Questions On Climb and Descent

Questions on Climb and Descent
Maximum ANGLE OF CLIMB will be achieved when the excess THRUST is

greatest and the aircraft is lightest.
The balance of forces in a steady climb show thrust is acting upwards and an
element of weight is adding to the drag
As the thrust assists the lift, the lift required is less than in level flight. Verify
mathematically by the formula Lift = W.cos gamma
For a steady speed to be maintained the thrust and the two retarding effects of
aerodynamic drag and the weight element must be equal.
If Thrust = T, Drag = D and Weight = W, then as a formula it can be written as:
T = D + W sin gamma
or
Sin gamma = T - D / W
It means that climb angle (Sin gamma) depends on the excess thrust (i.e. thrust
less drag) and the weight.
Tan gamma = Opposite / Adjacent

Opposite = Height gained
Adjacent = Distance covered on ground.
Height gained against distance covered on ground is the climb gradient.
Thus Tan gamma = climb gradient
For small angles Adjacent is nearly the same as Hypotenuse and

Opposite/Adjacent = Sin relation.
So we get an approximate formula for climb gradient, which is:
Sin gamma = T – D / Weight

or
Climb gradient = T – D / Weight
Meaning that the greatest climb gradient is obtained when a greatest

difference exists between thrust and drag and the weight is least.
In theoretical terms, for a piston engine aircraft this will occur at the minimum
power speed (Vmp) and for a jet engine aircraft at the minimum drag speed
(Vmd). Vmp is however close to the stall speed, and normally relates to 1.1Vs.
Maximum RATE OF CLIMB will be achieved when the excess POWER is greatest

and the aircraft is lightest.
In terms of rate of climb:
Sin gamma = ROC/TAS = (T - D)/W
Now Power = TAS x Thrust
It follows that the ROC = TAS x (T - D)/W
This equates to ROC = (Power available - Power required)/W
or excess power/W, so the maximum rate of climb will be achieved when the
excess power is greatest and the aircraft is lightest. This relates to Vy.
Excess power relates to the greatest difference between power available and
power required to maintain level flight.
Note that in the power graph that the power available from a jet engine
aircraft is a straight line. This is because the thrust is constant and the power
varies according to the TAS.
For a piston engine aircraft the best rate of climb occurs when the aircraft is
flown at Vmd and for a jet engine aircraft at a speed greater than Vmd.
Note that the speeds relate to theory and are what are expected in the
examination. In practice these speeds may however vary depending on the
airframe engine configuration.
Source: (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=9209)
The lift of an aeroplane of weight W in a constant linear climb with a climb

angle (gamma) is approximately:
L = W x cos gamma
In a steady climb: thrust equals drag plus the weight component along the
flight path and lift equals the weight component perpendicular to the flight
path.
Power Available = Thrust X TAS and Power Required = Drag X TAS
For a jet aircraft the best rate of climb is achieved when excess power
available is at a maximum.
In order to achieve the maximum rate of climb, aircraft should be flown at
the indicated airspeed that gives maximum excess power.
During a straight steady climb, Lift is less than weight and Load factor is less
than 1. Work it out yourself from L = W.Cos gamma
For shallow climb angles the following formula can be used: Sin (gamma) =
T/W - CD/CL
From the climb diagram above:
Sin Gamma = Thrust - Drag / Weight

or
Sin Gamma = Thrust / Weight - Drag / Weight
For shallow climb angles lift and weight are practically the same. Thus the
formula can be written as:
Sin Gamma = Thrust / Weight - Drag / Lift

or
Sin Gamma = Thrust / Weight - CD / CL
Given an Aeroplane mass of 50,000 kg, Lift/Drag ratio 10, Thrust per engine
60,000N, assumed g=10 m/s2. For a straight, steady, wings level climb of a twin
engine aeroplane, the all engines climb gradient will be:
Formula:
Sin gamma = Thrust / Weight - Drag / Weight (as mentioned above)

Thrust = 60,000 per engine. For 2 engines its 2 x 60,000 = 120,000
Weight = mass x g. i.e. 50,000 x 10 = 500,000
L/D = 10 so Drag = Lift/10
Lift = W x cos gamma
Lift decreases as the angle of climb increases. In this questin we cannot

calculate lift since we dont know the climb angle. For small angles of climb (up
to about 15) lift is almost equal to weight so we can take the weight value as
lift (error is very small).
So Lift = 500,000
Thus Drag = 500,000 / 10 = 50,000
Now putting the values in the formula:
Sin (gamma) = T/W - D/W

Sin (gamma) = 120,000/500,000 - 50,000/500,000
Sin (gamma) = 0.14
In percentage: Sin (gamma) = 0.14 x 100 = 14%
For calculating angle:
Sin gamma = 0.14

gamma = Inv Sin of 0.14 = 8 degrees.
An aeroplane performs a continuous descent with 160 kts IAS and 1000 feet/min
vertical speed. In this condition weight is greater than lift.
What is the correct relationship between the true airspeed for (i) minimum sink
rate and (ii) minimum glide angle, at a given altitude?
(i) is less than (ii)
Minimum sink rate speeed is VMP and minimum glide angle speed is VMD. Thus VMP
is lower. At an altitude, VMP TAS will be lower than VMD TAS.
When an aeroplane performs a straight steady climb with a 20% climb gradient,
the load factor is equal to:
20% climb gradient (in a right angled triangle) means:
20 up (opposite side) for 100 horizontal (adjacent side)
opposite/adjacent = tan (angle)

20/100 = tan (angle)
tan angle = 0.2
climb angle = Inv tan of 0.2 = 11.3
So gamma = 11.3
Lift in a climb is:
L = W x cos gamma
So load factor in climb is cos of climb angle
cos of 11.3 = 0.98 (Answer)

To maintain equilibrium when an aircraft is climbing, thrust equals the sum of
drag and the weight component along the flight path whereas lift equals the
weight component perpendicular to the flight path.
When climbing into a headwind, in comparison to the still air, the climb
gradient relative to the ground will be steeper, and the rate of climb unchanged.
In a steady climb at a constant speed the power available must exceed the
power required.
Regarding the forces acting on an aircraft in a steady-state descent, the sum of
all forward forces is equal to the sum of all rearward forces.
Questions on Glide
The maximum glide range of an aircraft will depend on wind and the ratio of
lift to drag which varies according to angle of attack.
With a L/D ratio of 9:1 and flying at 12000 ft the glide range in still air would
be 18 nm.
9:1 means 9000 feet horizontal distance covered for 1000 feet loss in height.
If for 1000 feet horizontal distance covered is 9000 feet.
Then for 12000 feet horizontal distance covered is 12 x 9000 feet = 108000
feet.
108000/6076 = 18 NM
Tailwind will result in the maximum distance covered over the ground when
gliding as compared to headwind.
The L/D ratio allows the pilot to determine glide distance in still air from a
given altitude.
Gliding angle is minimum at the speed for minimum drag (subsonic).
The speed for minimum sink rate in a glide, compared to the speed for
maximum distance VIMD is slower than VIMD.
The greatest gliding range would be obtained from a wing at a small angle of
attack at maximum lift/drag ratio.
The best lift to least drag occurs around 4 degrees alpha which is at Vmd.
In a glide the line of action of the total reaction will be behind that of lift
and directly opposite that of weight.
A glide ratio of 14:1 with respect to the air mass will be 14:1 regardless of
wind direction and speed.
Except wing, what other factors affect the glide range?

a) Weight
b) Lift/drag ratio
c) CL Max
d) Weight and power required
Option (B) Correct
Questions on Speed Stability
An aircraft is said to have speed stability when the speed is disturbed from its
trimmed value, it tends to return to the original speed.
Speed stability of an aircraft is stable above Vmd because total drag increases as
speed increases.
Questions on Autorotation and Spin
During autorotation, the inner wing is "more stalled" than the outer.
After a full stall, both wings remain in a stalled condition throughout the rotation.
During a spin to the left, "Both" wings are stalled.
Questions on Windshear
In a wind-shear condition of decreasing tailwind there will be an increase in
airspeed.
On passing through a shear line, why does the IAS change?
The inertia of the aircraft will initially keep it at its original speed in relation to the
ground.
Questions on Turning
An aircraft is maintaining altitude while flying with the left engine inoperative and
the wings level, both the turn indicator and slip indicator will be neutral.
In a steady banked turn the lift will equal the resultant of weight and centrifugal
force.
Radius of turn (m) = Square of TAS / g x tan phi
g = 9.81 m/second square (force of gravity)
TAS is in meters/sec (SI unit - not in knots). 1 knot = 0.514 m/s
The bank angle in a rate-one turn depends on TAS. A rough formula is: Angle of
bank = TAS/10 + 7
An aeroplane performs a steady horizontal turn with 20 degrees bank and 150 kt
TAS. The same aeroplane with the same bank angle and the same speed, but at a
lower mass will turn with the same turn radius.
The turn radius formula is radius = tas squared / g tan of the bank angle. It is
independant of mass.
For a given TAS and bank angle, a heavy aircraft will have the same radius of turn
as a lighter one and the same g load.
Radius of turn = TAS squared / g x tan of banke angle
Load factor = 1 / cos of banke angle

Weight is not an issue here.
For an aircraft at high weight, the minimum possible radius of turn will be more
than when at a low weight.
Due to Speed factor. Minimum flying speed will be higher at higher weights thus
increasing the radius. Had it been the same speed, the radius would have been equal.
Questions on Propellers
Propeller efficiency may be defined as the ratio between usable power of the
propeller (power available) and shaft power.
If you put back the RPM lever of a constant speed propeller during a glide with idle
power and constant speed, the propeller pitch will increase and the rate of descent
will decrease.
The angle of attack of a fixed pitch propeller can be increased by:increasing power
and reducing TAS.
Does the pitch-angle of a constant-speed propeller alter in medium horizontal
turbulence? Yes slightly.
The propeller CTM will move the blades about their longitudinal axis.
ATM stands for aerodynamic twisting or turning moment and has a tendency to turn
the propeller towards course pitch. CTM stands for centrifugal twisting or turning
moment and has a tendency to move the propeller towards fine pitch. CTM is normally
greater than ATM and on single acting PCM systems fitted on multi engine aircraft
counterweights are normally fitted to to oppose the effect of CTM.
The geometric pitch is a distance defined by the blade angle i.e. chord to plane of
rotation.
An aeroplane is fitted with a constant speed propeller. If the aeroplane speed
increases while manifold pressure remains constant then propeller pitch will increase
and propeller torque will remain constant.
The info is describing the process of changing speed with a constant speed prop and
constant MAP. The question asks for the condition when all has stabilised again. In the
"after" situation MAP and RPM are back to the same as "before" so torque must also be
the same. If you are going faster then the CSU will have increased blade angle to
maintainn the RPM.
In fact, EHP is the same (torque x RPM) so why are you going faster? Probably by
increasing your dive angle. Who said anything about level flight?
An aircraft with constant speed propeller increases its speed with constant
manifold pressure. The propeller pitch will INCREASE and the propeller torque will
Remain CONSTANT.
The angle of attack of a fixed pitch propeller designed for cruising flight, measured
at its reference station is optimum in steady cruising flight only.
In an aircraft with a two-lever power control system, in a descent with the throttle
closed, if the pitch control were pulled fully back to the flight stop, RPM and the Rate
of Descent would Decrease.
In a two lever power control, the power (throttle) lever controls the fuel flow and the
propeller lever controls the propeller RPM. Selecting propeller lever to Max (forward
position) means increasing the RPM. In this case CSU will decrease the pitch. So pulling
it back would decrease RPM, increase pitch and thus decrease the rate of descent.
Increasing the number of propeller blades decrease propeller efficiency but

increase in the maximum absorption of power.
Increasing the camber on propeller blades will, if all else is the same increase the
power absorption capability.
The blade angle of a propeller change from root to tip to compensate for the
increased velocity of the blade tip.
In the alpha and beta ranges respectively the governed elements of turboprop
propeller controls are as follows:
a) fuel flow and pitch

b) reverse thrust and blade angle
c) engine RPM and fuel flow
d) propeller RPM and engine RPM
The question asks for "governed" elements. Fuel flow, Reverse thrust and Blade angle
are not governed. So only option D is the correct one.
Asymmetric propeller blade effect is mainly induced by the inclination of the

propeller axis to the relative airflow.
Propeller efficiency is best described as thrust HP to shaft HP.
Gyroscopic precession of the propeller is induced by pitching and yawing.
Increase in RPM would alter the gyroscopic effect of a propeller.
Propeller torque is caused by the forces caused by the airflow on the propeller.
Q.11. A twin-engine aircraft is available in both jet and propeller variants. The
engines are mounted on the wings in the same position in both types. In the case of
failure of one engine how would the engine torque effect show itself?
a) Jet: no change; Propeller: roll in the direction of rotation of the dead engine
b) Jet: no change; but Propeller: roll away from the live engine
Option (a) is correct.
Props are low rev high torque systems. In flight the torque is balanced by aileron. Cut
the torque and if you don't adjust for it there will be a torque effect on the aircraft in
the same direction as the propeller rotation, whichever side it is on. Jets have
virtually no torque. The torque effect is felt as a torque reversal at engine failure. As
things settle down there will be a residual torque effect from the windmilling engine.
There is no torque effect from a feathered engine.
Source: (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=13412&page=1)
Questions on Load Factor
Load factor is Lift/Weight.
VA is determined by Manoeuvring limit load factor.
The positive manoeuvring limit load factor for:
A large jet transport aeroplane in clean configuration is 2.5
A large jet transport aeroplane with flaps extended is 2.0
A light aeroplane in the utility category in the clean configuration is 4.4
At the maximum allowed cruising altitude, based on the 1.3 g margin, a manoeuvre
with a load factor of 1.3 will cause buffet onset.
Extending flaps in turbulence reduces the stall speed, but will reduce the margin to
structural limitations.
The extreme right limitation for both V-n (gust and manoeuvre) diagrams is created
by the speed VD.
Increasing the "Speed" and "Aspect-Ratio" of the wing will increase the gust load
factor.
A combination of 50 ft/sec and VC speed is applicable for structural strength in gust

