BA ENGLISH

SEMESTER: VI
DBC, ITANAGAR

UNIT A: LINGUISTICS
(INTRODUCTION)
Points to be noted:
 Long notes (of around 400 words) are for 16 marks questions. Incase question is for
lesser mark, shorten the explanation while keeping the vital/main points like heading
or bullet points (→ just shorten the explanation!)

 In Linguistic paper, questions are usually direct as it is given in syllabus. So, the notes
are prepared from exam point of view. Covering the notes provided by me will suffice
for scoring good marks in exam but do consult books recommended in syllabus for
better understanding as notes are precise and not much explanatory.

 For questions up to 4 marks, give answer in bullet points and for questions with more
than 4 marks, answer in paragraph.

 When answering in paragraph, keep this approximate word count in mind.

o 1 mark = 20 words
o 2 marks = 40 words
o 4 marks = 80 words (1 page)
o 8 marks = 160 words (2 pages)
o 16 marks = 320-400 words (4 pages)

Most Important point

“Even if world disappears, do attempt all the questions in exam”
(especially the descriptive long answers of 4 - 16 marks)
Dho dal, Chorna mat!
 LINGUISTICS: DEFINITION AND SCOPE
(Total word: 500, Enough for 16 Marks question)

Definition:
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It has four major
components;
1. Phonology: Study of sound system
2. Morphology: Study of Word and its structure
3. Syntax: Study of sentence and its structure
4. Semantics: Study of meaning
5. Pragmatics: Study of context
Scope
Linguistics covers a wide range of topics and its boundaries are difficult to be traced. The
core of Linguistics consists of Phonetics, Phonology, Syntax, Semantics and Pragmatics as
represented in the diagram below:

1. Phonetics
“The study speech sounds is called Phonetics”.
Phoneticians investigate topics as:
1. Articulatory phonetics the actions of the speech organs in producing speech
sounds.
2. Acoustics phonetics: the acoustic nature of the sound waves which transmit
speech.
3. Auditory and perceptual phonetics: the manners in which the ears and brain
interpret speech.

2. Phonology
According to Loreto Todd “Phonology is the study of sounds and sound combinations in a
particular language”. It studies the vowels and consonants, stress, tone, syllable etc. of a
given language
3. Syntax
Syntax is the study of sentence and its structure. It studies word order, Clause, phrases etc. of
the language.

4. Semantics
“Semantics refers to the study of meaning in language”. Word meanings are complicated to
learn as a word can have more than one meaning, different words appear to have the same
meaning, some words seem to have opposite meaning, the meaning of some words are
included in the meaning of others and the certain combinations of words have meanings
which are very different from the combination of their separate meanings etc.

5. Pragmatics
pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends on the context of the utterance
and not just on the structure of the utterance.

5. Socio Linguistics
Sociolinguistics examines how people use language as they interact with other members of
their society. Socio-linguists thus set themselves the tasks of examining language use, its
variation, its development, change and standardization, its regional and class dialects, its
specialized codes etc.

6. Anthropological Linguistics
“Anthropological linguistics, uses linguistic approaches to analyze culture”. Anthropological
linguists examine the relationship between a culture and its language, the way cultures and
languages have changed over time, and how different cultures and languages are related to
one another.

7. Philosophical linguistics
Philosophical Linguistics examines the philosophy of language that is the link between
language and logical thought.

8. Stylistics
The study of the aesthetic uses of languages, particularly the use of language in literature is
called stylistics. It involves study of rhyme, rhythm, repetition, image, tone, alliteration etc.

9. Computational Linguistics
“Computational linguistics involves the use of computers to compile linguistic data, analyse
languages, machine translation, develop and test models of language processing and
recognition of speech and text etc.

10. Applied Linguistics

Applied linguistics is the collective term for the various applications such as foreign language
teaching, lexicography (dictionary making), translation, speech pathology and therapy (like
stammering, stuttering etc.), error analysis, etc.

11. Psycho Linguistics

It is the study of the relationships between linguistic behaviour and psychological processes,
including the process of language acquisition.
LANGUAGE: NATURE AND VARIETY
NATURE OF LANGUAGE:

1. Language is learnt/Acquired: Learning of language is not an automatic process. Of

course, it is a behaviour but it is not type of behaviour like walking and crawling that comes to
child in natural way. Language by imitation and practice. Language is not possible without
effort.

2. Language is related to the culture of society: Every language is related to culture of

society to which it belongs. The culture of the people naturally influences the language. Every
language is the product of society. We cannot separate language from the culture in which that
language exists. It has meaning only in relation to that society and culture.

