IMPACT OF MEDIA AND SOCIAL FACTORS ON

SOCIAL COMPARISON AND BODY IMAGE, IN KARACHI

Tariq Jalees, Director of College Of Management Sciences, PAF-KIET
tariqj@pafkiet.edu.pk
ABSTRACT
Background/Objectives:
The tremendous growth of the media in last one decade, has significantly affecte
d the norms and values, body image perception, and purchasing behavior world ove
r and in Pakistan. The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) the relationship
s of social culture factors and body image (2) the impact of media on body image
, social comparison and internalization, and (3) the mediating effects of self e
steem and religiosity.
Design/methodology/approach:
The conceptual framework for this study is based on Social Comparison Theory. Se
lf administered questionnaires with established reliability and validity have be
en used in this paper. Valid sample size was 192, and was drawn through quota sa
mpling. Various statistical techniques were used for analysis purpose including:
(1) Principal Axis Factoring method for reducing the numbers of items from some
of the constructs(2) Cronbach’s alpha for measuring the reliabilities(3) Multiple
regression for assessing the relationships, and (4) Sobel’s test for ascertaining
the mediating effects of self esteem and religiosity.
Major Findings:
Media and social factors have moderate role on the impact of body image. Howeve
r, comparatively, weaker relationships were found between exposure to media and
social comparison and internalization. The mediating role of religiosity, and se
lf esteem were found to be weak.
Limitations
The findings are limited to local consumer of Karachi, only, and cannot be gener
alized across the whole Pakistan or internationally.
Implication:
The research provides an in-depth understanding of Pakistani consumers in respec
t to media and social factors which could be used by the marketers to understand
their behavior and develop appropriate marketing strategies. From social perspe
ctive it would help the governmental agencies to develop strategies to control t
he aftereffects of body image.
Contribution
Bulk of the research on this issue has been carried out in developed countries,
and South East Asian countries. No such study in Pakistan has been ever carried
out. It will validate the Social Comparison Theory and other constructs in Pakis
tan.
Keywords Social Comparison Theory, Body Image, Internalization, Self Esteem, Int
ernalization
Key Area: Marketing
IMPACT OF MEDIA AND SOCIAL FACTORS ON
SOCIAL COMPARISON AND BODY IMAGE, IN KARACHI
Tariq Jalees, Director of College Of Management Sciences, PAF-KIET
tariqj@pafkiet.edu.pk
1 Background
The growth of television in the developing counties including Pakistan has been
remarkable. Up to the year 1997 there were only a few TV channels available for
the population of Pakistan. By the year 2009 the media environment changed dram
atically and now they have the facility of watching more than 100 foreign and lo
cal TV channels (Media Pakistan, 2009). In view of the media exposure conceptua
l definition of body image has changed considerably over a period of time. Init
ially, body image was considered as a picture formed by individuals in their min
d about their body (Cash and Pruzinsky 2004). Subsequently, body image definitio
n became multidimensional due to inclusion of “self attitude towards body image” in
terms of size, shape and aesthetic. Addition of these constructs has broadened t
he conceptual definitions of body image (Cash and Pruzinsky 2004). Similarly, th
e explosion of televisions networks in Pakistan in last one decade has completel
y revolutionized the culture. The ideal model being portrayed by the media has s
ignificantly changed the local population’s perception of body image, dressing hab
its, styles of living and purchasing behavior (Kamran, 2009)
1.1 Gaps in Literature and contribution
Researchers in recent years have again started using social comparison theory in
their researches specially for explaining the mechanism of interaction between
ideal beauty models in media and young women (Martin and Kennedy, 1993; Richin 1
991). However, very little empirical researches have been carried out for measu
ring their behavior phenomena (Parker, 1995). Most of the researches on the impa
ct of role models on body image have been focused on adolescent girls (McCabe, R
icciardelli, 2001), adolescents’ females (Levine.et.al, , 1994), but very few on a
ll age groups and both male and female (Hesse-Biber, 1996;Berg,2001).
No such integrated study on media and body image has ever been carried out in Pa
kistan. The contribution of this paper is that it has examined how religiosity a
ssimilates with the social comparison theory in explaining the impact of media o
n body image and other related constructs. This would, not, only revalidate the
constructs in an eastern culture like Pakistan, but would also increase their ge
neralize ability.
1.2 Limitation
The scope of this study is limited to one city only and hence the finding could
not be generalized as being overall perception of Pakistan’s consumers. Since Kara
chi has diversified ethnicity, therefore, the sample should have been drawn in s
uch a manner that it would have reflected the perception of all the ethnical pop
ulation living in Karachi. Future researcher may use a larger sample drawn on al
l Pakistan bases. They could explore whether the body image perception varies et
hnically, by age and gender.
1.3 Objective of the Study
The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) How media in Pakistan is affecting
body image (2) Impact of social factors on body image (3) Impact of media on co
mparison, and internalization (4) Explore the mediating role of self esteem, and
religiosity on exposure to media and body image.
2 Brief Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
2.1 Conceptual framework
The conceptual framework of this study is based on Social Comparison Theory (Fes
tinger, 1954). The social comparison theory helps in understanding the causes of
media images on people and its affect on their body image. It also examines the
individual behavior in response to peer groups and other social categories (Mil
kie, 1999). The focal point of the theory is that people compare/internalize the