(clean configuration).
IAS and all other factors of importance remaining constant:
The gust load increases, when the weight decreases.
The gust load decreases, when the altitude increases.
See https://www.theairlinepilots.com/forum/ ... .php?t=412
An aircraft flying at a given EAS is subject to a positive gust of 50 kt EAS. Increase
in positive g felt by the aircraft will be more with a high aspect ratio straight wing.
The shape of the gust load diagram is also determined by the three vertical speed
in ft/s (clean configuration) which are 25, 50 and 66.
All gust lines in the V-n graph originate from a point where the speed = 0 and load
factor = +1.
The gust load factor due to a vertical up gust increases when the gradient of the
CL-alpha graph increases.
Questions on V-Speeds
Relationship of VMO and MMO, in a climb and descent is that:

If climbing at VMO, it is possible to exceed MMO and
If descending at MMO, it is possible to exceed VMO.
VMO should be not greater than VC.
How does VA (EAS) alter when the aeroplane's mass decreases by 19%?
Once you set Cn at 2.5 for working out Va the answer for Va is Vs1g times sqrt 2.5.
If you reduce aircraft mass you get a new lower Vs1g and therefore a new lower Va.
Because the lift equation has Vsq in it the reduction in Vs1g is proportional to sqrt of
the change in mass.
It is a quirk of the mathematics that, for small changes, inside 20%, the sqrt of the
proportional change is approximately half the original figure, so a 20% reduction in
mass gives a 10% reduction in Va.
The answer gives figures of 19/10, which is probably the correct answer, not just the
approximation.
An aircraft is flown at 20% below its normal weight. Because of this, VA will be 10%
lower.
See the above logic. Even if you calculate by assuming an example it comes around
10%
e.g. If Weight = 10,000, VS1g = 200 and Limit load factor = 2.5
Then VA = 200 x sq root of 2.5 which comes around 316
If weight is 20% below 10,000 which is 8,000 then
VS1g = sq root of 8000/10000 x 200, which comes around 179
Then VA = 179 x sq root of 2.5, which comes around 283
Perecent drop in VA is 316-283/283 x 100 = 11.66%
If the elevator of an aeroplane flying at a speed just exceeding VA is fully deflected
upwards then its structure may suffer permanent deformation.
An aircraft has a mass of 60,000 kg and a limiting positive load factor of 2.5. VA is
calculated as the EAS at which full positive elevator deflection will give the limiting
load factor at the stall, and is 237 kts. If the aircraft mass is reduced to 40,000 kg by
fuel burn, what will be the new VA?
Solution:
The formula is VA = VS1g x sq root of limit load factor
New VA = Stall speed at new lower weight of 40,000 x sq root of 2.5
First we need to know the stall speed at 60,000, which we can get from the above
formula:
237 = VS x sq root of 2.5
VS = 150
Stall speed at 40,000 will be less than 150

Reduction factor = 40000/60000 = 0.666
sq root of 0.666 = 0.81

150 x 0.81 = 122
So the stall speed at 40,000 will be 122
New VA = 122 x sq root of 2.5
= 193
The manoeuvring speed VA, expressed as indicated airspeed, of a transport

aeroplane depends on aeroplane mass and pressure altitude.
VRA (Rough Air Speed) is the correct speed for a modern jet to fly in turbulence.
Statements about VMCL
1. When the critical engine fails during take-off the speed VMCL can be limiting -
Incorrect
2. The speed VMCL is always limited by maximum rudder deflection - Incorrect
VMCL is the minimum control speed in the landing configuration and has nothing to do
with takeoff.
VMCL is limited by the maximum available roll rate because if you're flying with only
one engine the requirement is to be able to maintain straight and level and be able to
roll the aircraft away from the failed engine through 20 degrees in 5 seconds.
You will stay above Vmcl until you decide to land or abort. We assume you may be in a
turn when you decide to abort and will need to roll wings level for the climb away.
Therefore Vmcl has a test to ensure that you have the roll aurthority to do this
quickly. Because of the interaction of sideslip and roll the critical roll direction is
away from the failed engine. So the Vmcl definition includes a requirement to roll
away from the dead engine through 20deg in 5 seconds.
Even when you are still descending with reduced power roll control may be marginal.
Hence the second qualification that you must be able to carry out the roll test in 3.5
seconds at the (reduced) power needed to maintain a 5% glideslope.
Vmcl could be defined not by the ability to maintain straight flight but at some higher
speed needed to keep roll control within the specified limits.
Source: (http://www.atpforum.eu/archive/index.php/t-5889.html)
VMCG is determined with the nosewheel steering disconnected because:
- The value of VMCG must also be applicable on wet and/or slippery runways and nose-
wheel steering does not work on wet runways.
- Nose-wheel steering is not stressed for high speed operation.
- The use of nose-wheel steering is a distraction from the real emergency.
NOte: All VMC speeds are based on worst case scenarios.
VMCA is certified with a bank angle of not more than 5 deg towards the operating
engine because although more bank reduces VMCA, too much bank may lead to fin
stall. Even at moderate sideslip angles full rudder deflection can cause a "Fin Stall". To
recover from fin stall you must reduce the slip angle and/or rudder deflection
required (i.e. reduce the bank angle or reduce the power on the live engine).
The fin of an aircraft is a symmetrical aerofoil it could stall if the fin angle of
attack is too great.
VMCA depends on the airport density altitude, and the location of the engine on the
aeroplane (aft fuselage or wing).
Higher all-up-weight will not change your VMCA.
VMCG is the speed at which Nose wheel steering becomes ineffective.
Questions on Control Balancing

Examples of aerodynamic balancing of control surfaces are:
a) spring tab, servo tab, and power assisted control

b) balance tab, horn balance, and mass balance
c) mass in the nose of the control surface, horn balance and mass balance
d) servo tab, spring tab, seal between the wing trailing edge and the leading edge of
control surface
Correct: Option (d)
If an aircraft is fitted with powered flying controls, "Servo Tab" would be used in
the case of manual reversion.
Aerodynamic balance can be obtained by an internal balance (the leading edge of
the aileron is housed within a box inside the wing trailing edge, vented to atmosphere,
with a seal from the wing to the leading dge of the aileron)
When power assisted controls are used for pitch control, it ensures that a part of
the aerodynamic forces is still felt on the column.
Which statement about a primary control surface controlled by a servo tab, is
correct?
a) The position is undetermined during taxiing, in particular with tailwind
b) The servo tab can also be used as a trimtab
c) Due to the effectiveness of the servo tab the control surface area can be smaller
d) The control effectiveness of the primary surface is increased by servo tab
deflection
Option A is corerct. Source (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=5869)
The purpose of a trim tab is to reduce continuous stick force to zero while a servo
tab only reduces stick force.
Three aerodynamic means decreasing manoeuvring stick forces are "Servo Tab",
"Horn Balance" and "Spring Tab".
Balance tab move in the opposite direction to control surfaces and the same
direction as trim tabs.
At high IAS the spring tab behaves like a servo tab.
Servo Tabs rely on airflow over them in order to "fly" the control surface into the
desired position. Very handy for reducing stick forces. Unfortunately the higher the
airspeed, the more effective the tab, so that gives us a system that get more effective
as IAS increases, so the controls get lighter. Not a good situation.
The Spring Tab
I've found the easiest way to visualise this is to look at two extremes, in the context of
the strength of the spring compared to the aerodynamic forces present.
Case 1 - Very Low IAS
If IAS is low, then aerodynamic forces are low. So, relatively, the spring is strong. Now
imagine its REALLY strong..... by replacing it with a rigid link.
Now, when you move the control column, the flying control is directly moved, and the
tab doesn't do anything, so this is now a basic control surface.
Case 2 - Very High IAS
If IAS is high, the aerodynamic forces are High. Relatively speaking, the spring is weak.
Now imagine its REALLY weak.... by removing it altogether. Now, when you move the
column, you are only moving the tab and that flies the control surface into position, so
this is now a servo tab system.
With the aircraft stationary, if the control column is pulled back, a sprig tab on the
elevator will remain in the neutral position relative to the elevator.
If the control surface hinge is placed too far back from the control surface leading
edge, control surface CP may move ahead of the hinge and cause overbalance.
A balance tab reduces aerodynamic stick forces and reduces control effectiveness.
An anti-balance tab moves in the same direction as the control surface and
increases control effectiveness.
Some aircraft are fitted with fixed trimming tabs these may be adjusted only on the
ground.
Mass balance to reduce control flutter is not required on aircraft with a fully
powered irreversible control system with "No Manual Emergency System".
Reversible - Flight Control Systems
A reversible flight control system is where there is a direct mechanical linkage

connection between the control lever in the flight compartment and the flight control
surface. In a reversible system, if the surface is moved the control lever will move. In
reversible systems, the pilot directly feels hinge moments applied to the surface.
Irreversible - Flight Control Systems
An irreversible flight control system is where there is not a direct mechanical linkage
connection between the control lever in the flight compartment and the flight control
surface. In an irreversible mechanical system, the control lever in the cockpit moves a
spool valve on a hydraulic power control unit (PCU). A mechanical linkage drives the
spool. An artificial feel system is required for irreversible flight control systems.
Source: (http://www.daerospace.com/FlightControl ... sible.phpv)
If mass balance is used to reduce flutter, it should be attached to a control surface
in front of the hinge. The effect of a mass balance weight is to move the control
surface CG forward onto the control hinge.
If an aeroplane exhibits insufficient stick force per g, this problem can be resolved
by installing a bobweight in the control system which pulls the stick forwards.
Incorrect Statement - On fully hydraulic powered flight controls there is no need for
mass balancing.
Correct Statement - On fully hydraulic powered flight controls there is no need for
trim tabs.
In general transport aeroplanes with power assisted flight controls are fitted with
an adjustable stabiliser instead of trim tabs on the elevator. This is because
effectiveness of trim tabs is insufficient for those aeroplanes.
An aircraft keeps yawing to the left, you would trim it by moving the fixed
trimming tab on the rudder over to the left.
A graduated horn balance ensures that only a limited degree of assistance is
available at low speed.
Which of the following devices is used to provide aerodynamic balance?
a) trim tab
b) anti-balance tab
(b) Is the correct answer as the trim tab only sets the null point. However an anti-
balance tab provides "Negative" balance.
Questions on Flight Controls
Over tensioned cables in a flying control system could result in excessive friction in
the system.
A cable operated control system has external locks. When fitted to the control
surface, they will prevent movement of the control column if the controls are not
fitted with servo tabs.
Power assisted flying controls give some feel.
If an aeroplane has a servo-tab controlled elevator and the elevator jams during
flight then some pitch control will still be retained (through servo tab) but pitch
control will reverse direction.
If the horizontal stabiliser gets stuck in the cruise position you should land at faster
speed with less flap.
An advantage of locating the engines at the rear of the fuselage, in comparison to a
location beneath the wing is less influence on longitudinal control of thrust changes.
Adverse yaw during a turn is caused by decreased induced drag on the lowered wing
and increased induced drag on the raised wing. In a differential aileron control system
the control surfaces have a larger upward than downward maximum deflection.
Differential aileron deflection equals the drag of the right and left aileron. Thus
differential ailerons counters adverse yaw.
While an aircraft is rolling, the down-going and up-going wing provides a damping
force which reduces the rate of roll.
Inboard ailerons are used during "Low and High Speed" flight but outboard ailerons
are used only in "Low speed" flight because aerodynamic loads on the outboard
ailerons tend to twist the wingtips at high speeds.
The inputs to the Q unit are from Pitot and Static.
Q (or more properly, q) is an aerodynamicists shorthand for dynamic pressure. On an