3. Language is species specific: Language is species specific. Only human beings have got
the gift of language. Of course, the other species do communicate but only human beings can
make use of language.

4. Language is species uniformed: Language is species uniformed. All human children are
capable of acquiring any language natively if they are provided the right kind of environment.

5. Language is a system: Each language is a unique system. The system of language

consists of sounds, structures and vocabulary. A person who wants to learn a new language
will have to learn new sounds, new structures and new vocabulary. The sound system of
language differs from language to language depending upon the culture to which a language
belongs. Each language has its own system of vocabulary. Thus each language is systematic.

6. Language is a system of systems:Each language is a system of systems because there

are several sub systems within a system of language.

7. Language is a system of symbols: Each language works through symbols. Different

words used in a language are the symbols. They stand for certain things. The language will
function well if its symbols are known both to the speaker and the person for whom they are
being used.

For example the world cup has three sounds (K, Л, P) It is a symbol of English because a
meaning is attached to it. But if we take the same three sounds like, K, Л, P they do form Puc,
but that is not a symbol of English language as no meaning is attached to it.

8. Symbols of language are vocal: Different symbols are used in a single language. These
symbols are vocal. A language system does not exist in a vacuum. It is primary used in speech.
Only speech provides all essential signals of a language. There are other kinds of symbols
which cannot be called vocal symbols. For example, gestures and signal flags are visual
symbols and ringing of the bells and beating of a drum are auditory symbols. They do not form
any language. In language the sounds are produced through vocal organs. Reading and writing
are no doubt important. But speech is the basic form of language. A language without speech
is unthinkable.

9. Language is a skill subject: Learning of a language is a skill subject. It is skill like

swimming and cycling. We can not learn swimming or cycling just by studying rules. We can
learn it by practice. In the same way, we can learn a language y constant practice of that
language. So a lot of repetition for major linguistic skills like listening, speaking, reading and
writing is required.

10. Language is for communication: Language is the best means of communication and
self expressions. Human beings express their ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through
language. In this way language is a means to connect past present and future.

11. Governed by a particular set of rules: Each language is governed by a particular set
or rules. For example English is S.V.O. language. In forming sentence, we put subject, then
verb and after verb we put object.

12. Symbols of language are Arbitrary: Here by arbitrary symbols we meant that there is
no visual relationship between the language item and the object for which it stands. A man is
called man traditionally. There is no visual similarity between the symbol ‘man’ and the actual
man. We have not named it so on the basis of some logic or scientific principles. In English we
say man, in ‘Hindi’ we say ‘manauYya’ and in Punjabi we say ‘___________’. None of them
is better than the other. In fact, we call a man ‘man’ because people have agreed to use it in
that sense.

13. Language is unique: Each language is unique because it has its own style of functioning.
The sounds, vocabulary and structures of every language have their own specialty.

LANGUAGE VARIETY:

• Pidgin:

A pidgin is a new language which is developed from mixture of two or more languages.
Pidgin is developed in situations where speakers of different languages need to
communicate but don't share a common language like in labour camp,
migration/refugee camp etc. The vocabulary/words in pidgin is very limited and
grammar is simple unlike a full-pledge language. The more dominant language from
which most of the words are taken is called lexifier. Examples are; Nigerian Pidgin in
Nigeria.

• Creole:

When Pidgin is well established that children start learning a pidgin as their first
language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole. Like
a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from
another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Unlike a
pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its
full range of functions. Example:

• Regional dialect:

A regional dialect is not a distinct/separate language but a variety of a language spoken

in a particular area of a country. Some regional dialects have been given traditional
names which mark them out as being significantly different from standard varieties
 spoken in the same place. Some examples are 'Hillbilly English' (from the Appalachians
in the USA) and Pugo, Lare etc. of Galo Language in Arunachal Pradesh.

• Minority dialect:

Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group have their own variety which
they use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard variety. This is called a
minority dialect. Examples are African-American English in the USA.

• Indigenized variety:

Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second languages in ex-colonies with

multilingual populations. The differences from the standard variety may be linked to
English proficiency, or may be part of a range of varieties used to express identity. For
example: Indian English, Arunachalee Hindi, Nagamese etc.

--------------------X---------------------------------X----------------------X----------------------------
 BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS
1. Socio Linguistics
Sociolinguistics examines how people use language as they interact with other
members of their society. Socio-linguists thus set themselves the tasks of examining
language use, its variation, its development, change and standardization, its regional
and class dialects, its specialized codes etc.

