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Evaluating an Advertising Campaign

MBA 854-March 6, 2002


Executive Summary

Have you ever thought about why you choose one soft drink over another? You probably

don’t even realize that the attributes of the product are somehow connected to your underlying

values. Do you think your values were at all influenced by advertising?

There are many different factors in one’s environment that can persuade an individual to

use a certain product or service. Marketers need to understand these influences to help them

develop effective advertising to persuade consumers to buy particular products or services.

One technique that a marketer can use to get at the qualitative factors influencing

consumer’s purchasing behavior is the laddering interview technique. In using the laddering

interview, a researcher is able to guide the consumer through a series of questions to get at what

specific attributes they find important in a particular product. The researcher will also need to

uncover the consequences of these specific attributes for the consumer. In other words, what are

the benefits to the consumer of the particular attributes of a product? From this, the researcher

will be able to determine the real reason the consumer chooses a certain product. This is the

value or end-state for the consumer. By understanding the attributes, consequences, and values

of the consumer, the researcher can then use the means-end approach to link these attributes,

consequences, and values into a “map” to then see a complex web of reasons why consumers

purchase certain products and what they hope to receive from their purchases.

From this “map” the researcher can use a MECCAS model to develop an advertising

strategy to effectively target specific consumer attributes, consequences, and overall values or

end-states that the consumer is driving for.

This paper will discuss in detail each of the points mentioned above and give the reader a

greater understanding in how to develop and evaluate an effective advertising campaign.


Introduction

The focus of our research is to present the techniques used to evaluate an advertising

campaign and explain why an advertising campaign may be effective and why it may not be.

Philip Kotler defines advertising as any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of

ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor (Kotler, 2001). Advertising is another form of a

common communication platform along with sales promotion, public relations, personal selling,

and direct marketing (Kardes, 2000). In developing an effective advertising program, five

critical decision-making factors are useful for identifying the target market and buyer motives.

These are known as the “Five Ms of Advertising,” which are explained in Exhibit I.

A common problem that is experienced by advertising managers is understanding

consumers at a strategic level. It is sometimes difficult to use the information that they do find

as the basis for developing alternative positions. One way to help understand the motivations of

consumers is the means-end approach. This approach takes into consideration the underlying

goals that people have and relates them to the attributes of a particular product. Our discussion

will explain the MECCAS model that can be used to evaluate an advertising campaign as well as

a particular interviewing technique, laddering, that is employed to ultimately discover people’s

underlying values. The laddering interviews flows into the means-end approach, which is then

used in the Meccas model.

Differentiation of a product alone does not necessarily make it sell. It is ultimately the

connection that a consumer perceives with a product that makes it desirable. The strength of the

means-end model is that it illustrates the most important elements that motivate people to buy a

product, and it also shows what the connections are between these motives and the attributes of

the product or service. We will also discuss the role of persuasion in advertising and how
people’s persuasion knowledge influences their responses to persuasion attempts This research

is important to companies so they can spend their advertising dollars more effectively. If the

underlying values of consumers are not aligned with attributes of a product, they will not be

interested in buying it.

Persuasion

From a practical marketer’s point of view, effective advertising is all about persuasion.

Collins COBUILD dictionary defines it as “the act of persuading someone to do something or to

believe that something is true”. Social scientists define persuasion as “an active attempt to

change beliefs and attitudes”. Therefore, developing persuasive advertising is a big task for

marketers. As a basis of developing this persuasive advertising, research about the nature and

development of persuasion knowledge and how people use it to interpret, evaluate, and respond

to influence attempts from advertisers and salespeople is for academic business scholars.

Persuasion Knowledge Model

The persuasion knowledge model (PKM) is a target and agent structure that presumes

that within individuals, people’s persuasion knowledge continues developing throughout their

life span. The PKM model presents three sources of persuasion to people. First, personal

experiences in social interactions with friends, family, and coworkers are the most powerful

source, since people trust those people more than others. Conversations about how people’s

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can be influenced are the second source. Finally, in contrast to

the firsthand experiences of active learning, the observations of marketers and other known

agents are a more passive way of persuading others. Persuasion knowledge performs schema like

functions, such as guiding consumer’s attention to aspects of an advertising campaign or sales

presentation, providing inferences about possible background conditions that caused the agent to
construct the attempt in that way (Friestad & Wright, 1994). In sum, the Persuasion Knowledge

Model may offer a basis for gaining added insight about the processes of both consumer

behavior and social influence.