mselves with other on the basis of those dimensions that are similar to them (Fe
stinger, 1954).
Figure-1 Conceptual framework
2.2 Hypotheses
2.2.1 Media and Body Image
Media pressure to be thin is stronger now than what it was two decade ago. In a
study it was found that diet promotion was negligible on TV up to 1973, but now
the share of these types of advertisements is about 5% which is high considering
that advertising is a 130 billion-dollar industry, and the most powerful influe
ncers in America (Berg, 2001). Besides television magazine is another source of
internalizing thin models (Thompsons &Heinberg, 1999). Media has completely chan
ged the cultural ideals of the last two decades (Berg, 2001). Tiggeman, et.al (2
003) found that one of the reasons females read magazines as they want to keep t
hemselves updated on the issues related to beauty, fitness, and grooming product
s. Television, advertisement magazine are not only source of upward comparison b
ut the images being portrayed in these media are impossible to achieve (Schooler
et. At, 2004, Thompson, J. K., & Heinberg, L. J. (1999)). Thus the following h
ypothesis has been formulated:
H1: The level of exposure of (1) TV (2) Magazine (3) Advertising has direct infl
uence on the body image.
2.2.2 Social factors and body Image
Cash (1995) is of the opinion that some of the common influencers of the body im
age are family, peers, and society; however Cash, Ancis & Strachan (1997) observ
ed that negative body image has adverse impact on self esteem. Family is general
ly considered as major factor of socialization to young children. Children perc
eption about their bodies is strongly influenced by parents and other care giver
s. Parents either explicitly or implicitly convey to their children that they s
hould not deviate from the ideal norms in society (Kelly, 2004) Besides, direct
ly pressuring children to lose weight, parents also indirectly influences the ch
ildren on their diet, physical attributes and physical appearance (Kelly, 2004)
.
Besides parents, children, also, get inspired and influenced by their teachers.
The quantum of research on teacher’s impact on children and their perceive body
image is negligible. The teachers are role models of the students and how they
carry themselves and communicate about image, or being overweight leaves a stron
g impression on children. Children while seeking counsel from the teacher would
share personal and confidential issues which they might not with others. (Kelly,
2004)
H2: There is no relationship between Social factors (Mother, father, Teacher
, and Peers) and Body Image.
2.2.3 Media and Social Comparison
Exposure to media leads to Social comparison. The comparison could be upward or
downward. In upward comparison individuals compare themselves with someone who
is superior to them. Generally, upward comparison leads to depression of mood.
In case of downward comparison the target personality would be those who may be
inferior to them on several dimensions (Festinger, 1954). Some researchers have
emphasized that this comparison helps in the elevation of mood (Lin & Kulk, 200
2, schooler et al, 2004, Tiggeman & mcgil, 2004, Tiggeman & Slater, 2004). The d
erived hypothesis is presented below:
H3: There is not relationship between exposure to media and social comparison.
2.2.4 Exposure to media and Internalization
Generally, two explanations are given for body image dissatisfaction. One is soc
ial comparison theory and the other is the degree of internalization (Stormer &
Thompson, 1996). Women generally assess their attractiveness by internalizing th
e thin ideal models. If the exposure is high, the level of internalization may a
lso be higher and vice versa (Cattarin et. Al., 2002). This discussions lead to
the following hypothesis.
H4: There is no relationship between exposure to Media Exposure and Internalizat
ion.
2.2.5 Body image and self-esteem
Individual’s positive or negative attitude towards their body comes in the definit
ion of self esteem (Rosenberg, 1965). Studies shows that there is relationship b
etween body image and self esteem (Mayo, 1992), however (Cash, Anis & Strachan (
1997) further added by stating that that negative body image has adverse impac
t on the self esteem. Polivy and Herman(2004) is of the opinion that media would
not adversely affect the people who have high level of self esteem. Thus the fo
llowing hypothesis has been developed.
H5: Self esteem would mediate the relationship between exposure to Media and bod
y Image.
2.2.6 Religiosity and body image
Religiosity refers to level of commitment to a religious group, and it plays a s
ignificant role in influencing consumer behavior. Since consumer buying behavior
is governed by religion, therefore, it could also be used for segmenting consum
ers markets (Delener, 1990b). Another study also supported the premise that cons
umer attitude and behavior are governed by religiosity, whereas the attitude is
based on consumer’s belief or religion (Esso and Dibb, 2004;Nitton and Sally 2004
). The religious philosophy provides frame of reference on how to live, and beha
ve in a society (Weaver & Agle, 2002), therefore, the impact of media exposure o
n body image vary with the level of religiosity. Thus the following hypothesis h
as been generated.
H6: Religiosity would mediate the relationship between exposure to Media and bo
dy Image.
3 Methodology
3.1 Instrument
Questionnaires as an instrument are commonly used in descriptive and exploratory
researches.
The constructs in this study has been previously used in the similar context by
the other researchers, and have proven reliabilities and validities as depicted
below:
Table No.1 Summary of constructs used
Measure Author No. of Items Scale Rating No o Factors Reliability
Validity Scale type
Body Image (BIG3) Cash and Syzmanski,1995 22 1-4 2 .76 to .
81 Yes L
Self Esteem
Rosenberg, 1965 10 1-4 1 .82 to .88 Yes
L
Internalization (SATAQ-3) Thompson et.al, 2004 16 1-5 2
.90 to .97 Yes L
Social Comparison Fujita, 1996 13 1-10 2 .95 Yes
L
Socio Cultural Feedback McCabe & Ricciardelli,2001 9 1-5 2
.72 Yes L
Religiosity Orientation Worthing et.al, 2003 10 1-5 2 .93 to .
96 Yes L
Exposure To Media Stice, et.al, 1994 11 - 2 .76 to,7
3 Yes N