2. Historical/Comparative Linguistics
It is also termed as diachronic linguistics. It is the scientific study of language
change over time. Principal concerns of historical linguistics include:
i. to describe the changes in languages
ii. to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and community and to determine their
relatedness and group them into language families
iii. to develop general theories about how and why language changes
iv. to study the origin/history of words, i.e. etymology. Example

3. Descriptive Linguistics
It is the study of the grammar, of a language at a given time, without reference to the
history of the language or comparison with other languages. In descriptive linguistics,
linguist simply analyse the components (Phonology, morphology, syntax and
semantics) of the language and its rules. The linguist does not prescribe or dictate the
rules but merely describe how it is used by the community.

4. Anthropological Linguistics
“Anthropological linguistics, uses linguistic approaches to analyze culture”.
Anthropological linguists examine the relationship between a culture and its language,
the way cultures and languages have changed over time, and how different cultures
and languages are related to one another.

5. Philosophical linguistics
Philosophical Linguistics examines the philosophy of language that is the link
between language and logical thought.

6. Stylistics
The study of the aesthetic uses of languages, particularly the use of language in
literature is called stylistics. It involves study of rhyme, rhythm, repetition, image,
tone, alliteration etc.
7. Computational Linguistics
“Computational linguistics involves the use of computers to compile linguistic data,
analyse languages, machine translation, develop and test models of language
processing and recognition of speech and text etc.

8. Applied Linguistics
Applied linguistics is the collective term for the various applications such as foreign
language teaching, lexicography (dictionary making), translation, speech pathology
and therapy (like stammering, stuttering etc.), error analysis, etc.

9. Psycho Linguistics
It is the study of the relationships between linguistic behaviour and psychological
processes, including the process of language acquisition.

10. Neurolinguistics:
Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control
the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

11. Theolinguistics:
The study of religious language like Bible, Koran etc.

12. Forensic Linguistics

Forensic linguistics or legal linguistics or language and the law, is the application of
linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the crime investigation, trial, and
judicial procedure.
 COMPONENTS/PARTS/LEVELS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE
Components of human language are:
i. Phonology
ii. Morphology
iii. Syntax
iv. Semantics
v. Pragmatics
1. Phonology
According to Loreto Todd “Phonology is the study of sounds and sound combinations in a
particular language”. It studies the vowels and consonants, stress, tone, syllable, phonological
rules etc. of a given language.
Example of Phonological rule in English: /ŋ/ cannot occur in initial position of a word.
It occurs only in the end of word like in siŋ (sing).
In Phonology, linguist generally use International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to describe the
sound system in the language. The IPA has one sound one symbol coordination which allows
synchronization of written symbols and pronunciation. The consonants are categorized based
on Manner of Articulation, Place of articulation and voicing. Likewise, vowels are categorize
based of Height, Backness and Roundedness.

2. Morphology:
It is the study of words and its structure. The Structure/parts of words include:
• Root words: It is a word that does not have a prefix or a suffix
• Stems: a stem is a word or morpheme to which affixes can be attached.
• Prefixes: a morpheme that is added before the word (unlike, reuse etc.)
• Suffixes: a morpheme that is added after the word (likely, walked etc.)
3. Syntax
Syntax is the study of sentence and its structure. It studies word order, Clause, phrases rules,
principles, processes etc. that govern the structure of sentences. One basic description of a
language's syntax is the sequence in which the subject (S), verb (V), and object (O) usually
appear in sentences. Over 85% of languages usually place the subject first, either in the
sequence SVO or the sequence SOV. The other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and
OSV, the last three of which are rare. Every language has its own set of rules which if altered,
lead to un-grammaticalness. Example English has SVO (John likes mango) word order, and it
becomes ungrammatical when we alter the structure to SOV (John mango likes) or VSO (Likes
John Mango).

4. Semantics
“Semantics refers to the study of meaning in language”. Word meanings are complicated to
learn as a word can have more than one meaning, different words appear to have the same
meaning, some words seem to have opposite meaning, the meaning of some words are included
in the meaning of others and the certain combinations of words have meanings which are very
different from the combination of their separate meanings etc.

5. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that studies the ways in which context contributes to
meaning. In other words, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends on the
context of the utterance and not just on the structure of the utterance.
 HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS,
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS,
DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS
(****SHORTENED OR LENGTHEN YOUR ANSWER BASED ON MARKS)
 HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
Historical linguistics, also termed as diachronic linguistics is the scientific study of language
change over time. Principal concerns of historical linguistics include:

1. To describe the changes in languages. Due to various reasons like language

contact, migration, creativity etc. language goes tremendous changes over a
long period of time. Example:

2. To reconstruct the pre-history of languages and community, to

determine their relatedness and group them into language families.