Given the importance of persuasion sources and processes, five persuasion principles by

Robert Cialdini give marketers meaningful foundation in developing effective and persuasive

advertising. Information asymmetry was a major advantage for marketers to persuade consumers

since consumers mainly rely on the information which marketers offer. However, a new Internet

paradigm with technology support allows consumers access to tremendous amounts of

information, and it is becoming another threat for companies, weakening their traditional

strategy. Companies choose their strategy in the matrix of two dimensions between price and

differentiation.

But surprisingly enough, people tend to rely more on one important piece of information

and respond to it, rather than identifying and analyzing each relevant piece of information when

making a decision. Of course, people will make trade-offs between their personal time and

finding a lower price based on their personal value system under different constraints and

situations. Many studies show that even price-sensitive consumers tend to keep purchasing from

one store once they believe that that store offers the cheapest products. Once consumers trust a

sales person or other experts, they tend to believe the information from that source without

further information searching.

This highly reliable single piece of information is used as a “ trigger”, corresponding with

fundamental, powerful principles of psychology and studies of human behavior (Cialdini, 1985).

Reciprocation is the first trigger for compliance in the decision making process of persuading

customers. Reciprocation governs the making of concessions in a negotiation situation. Direct


and high involvement forms more favorable attitudes toward subjects. The second trigger is

scarcity, in which people try to seize those items and opportunities that are scarce or are

becoming unavailable. People tend to feel special about rare things, contrasting to the need of

assimilation to others. This is the strategy of high-end premium products, which are affordable

for a small number of privileged people. The willingness of people to follow the suggestions of

someone whom they see as a legitimate authority is the third one. People tend to listen to their

parents, professors or bosses because they consider them trustworthy and responsible.

Consistency is the fourth trigger, which builds robust belief and attitude over time. If the

messages from one source is not consistent and tends to be changed fundamentally, people may

doubt the truthfulness of it. Consistent messages affect the mindset of people in that the

messages are truth. At last, social validation is when people are more influenced to perform an

action or hold a belief when they see that others are doing so. People don’t want to be an extreme

outlier in terms of social norms that “everybody” agrees to and assumes there are no exceptions.

Persuasion is a complex topic. In fact, it is so complex that marketers are not convinced on how

to effectively choose from their alternatives. However, marketers should be able to better harness

and direct the influencing process for effective persuasion by understanding and using persuasion

principles (Cialdini, 2001).

Laddering

The laddering interview technique is one method for identifying consumer’s means-end

chains. It is a semi-structured, qualitative method in which respondents are asked a series of

questions about a particular product or service (Olson &Reynolds 2001). They answer by

describing freely why an attribute is important to them. Usually, the interviews are structured so

that they have an agenda or an end goal, and the questions are formed to gain additional insight
into the consumer’s motivations to buy a product. The laddering method is different from

normal research interviews like focus groups because it is aimed at finding more abstract reasons

for choosing a brand. Typically, only attributes and benefits are sought as reasons for usage.

Interview Method

Laddering begins by identifying the most important distinguishing attribute of a product.

Attributes are in products. For example, when choosing a type of soft drink, a person might

choose “low or no calories” as a basis for purchase. From here, the interviewer tries to move the

respondent up the ladder to different levels of abstraction. This is accomplished by asking

questions such as: “Why is a low calorie drink important to you?” The answer or answers to this

question are the results of consuming diet soda. They are the consequences of the attribute. In

this situation, a consumer might answer this question by saying that low calorie beverages help

with weight control or that they are a healthier alternative to sugared beverages. This, in turn,

can lead to the top rung of the ladder, which is associated with values. Values are the ends or

high-level states that are reached. The value that is discovered in this interview might be self-

esteem or “feeling good about yourself.”

Advantages

Laddering starts out by asking respondents to make distinctions about perceived

differences between brands or products. The advantage of this technique is that distinctions can

be framed into different choice situations with specific sets of competitive alternatives. This

provides the best results because the respondent is able to make a decision in the correct context.

For instance, when interviewing a consumer about their choice of beer, he or she might choose a

different brand depending on where they are or who they are with. If a consumer is planning on

drinking beer at home with his family, he or she might choose Miller Lite. It is relatively
inexpensive, flavorful, and it has fewer calories than regular beer. On the other hand, if a

consumer is out for drinks with clients or on a date, he or she might choose to drink Bass. This

beer is a more expensive, full-bodied beer. It is perceived more as a beer that a successful person

might drink. The premium brand attribute of this beer is connected to the value of success in the

MECCAS model.