3.2 Population and Sample Size

An appropriate sample size is a critical factor for any research. Tull & Hakins(
1998) after reviewing several hundred researches reported that sample size on
consumer researches on national basis were ranged between 1000 to 2500. Compara
tively, sample sizes for regional based consumers’ studies were found to be 200 to
1000. Hair Jr. et al, (2007) advocates 30 samples per cell for factorial design
. This study has not used factorial design, therefore Sekran (2003) view of mini
mum 30 samples per variables have been used which comes out to be 180 (6 variabl
es X 30 samples).The sample size for this 225 and valid samples were 192.
3.3 Sampling Technique
Sampling drawing techniques comes in two broad categories. One is probability sa
mpling and other is non-probability sampling. Generally, the probability samplin
g is preferred when overall generalize ability is critical for the study. Howeve
r, for probability sampling, a pre-requisite is defining sampling frame, which i
s not possible if the research is consumer oriented and national based (Saunders
, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2008). This in essence means that all the probability samp
ling techniques such as simple random, systematic, stratified random, cluster, a
nd multi- cluster technique would not be possible in a research of this quantum.
Thus, the researcher has used quota sampling by allocating 200 samples to five
areas of Karachi which are: (1) Defense (2) Clifton (3) PECHS (4) Bhadrabad (5)
North Nazimabad.
3.4 Normality
Normality of data is a pre-requisite for Regression and t and Z, tests. Normalit
y of data was carried out in several stages. Initially, Box, Whisker, and Steam
Leaf were plotted for identifying outliers. Outliers are those observations whic
h are significantly different than the entire sample data (Harir, Jr. et.al, 200
7). Myers et al., (2006) suggest that if the quantum of the outliers is within 1
% it would be more appropriate to leave them alone. Outliers of 5% or greater th
an the sample data should be recoded to the nearest upward or downward values (T
abachnick & Fidell, 2001). The outliers in this study were within 1% range and h
ence were left alone. Some of the researchers suggest converting each variable t
o Z-score and removing those which exceeds ± 2.5. However, in this study normality
were based on simple rule of checking whether the skewness and Kurtosis is less
er than ±1.0 (Leech et.al, 2009). The skewness and Kurtosis of all constructs wer
e within this range of ±1 (Results are discussed in Section 4.3).
3.5 Research Technique
The Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied for reducing the
number of items from the constructs, and Cronbach’s alpha was used for ascertaini
ng the reliabilities. Multiple regression technique was used for measuring the r
elationships, and Sobel Test was used for measuring the mediating affect.
4 Results and Discussions
4.1 Factor loading for reducing the items
Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied on the above five co
nstructs. The assumption of independent sampling, linear relationships, and mode
rate correlation ships were met. The criteria used were: (1) The Barley Test of
Speheriicity was significant P <.05) (2) Kaiser-Meyer Olikin Measure of Sampling
should be greater 0.60 (3)To include the top 4-6 items with factorial loading o
f at least 0.60.The summarized results are presented below:
Table number 2 Varimax Factor Loading
Construct Original items
Kaiser-Meyer Olkin Barley Test
of Sphercity Cumulative Factor loading Items Retained
Self Esteem 10 0.878 0 86% 5
Body Image Ideal 11 .910 0 78% 4
Social Comparison 11 .8290 0 90% 5
Religiosity 10 .767 9 85% 5