Example: William jones suggested that Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages
had a common root, and that indeed they may all be further related. It is clear
from the example below:

3. to develop general theories about how and why language changes. Some
of the causes of language change are:
i. Geographically conditioned: The place, landscape and
environment have huge impact on language. Community
which dwells in forest will have lots of words related to
forest. In reverse, community dwelling in desert will have
less words related to forest. Thus vocabulary difference can
be seen in community dwelling in desert and forest even
though they belong to same language family. Therefore
 communities originated from same source may have different
vocabulary based on geography.
ii. Language Contact: Two different language groups having
language contact may have lots of common words even
though they belong to different language families. This is the
result of language contact and it causes language change over
a long period of time. Example: Tani languages have lots of
Assamese and Hindi words due to language contact.
4. To study the origin/history of words, i.e. etymology.
Historical linguistics takes into account the origin of the words in the language. This helps in
analysing whether the word is native or is borrowed from other language through language
contact.
 PSYCHOLINGUISCTICS:

1. Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental aspects of language and speech.

2. It combines methods and theories from psychology and linguistics
3. Main/core interest of psycholinguistics are:
a. Acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the ability to
perceive and comprehend language as well as to produce and use words and
sentences to communicate.
Critical Period and innate hypothesis:
As per language acquisition theory given by Noam Chomsky, human is
born with innate ability to acquire language. But if the child is not expose to
language till the age of four (4), that ability will be lost and the person will not
be able to acquire language completely (though he/she may acquire partially).
Example: Mowgli, Genie (the feral girl).
Stages of acquisition: Language is believed to be acquired in 5 stages
as follow

b. Comprehension
Comprehending language involves a variety of capacities, skills, processes,
knowledge and dispositions that are used to derive meanings from spoken,
written and signed languages, for instance, how words on paper are turned into
meaning in the mind. Language comprehension is a complex process that
occurs easily and effortlessly to humans like reading, writing, speaking,
listening and memorising. Psycholinguists also take interest in comprehension
related disorders like aphasia, dyslexia etc.

c. Production Psycholinguits take into account human ability to produce

language as well as the hindrance in production of speech like stammering,
stuttering, speech errors etc. They also include speech dysfluencies like false
starts, repetition, reformulation and constant pauses in between words or
sentences; also, slips of tongue, like blendings, substitutions, exchanges
(e.g. Spoonerism), and various pronunciation errors. These speech errors yield
significant implication on language production, in that they reflect the mental
aspects of mind.
 DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS
(Word: 300, enough for 8 marks)
Introduction
It is the study of the grammar, of a language at a given time, without reference to the history
of the language or comparison with other languages. That is, unlike Historical linguistics, it
does not study the history of language nor does it compare different languages. It simply
describes the language as it is. Therefore, it is also called as synchronic linguistics.

The core principle of Descriptive Linguistics

The core principle of Descriptive Linguistics is that each language constitutes an autonomous
system, which must be described in its own terms. By comparing languages, we often lose the
uniqueness of the language concern.

However, many linguists consider Descriptive Linguistics as the preliminary step or the
stage during which the facts of each individual language are established, before comparison
can take place.

Methods of Linguistic Description

The first step toward describing a language is data collection. Most descriptive linguists carry
out fieldwork in a linguistic community and record samples of speech from different
speakers, in the form of narratives, daily conversation, word list, sentence list, interview and
so on. Although spontaneous, naturalistic speech is the ideal, in practice, linguists also carry
out elicitation, by asking speakers for translations, testing specific sentences, and checking
pronunciation or grammar rules. Then the data are analysed and the linguist describe what are
the structures and rules of that language.

Language Components in descriptive linguistics

6. Phonology: Study of sound system of the language
7. Morphology: Study of Word and its structure in the language
8. Syntax: Study of sentence and its structure in the language
9. Semantics: Study of meaning in the language.

(*****note: elaborate them more with examples if the question is for 16 marks)

Conclusion
Therefore, in descriptive linguistics, linguist simply analyse the components (Phonology,
morphology, syntax and semantics) of the language and its rules. The linguist does not
prescribe or dictate the rules but merely describe how it is used by the community.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS:
2019:
Discuss language as a system of communication
Or
What is Historical Linguistics? What is its use in overall exercise of the study of
language?

2018:
Comment with illustration the scope and branches of Linguistics
Or
Define component of human language with apt examples