 7 54,72 1 20,34 2 5,50 3 2,04 6
160 80 4,0 176,59 1 28,63 2 7,23 5 3,23 7 244,29 1 73,94 1 15,23 3 4,61 5
160 80 5,0 119,60 1 19,39 2 4,90 5 2,19 6 128,03 1 38,75 1 7,98 3 2,42 5
160 80 6,3 79,88 1 12,95 2 3,27 4 1,46 5 65,56 1 19,85 1 4,09 3 1,24 5
160 80 8,0 52,63 1 8,53 3 2,15 3 0,96 5 32,83 1 9,94 2 2,05 3 0,62 5
200 100 5,0 254,95 1 41,33 3 10,44 4 4,66 5 208,42 1 63,09 1 13,00 3 3,93 5
200 100 6,3 170,28 1 27,60 3 6,97 3 3,12 5 106,74 1 32,31 1 6,66 3 2,01 5
200 100 8,0 112,19 1 18,19 2 4,59 3 2,05 5 53,45 1 16,18 2 3,33 3 1,01 5
200 100 10,0 75,98 1 12,32 2 3,11 3 1,39 4 28,01 1 8,48 2 1,75 3 0,53 6
250 150 6,3 366,57 1 59,42 3 15,00 4 6,71 5 316,79 1 95,89 1 19,75 3 5,98 5
250 150 8,0 241,53 1 39,15 3 9,89 3 4,42 5 158,62 1 48,01 2 9,89 3 2,99 5
250 150 10,0 163,58 1 26,52 2 6,70 3 2,99 5 83,13 1 25,16 2 5,18 3 1,57 6
300 200 6,3 684,25 1 110,92 3 28,01 5 12,52 6 667,45 1 202,02 1 41,62 3 12,60 5
300 200 8,0 450,84 1 73,09 3 18,45 4 8,25 5 334,20 1 101,16 2 20,84 3 6,31 5
300 200 10,0 305,34 1 49,50 3 12,50 3 5,59 5 175,15 1 53,01 2 10,92 3 3,31 6
400 200 8,0 1177,85 1 190,94 1 48,21 2 21,55 3 242,86 1 73,51 1 15,14 3 4,58 5
400 200 10,0 797,71 1 129,32 1 32,65 3 14,60 3 127,28 1 38,52 1 7,94 3 2,40 5
References
[1] Kennedy John B: Minimum bending radii for square & rectangular hollow sections (3-roller
cold bending). CIDECT report 11C-88/14-E.
344
Appendix 9.8
Appendix 9.8 WinRAMI software

The WinRAMI software by Rautaruukki is an easy-to-use tool for the design of hollow section
structures. The program is intended for calculating uniplanar frame structures. WinRAMI can
be used for calculating the actions of the structure and for designing members and their joints
with structures made of hollow sections. For other types of structures, WinRAMI can be used
for calculating the force quantities only.
The user interface of WinRAMI utilizes the latest Windows technology. You can create the
structural model by drawing the image of the structure with the mouse. The profiles you want to
use are defined after drawing the model in the following way.
• Select the parts of the structural model you want to place the profile in.
• Select the appropriate profile from the Hollow section module.
• Move the selected tube profile on the structural model by using the mouse.
• The program creates automatically a link (OLE2) to the Hollow section module.
Also the loads, edge conditions and joints of the structure can be defined similarly, by simply
pointing with the mouse.
WinRAMI calculation methods

The structural model is determined using the element method. WinRAMI uses an element with
7 degrees of freedom. With the element, the displacement of the centre of gravity axis in cross-
section class 4 can be accounted for. The default axis is the total cross-section centre of
gravity axis.
Hardware requirements
The program functions well with Pentium 100Mhz processor and 16MB RAM. Operating
system can be either Windows 3.xx, 95 or NT.
Static processor: Structural element modules:
WinRAMI
Structural model, loads, actions
Hollow section
and displacements
Hollow section cross-sectional
properties and resistance
values
ink
2l
E
OL
Joint modules:
Moncont
Liicont
moment-rigid joints
lattice chord and brace
member joints
Figure 9.8.1 Structure of WinRAMI
For additional information on WinRAMI, please contact Rautaruukki technical customer service
(see page 351).
345