4.2 Reliability of the constructs

The instrument used for this pretest comprised of constructs which were earlier
used by the researchers and therefore have established validities and reliabilit
ies. However, the reliabilities of the used constructs were again reestablished,
and the summarized results are presented below:
Table No.3.Reestablishing Reliabilities for Pretest
Construct Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach,s Alpha on Standarized Items No Of
Items Mean S.D
Body Image .592 .592 11 6.4 .998
Self Esteem .825 .821 10 4.67 .97
Internalization .826 .827 8 5.25 1.07
Social Comparison .810 .789 9 4.782 .701
Religiosity .768 .768 10 4.388 .985
Media Feedback .702 .704 5 4.37 .793
The above table shows that the reliably of internalization the highest (α=.826, M=
5.25, SD=1.07). Reli bilities of the ll the constructs were gre ter th n 0.7 ex
cept body im ge (α=.592, M=6.4, SD=.998) re within the ccept ble r nge indic tin
g th t the respective items h ve re son ble intern l consistency nd reli bility
. Although, the lph for Body Im ge perception is on the lower side, but sever
l rese rch journ ls still ccept this if one or two constructs h ve the lph in
the r nge of 0.60 to 0.70 (Leech, et. l, 2007).
4.3 Norm lity of constructs
In order to scert in the norm lity of the d t , the descriptive st tistics were
gener ted, which is summ rized below:
T ble number-4 (Descriptive st tistics)
Min Me n St.dev Skewness Kurtosis
Exposure to Advertisement 3 4.63 .998 -.022 -.181
Exposure to Medi 3 4.37 .793 -.759 -.997
Body Im ge 4.03 6.4826 1.02161 .573 -.548
Soci l Comp rison 2.94 4.7827 .70142 .415 .286
Self Esteem 2.8 4.666 .9700 .550 -.728
Religiosity 1.8 4.388 .9845 .133 -.145
Mother Feedb ck 1.00 4.7006 1.69635 -.445 -.841
F ther Feedb ck 1.0 4.324 1.6362 -.213 -.945
Te cher Feedb ck 1.50 5.8299 1.52901 -.251 -.147
Peers Feedb ck 1.0 4.065 1.5376 -.111 -.423
Intern liz tion 3 4.69 .818 .209 -.348
V lid N (list wise) 193 193 193 193 193
The bove t ble shows th t exposure to dvertisement (Me n=4.63, SD= .998) h s t
he lowest skewness (0.22), nd exposure to medi (Me n = 4.37, SD= 0.759) h s th
e highest skewness (-0.759). On the other h nd Religiosity (Me n =4.388, SD=.98
5) h s the highest kurtosis, nd Exposure to medi (Me n=4.37, SD=.793) h s the
lowest kurtosis. However, since ll the constructs in terms of skewness nd kurt
osis re within the r nge of ±1.5, therefore it could be s fely ssumed th t the d
t h s norm l tendency.
4.4 Hypothesis Testing
4.4.1 Hypothesis one
Multiple regression n lysis w s used to test if (1) Exposure to M g zine (2) Ex
posure Advertisement signific ntly predicted p rticip nts' r tings of Body Im ge
. The summ rized results re presented below:
T ble number-5 Regression summ ry
Un st nd rdized Coefficients St nd rdized Coefficient t
Sig
V ri bles B Std. Error Bet
(Const nt) 3.713 0.484 7.673 0
Exposure To M g zine 0.368 0.052 0.440 7.112 0
Exposure to Advertisement .304 .064 .297 4.714 0
Note: R2 = 0.406; Adjusted R2= .400, P<.05
The results of the regression indic ted the two predictors expl ined 40.6% of th
e v ri nce (R2=.406, F (2,190) =64.998, p<.05). It w s found th t exposure to m
g zine signific ntly predicted Body Im ge (ß = .368, p<.05), s did exposure to d
vertisement (ß = .304, p<.05).
The bove results subst nti te the findings of Stice nd Sh w( 1994) to the exte
nt th t two predictors h ve rel tionship with the depend v ri ble. However the
difference in the two findings is th t this study shows positive rel tionship, w
here s St ice nd Sh w (1994) found inverse rel tionship. They found th t exposu
re to medi dversely ffects body im ge(speci lly women), nd results in incre
sed feeling of depression, unh ppiness, sh me, guilt, nd decre sed confidence(S
tice nd Sh w, 1994). Comp r tively, V rn do (2000) found no signific nt rel tio
nship between exposure to medi nd body diss tisf ction.
4.4.2 Hypothesis Two
The hypothesis two postul tes th t there is no rel tionship between soci l feedb
ck nd body im ge. Multiple regression n lysis w s used to test if (1) Mother’s
Feedback (2) Father Feedback