old fashioned aeroplane with cables and pushrods (known as "reversible controls") you
get force feedback that's s function of airspeed. On a modern aircraft with irreversible
(FBW or more likely hydraulic controls) you don't get that feedback. So designers
incorporate q-feel to give you that differing control force sense with increasing
airspeed. Source:
(http://www.pprune.org/questions/92400-q-feel.html)
The stick position stability remains constant when there is an upward or downward
adjustment of a trim tab in the longitudinal control system. Source:
(http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=7167).
The position of the elevator in relation to the trimmable horizontal stabiliser of a
power assisted aeroplane, which is in trim, depends on "Speed", "Position of
Slats/Flaps" and "Position of CG".
An aircraft is equipped with an all flying tailplane which has combined antibalance
and trimming tab. The top of the trim wheel is moved forward. In this case the tab
moves up, so that more effect is required when the pilot attempts to move the control
column to the rear.
If the elevator trim wheel is moved fully back, there will be no effect on control
range.
Aileron reversal may be caused by the wing twisting and reducing incidence when
the aileron is lowered.
An adverse effect when an aircraft rolls in the reverse direction of the aileron input.
This can be caused by the following:
1) Aerodynamic twisting of the wing caused by ailerons as speed is increased, which

may reduce, neutralize, or reverse the direction of the lift. Aileron reversal results if
the aileron structure is insufficiently stiff in torsion. The effect is most pronounced at
near-sonic speeds.
A symmetrical section develops an upward aerodynamic force at the aileron hinge

point when the aileron is deflected downward. This force acts behind the elastic axis
and so produces a nose-down pitching moment. Because this moment is dependent on
square of velocity, its value is higher at higher speed. If the wing lacks sufficient
rigidity to resist this pitching moment, i.e., if it is an elastic wing, its nose will twist
downward, its angle of attack will reduce, and the resultant lift will be lower. A
situation occurs at some high speed when the moment is so large that there is total
loss of lift when the aileron is deflected downward, and the aircraft rolls in the
reverse direction. This is called aileron reversal.
2) In some aircraft, very low speeds. The descending aileron increases the angle of
attack of that portion of the wing, resulting in stall of the wing that should be moving
upward and causing it to drop.
Source: (http://www.answers.com/topic/aileron-reversal)
Aileron reversal at high CL results from the down going aileron increasing the semi-
span angle of attack beyond the critical.
A symmetrical fin will give a side force when rudder is applied and when the
aircraft yaws (due to sideslip).
If the elevator trim wheel is moved fully back, what will happen to the control
range?
a) no effect on range
b) increase elevator range
c) decrease elevator range
(a) is marked correct
A badly worded question. When you have trimmed fully nose up you have very little
control movement/authority left in the nose up sense but full movement in the nose
down sense, so nose up is reduced but not nose down. If you have, say 20deg elevator
movement, normally 10 up and 10 down but are stuck with the elevator at 10deg nose
up you still have the full 20deg range avaiable toward nose down, even though you
don't want it all.
Source: (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=13412&page=2)
The purpose of a trim tab (device) is to reduce or to cancel control forces.

An artificial feel unit is necessary in the pitch channel when the elevators are
actuated by irreversible servo-control units.
An artificial feel unit system must be mounted in parallel on an irreversible servo-
control unit.
If an artificial feel unit is fitted, it would be connected in parallel with the primary
controls.
A force gradient unit is used to add artificial feel into a hydraulically power flight
control system.
The reason for the trim switch on a control column to consist of two separate
switches is to reduce the probability of a trim-runaway. Both switches must be made
for the trim to operate.
The trim tab reduces hinge moment and control surface efficiency.
Differential ailerons work by equalising drag on up going and down going wings.
The advantages of fly-by-wire control are:
3) Direct and indirect weight saving through simplification of systems

5) Improvement of piloting quality throughout the flight envelope.
1) Reduction of the electric and hydraulic power required to operate the control
surfaces
2) Lesser sensitivity to lightning strike
4) Immunity to different interfering signals
3 and 5 Marked Correct
What is the purpose of trim tabs?
a) To reduce stick forces in manoeuvres

b) To reduce stick holding forces to zero <-- Marked Correct
How do aircraft spoilers work? Upper surfaces only, symmetrical and asymmetrical
operation.
Which is the correct statement regarding a large aircraft fitted with both inboard
and outboard ailerons?
a) The outboard ailerons are used only when the landing gear is selected down
b) The inboard ailerons are used only when the flaps are retracted <-- Marked Correct
Inboard ailerons reduces wing twist at high speed.

In a closed loop system a device in which a small input operates a large output in a
strictly proportionate manner is called:
a) An amplifier
b) A servo-mechanism <-- Marked Correct
c) An autopilot
d) Feedback (control loop)
The purpose of mass and balance calculation is to even out the air loads on the
control surface to assist in controllability of the surface.
Questions on CG
The sum of the moments in flight are not zero, therefore movement would take
place about CG.
A jet transport aeroplane exhibits pitch up when thrust is suddenly increased from
an equilibrium condition, because the thrust line is below the CG.
The CG of an aircraft with a nose wheel is forward of the main wheels.
If the aircraft is properly loaded the CG, the neutral point and the manoeuvre point
will be in the order given, forward to aft:
CG, Neutral Point, Manoeuvre Point.
Questions on Directional Stability

Directional static stability is determined by the Fin Volume.
A positive wing sweep has a "Stabilising" effect on static directional stability.
The contribution to the static directional stability of a straight wing with high
aspect ratio and without dihedral is always negligible.
With a swept wing in a sideslip, the low wing will have an increase in CL, because the
low wing effectively becomes a straight wing, while the high wing efectively becomes
more swept. To add to that, the low wing increases in AR (Aspect ratio) while the high
wing decreases in AR.
Both of these will increase the lift on the low wing, and restore the aircraft to level
flight, hence the high static lateral stability of swept wing aircraft.We also know that
if you increase the lift you increase the drag, so it will have a slight tendency to yaw
into the relative airflow, thereby contributing to static directional stability. However
this is a very small effect. By far the biggest contribution to static directional stability
comes from the vertical fin. A straight wing with no dihedral, will not have much of a
change in lift on the low wing during a sideslip, so it will not have the increase in drag
to yaw it into the relative airflow.
To summarise: Any of the design features that increases the static lateral stability, by
increasing the lift on the low wing, will add to the static directional stability.
Flap Extension gives an unstable contribution in sideslip. Inboard flaps (when
lowered) move the mean lift point (for each half-span) inboard, reducing the righting
moment generated by wing effect. Wing sweep, High wing and Dihedral have a stable
contribution.
Also see Sideslip and Lateral Satability
To improve the aerodynamic efficiency of the vertical tail, horizontal stabilizer is
put on top of the fin (T-tail).
An aircraft is placed in a level balanced turn and the controls released. It is spirally
unstable if the bank steadily increases.
Questions on Stick Force
The stick force gradient is the force required to change the load factor of the
aircraft a given amount.
The value of the manoeuvre stability of an aeroplane is 150 N/g. The load factor in
straight and level flight is 1. The increase of stick force necessary to achieve the load
factor of 2.5 is 225N.
In straight and level balanced flight the aircraft is at 1g and the stick force when
trimmed is zero. If the aircraft is now subjected to a positive g manoeuvre, stability of
the aircraft resists the movement and control forces (stick force) increases. Since in
the question the aircraft has a stick force gradient of 150N per g, the temptation is to
multiply the stick force by the amount of g, but as stated in balanced trimmed flight
at 1g stick force is zero.
You must always subtract 1g from the g value given. So 2.5 g -1g = 1.5 x 150 = 225N.
Stability increases in a manoevre due to changes in angle of attack on the aircraft, this
is called aerodynamic damping. Increased stability increases stick forces.
The manoeuvre stability of a large jet transport aeroplane is 280 N/g. What stick
force is required, if the aeroplane is pulled to the limit manoeuvring load factor from
a trimmed horizontal straight and steady flight? (cruise configuration)
The limit load factor is 2.5g. Rest of the logic is the same. Thus 1.5 x 280 = 420N
which is the answer.
If the maximum pull force acceptable is 50 lbs and the design limit g of the aircraft
is 6g, what stick force/g must be achieved to permit the aircraft to be manoeuvred to
its design g limit?
Answer: 10 lb/g
6g - 1g (level flight) = 5g
50lbs / 5g = 10 lbs/g
If a stick force of 20 lbs is required to pull 4g from the position of trim, the stick
force gradient is:
Answer: 6.6 lb/g
20lbs / 3g = 6.6 lbs/g
The CG of an aeroplane is in a fixed position forward of the neutral point. Speed

changes cause a departure from the trimmed position. Which of the following
statements about the stick force stability is correct?
a. An increase of 10kt from the trimmed position at low speed has more effect on the
stick force than an increase of 10kt from the trimmed position at high speed.
b. Increase of speed generates pull forces.
c. Aeroplane nose up trim decreases the stick force stability.
d. Stick force stability is not affected by trim.
Option "A" is correct.
Answer (b) Is incorrect. If the CG is ahead of the neutral point we will have a stable
configuration, so an increase in speed would require a push force. (c) Is incorrect. If
you trim nose up, you would have to keep a forward pressure on the stick to maintain
straight and level. If you increase speed, the forward pressure would increase as the
elevator become more effective, and that is in the same sense you would expect with
a speed increase, so stick force stability increases. (d) Is incorrect. If you trimmed
nose down you would require a pull force to keep the nose up, and fly straight and
level. As you increased speed the pull force would increase, which is not what you
would expect, so that is an unstable stick force. So trim does affect stick force
stability.
You can calculate the difference of a 10 kt change at low speed and high speed to
prove the answer. It goes about the percentage change in lift.
If you assume a CL of 0.3 in straight and level and substitute changes of speed
maintaining the same angle of attack, then you will see that the percentage change in
lift, and therefore stick forces, will be greater at lower speeds. L = CL x V2 (no change
in the ? ? or S so we can leave them out, in this calculation) (I also left it in Kts, as it
will not affect this specific calculation, but we should use M/sec).
At Low Speed:
e.g. V=60 kts
L = CL x V^2
L = 0.3 x square of 60
L = 0.3 x 3600
L = 1080
After a 10 kt Change in speed from 60, V = 70 kts.
L = CL x V^2
L = 0.3 x 4900
L = 1470
Change of Lift 1470-1080 = 390
Change of Lift as percentage = 390/1080 x 100 = 36%
At High Speed:
e.g. V=120 kts
L = CL x V^2
L = 0.3 x 14400
L = 4320
After a 10 kt Change in speed from 120, V = 130 kts.
L = CL x V^2

L = 0.3 x 16900
L = 5070
Change of Lift 5070-4320 = 750
Change of Lift as percentage = 750/4320 x 100 = 17%
So the change is more (36%) at low speed than (17%) at high speed. Thus option (A) is
correct.
Stick force per g is dependent on CG location. The magnitude of the stick force
required to pitch, for an aircraft with manual controls, is determined by the distance
the CG is forward of the neutral point.
A high limit load factor enables the manufacturer to design for a "Lower" stick force
per g - Correct statement.
Passenger aircraft are stressed to 2.5 g, the normal limit load factor. As you
manoeuvre the aircraft from trim you will feel a increae in stick force up to the limit
laod factor. This is the stick force gradient (stick for per 'g'). The stick force limit is
defined by cS25 so you cannot exceed the max value. If you were to increase the limit
load factor the stick force per 'g' would decrease.
Source: (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?p=48119)
The stick force per g is a limitation on the use of an aeroplane, which the pilot
should determine from the Aeroplane Flight Manual is an incorrect statement because
stick forces are specified in CS23/25 the design requirements for an aircraft and not in
AFM.
Source: (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?p=48119)
Stick force per g is independent of altitude - Incorrect statement.
Stick force per g increases when the centre of gravity moves forward - Correct
statement.
Questions on Lateral Stability
The designer of an aeroplane with straight wings can increase the static lateral
stability by increasing the aspect ratio of the vertical stabiliser, whilst maintaining a
constant area.
For a swept wing aircraft lateral static stability remains the same but lateral
dynamic stability decreases with increase in altitude.
Q.1. With a swept wing aircraft, with an increase in altitude, which of the following
statements about lateral stability is correct?
A) Static lateral stability increases, dynamic lateral stability increases