By discovering consumer beliefs and attitudes within the context of behavior, laddering

overcomes a major problem of most attitude research where distinctions might not be connected

with choice. In this case, important choice criteria might be associated with less meaningful

distinctions. This might explain why attitudes do not always predict behavior, but attitudes

toward choice behavior concerning the object frequently do.

Disadvantages-Blocking

One of the biggest problems in laddering is when respondents become blocked at one

level and are not able to move on. This problem can be resolved by some prompting from the

interviewer. They should not put words in the consumer’s mouth but should give them some

general guidance. Several techniques are available to overcome blocking such as “reiteration of

occasion” where the interviewer reminds the respondent of the occasion that the ladder is

referring to. “Alternate scenarios” are used where the interviewer asks the respondent to think of

a similar scenario to the one being discussed. This sometimes gets the ball rolling. Negative

laddering questions can be used, which probes to find the respondent’s reasons for not wanting to

do something or to feel certain ways.

Sometimes respondents will give very plain answers that don’t really mean anything. For

example, they may say that they feel satisfied. But, what does that really mean? Are they

pleased with the product or just not upset with it. Slang can be misinterpreted or a respondent
might give more than one answer. Another common response to questions during a laddering

interview is: “I just like it.” This can be handled by simply asking: “Why do you like it.” You

may get an acceptable answer or a “because I do.”

Laddering Analysis

After recording the results of the interview, the responses should be grouped as an

attribute, consequence, or value. From this grouping, a hierarchical value map (HVM) can be

constructed. This “summary map” minimizes the redundancy between perceptual orientations

and makes them easier to contrast and assess. The HVM identifies the key content elements of

the study and the associations that give meaning to the differences that consumer perceive

between competitive products (Olson & Reynolds, 2001). The goal at this level is to focus on

meanings that are central to the purpose of the study. It should be noted that the term Consumer

Decision Map (CDM) is used in situations where the map represents how people make decisions

rather than just how their thoughts are organized.

Applications

There are several options available to apply the data that is obtained by using the

laddering technique. Once all of the responses are organized into an HVM, valuable information

can be pulled. For instance, you can segment consumers according to their values associated

with a particular product class or brand, assess brands or products in a traditional manner,

evaluate competitive advertising, or use the information as a basis for developing advertising

strategies.
Segmentation

By using segmentation, respondents can be grouped according to a particular aspect of

their behavior, attitudes, or dispositions in a way that lets us understand the consumers more

thoroughly. The final values that are reached at the top of the ladder may be used to classify the

consumers, or the connections between the attributes and values may be used. Once the

segmentation scheme has been created, consumer behavior regarding brand choice can be

assessed. An example of this could be linked to the scenario we discussed earlier about the beer

choice. Attributes such as “premium” are linked to higher-level values such as achievement.

These links illustrate common reasons why one brand is chosen over another in specific

situations.

Product-Brand Assessment

Laddering can also be used to evaluate a product or brand. In this case, it is beneficial to

allow respondents to use their own frame of reference rather than being guided by pre-set

questions. This facilitates getting to the higher-level consequences and values rather than

focusing on the simple attributes of a product or brand. The output from laddering, coupled with

the unique analytical procedures it allows, provides the researcher with a better understanding of

the basis on which consumers make distinctions between competing brands (Olson & Reynolds,

2001). It is often the case that marketing decisions are made on discrimination differences and

not on preference differences. Using the laddering approach allows the consumer to be studied

in a way that helps a marketer understand the choices being made in a consumer’s own context.
Assessing Advertising

Another way to use the results from laddering is to discover what people really think

about certain types of advertising. Advertising can be looked at in different ways when it is

perceived in the context of the different levels of attributes, consequences, and values. This is

done by showing a group of respondents a series of advertisements soon after they complete a

laddering exercise. At this point, the respondents are in tune with their feelings about why they

make choices when deciding between two products. After viewing the ads, they are asked to rate

them on the extent to which the ad communicates at each level and to provide some comment on

why it does or does not communicate at that level.

An analysis of the results is conducted, and the statements that are compiled are used to

assess the communication at the various levels. In some cases, it is found that ads are effective at

communicating at the attribute level but not at the higher consequence and value levels. On the

other hand, some ads may communicate at the value level but not at the attribute level. The most

effective ads are the ones that communicate at all levels with a logical link between attributes

and values.