(3) Teacher’s Feedback (4) Peers Feedback significant
ly predicted participants ratings of Body Image. The summarized results are pre
sented below:
Table number-6 Regression Summary
Un standardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficient T
Sig
Variables B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 5.390 .303 17.785 .000
Mother Feedback -0.084 -0.052 -0.140 -1.634 .104
Father Feedback .021 0.053 -0.034 -.401 .689
Teacher Feedback .358 0.043 0.536 8.357 000
Peers Feedback -0.125 0.046 -0.188 -2.722 0.007
ote: R2 = 0.583; Adjusted R2= ..399, P<.05
The results of the regression indicated the four predictors explained only 39.9%
of the variance (R2=.399 F (4,188) =24.4.998, p<.05). It was found that teacher’s
feedback (B=.536, p<.05) is the strongest predictors for body image as compared
to mother Feedback (B= - 0.084, p<.05), and Peers feedback B= - 0.125, p<.05).
Incidentally father’s feedback (B= - 0.021, p<.05) has no significant relationship
with the body image.
The findings that Social culture factors on aggregate basis affects the body ima
ge substantiate the findings of Kelly (2000) This study also shows very weak r
elationships between (1) Mother feedback (2) father feedback (3) and peers fee
dback on body image, and stronger relationship of teacher. This finding can also
 be related the finding of Kelly (2000) who found that parents, teacher media in
fluences the body image with varied degree of influence. However, there is signi
ficant variation in this study and of Kelly (2000) in terms of respondents. This
study is based on all the age groups (15 years to 55), whereas the findings of
Kelly (2000) is based on teen agers.
4.4.3 Hypothesis Three
The hypothesis three postulates that there is no relationship between exposure t
o Media Exposure and Social Comparison. Multiple regression analysis was used to
test if (1) Exposure to
magazines, and (2) exposure to television significantly
predicted participants ratings of Social comparison. The summarized results ar
e presented below
Table number-7 Regression Summary:
Un standardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficient T
Sig
Variables B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 2.8937 .208 13.914 .000
Exposure to Magazine .291 0.037 0.507 7.914 .000
Exposure to Television .123 0.045 -.175 2.726 .007
Note: R2 = 0.3363; Adjusted R2= .356, P<.05
The results of the regression indicated the four predictors explained only 33.63
% of the variance (R2=0.336, F (2,192) =54.099, p<.05). It was found that exposu
re to magazine (ß _ = .291 p<.05,) significantly predicted Social comparison as di
d exposure to Television (ß = .123 p<.05,)
This study suggests that exposure to media has a moderate relationship with soci
al comparison. Comparatively, in another research it was found that women compar
e themselves with the models (stice and Shaw, 1994). Other scholars while using
the social comparison theory found that “we seek to compare ourselves to others we
believe are similar to ourselves, particularly to determine our own levels of a
bilities” (Blessenoff, 2006).
4.4.4 Hypothesis Four
The hypothesis four postulates that there is no relationship between Media Expos
ure and Internalization. Multiple regression analysis was used to test if (1) Ex
posure to