B) Static lateral stability remains the same, dynamic lateral stability decreases
C) Static lateral stability decreases, dynamic lateral stability increases
D) Static lateral stability increases, dynamic lateral stability decreases
Option B marked Correct.
Q.2. Considering the lateral stability of a swept wing airraft, at high flight levels the
static lateral stability will be ___ and the dynamic lateral stability will be ___
A) greater; greater
B) the same; less
C) less; greater
D) the same; greater
Option B marked Correct.
Q.3. When considering the effect of a swept wing on stability with an increase in
altitude, which of the following is correct?
A) increased static lateral stability/decreased dynamic lateral stability

B) decreased static lateral stability/decreased dynamic lateral stability
C) same static lateral stability/reduced dynamic lateral stability
D) increased static lateral stability/same dynamic lateral stability
Option C marked Correct.
Q.4. With increasing altitude and constant IAS the static lateral stability (1) and the
dynamic lateral/directional stability (2) of an aeroplane with swept-back wing will:
A) (1) increase; (2) increase

B) (1) increase; (2) decrease
C) (1) decrease; (2) decrease
D) (1) decrease; (2) increase
Option B marked correct

According to the first 3 questions - Lateral Static Stability remains the Same whereas
according to the last Q.4. Lateral Static Stability Increases.
Answer to Q.4. does not seem to be correct but since there is no other option, just
tick it in the exam till something is sorted out.
When considering the relationship between lateral static stability and directional
stability dominant lateral static stability gives an increased tendency for dutch roll.
Lateral static stability is determined by aircraft response to sideslip.
Rearward movement of the CG will give greater tendency to dutch roll. (becuase
aft CG reduces the arm and decreases directional stability).
Positive static lateral stability is the tendency of an aeroplane to roll to the left in
the case of a sideslip (with the aeroplane nose pointing to the left of the incoming
flow)
Static lateral stability should not be too large, because too much aileron deflection
would be required in a crosswind landing.
High lateral stability results in high stick forces with the aircraft attempting to
maintain a wing level attitude. During a crosswind landing the aircraft will tend to yaw
and sideslip. The sideslip component will result in lateral stability attempting to level
the wing. You therefore have to hold this roll off by applying aileron, which if the
stability is too high will require a larger aileron deflection.
To hold a given sideslip angle and airspeed, increased geometric dihedral would
increase the stick force.
Static lateral stability should not be too small because the aeroplane would show
too strong a tendency to spiral dive.
Questions on Longitudinal Stability
Longitudinal static stability is created by the fact that the centre of gravity is
located in front of the neutral point of the aeroplane.
The distance between the CG Datum and the CG Neutral Point in straight and level
flight is called the CG Static margin
Aft shift of the centre of gravity "Reduces" static longitudinal stability and
"Reduces" the required control deflection for a given pitch change.
The max aft position of the centre of gravity is amongst others limited by the
minimum value of the stick force per g.
CG position affects longitudinal static stability and control response. Forward
movement of the CG will increase stability and reduce the control response.
In what way is the longitudinal stability affected by the degree of positive camber
of the aerofoil?
Answer: No effect, because camber of the aerofoil produces a constant pitch down
moment coefficient,independent of angle of attack.
The aerofoil will always pitch about the Aerodynamic center, and it depends where
the average forces of the top surface are acting through, compared to where the
average forces of the bottom surfaces are acting through. With a symmetrical aerofoil
the forces of the top and bottom surfaces act through the same position, so it has no
pitching moment. A cambered aerofoil will have the top surface forces acting through
a point further back along the chord than the bottom forces, so it will pitch nose
down.
There are two interesting forces acting on the wing. One is lift, that is a linear force
acting through the CP and the other is a twisting couple acting to try and wrench off
the wing. The twisting couple is generated by the chordwise pressure distribution.
Even at zero lift the pressure pattern on the top and bottom of the airfoil is twisting
the wing nose down.
When alpha goes up the lift force will begin to act on the wing. If you held the leading
edge the lift would be twisting the wing nose down. If you held the trailing edge the
lift would be twisting the wing nose up. There will then be a point somewhere
between the LE and TE where the lift force is not twisting the wing either way. The
twisting moment is not zero, for the pressure pattern is still there, unequally
distributed fore and aft and twisting the wing nose down (for conventional cambered
airfoils).
This point, where the twisting moment is small, is defined as the Aerodynamic Center.
It is at about 25% chord for conventional airfoils in the normal operating range of
alpha.
When working on stability you need to study the effect of both lift and the twisting
moment on the aircraft as a whole. If you look at lift acting at the CP you have to
equate for both changes in lift magnitude and changes in the CP position for both
affect the longitudinal stability. It works out, however (Please don't ask) that you get
the same result from the simpler calculation of lift changing in magnitude only but
always acting at the AC so long as at the same time you incorporate the twisting
moment as a constant and as nose down.
During a phugoid the speed varies significantly, whereas during a short period
oscillation it does not.
When an aeroplane has zero static loingitudinal stability, the Cm versus angle of
attack line is horizontal.
This is a Cmcg diagram, showing moment about the CG against alpha In Part 1 the
aircraft wants to pitch up, but as alpha increases the pitch up force gets less and less
i.e. it is self correcting and thus positively stable. Where the trace crosses the
horizontal line Cmcg is zero, the aircraft neither wants to go nose up nor nose down.
In fact it is "in trim" in both places.
At Point 2 just briefly, changing alpha has no effect on the nose up or down moment
so the aircraft is neutrally longitudinally stable
In Part 3, unfortunately for the pilot, any increase in alpha will increase the nose up
moment. The aircraft is negatively stable - unstable. In fact this is typical of the entry
into an irrecoverable deep stall.
The slope of the line shows stability or not, above or below the horizontal axis shows
where the nose will want to go if you let go of the stick
What is the effect of elevator trim tab adjustment on the static longitudinal
stability of an aeroplane: No Effect
The short period oscillation should always be heavily damped.
If CG moves behind the aft limit there will be insufficient manoeuvre stability.
The forward and aft CG limits are determined respectively by minimum control
response and decreasing stability.
Regarding dynamic stability of a conventional aeroplane about the lateral axis,
Damping of the phugoid is normally very weak.
Questions on Critical Mach #, Mach Buffet & Mach Trim
From the buffet onset graph of a given jet transport aeroplane it is determined that
at FL 310 at a given mass buffet free flight is possible between M = 0.74 and M = 0.88.
In what way would these numbers change if the aeroplane is suddenly pulled up?
The load factor will increases thus reducing the margin (coffins corner tightens up).
Thus The lower Mach number increases and the higher Mach number decreases.
The critical Mach number of an aerofoil is the free stream Mach number at which
sonic speed (M=1) is first reached on the upper surface.
To increase the critical Mach number a conventional aerofoil should have a low
thicknedss to chord ratio.
At speeds just above the critical mach number the L/D ratio will decrease
Critical mach number is the highest speed without "Supersonic" flow over any part
of the aeroplane.
The critical Mach Number of an aeroplane is the free stream Mach Number, which
produces the first evidence of "Local Sonic Flow" not shock wave (which is also
mentioned amongst the options).
Compared to a straight wing of the same airfoil section a wing swept at 30 should
theoretically have an Mcrit 1.154 times Mcrit for the straight wing, but will, in
practice gain Half that increase. For explanation see Swept Wing and Sweep Angle
Deflecting a control surface down will cause Mcrit to decrease.
The effect of Mach trim on stick forces for power operated controls is to maintain
the required stick force gradient.
Function of the Mach trim system is to adjust the longitudinal trim of the aircraft.
In case the Mach trimmer fails the Mach number must be limited.
A Mach trimmer corrects insufficient stick force stability at high Mach Numbers.
Question on Shock Waves
When the Mach number is slowly increased in straight and level flight the first
shock waves appear on the upper surface at the wing root.
An oblique shock wave is at an angle of less than 90 deg to relative airflow whereas
a normal shock wave is at an angle of 90 deg to relative airflow.
A normal shock wave can occur at different points on the aeroplane in transonic
flight.
Through the shockwave the air is compressed, the pressure, density and
temperature rise and the speed reduces.
At the same Mach number a normal shock wave has a higher compression as
compared with an oblique shock wave.
Pressure and temperature also rise through oblique shockwave but not as much as
through normal shockwave.
Some of the dynamic pressure is converted into heat and total pressure falls.
The loss of total pressure in a shock wave is due to the fact that kinetic energy in
the flow is changed into heat energy.
At the same mach number a normal shock wave has a higher loss in total pressure
as compared with an oblique shock wave.
The least energy loss through a normal shockwave occurs when the local Mach
number is just above Mach 1.
Flow is always reduced to less than M1.0 in a normal shockwave. Bringing it down
from, say M4.0 is a big jump and more energy is lost than in a small jump. The least
energy is lost when the flow in front of the shockwave is just over M1.0
Through a normal shock wave, the airflow changes from supersonic to subsonic.
When the air has passed through a normal shock wave the Mach number is less than
1.
Behind an oblique shockwave the mach number will reduce but the flow will remain
supersonic (i.e. greater than Mach 1).
When air has passed through a shock wave the speed of sound is increased (due to
temperature rise). Thus Mach number reduces.
The front of a shock wave move across the earth's surface at the ground speed of
the aeroplane.
When air has passed an expansion wave, the static pressure is decreased.
The high speed buffet is induced by boundary layer separation due to shock waves.
The buffet margin increases during a descent with a constant IAS.
Tuck under will happen only "ABOVE" the critical Mach number (not AT the critical
mach number).
In transonic flight the ailerons will be less effective than in subsonic flight because
aileron deflection only partly affects the pressure distribution around the wing.
Conventional narrow chord ailerons are aft of the major shockwaves in transonic
flight, so do not affect airflow in front of the shocks. Additionally, aileron up or down
movement may affect the position or severity of the shocks, producing lift patterns aft
of the shocks that work against the desired roll input. One solution is to use wide
chord ailerons.
On a lift generating wing, a shock wave moves slightly aft when an aileron is
deflected downward.
1. The top shock will be at its weakest at Mcrit (just forming).
2. The shockwave moves aft as M increases.
3. At M1 the shockwave has moved to the trailing edge.
When the aileron is deflected down the airflow over the top increases and the
shockwave moves aft in the increased flow.
Wave drag causes a large increase in drag at high transonic speed.

A normal shock wave develops anytime an aircraft is in the transonic range.
Due to shock stall the behaviour of an aircraft with swept wings is Nose Down.
Vortex generators on the upper side of the wing decrease wave drag.
The bow wave will "APPEAR" (not attach) at M1.0
Bow shockwave forms at around M1.0 freestream, but stands off from the aircraft or
wing leading edge because of the rise in temperature mentioned above. At some
higher M the bow wave will move in and make contact with the LE as a normal
shockwave (Mdet) then begin to become oblique as the freestream M increases. This is
a simplification, as always.
Mdet gets its perverse name from the early days of supersonic research when the only
way to get a supersonic wind tunnel was to pump up a huge tank of air then suddenly
pull the plug, letting the air past the model at high M. As the air slowed down, the
bow shock would straighten up and then detach itself from the model. Hence Mdet
and not Matt.
Source: (http://www.pprune.org/tech-log/72694-wh ... ppear.html)
A bow wave develops above mach 1