Advertising Strategy

The development of advertising strategy is the probably the most important benefit of the

laddering technique in the advertiser/marketer’s eyes. It provides the most applicable insight that

can be used to create effective television commercials and print ads. The levels of abstraction

framework that was discussed underlie the formation of the means-end chains and provide a

basis for coordinating the results of laddering to advertising strategy development. In the next

section, we will discuss how this framework is used in the MECCAS model.
Means-End Approach and the MECCAS Model

To successfully position a product in today’s competitive marketplace, a manager needs a

set of tools to help identify personal motivations of consumers to then develop a strategic

position for the product or service. One tool that a manager can use is the Means-End approach.

The means-end approach is an umbrella term that refers to a set of methods for interviewing

consumers about the reasons for their decision choice and then interpreting those responses in

terms of linkages between outcomes. (Olsen & Reynolds 2001). It is based on sophisticated

research such as laddering interviews that investigate human values and studies what attributes

and consequences consumers seek in products. A means-end chain links attributes of products

(the means), consequences of these attributes to the consumer, and the personal values (the ends)

that the consequences reinforce. (Gutman, 1982). Attributes are features of a product or service

such as the size, aesthetics, horsepower, or trunk space of an automobile. The consequences are

what the consumer anticipates to receive (benefits) or avoid (detriments) when consuming the

product or service. Continuing with the car example, consequences could be status, safety, resale

value, or breakdowns (negative consequence). Values represent beliefs people hold regarding

what is important in life. They pertain to end states or behaviors that people desire in their lives.

(Schwartz, 1992).

Every meaningful act of consumption can be seen as an attempt to achieve some value

end-state. The means-end theory states that customers have value end-states in which they will

choose products as a means of reaching those valued end-states. The linkage of the product to

the consumer spans three basic levels. The product-specific level, or attributes, is where the

physical and abstract characteristics of the product or service are. These are immediate, tangible,

physical experiences. The person-specific level is where the values or desired end-states are.
These are more emotional, social, and include how the consumer personally feels. The third

level is the linkage between the other two levels. This linkage is the consequences (of

consumption or use), which comprise both positive and negative aspects. Some consequences

can be positive for the consumer while negative consequences are something the consumer will

likely want to avoid.

Benefits of the Means-End Theory:

The benefit to the means-end theory is that is shows not only what key elements motivate

consumers, but also what the connections are between these motives and the tangible product or

service attributes. (Olsen & Reynolds 2001). The means-end framework incorporates all levels

into a conceptual model that focuses on the associations between the levels as well as the levels

themselves. A consumer’s sequence of attributes, consequences, and values (A-C-V) associated

with a product is called a means-end chain and represents a perceptual orientation of decision

criteria. After interviewing different consumers (laddering interview technique), a series of

means-end chains can be constructed. This “map” of A-C-V chains is called a Hierarchical

Value Map (HVM). The HVM identifies the key content elements of memory and the

associations that give meaning to the differences that consumer’s perceive between and among

competitive products (Olson & Reynolds, 2001). The following is an illustration of an HVM map

showing three attributes linked to two consequences, linked to two value end states.

V1 V2
A = Attributes identified by the consumer
C1
C = Consequences to the consumer C1

V = Vales or means-end states for the consumer A1 A2 A3


The dominant perceptual orientation should be the products positioning in marketing and

advertising efforts. The conceptual constructs developed in the HVM can be used as the basis

for developing an advertising strategy to appeal to those consumers with those particular valued

means-end states.

MECCAS Model:

The Means-Ends Conceptualization of Components of Advertising Strategy (MECCAS) model

is a tool to be able to help provide a procedure for applying the concept of means-end chains to

the creation of advertising messages. The MECCAS model is made up of five components that

correspond to the values, consequences, and attribute levels in the laddering interview technique

and the mean-end model. Those components are the driving force, leverage point, executional

framework, consumer benefit, and the message element. The driving force relates to the value

orientation of the strategy or the end level focus of the advertising. It is the goal or the value of

the consumer. This relates to the goal or values of the consumer, and is the “V” in the A-C-V

chain. All the other points are really geared toward achieving the end level. The leverage point

is the manner by which the advertising will tap into or reach the key value that serves as the

advertisements driving force. The leverage point tells you which ladder in the HVM you are

moving toward to reach the end value or driving force. The executional framework is the overall

scenario or plot of the advertisement. It communicates the overall tone or style of the