magazines and (2) Exposure to Television significantly predicted parti
cipants ratings of internalization. The summarized results are presented below:
Table number-8 Regression Summary
Un standardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficient T
Sig
Variables B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 2.830 .271 10.441 .000
Exposure to Magazine .139 0.037 0.507 7.914 .000
Exposure to Television .265 0.059 .3241 4.552 .000
Note: R2 = 0.204, Adjusted R2= .`96, P<.05
The results of the regression indicated the two predictors explained only 20.40%
of the variance (R2=0.205, F (2,190) =24.412, p<.05). It was found that exposur
e to magazine (ß _ = .139 p<.05,) significantly predicted Internalization as did e
xposure to Television (ß = .265 p<.05,). The above findings are similar to the oth
er researchers who found that women not only compare themselves with the models
in the media and idealized them. (Englen-Maddox, l2005). In an another study it
was found that when women are exposed to media would find high level of discrep
ancy between their body perception, and the ones being portrayed in media(Posave
, H. Posave, P & Posave, E., 1998)
4.4.5 Hypothesis Five
The hypothesis five postulates that self esteem would mediate the relationship b
etween exposure to Media and body Image. In order to test meditation effect Sob
el’s multiple regression was carried out twice. First exposure to media (independe
nt) and self esteem (mediating variable) were regressed. Subsequently, Mediating
variable (self esteem) and body Image (Dependent variable) were regressed. The
generated results were solved through Sobel’s equation/calculator, which is pres
ented below:
Z-value = a*b/SQRT(b2*sa2 + a2*sb2)
a = raw (un standardized) regression coefficient for the association between IV
and mediator = 0.226; sa = standard error of a.=.9768; b = raw coefficient for t
he association between the mediator and the DV (when the IV is also a predictor
of the DV)= .276; sb = standard error of b.
The summarized results generated through Sobel;s calculator are presented below
:
• Sobel Test statistics = 0.362748
• Standard Error=0.031753
• P value (two tail)=0.71684568
The above P value at 95% confidence level falls at the non-critical region; ther
efore, hypothesis that the mediation effect is zero has been accepted. That is s
elf esteem does not mediate the relationship of exposure to media and body image
. Contrarily, other researchers found that generally the women with high self es
teem would have stronger association with the body image (Harter, 1999). In an a
nother study it was found that people with body image concern generally would h
ave low self esteem (West & Sweeting, 1997). In an another study it was found th
at body image satisfaction would have strong relationship with the self esteem (
Lerner,et.al, 1973).
4.4.6 Hypothesis 6
The hypothesis six postulates that religiosity would mediate the relationship be
tween exposure to Media and body Image. Like previous hypothesis, first indepen
dent variable (Exposure to media) was regressed. Generated results were used to
Sobel’s equation/calculator, which is presented below:
z-value = a*b/SQRT(b2*sa2 + a2*sb2)
a = raw (un standardized) regression coefficient for the association between IV
and mediator = 0.206; sa = standard error of a=0.960; b = raw coefficient for th
e association between the mediator and the DV (when the IV is also a predictor o
f the DV)= 0.263; Sb = standard error of b= .9494
The summarized results generated through Sobel;s calculator/equation are present
ed below:
• Sobel Test statistics = 0.62321983
• Standard Error=0.032287291
• P value (two tail)=0.5331407
The above P value at 95% confidence level falls at the non-critical region; ther
efore, hypothesis that the mediation effect is zero has been accepted. It was ex
pected that the religiosity would mediate the relationship of exposure to media
and body image. However, this assumption was not substantiated as there was weak
er relationship between exposure to media and religiosity, and religiosity and b
ody image. One of the reasons for such findings could be that the survey was car
ried out at higher income group, and residents of Karachi, who comparatively are
more liberal than the rest of the population.
REFERENCES
Angela D. French and Hilary B. Terrell (N.D), Effect of Exposure to Media Images
on Perceptual Body Image Distortion and Affective Dissatisfaction (retrieved on
November, 12, 2010) (psych.hanover.edu/ department/youngst/IS/Terrell%20&%20.)
Berg, B. (2001). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston: A
llyn and Bacon.
Brssenoff, G.R.(2006) Can the Media Affects Us? Social Comparision, Self Discrep
ncy and the thin Ideal Psychology, 24(3), 285-290
Cash, T. F. (1995). Developmental teasing about physical appearance: Retrospecti
ve descriptions and relationships with body image. Soc. Behav. Pers. 23: 123–129.
Cash, T.F., & Szymanski, M.L. (1995). The development and validation of the Body
-Image Ideals Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 466-477.
Cash, T., Ancis, J., & Strachan, M. (1997). Gender attitudes, feminist identity,
and body images among college women. Sex Roles, 36, 433-447.
Cash, T & Pruzinsky,T (2004). Body Image: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Cl
inical Practice: New York: Guilford Press.
Cattarin, J. A., Thompson, J. K., Thomas, C., & Williams, R. (2000). Body imag
e, mood, and televised images of attractiveness: The role of social comparison.
Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology, 19, 220-239.
Del I. Hawkins, D.I. and Tull, D.I. (1998) Marketing Research Measurement & Me
thod Prentice Hall
Delener, N. 1990. "The Effects of Religious Factors on Perceived Risk in Durable
Goods Purchase Decisions." Journal of Consumer Marketing 7, 27-38.
Englen-Maddox, R. (2005) Cognitive Responses to Idealized Media Images of Women:
The Relationship of Social Comparison and Critical Processing to Body Image Dis
turbance in College Women. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(8), 111
4-1138.