The effect of a shock wave on control surface hinge moment will be rapid
fluctuation of hinge moments, causing a high frequency buzz.
Questions on Transonic Flight
The regime of flight from the critical Mach number upto M = 1.3 is called Transonic
Range.
Reducing the thickness/chord ratio on a wing will reduce the transonic variations in
lift and drag coefficient and delay the onset of shockwave formation.
The Mach cone semi-angle decreases with increasing speed.
At mach numbers below the critical Mach number "Dutch Roll" phenomenon can
happen.
Dutch Roll phenomenon "can exist" at low Mach numbers.
The two areas of speed instability in transonic aircraft are below "VDmin" and from
"M 0.89 to 0.98"
As an aircraft accelerates through the transonic speed range the coefficient of drag
increases then decreases.
This drag increase encountered at these high speeds is called wave drag. The drag of
the airplane wing, or for that matter, any part of the airplane rises sharply, and large
increases in thrust are necessary to obtain further increases in speed. This wave drag
is due to the unstable formation of shock waves that transforms a considerable part of
the available propulsive energy into heat, and to the induced separation of the flow
from the airplane surfaces.
Throughout the transonic range, the drag coefficient of the airplane is greater than in
the supersonic range because of the erratic shock formation and general flow
instabilities. Once a supersonic flow has been established, however, the flow stabilizes
and the drag coefficient is reduced.
Source: (http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay ... w/TH19.htm)
Shock stall is separation of the boundary layer behind the shock wave.
The Mach trim system, depending on the Mach Number, will adjust the "Stabilizer"
not the elevator trim tab.
On a typical symmetrical airfoil, as the free stream Mach number approaches M 1.0
the centre of pressure will move aft to about 45% chord.
On a typical transonic airfoil the transonic rearward shift of the CP occurs at about
M 0.75 to M 0.98
On an example wing (Symmetrical at 2 deg alpha with MCrit at M0.75)
At MFS (free stream Mach) of M0.75:
- Mini shockwaves form on upper surface of wing.
- CP 20%
MFS between M0.75 and M0.81:
- As Mach number increases the shock waves join up and move aft.
At MFS of M0.81:
- A single clearly defined shockwave is formed at 70% chord.
- CP moves aft to 30%
- Bottom flow (not so fast at 2 deg alpha) is not yet sonic. Its just below it.
At MFS of M0.89:
- Top shockwave is stuck at 70% chord (high pressure behind it).
- Bottom shockwave is at the trailing edge.
- CP moves forward to 15%
At MFS of M0.98:
- Both shockwaves at trailing edge.
- CP moves back to 45% (in the transition from M0.89 to M0.98 )
At MFS of M1.4:
- Bow shock attaches (MDet)
- Trailing edge shocks become oblique.
- CP 50%
To be able to predict compressibility effects you have to determine the Mach No.
Transonic speed is a speed at which locally around the aeroplane both supersonic
and subsonic speeds exist.
Speed of sound varies with the square root of the "ABSOLUTE" temperature.
Because the speed of sound and the TAS both increase with the square root of the
absolute temperature of the air, the mach number will "remain constant" with an
increase in OAT for an aircraft flying at a constant flight level and CAS.
Vmo can be exceeded in a descent at a constant mach number because Vmo is an
IAS and descending at a constant mach will require an increase in TAS which will
increase dynamic pressure.
Just to visualize:
TAS / Local Speed of Sound = Mach No
e.g. 20/2 = 10
Descending means getting into warmer air i.e. speed of sound increases.
Lets say the speed of sound becomes 5
The eqauation then becomes 20/5 = 4
This is incorrect because our mach number had to be constant at 10.
The equation then has to be:

50/5 = 10
Thus TAS has to increase.
Its the opposite in a climb, since we are getting into colder air where the speed of
sound will be decreasing. Thus to maintain a constant mach number with decreasing
speed of sound the TAS will decrease.
Assuming ISA conditions, climbing at a constant Mach Number up the tropopause

the TAS will "Decrease".
In ISA conditions as you climb up "To" the tropopause but "Not Above" the tropopause,
temperature reduces. Thus local speed of sound reduces and at constant Mach number
TAS also reduces. However above the tropopause tempearture remains constant so
local speed of sound remains same and thus TAS is same at constant Mach.
On a non-swept wing, when the aerofoil is accelerated from subsonic to supersonic
speeds, the aerodynamic centre shifts from 25% to about 50% of the aerofoil chord.
Aerodynamic Center is a sationary point only when the airflow is subsonic.
When airflow over a wing becomes supersonic, the pressure pattern over the
surface will become "Rectangular".
During acceleration from subsonic to supersonic speed the centre of pressure

movement will be irregular, forward and aft, but overall rearward to 50% of the chord.
Movement of the Aerodynamic Center from subsonic to supersonic is from 25 to 50%
Questions on Flaps and Slats
The trailing edge flaps when extended worsen the best angle of glide.
When a trailing edge flap is lowered fully the C of P moves to the rear and lift/drag
ratio is decreased.
When trailing edge flaps are extended the critical angle of attack decreases and
CLMAX increases.
A deployed slat will increase the boundary layer energy, move the suction peak
from the fixed part of the wing to the slat, so that the stall is postponed to higher
angles of attack.
1) Slat being a cambered aerofoil section in front of the wing.
2) It accelerates the airflow through the slot behind the leading edge which also
moves the pressure pattern forward.
An aeroplane has the following flap positions: 0, 15, 30, 45. Slats can also be
selected. Generally speaking, which selection provides the highest positive
contribution to the CLMAX?
The slats from the retracted to the take-off position.
Flap extension at constant IAS whilst maintaining straight and level flight will
increase drag and Maximum Lift Coefficient (CLmax) not lift.
The difference between the effects of slat and flap asymmetry:
Flap asymmetry causes a large (hardly or not controllable by normal use of controls)
rolling moment at any speed whereas slat asymmetry causes a large difference in
CLmax (High alpha condition).
Slat asymmetry causes a yawing moment whereas flap asymmetry causes a large
rolling moment (Low alpha condition).
A slat if extended at a low angle of attack has very little effect on the CL of a wing
but it would increase CD whereas extending a trailing edge flap at the same value of
alpha would increase CL.
When trailing edge flaps are extended whilst maintaining straight and level flight at
constant IAS:
(a) the centre of pressure moves aft - [Correct]
(b) the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient increase - [Incorrect]
Option (b) is incorrect because lift coefficient is made up of airfoil shape (camber)
and alpha. By deploying flap the camber will increase which should increase the lift
coefficient but since straight and level flight is to be maintained, alpha will have to be
reduced. Thus lift coefficient returns to the previous value.
An automatic leading edge slat is operated by aerodynamic forces acting on the
leading edge.
Effect of taking off with full flaps deployed are reduced acceleration and more nose
down attitude in climb than normal.
When flaps are lowered, the downwash behind the wing increases and gives a
decrease of tailplane effective AOA.
What effect has a plain flap on CL? Increase Camber.
Questions on Boundary Layer
Turbulent boundary layer has the strongest change in velocity close to the surface.
A boundary layer fence on a swept wing will improve the low speed characteristics.
After the transition point between the laminar and turbulent boundary layer, the
mean speed and friction drag increases.
Think of the air passing over the wing as two regimes. One is the free stream air.
Passing over a cambered wing this will speed up - Bernouilli
The other regime is the boundary layer where drag from the surface has slowed the air
down. This also exists in two different forms.
The laminar boundary layer, the one at the front of the wing is smooth and thin. Inside
it the speed of the air reduces smoothly from the free stream value to near zero at
the surface. Because of this regular reduction in speed the average speed inside the
layer is about half the free stream value, and this fact, and the fact that the layer is
very thin mean that the total kinetic energy inside the layer is relatively small.
The turbulent layer is thicker and the turbulence pulls down free stream air deep into
the layer. This has two results. One is that the turbulent layer has more kinetic energy
and the other is that near the surface the airflow slows down very rapidly, causing
more drag. Drag is bad, but kinetic energy is good for the turbulent layer punches
through problems and keeps the airflow attached to the wing as you get nearer the
stall.
In summary, the turbulent layer is thicker, has a higher mean speed within the layer,
more drag but more internal energy.
Where on the surface of a typical aerofoil will flow separation normally start at
high angles of attack? Upper side trailing edge.
Questions on Stall
An aircraft whose weight is 237402 N stalls at 132 kt. At a weight of 356103 N it
would stall at?
Ans: 162 kts.
356103/237402 = 1.5 (load factor)
Square root of 1.5 = 1.224
Increase in stall speed = 132 x 1.224 = 162
The stalling speed (IAS) remains constant (constant in the sense that the increase is
negligible) at lower altitudes but increases at higher altitudes due to compressibility
effects.
Deep Stall has the greatest angle of attack.
Shock Stall has the smallest angle of attack.
A jet aeroplane cruising buffet free at high constant altitude in significant
turbulence if decelerates then it is prone to "Accelerated Stall".
In level flight a speed of 1.05 VS1g will activate the stall warning. Stick shaker stall
warnings should be activated at 1.05 VS.
Just before the stall, the straight wing aeroplane will have a nose-down tendency.
Swept back wings and a T-tail combination of design features is known to be
responsible for deep stall.
Which aeroplane design has the highest probability of a super stall?
a) A canard wing
b) A T-tail
c) Swept wings
d) A low horizontal tail
The option "B" has been marked correct in the question database. However the T-tail
on its own is not pre-disposed to the deep stall but it can make it worse if combined
with a swept wing. It is the swept wing that will pitch up as it reaches critical alpha,
and if the separated flow from the wing hits the tail then the aircraft will enter a
deep stall. It is the inability to recover from the stall that defines the deep stall. Some
swept wing aircraft have wing/tail configurations that allow the tail to be out of the
wing downwash at the stall, so then even if it pitches up at the stall, you can still
recover using elevators. The King Air 200 has a t-tail and does not deep stall, as it has
a straight wing and pitches down at the stall. So the t-tail on its own is not a factor in
the deep stall. Source: (http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=1345)
In another question it is marked correctly as Swept Wing e.g.
Which of the following aircraft designs would be most prone to super stall?
a) T-tail
b) Swept forward wing
c) Swept back wing
d) Pod mounted engines beneath the wing
Option "C" is correct and is marked correct in the database.
As the centre of gravity is changed, recovery from a stall becomes progressively
more difficult as the centre of gravity moves aft.
The TAS of an aircraft at the stalling angle of attack at a given weight: increases as
altitude increases.
A stall warning vane on an aircraft wing is fitted: just below the leading edge.
Comparing the IAS and TAS stall speed at 5000 ft and sea level, the IAS stalling
speed will normally be the same at sea level but the TAS will be higher.
Approach to an airframe icing induced stall can be so insidious that the pilot may
be unaware that the aircraft has stalled.
Slats increases the stall angle.
When trailing edge flaps are extended the effective chordline is between the leading
edge of the wing and the trailing edge of the flap, thus increasing the effective angle
of attack. However by definition the stalling angle of attack is between the original
chordline and the free stream relative airflow. The wing will however stall when the
requisite angle exists between the effective chordline and the free stream relative
airflow. This angle has increased due to the steeper chordline, so in real terms the
pitch attitude of the aircraft has to be reduced, thus reducing the stalling angle of
attack. The more cambered wing also produces a stronger adverse presure gradient
that results in earlier separation of the boundary layer and hence a lower stalling
angle of attack.
In the case of the leading edge flap the inclination of the effective chordline
compared to the original chordline is less and therefore the pitch attitude has to
increase before the stalling angle of attack is reached. The real stalling angle of
attack as before is between the original chordline and the free stream relative
airflow, so the stalling angle of attack actually increases.
Remember that slats do not alter the camber of the wing, but the increase in
boundary layer energy as the air flows through the slot helps to smooth out the airflow
over the upper surface and increases the stalling angle of attack. Source:
(http://www.atpforum.eu/showthread.php?t=8902)
Flaps extended/clean wing/slats extended configurations gives an increasing

critical angle of attack.
An aircraft with a take off weight of 10,000 kg has a basic stalling speed VS of 240
kts. What is the stalling speed as the aircraft turns on to finals with landing flaps
extended (CLmax doubles) at 30 deg AOB at an AUW of 6400 kg?
Reduction in weight will reduce stall speed:
6400/10000 = 0.64
square root of 0.64 = 0.8
0.8 x 240 = 192
Bank will increase stall speed:
1/cos30 = 1.15
1.07 x 192 = 206
Landing flaps will reduce the stall speed:

Since CLmax doubles V will be square root of 2 which is 1.41
Use 1.41 to adjust 206
206/1.41 (to get an answer less than 206 as stall speed will be less with flaps).
Answer: 146 kts.
Note: If any factor except V changes, say by a factor K, then to keep things equal V
has to change by the square root of K. Likewise. if V changes by a factor of K then
some other factor has to change by Ksquared. So, if you double V, and, for example,
maintain level flight, you have to reduce CL by a factor of 4. If you double weight
and therefore Lift your speed at CLmax will go up by the square root of the weight
change.
At the point of stall lift decreases, drag increases.
If angle of attack is increased beyond the critical angle of attack, the lift
coefficient DECREASES and the stagnation point moves REARWARD.
Questions on Ground Effect
On entering ground effect, maintaining flight at the same speed less power is
required.
It is possible to fly an aircraft just clear of the ground at a slightly slower airspeed
than that required to sustain level flight at higher altitudes. This is the result of:
"interference of the ground surface with the airflow patterns about the aircraft in
flight".
Questions on Polar Diagram
The aerofoil polar is a graph of the relation between the lift coefficient and the
drag coefficient.
Minimum sink rate occurs at VMP.
Maximum range occurs at VMD where you get the best CL for the least CD, so that will
be at the point of tangency.
The best EAS/drag speed occurs at a speed faster than VMD which means smaller angle
of attack or smaller CL so it will be below the point of tangency to the graph.
VMP slower than VMD so must be at a higher angle of attack or CL so it will be

between the point of tangency and CL max.
Which of the following parameters can be read from the parabolic polar diagram of
an aeroplane?
a The aspect ratio of the wing and the induced drag coefficient
b The minimum rate of descent and the induced drag
c The induced drag and the parasite drag
d The minimum glide angle and the parasite drag coefficient - correct
The polar diagram's axes are CL and CD. Where the line crosses the Cl=0 axis there is
no lift, and therefore no induced drag, so Cd at that point is from parasite drag only.
Angle of glide is Cl/Cd, the lift/drag ratio. If the lift/drag ratio is 20:1 then the glide
angle is 1 in 20. The tangent to the curve from the Cl/Cd origin shows the best Cl/Cd
ratio, and thus the best glide angle you can get. Rate of descent would depend on
what speed you were doing down the hill and that is not shown on the polar diagram.
Point D in the diagram will correspond with CL for minimum horizontal flight speed.
From the polar diagram of the entire aeroplane one can read the maximum CL/CD
ratio and maximum lift coefficient.
Questions on Stability
The effect of the wing downwash on the static longitudinal stability of an aeroplane
is "Negative".
Increased downwash from the wing reduces the effective angle of attack of the tail
plane.
Questions – Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Assuming ISA conditions, which statement with respect to the climb is correct? At
constant IAS - Mach no increases
The angle of attack of a wing profile is defined as the angle between the
UNDISTURBED (NOT the Local) airflow and the chordline.
Wing loading is the ratio of aircraft weight to wing area.
The units of wing loading and dynamic pressure (q) are N/m2.
What is the SI unit that results from multiplying kg and m/s2.
It is Newton, because Force = Mass x Acceleration.
The unit of measurement kg m/s2 is expressed in the SI-system as Newton.
Dihedral of wing is the angle between the 0.25 chord line of the wing and the
lateral axis.
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) for a given wing of any planform is the chord
of a rectangular wing with same moment and lift.
What is the unit of measurement for power?
Work = force x distance
W=FXD
and Power = rate of doing work or FxD/T
as D/T = Speed
Power is Force x Speed
Thus the unit is N m/s.