advertisement. The consumer benefit is the major positive consequences (or detriments that the

consumer wants to avoid) for the consumer that the advertisement verbally or visually

communicates. This relates to the “C” in the A-C-V chain. The message elements are the

specific attributes or features of the product that are communicated verbally or visually that

support the consequences of using the product. This relates to the “A” in the A-C-V chain.
Using the MECCAS model allows the researcher to understand the motivation of the

customer, the positive attributes in the product in question, the anticipated consequences of the

attributes to the consumer, and the value-ends of the customer, and in using the words and values

of the customer directly, tailor the advertising appropriately to the consumer. It is basically a

systematic way to approach the creative side of advertising. The MECCAS model coupled with

the results of the HVM, allows the management to review several different strategies at once,

and when the final strategy has been chosen, it allows for a more systematic review of the

advertisement and what the final product should be. (Olsen & Reynolds 2001). Refer to

Exhibit 2 for an illustration of how the MECCAS model can be used in practice. On the left side

of the model are the five components of the MECCAS model. The center section of the

illustration is the strategy involved. Here one would list the specific attributes, consequences,

leverage point, and the value end-means that were identified in the laddering interview process.

The left side of the illustration is the executional framework or the specification of meanings or

connections. This is the overall tone of the advertisement. The generation of ideas to be the

executional framework can initially be developed by asking the question, “What will cause the

connection to be made?” (Olsen & Reynolds 2001). Once the ideas are generated for the three

areas on the left side of Exhibit 2, specific scenes can be developed to deliver the desired

meanings, which is the overall exectuional framework or tone of the advertisement. The goal of

the specification of meanings is to create specific creative ideas to reach the value end. The

“product bridge” connects the attributes of the product (message elements) to the consequences

for the consumer (consumer benefit). The “personal relevance bridge” links the consequences to

the consumer with the leverage point. The “value bridge” then links the leverage point to the

driving force, or the value means-end of the consumer.


The MECCAS model allows for the creation of advertising that identifies important

values of the consumer and relates those values to the anticipated consequences of the product,

and with the key attributes that cause those consequences. The tone of the advertisement then

communicates all this information to the consumer in an orderly fashion and takes into account

their attributes, consequences, and values that they identified in the laddering interview process.

This then becomes an important tool for both the creative consultants developing the

advertisement as well as the management of the company. It allows both parties to have a single

set of documents to systematically evaluate the advertising strategy for a particular product and

make certain that the message conveyed in the advertisement is consistent with what the

consumer has identified as being important to them.

Conclusion:

Understanding consumer’s perceptions and behavior is paramount in being able to

develop an effective advertising strategy for a company. According to Russ Klein of Whisper

Capital Investments, there is a trend in the industry to use more qualitative research in

developing appropriate advertising and brand strategies. Qualitative information can be acquired

by using the laddering interview technique, and then developing a means-end chain, which then

can be used in the MECCAS model. The MECCAS model is then used to develop an effective

advertising campaign that will link consumer’s attributes to their personal values using their own

words. This is an effective method to inform and persuade the consumer in their purchasing

decisions. The MECCAS model also gives the management of a company a reasonable way to

check the continuity of the message of the advertisement created by others. It allows the

management to look at a series of documents and compare consumer attributes, consequences

and values, and match them up to the value end-states created by the advertisement and the
leverage points used to move the consumer from the attributes and consequences of the message

to the value end-states.


Exhibit I

Message

!Message generation
!Message evaluation and
selection
!Message execution
!Social-responsibility
Mission Money review

!Sales goals !Stage in PLC


!Advertising !Market share and Measurement
objectives consumer base
!Competition and !Communication
clutter impact
!Advertising !Sales impact
frequency
Media
!Product
substitutability !Reach, frequency, impact
!Major media types
!Specific media vehicles
!Media timing
!Geographical media
allocation

(Kotler, 2001)
Exhibit 2

MECCAS Strategy Specification of meanings (connections)

Driving
Force Value End
Value Bridge

Links
Leverage attributes and
Point consequences
to the driving
force
Personal Relevance Bridge

Consumer
Consequences
Benefit
Product Bridge

Message
Elements Attributes
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Kardes, Frank. Consumer behavior and managerial decision making. New York: Prentice Hall,
2000.
Kotler, Philip. A Framework for Marketing Management. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
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Olsen, Jerry C., and Thomas J Reynolds. Understanding Consumer Decision Making: The
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