Essoo, N. & Dibb, S. (2004) Religious influences on shopping behavior: an explor

atory study. Journal of Marketing Management, 20,683–712.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations,
7(2) 117-140.
Gardner Meryl P. and Frederick O. Wilhelm, Jr. (1987), "Consumer Responses to Ad
s with Positive vs. Negative Appeals: Some Mediating Effects of Context-Induced
Moods and Congruency Between Context and Ad," Current Issues and Research in Adv
ertising, Vol. 10, 81-98.
Fujita, F. (1996, May). There are two types of people, those who compare thems
elves to others and those who don’t: Construct validation of the Frequency of Soci
al Comparison Scale. Paper presented at the 68th Annual Meeting of the Midweste
rn Psychological Association.
Hair Jr. J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (2007). Multivari
ate data Analysis (6th Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall International, Inc.
Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self. New York: Guilford.
Henderson-King, E., Henderson-King, D. (1997) Media effects on women`s body este
em: social and individual difference factors. Journal of Applied Social Psycholo
gy, 27(5), 399-41
Heinberg, L.J., Thompson, J.K., & Stormer, S. (1995). Development and validation
of the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire. International J
ournal of Eating Disorders, 17, 81-89.
Hesse-Biber, S. J. (1996). Am I thin enough yet?: The cult of thinness and the c
ommercialization of identity. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lin, L., Kulik, J. (2002). Social comparison and women`s body satisfaction. Basi
c and Applied Social Psychology, 24(3), 115-123.
Kelly, S.A(2004) Amount of Influence Selected Groups Have the Perceived Body Ima
ge of Fifth Grader, A Research Paper, The Graduate College University of Wiscon
sin-Stout.
Kamran, R. (2008) Pakistan Televsion, http://www.scribd.com/doc/18271317/Mass-Me
dia-in-Pakistan-by-Raja-Kamran(Retireved, November 12)
Lerner, R. M., Karabenick, S. A., & Stuart, J. L. (1973). Relations among physic
al attractiveness,
body attitudes and self concept in male and female college students. The Journal
of Psychology, 85, 119–129.
Levine, M.P., Smolak, L., Moodey, A.F., Shuman, M.D., & Hessen, L.D. (1994). Nor
mative developmental challenges, dieting, and eating disturbances in middle scho
ol girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15, 11-
Levine, M. P., Smolak, L., & Hayden, H. (1994). The relation of socio cultural f
actors to eating attitudes and behaviors among middle school girls. Journal of E
arly Adolescence, 14, 471-490.
Martin, M. C., & Kennedy, P. F. (1993, November/ December). Advertising and soci
al comparison:Consequences for female preadolescents and adolescents. Psychology
& Marketing, 10(6),513-530
McCabe, Marita and Ricciardelli, Lina 2001-09, Body image and body change techni
ques among young adolescent boys, European eating disorders review, vol. 9, no.
5, pp. 335-347.
Media Pakistan (2009), http://mediapakistan.com/index.php?option =com_frontpage&
Itemid=1(Date retirived, November 12, 2010
Meyers, Lawrence S., Gamst, G., & Guarino, A. J. (2006). Applied multivariate re
search: Design & interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Milkie, M. A. (1999). Social comparisons, reflected appraisals,
and mass media:
The impact of pervasive beauty images on black and white girls self concepts. S
ocial Psychology Quarterly, 62(2), 190-210.
Parker, Sheila. et al. "Body Image and Weight Concerns Among African American an
d White Adolescent Females: Differences that Make a Difference", Human Organizat
ion 54, 2 (Summer 1995), 103-114.
Paxton, S.J., Wertheim, E.H., Gibbons, K., Szmukler, G.I., Hillier, L., & Petrov
ich, J.C. (1991). Body image satisfaction, dieting beliefs and weight loss behav
iours in adolescent girls and boys. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 361-37
9.
Posavac, H., Posavac, S. & Posavac, E. (1998). Exposure to Media Images of Femal
e Attractiveness and Concern with Body Weight Among Young Women. Sex Roles, 38 (
3/4), 187-201.
Richins, M. L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising
. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 71-83.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Prin
ceton University Press