Load factor is the actual lift supported by the wings at any given time divided by
the total weight of the aircraft.
The service ceiling of an aircraft is the altitude where a low specific rate of climb is
achieved.
The SI unit of measurement for pressure is N/m2.
Dynamic pressure is the amount by which the pressure rises at a point where a
moving air stream is brought to rest.
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the wingspan to the mean chord.
At higher elevation airports the pilot should know that indicated airspeed will be
unchanged, but ground speed will be faster.
Effective angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the mean
direction of a non-uniform disturbed air stream.
A moment is the product of a force and the distance through which it acts. The
distance in the moment is merely a leverage and no movement is involved.
To convert knots into miles per hour divide the knots by 0.87
Airflow, the product of the aircraft moving forwards, parallel to and in the opposite
direction to the flight path, its pressure, temperature and relative velocity unaffected
by the presence of the aircraft is known as the relative airflow.
With increasing angle of attack, the stagnation point will move down and the point
of lowest pressure will move forward.
A laminar boundary layer is a layer, in which no velocity component exists normal
(perpendicular / 90 degrees) to the surface.
Center of pressure is the point where the single resultant aerodynamic (lift) force
acts on an aerofoil (chord line).
If speed is increased in level flight the CP will move rearward.
Changes in the centre of pressure of a wing affect the aircrafts aerodynamic
balance and controllability.
In straight and level flight at a speed of 1.3 VS, the lift coefficient, expressed as a
percentage of its maximum (CLmax), would be 59%.
1/1.3squared
= 0.59 x 100 = 59%
VA = VS1G x vCNMax

VA = VS1gvn
The wind and the lift/drag ratio which changes with angle of attack, are factors
that determine the distance travelled over the ground of an aeroplane in a glide.
When an aircraft with a typical aerofoil is in level flight at low speed and high angle
of attack, the normal axis is "Nearly Vertical".
An aircraft must be placed in the "Stalled" condition in order to spin.
Some aeroplanes have a waist or coke bottle contoured fuselage. This is done to
apply area rule.
The application of the area rule on aeroplane design will decrease the wave drag.
Advantage of a variable incidence tailplane over a fixed incidence tailplane with
elevator and trim tab is "Less trim drag" and "maximum elevator authority" is retained.
The effect of a headwind is to INCREASE the climb gradient and to NOT AFFECT the
rate of climb.
If the total moments about an axis are not zero, the result around that axis is
"Angular Acceleration".
Weight acts parallel to the gravitational force.
An aircraft in flight is affected by loads. These may be classified as compressive,
tensile, shear and torsional.
Compression: put a book between your hands and try to squeeze the book with both
hands. That's simple compression.
Space two blocks apart a couple of feet or a meter. Place a short board so that the
blocks support each end of the board. Push down on the middle of the board - that
makes it bow down. The top of the board is in compression (compressed), the bottom
of the board is in tension (stretched). (http://science.howstuffworks.com/bridge2)
Shear is when two forces are acting together or opposite. A pair of scissors cutting a
piece of paper is shear. If two pieces of long pieces of metal are bolted together, then
one end is fixed and a force is applied to the other end, the bolt is in shear (the two
pieces of metal are trying to move in opposite directions).
Torsion is twisting. Take a plastic rod or even hold a book by the ends, then twist the
ends in opposite directions. That is torsion. If you had a toy airplane that was powered
by a twisted rubber band, the twisted rubber band is an example of torsion.
Source: (http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index ... 358AAEaIgh)
If cruising into a 15 kt headwind and a 180 deg turn is made so the wind is directly
behind the aircraft, the IAS would be the same and the ground speed would increase
by 30 kt.
Questions on Induced Drag and Wingtip Vortices
Induced Drag and Wingtip Vortices
Airflow that causes wing tip vortices flow from tip to the root on the top surface
and from the root to the tip on the bottom surface over the wing tip.
Low speed pitch up is caused by the spanwise flow on a swept back wing.
Elliptical wing planforms produces the lowest induced drag (all other relevant
factors held constant).
Excluding constants, the coefficient of induced drag (CDI) is the ratio of CL square
and Aspect Ratio.
CDI = CL^2 / Aspect Ratio

The induced drag coefficient, CDI is proportional with CL square.
Induced Drag Formula
For an elliptical wing
CDI = CL square / Pi A
(A = aspect ratio)
A constant specific to type is added to the above formula to account for different
planforms and tip configurations.
So a general formula for any given aspect ratio and wing design is:
CDI = K CL square
Severity of the vortices and downwash depends on the pressure difference between
the upper and lower surfaces of the wing.
This generates lift.
Increasing lift (everything else being equal) means increasing CL.

Increasing lift will therefore raise the induced drag.
Increasing aircraft weight is equivalent to increasing the wing loading. So High Wing
Loading = High Induced Drag.
In level flight induced drag varies as the square of all-up weight at any given speed.
In manoeuvre it varies as the square of the load factor.
In level flight where lift is constant, CL is inversely proportional to speed. If speed is

reduced CL must be increased (by increasing alpha) and vice versa.
Thus the relationship between CDI and speed in level flight is:
CD = K / V4
Substituting this in the formula:
Induced Drag = 1/2 CDI S p Vsquare
For any given configuration.
Induced Drag = K / Vsquare

Ks are constants
This means:
1) Coefficient of Drag (CDI) is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the speed

in level flight.
2) Induced drag will decrease with the square of increasing speed in level flight.
An aeroplane transitions from steady straight and level flight into a horizontal co-
ordinated turn with a load factor of 2, the speed remains constant and the:
a) Lift increases by a factor of 4

b) Angle of attack increases by a factor of ¼
c) Induced drag increases by a factor of 4 <-- Marked Correct
d) Total drag increases by a factor of 4
In straight and level flight, if weight is constant, induced drag would vary linearly
with 1/V squared.
Elliptical lift distribution will reduce induced drag.
Questions on Equation of Continuity and Bernoulli's Theory
Equation of Continuity and Bernoulli's Theory:
Bernoulli's equation is: (note: rho is density; pstat is static pressure; pdyn is
dynamic pressure)
pstat + pdyn = constant

or
pstat + 1/2 rho x TAS2 = constant
Regarding subsonic airflow in a ventury:
1. The dynamic pressure in the undisturbed flow and in the throat are not equal
2. The total pressure in the undisturbed flow and in the throat are equal
Static pressure acts in all directions

If the continuity equation is applicable, what will happen to the air density (rho) if
the cross sectional area of a tube changes? (low speed, subsonic and incompressible
flow):
Answer: Rho 1 = Rho 2
If the tube narrows, the speed will increase, pressure and density will go down.
If it widens, speed will decrease, pressure and density will go up.
BUT, it is conventional to say that in low subsonic flow the pressure chages are small,
and density can be considered constant.
This is why we call low subsonic flow "incompressible" and do not take density changes
into account until speeds reach 300kt TAS.
If air is assumed to be incompressible, this means there will be no change of

density due to change of pressure. Thus in the equation of continuity relating to low
velocity air, there is no significant change in density with a change in area.
Questions on Aerofoils
Aerofoils
A symmetrical aerofoil section at CL=0 will produce zero pitching moment. It will
be negative in asymmetrical aerofoil section.
How is the thickness of an aerofoil section measured?
It is measure as a percentage of chord.
The thickness is measured from the top surface to the bottom surface at the point of
maximum thickness.
The relative thickness is the "thickness/chord ratio" (t/c ratio) and is the maximum
thickness of the aerofoil expressed as a percentage of the chord.
If you have a wing of say 8% t/c ratio and it has a chord of say 10 feet (120 inches)
then the point of maximum thickness will be 9.6 inches.
(8% of 120 inches = 9.6)
Rectangular wing planform gives the highest local profile lift coefficient at the
wingroot.
An aerofoil is cambered when the line, which connects the centres of all inscribed
circles is curved.
For a tapered wing without twist, the effective angle of attack will be greatest at
the tip.
A wing with a high thickness : chord ratio would be suitable for an aircraft intended
to operate at low speed.
Swept and Low aspect ratio wing planforms will be least affected by turbulence.
The change in downwash along a wing without taper causes the stall to occur at the
root first.
Compared to straight wings of the same airfoil section swept wings "Delay" the
onset of the transonic drag rise and have a "Higher" CD in "supersonic flight".
Questions on Lift and Drag
Lift and Drag
What happens to total drag when accelerating from CL MAX to maximum speed?
Decrease then Increase.
CLmax in level flight is highest at low speed. At low speed total drag is high. Thus
accelerating to VMD the drag first decreases then accelerating to max speed it
increases again.
The maximum angle of attack for the flaps down configuration, compared to flaps
up is "Smaller".
Flaps down (is like having a cambered wing section) gives higher CLmax values at a
smaller angle of attack.
On an airfoil the centre of pressure will be most forward "Just below the stalling
angle".
Decreasing sweep angle decreases stall speed. Since straight wings have higher
CLMax.
Drag acts in the same direction as the relative airflow and lift perpendicular to it.
The Cl-alpha curve of a positive cambered aerofoil intersects with the vertical axis
of the Cl-alpha graph "Above the origin".
If the weight of an aircraft is increased, the maximum lift/drag ratio will "Not be
affected".
Suction above the wing is the greatest factor causing lift.
Lift is generated when a certain mass of air is accelerated downwards.
Lift is generated when the flow direction of a certain mass of air is changed.
An aeroplane maintains straight and level flight while the IAS is doubled. The
change in lift coefficient will be 0.25
The aerodynamic drag of a body, placed in a certain airstream depends amongst

others on the airstream velocity.
For a given angle of attack the lift/drag ratio is unaffected by density change.
If the weight of the aircraft is increased, the maximum lift/drag ratio will remain
the same but occur at a higher speed.
What is the purpose of a slat on the leading edge? It allows a greater angle of
attack.
What is true regarding deployment of Slats/Krueger flaps? Slats form a slot, Krueger
flaps do not.
The aerodynamic centre is the point where all changes in the magnitude of the lift
force effectively take place.
A body is placed in a certain airstream. The density of the airstream decreases to
half of the original value. The aerodynamic drag will decrease with a factor of 2. Drag
and density have a direct relation (Drag equation).
When considering the aerodynamic forces acting on an aerofoil section, lift
increases linearly and drag increases exponentially with an increase in angle of attack.
For an aircraft flying at a constant IAS, the drag will be the same at altitude as at
sea level.
For aircraft of the same weight, flying at the same IAS the angle of attack will be
the same at altitude as at sea level.
To fly at a given IAS, the thrust required at altitude will be the same as at sea
level, but will require the throttle to be advanced.
Thrust required = Drag.
Drag = 1/2 rho V^2 S Cd
Fixed IAS = Fixed 1/2 rho V^2
Thus thrust remains unchanged.
Power = Rate of doing work (FxD/T)
F = Drag and D/T is Speed (TAS)
So power required = Drag x TAS
Less density, same IAS means increased TAS.
Therefore power required is increased.
An aeroplane in straight and level flight is subjected to a strong vertical gust. The
point on the wing, where the instantaneous variation in wing lift effectively acts is
known as the "Aerodynamic Center".
At an aeroplane minimum drag speed, the ratio between induced drag and profile
drag is 1/1
Extending airbrakes during an approach will reduce the minimum drag speed
(VDmin)
The effects of very heavy rain (tropical rain) on the aerodynamic characteristics of
an aeroplane are decrease of CLmax and increase of drag.
Total Drag at high Mach numbers is a combination of induced drag, wave drag, form
drag, skin friction drag and interference drag.
The value of the parasite drag in straight and level flight at constant weight varies
linearly with the square of the speed.
An aircraft is required to cruise, maintaining Vmd. As the weight decreases the IAS
must be decreased, and the angle of attack remain constant.
When an aircraft selects its undercarriage and flaps down in flight, its VIMD will (i)
REDUCE and if it maintained the clean configuration VIMD its speed stability would (ii)
INCREASE.
What must happen to the CL when flaps are deployed while maintaining a constant
IAS in straight and level flight? It remains constant.
CL can be changed either by changing angle of attack or by changing the camber.