Design Handbook For RautaRuukki Structural Hollow Sections

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DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR RAUTARUUKKI STRUCTURAL HOLLOW SECTIONS

New, revised edition 2000

2. RESISTANCE OF HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES .................................................. 13

3 DESIGN OF JOINTS IN HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES ......................................... 59

4. FATIGUE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE IN HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES ............. 109

5 FIRE DESIGN OF HOLLOW SECTIONS ......................................................................... 133

6 DESIGN OF HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES ........................................................... 159

7 SHOP FABRICATION AND ERECTION .......................................................................... 209

8 CORROSION PROTECTION ............................................................................................ 229

The handbook is complemented by the WinRAMI software, designed by Rautaruukki especially

1 RAUTARUUKKI METFORM STRUCTURAL HOLLOW

- impact toughness value of 35 J/cm2 is guaranteed at a testing temperature of -40°C

1.2 Manufacture of hollow sections

Longitudinally welded hollow sections

Figure 1.1 Fabrication of longitudinally welded hollow sections

Spirally welded hollow sections

Forming unit Strip coil

Welding Feeding roll Roll straightening

Welding unit for strip

Figure 1.2 Fabrication of spirally welded hollow sections

2. RESISTANCE OF HOLLOW SECTION STRUCTURES

The design criterion for the ultimate limit state is:

γf is the partial safety factor for the load

Table 2.1 Partial safety factors for actions [1]

∑ γ G.j ⋅ Gk.j + γ Q.1 ⋅ Qk.1 (2.2a )

∑ γ G. j ⋅ Gk. j + 0, 9 ∑ γ Q.i ⋅ Qk.i (2.2b )

∑ γ G. j ⋅ Gk. j + γ Q.1 ⋅ Qk.1 + ∑ ψ 0.i ⋅ γ Q.i ⋅ Qk.i (2.3)

Table 2.2 Partial safety factors for the material [1]

Resistance of joints in hollow section lattices γMj = 1,1

2.2 Classification of cross-sections

The classification of the cross-section is usually determined by to the highest classification of

Table 2.3 Design methods for various cross-section classes [1]

4 Buckling stress Elastic analysis

Table 2.4 Limit values for cross-section classes [3]

2.2.1 Calculating the effective cross-section

ρ=1 kun λ p ≤ 0,673

t is the thickness of the hollow section wall

be1 be2 be2 = 0,5 beff

2.3 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to

M Sd is the design value for bending moment

2.3.1 Effect of holes on bending resistance

Af is the cross-sectional area of the tension flange

2.3.2 Bending resistance in bi-axial bending

Class 4 cross-section  M y.Sd   M z.Sd 

α =2 (circular hollow sections)

2.3.3 Bending resistance of Class 4 circular hollow sections

M Sd is the design value for the bending moment

2.3.4 Lateral-torsional buckling of hollow sections

Mc.Rd is the design value for bending resistance

L fy = 235 N/mm2 fy = 275 N/mm2 fy= 355 N/mm2 fy = 460 N/mm2

0,6 93,1 79,5 61,6 47,5

2.3.5 Examples for calculating bending resistance of various

where the terms induced by corner rounding are:

ri = 5 mm (internal nominal corner radius)

Flange: b/t = 40 > 36,6 (compression) ⇒ Class 4 cross-sections

λp = 5 = 0, 801 > 0, 673 ;

bnon.eff = b – 3t – beff = 200 – 3· 5 – 167,5 = 17,5 mm (non-effective element of the

Buckling stress is determined by the following formula (2.13):

2.4 Resistance of hollow sections subjected to shear force

VSd is the design value for the shear force

2.4.1 Shear resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections

2.4.1.1 Plastic shear resistance of square and rectangular hollow sections