Schooler, D., Ward,

L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. (2004). Who s that g
irl: Television s role in the body image development of young white and black wo
men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(1), 38-47.
Sobel, M.E. (1988). Direct and indirect effect in linear structural equation mod
els. In J.S. Long (Eds.), Common problems/proper solutions: Avoiding error in qu
antitative research (pp. 46-64). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Steele, A. L., Corsini, N., Wade T. D. (2007). The Interaction of Perfectionism,
Perceived


Weight Status, and Self-Esteem to Predict Bulimic Symptoms: The Role
of Benign Perfectionism. Behavior Research and Therapy, 45, 1647-1655.
Stice, E., Schupak-Neuberg, E., Shaw, H. E., & Stein, R. I. (1994). Relation o
f media exposure to eating disorder symptomatology: An examination of mediating
mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 836-840.
Stice , E & Shaw, H.E. (1994) Adverse effects on the media portrayed Thin ideal
on women and linkages to bulimic Symptomatology, Journal of Social Science and C
linical Psychology , 13(3), 288-308
Stormer, S.M., & Thompson, J.K. (1996). Explanations of body image disturbance:
A test of maturational status, negative verbal commentary, social comparison, an
d sociocultural hypotheses. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 193-2
02.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed
.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.


Thompson, J. K., & Heinberg, L. J. (1999).

The media s influence on body image d
isturbance and eating disorders: We ve reviled them, now can we rehabilitate the
m? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 339-353.
Thompson, J.K., van den Berg, P., Roehrig, M., Guarda, A.S., & Heinberg, L.J. (2
004). The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3): Developm
ent and validation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 293-304.
Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult w
omen: The role of self-objectification. Developmental psychology, 37, 243-253.
Tiggemann, Marika and Amy Slater (2003), “Thin Ideals in Music Television: A Sourc
e of Social Comparison and Body Dissatisfaction,” International Journal of Eating
Disorders, 35 (1), 48–58.
Tiggemann, M., & Mcgill, B. (2004).
The role of social comparison in the effect
of magazine advertisements on women s mood and body dissatisfaction. Journal of
Social & Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 23-44.
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2004). Thin ideals in music television: A source of
social comparison and body dissatisfaction. International Journal of Eating Dis
orders, 35(1), 48-58.
Varnado, J.L.(2000) The effects of Media Exposure on Body Satisfaction, Beliefs
about attractiveness Mood and Bulimic Symptometology Among College Women, Disser
tation, University of Texas
West, P., & Sweeting, H. (1997). "Lost souls" and "rebels": A challenge to the a
ssumption that low self-esteem and unhealthy lifestyles are related. Health Educ
ation, 97(5), 161-167.
Weaver, G. R. & Agle, B. R. 2002. Religiosity as an influence on ethical behavi
or in organizations: A symbolic interactionist perspective. Academy of Manage
ment Review 27: 77-97.