Lowering the flaps will increase the camber (and/or wing area) so the CL will increase.
Since we have to mantain straight and level flight we will have to keep the CL
constant.
Thus to keep CL constant, the angle of attack will have to be reduced.
So in straight and level flight and at a constant IAS CL must stay constant.
If you maintain the same angle of attack after deploying flaps, then CL will increase.
So after deploying flaps and maintaining level flight at a constant IAS, the lift stays
the same.
Induced drag comes from lift.
Since the lift is same, the induced drag will remain the same.
However the form drag will increase (requiring more power to maintain speed).
Wingtip vortices are proportianal to angle of attack.
Since the angle of attack is reduced to keep CL constant after lowering flaps to
maintain straight and level flight at the same speed.
The wingtip vortices reduce.
Flap selection at constant IAS in straight and level flight will increase the maximum
lift coefficient (CLmax) and the drag.
Since with the flaps the lifting capability is better, at critical angle of attack (CLMax)
more lift is generated.
Reduction in CLMax is the most important result/problem caused by ice formation.
When airbrakes are deployed the minimum drag speed will reduce (higher parasite
drag will change the total drag curve).
In the last part of the rotation (during take off) the aerodynamic effect of ice
located on the wing leading edge is most critical.
While flying under icing conditions, the largest ice build-up will occur, principally,
on the frontal areas of the aircraft.
At a ___ weight the maximum level flight speed will be ___ because of a change in
___ drag:
a) lower/less/parasite
b) lower/less/induced
c) higher/less/induced - marked correct
d) higher/less/parasite
For an aircraft flying at a speed above Vmd:
a) a speed increase causes a drag increase which will cause a deceleration - marked
correct
b) a speed increase causes a drag decrease causing further acceleration
c) a speed increase causes a drag increase causing an acceleration
d) a speed decrease causes a drag increase causing a deceleration
In which situation would the wing lift of an aeroplane in straight and level flight
have the highest value? (the engines are mounted below the wing).
Forward CG and Idle Thrust
If the CG is ahead of the wing CP and there is no thrust/drag couple, for level
flight, the wing lift must be greater than the weight.
With a forward CG there will be a down force at the horizontal stabilizer. Total lift
will be weight + tail down force. In that case lift will be more than the weight.
Subsonic flow over a cambered airfoil at 4 deg angle of attack will cause an
increase in speed and drop in pressure over the upper surface and an increase in speed
and a drop in pressure over the lower surface. Pressures on the lower surface don't go
positive until quite high alpha - 10 deg or thereabouts.
(as) Altitude increases, the excess thrust at a given IAS "Decreases" because thrust
decreases and "Drag is Constant". (In IAS/EAS drag is the same at any height at Vimd).
The lift coefficient (CL) of an aeroplane in steady horizontal flight is 0.42, increase
in angle of attack of 1 degree increases CL by is 0.1. A vertical up gust instantly
changes the angle of attack by 3 degrees.
Answer: The load factor will be 1.71

Increase in CL per 1 deg increase in AoA = 0.1
Increase in CL per 3 deg increase in AoA = 0.1 x 3 = 0.3
Change in CL = 0.42 + 0.3 = 0.72
Load factor is the ratio of lift/weight and in level (horizontal) flight it is 1.
Putting it mathematically, for a level flight CL/weight = 1
In the question CL (for the horizontal level flight) is given as 0.42
Thus putting the values in the equation CL/weight = 1:
0.42/weight = 1
or
0.42/0.42 = 1
Change in CL due to gust = 0.72 (as calculated above)
Weight has not changed so it remains 0.42
Putting in the values:
The load factor = 0.72/0.42 = 1.71
If a twin engine airraft with a L/D ratio of 8:1 is in straight and level flight and the
engines are each evelopoing 16000 N of thrust, what is the weight of the aircraft?
Answer: 256,000 N
Thrust = 32,000 N (@ 16,000/engine)

In a straight and level flight (in equilibrium) all forces are equal.
So thrust = drag
or
Drag = 32,000 N
L/D ratio is 8:1
So lift is 8 times more than drag (8 x 32,000)
Thus lift = 256,000 N
Since Lift = Weight in level flight
Weight = 256,000 N
Collection of Numerical Problems involved in POF
The lift coefficient (CL) of an aeroplane in steady horizontal flight is 0.42, increase
in angle of attack of 1 degree increases CL by is 0.1. A vertical up gust instantly
changes the angle of attack by 3 degrees.
Answer: The load factor will be 1.71
Increase in CL per 1 deg increase in AoA = 0.1
Increase in CL per 3 deg increase in AoA = 0.1 x 3 = 0.3
Change in CL = 0.42 + 0.3 = 0.72
Load factor is the ratio of lift/weight and in level (horizontal) flight it is 1.
Putting it mathematically, for a level flight CL/weight = 1
In the question CL (for the horizontal level flight) is given as 0.42
Thus putting the values in the equation CL/weight = 1:
0.42/weight = 1
or
0.42/0.42 = 1
Change in CL due to gust = 0.72 (as calculated above)
Weight has not changed so it remains 0.42
Putting in the values:
The load factor = 0.72/0.42 = 1.71

If a twin engine airraft with a L/D ratio of 8:1 is in straight and level flight and the
engines are each evelopoing 16000 N of thrust, what is the weight of the aircraft?
Answer: 256,000 N
Thrust = 32,000 N (@ 16,000/engine)
In a straight and level flight (in equilibrium) all forces are equal.
So thrust = drag
or
Drag = 32,000 N
L/D ratio is 8:1
So lift is 8 times more than drag (8 x 32,000)
Thus lift = 256,000 N
Since Lift = Weight in level flight
Weight = 256,000 N
In straight and level flight at a speed of 1.3 VS, the lift coefficient, expressed as a
percentage of its maximum (CLmax), would be 59%.
1/1.3squared
= 0.59 x 100 = 59%
An aircraft whose weight is 237402 N stalls at 132 kt. At a weight of 356103 N it
would stall at?
Ans: 162 kts.
356103/237402 = 1.5 (load factor)
Square root of 1.5 = 1.224
Increase in stall speed = 132 x 1.224 = 162
An aircraft with a take off weight of 10,000 kg has a basic stalling speed VS of 240
kts. What is the stalling speed as the aircraft turns on to finals with landing flaps
extended (CLmax doubles) at 30 deg AOB at an AUW of 6400 kg?
Reduction in weight will reduce stall speed:
6400/10000 = 0.64
0.8 x 240 = 192
Bank will increase stall speed:
1/cos30 = 1.15
1.07 x 192 = 206
Landing flaps will reduce the stall speed:
Since CLmax doubles V will be square root of 2 which is 1.41
Use 1.41 to adjust 206
206/1.41 (to get an answer less than 206 as stall speed will be less with flaps).
Answer: 146 kts.
Note: If any factor except V changes, say by a factor K, then to keep things equal V
has to change by the square root of K. Likewise. if V changes by a factor of K then
some other factor has to change by Ksquared. So, if you double V, and, for example,
maintain level flight, you have to reduce CL by a factor of 4. If you double weight
and therefore Lift your speed at CLmax will go up by the square root of the weight
change.
Compared to a straight wing of the same airfoil section a wing swept at 30 should
theoretically have an Mcrit 1.154 times Mcrit for the straight wing, but will, in
practice gain Half that increase.
1/cos30 = 1.15
The value of the manoeuvre stability of an aeroplane is 150 N/g. The load factor in
straight and level flight is 1. The increase of stick force necessary to achieve the load
factor of 2.5 is 225N.
In straight and level balanced flight the aircraft is at 1g and the stick force when
trimmed is zero. If the aircraft is now subjected to a positive g manoeuvre, stability of
the aircraft resists the movement and control forces (stick force) increases. Since in
the question the aircraft has a stick force gradient of 150N per g, the temptation is to
multiply the stick force by the amount of g, but as stated in balanced trimmed flight
at 1g stick force is zero.
You must always subtract 1g from the g value given. So 2.5 g -1g = 1.5 x 150 = 225N.
Stability increases in a manoevre due to changes in angle of attack on the aircraft, this
is called aerodynamic damping. Increased stability increases stick forces.
The manoeuvre stability of a large jet transport aeroplane is 280 N/g. What stick
force is required, if the aeroplane is pulled to the limit manoeuvring load factor from
a trimmed horizontal straight and steady flight? (cruise configuration)
The limit load factor is 2.5g. Rest of the logic is the same. Thus 1.5 x 280 = 420N
which is the answer.
If the maximum pull force acceptable is 50 lbs and the design limit g of the aircraft
is 6g, what stick force/g must be achieved to permit the aircraft to be manoeuvred to
its design g limit?
Answer: 10 lb/g
50lbs / 5g = 10 lbs/g
If a stick force of 20 lbs is required to pull 4g from the position of trim, the stick
force gradient is:
Answer: 6.6 lb/g
20lbs / 3g = 6.6 lbs/g
How does VA (EAS) alter when the aeroplane's mass decreases by 19%?
Once you set Cn at 2.5 for working out Va the answer for Va is Vs1g times sqrt 2.5.
If you reduce aircraft mass you get a new lower Vs1g and therefore a new lower Va.
Because the lift equation has Vsq in it the reduction in Vs1g is proportional to sqrt of
the change in mass.
It is a quirk of the mathematics that, for small changes, inside 20%, the sqrt of the
proportional change is approximately half the original figure, so a 20%
reduction in mass gives a 10% reduction in Va.
The answer gives figures of 19/10, which is probably the correct answer, not just the
approximation.
An aircraft is flown at 20% below its normal weight. Because of this, VA will be 10%
lower.
See the above logic. Even if you calculate by assuming an example it comes around
10%
e.g. If Weight = 10,000, VS1g = 200 and Limit load factor = 2.5
Then VA = 200 x sq root of 2.5 which comes around 316
If weight is 20% below 10,000 which is 8,000 then
VS1g = sq root of 8000/10000 x 200, which comes around 179
Then VA = 179 x sq root of 2.5, which comes around 283
Perecent drop in VA is 316-283/283 x 100 = 11.66%
An aircraft has a mass of 60,000 kg and a limiting positive load factor of 2.5. VA is
calculated as the EAS at which full positive elevator deflection will give the limiting
load factor at the stall, and is 237 kts. If the aircraft mass is reduced to 40,000 kg by
fuel burn, what will be the new VA?
Solution:
The formula is VA = VS1g x sq root of limit load factor
New VA = Stall speed at new lower weight of 40,000 x sq root of 2.5
First we need to know the stall speed at 60,000, which we can get from the above
formula:
237 = VS x sq root of 2.5

VS = 150
Stall speed at 40,000 will be less than 150
Reduction factor = 40000/60000 = 0.666
sq root of 0.666 = 0.81
150 x 0.81 = 122
So the stall speed at 40,000 will be 122
New VA = 122 x sq root of 2.5
= 193
For a given TAS and bank angle, a heavy aircraft will have the same radius of turn
as a lighter one and the same g load.
Radius of turn = TAS squared / g x tan of banke angle
Load factor = 1 / cos of banke angle
Weight is not an issue here.
The lift of an aeroplane of weight W in a constant linear climb with a climb angle
(gamma) is approximately:
L = W x cos gamma
For shallow climb angles the following formula can be used: Sin (gamma) = T/W -
CD/CL
Sin Gamma = Thrust - Drag / Weight
or
Sin Gamma = Thrust / Weigth - Drag / Weight
For shallow climb angles lift and weight are practically the same. Thus the formula
can be written as:
Sin Gamma = Thrust / Weigth - Drag / Lift
or
Sin Gamma = Thrust / Weigth - CD / CL
Given an Aeroplane mass of 50,000 kg, Lift/Drag ratio 10, Thrust per engine
60,000N, assumed g=10 m/s2. For a straight, steady, wings level climb of a twin
engine aeroplane, the all engines climb gradient will be:
Formula:
Sin gamma = Thrust / Weight - Drag / Weight (as mentioned above)
Thrust = 60,000 per engine. For 2 engines its 2 x 60,000 = 120,000
Weight = mass x g. i.e. 50,000 x 10 = 500,000
L/D = 10 so Drag = Lift/10
Lift = W x cos gamma
Lift decreases as the angle of climb increases. In this questin we cannot calculate lift
since we dont know the climb angle. For small angles of climb (up to about 15) lift is
almost equal to weight so we can take the weight value as lift (error is very small).
So Lift = 500,000
Thus Drag = 500,000 / 10 = 50,000
Now putting the values in the formula:
Sin (gamma) = T/W - D/W
Sin (gamma) = 120,000/500,000 - 50,000/500,000
Sin (gamma) = 0.14
In percentage: Sin (gamma) = 0.14 x 100 = 14%
For calculating angle:
Sin gamma = 0.14
gamma = Inv Sin of 0.14 = 8 degrees.
When an aeroplane performs a straight steady climb with a 20% climb gradient, the
load factor is equal to:
20% climb gradient (in a right angled triangle) means:
20 up (opposite side) for 100 horizontal (adjacent side)
opposite/adjacent = tan (angle)
20/100 = tan (angle)
tan angle = 0.2
climb angle = Inv tan of 0.2 = 11.3
So gamma = 11.3
Lift in a climb is:
L = W x cos gamma
So load factor in climb is cos of climb angle
cos of 11.3 = 0.98 (Answer)
With a L/D ratio of 9:1 and flying at 12000 ft the glide range in still air would be 18
nm.
9:1 means 9000 feet horizontal distance covered for 1000 feet loss in height.
If for 1000 feet horizontal distance covered is 9000 feet.
Then for 12000 feet horizontal distance covered is 12 x 9000 feet = 108000 feet.
108000/6076 = 18 NM
An aeroplane is in a steady horizontal turn at a TAS of 194 kt. The turn radius is
1000 m. The bank angle is (assume g = 10 m/s2)?
a) 45 deg
b) 30 deg
c) 50 deg
d) 60 deg
Answer marked as correct in the database is (c)
Whereas correct answer should have been (a)

Given:Aeroplane mass:50,000 kg. Lift/Drag ratio:12 Thrust per engine: 28,000N
Assumed g:10 m/s2 For a straight,steady, wings level climb of a four engine
aeroplane, the all engines climb gradient will be:
a) 8.5%
b) 8.0%
c) 9.7%
d) 2.9%
Answer marked as correct in the database is (a)
Whereas correct answer should have been 14.07% which is not mentioned in any of the
options.
- [ ] Center of pressure 💪🏼:
-Symmetrical aerofoil : independent of AoA (25% chord line)
-Asymmetrical aerofoil (cambered) : CHANGES with AoA.
- [ ] Aerodynamic centre 🚀:
Independent of the AoA (always remains the same)
The centre of pressure is INDEPENDTENT of AOA (Symetrical aerofoil)
The Centre of Pressure moves with changing AOA (Cambered aerofoil)
The Aerodynamic Centre is INDEPENDENT of AOA and always remains the same (all aerofoils)
AoA increase= more wingtip vortices and vice versa
Aspect ratio has an effect in wingtip vortices.
higher/more aspect ratio = less wingtip vortices and vice versa
Rectangular span wise generates more induced drag than elliptical wing
Do Ugly Aircraft in Denmark Fly?
--------------------
-Stagnation Point-
Decrease - Up & Aft
Increase - Down & Forward

speed increase = angle of attack decrease = center of pressure aft ( static ) = stagnation up
speed decrease = angle of attack increase = center of pressure forward ( static ) = stagnation down
CL=0 on a symmetrical airfoil -> Pitching zero
CL=0 on a p. cambered airfoil -> Pitching negative
ENTERING:
INDUCED LIFT/DRAG : Decrease
EFFECTIVE LIFT : INCREASE
EFFECTIVE DRAG: DECREASE
LEAVING: ALL THE WAY AROUND
*INduced= Increase
A straight wing will stall from the wing root and the CP moves aft.
A swept wing will stall at the tip first causing the CP move forward.
Stall Speed +
FWD sweep +
AFT sweep +
RECTANGULAR –
 Rectangular wing --> stalls first at the wing root
 Sweepback wing --> stalls first at the wing tip
Sweep back + any tail (low/high) = Deep stall
Swept-forward + high tail ONLY = Deep stall
STALL SPEED INCREASE
During turn
Increased mass
Forward CG location
May increase during turbulence
Higher altitudes
Increased temperature
Icing conditions
Extend flaps:
Increase————-lift
Increase————-effective AOA
Increase————-Downwash
Decrease————critical AOA
Decrease————aspect ratio
Decrease————L/D
Climb and CP move aft
DESCENT -> lower AoA -> CL Decreases
CLIMB -> Higher AoA -> CL Increases
CLIMB: (-) E C I T M (+)------------------DESCENT: (+) E C I T M (-)
E-EAS
C-CAS
I-IAS
T-TAS
M-MACH
The load factor is less than 1 (one):during a steady climb.
The load factor is less than 1 (one):lift is less than weight.
The load factor is less than 1 (one):during a steady wings level descent.
The load factor is egual to 1 (one) in steady level horizontal flight
The load factor is more than 1 (one) when lift is more than weight.
CM Alpha graph
• Stable: negative curve, pitching moment decrease(pitching down） with AoA, thus more stable
• Unstable: positive curve, pitching moment increase(pitching up) with AoA, thus unstable.
For Questions CM:
• Downward curve: the steeper, the more stable
• Upward curve: the steeper, the more unstable
• Horizontal line: the neutral stable
positive stability: MINUS and MINUS or PLUS and PLUS
negatrive stability: MINUS and PLUS or PLUS and MINUS
ANGLES
Airplane angle of attack : SPEED + LONGITUDINAL
Airplane Bank angle : LATERAL + HORIZONTAL
Airplane slip angle : SPEED + PLAIN OF SYMMETRY
Pitch angle : LONGITUDINAL + HORIZONTAL
Flight Path angle : SPEED + HORIZONTAL
I. Aero-elastic coupling affects flutter characteristics. -> Correct
II. The risk of flutter increases as IAS increases. -> Correct
I. If flutter occurs, IAS should be reduced.-> Correct
II. Resistance to flutter increases with increasing wing stiffness. -> Correct
II. Excessive free play or backlash reduces the speed at which control surface flutter occurs. ->
Correct
I. Wing mounted engines extending ahead of the wing contribute to wing flutter suppression. ->
Correct
I. Aero-elastic coupling does not affect flutter characteristics. -> INCORRECT
I. If flutter occurs, IAS should be kept constant. -> INCORRECT
II. Occurrence of flutter is independent of IAS. -> INCORRECT

II. Resistance to flutter increases with reducing wing stiffness. -> INCORRECT
II. Excessive free play or backlash increases the speed at which control surface flutter occurs. ->
INCORRECT
I. Moving the engines from the wing to the fuselage improves wing flutter suppression. ->
INCORRECT
1. Flutter is the result of cyclic bending and twisting of a part of the aircraft structure, so the flutter
characteristics will depend on the elasticity of the structure. Less stiffness will decrease resistance to
flutter
2. Increased IAS increases the aerodynamic forces causing the bending and twisting.
High IAS increases the aerodynamic forces causing the bending and twisting, so IAS should be
reduced if flutter occurs
3. Engines slung beneath the wings add mass ahead of the torsional axis of the wing. This tends to
damp out any oscillatory twisting around the torsional axis (mass balancing).. This flutter-
suppressing effect is lost if engines are fuselage-mounted.
4. Excessive free play or backlash in the controls means that the control surface is free to start
oscillating without moving the control column. So there is no resistance from the control mechanism
to prevent that motion, and flutter may start at a lower speed.
Maneuver load diagram, stall speed line ORIGINATE = speed 0; load factor 0 //
Stall speed line RUNS THROUGH = either speed VS; load factor +1 // OR // speed = VA; load factor =
LIMIT Load
Speed increases-Gust Load Factor increases
Mass increases-Gust Load Factor decreases
Wing Loading increases-Gust Load Factor decreases
Wing area increases-Gust Load Factor increases
Aspect Ratio increases-Gust Load Factor increases
Wing Sweep increases-Gust Load Factor decreases
Altitude increases-Gust Load Factor decreases
ONLY MASS, WING LOADING, WING SWEEP AND ALTITUDE ARE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL
Design gust value CS-25
B 66
C 50
D 25
For Fixed Pitch Propeller : Fat Pilots Insist That Donuts R Incredible
->Fixed Pitch Increase
->TAS - Decrease
-> RPM – Increase
RPM pulled back:
Propeller pitch increases
Rate of descent decreases
RPM forward
Propeller pitch decreases
Rate of descent increases
Propeller
Diagram 1: Cruise
Diagram 2: Reverse Prop
Diagram 3: Feathered
Diagram 4: Windmilling Prop
pitch decrease, rate of descend increase, more drag, more AofA
pitch increase, rate of descend decrease, less drag, less AofA
Incrase tip speed to supersonic speed increases prop noise, decrease prop efficiency
For turn correction: kick the ball or apply opposite bank
Ball is right: right rudder or left bank
Ball is left: left rudder or right bank
Considering an oblique shock wave:
The total pressure in front is higher
The Mach number in front is higher

The local speed of sound in front is lower
The static temperature in front is lower
The static pressure in front is lower
The density in front is lower
Considering an oblique shock wave:
The total pressure behind is lower
The Mach number behind is lower
The local speed of sound behind is higher
The static temperature behind is higher
The static pressure behind is higher
The density behind is higher
With thin aerofoil and small angle of attack => we fly fast so we get large Mcrit
With thick aerofoil and large angle of attack => we fly slow so we get low Mcrit
climb ABOVE tropopause - Tas const' or IAS decrease
climb ABOVE\BELOW - CL increase
climb BELOW- IAS decrease
descent ABOVE - Tas const'
descent ABOVE\BELOW - CL decrease
*Descent at const Mach- DECREASE aoa + pitch angle
1_REDUCING INSTABILITY 2_NEUTRALLY 3_REDUCING AT HIGH AOA
4_INCREASING AT VERY HIGH AOA
directional stability (D)ecreased -> (D)utch roll
directional stability (I)ncreased -> sp(I)ral dive
CL vs CD graph
1 - Minimum Drag Coef
2 - Minimum Drag, and Minimum Glide Angle

3 - Minimum Sink Rate
4 - Horizontal flight
Induced Drag is related to the mass of the a/c.
Less mass--> Less AoA required to maintain S&L (or constant load factor) --> Less Induced Drag
On the contrary
Higher mass --> More AoA required to create more Lift ---> wing tip vortices created are much more
---> more Induced Drag.

Questions On Climb and Descent

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Questions On Climb and Descent

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Questions on Climb and Descent

Maximum ANGLE OF CLIMB will be achieved when the excess THRUST is

Tan gamma = Opposite / Adjacent

Height gained against distance covered on ground is the climb gradient.

Thus Tan gamma = climb gradient

For small angles Adjacent is nearly the same as Hypotenuse and

So we get an approximate formula for climb gradient, which is:

Sin gamma = T – D / Weight

Meaning that the greatest climb gradient is obtained when a greatest

Maximum RATE OF CLIMB will be achieved when the excess POWER is greatest

In terms of rate of climb:

Sin gamma = ROC/TAS = (T - D)/W

Now Power = TAS x Thrust

It follows that the ROC = TAS x (T - D)/W

This equates to ROC = (Power available - Power required)/W

The lift of an aeroplane of weight W in a constant linear climb with a climb

From the climb diagram above:

Sin Gamma = Thrust - Drag / Weight

Sin Gamma = Thrust / Weight - Drag / Lift

Sin gamma = Thrust / Weight - Drag / Weight (as mentioned above)

Lift decreases as the angle of climb increases. In this questin we cannot

Now putting the values in the formula:

Sin (gamma) = T/W - D/W

For calculating angle:

Sin gamma = 0.14

(i) is less than (ii)

20% climb gradient (in a right angled triangle) means:

20 up (opposite side) for 100 horizontal (adjacent side)

opposite/adjacent = tan (angle)

Lift in a climb is:

So load factor in climb is cos of climb angle

cos of 11.3 = 0.98 (Answer)

Except wing, what other factors affect the glide range?

Option (B) Correct

Questions on Speed Stability

Questions on Autorotation and Spin

During a spin to the left, "Both" wings are stalled.

Radius of turn (m) = Square of TAS / g x tan phi

g = 9.81 m/second square (force of gravity)

TAS is in meters/sec (SI unit - not in knots). 1 knot = 0.514 m/s

Radius of turn = TAS squared / g x tan of banke angle

Load factor = 1 / cos of banke angle

Increasing the number of propeller blades decrease propeller efficiency but

a) fuel flow and pitch

Asymmetric propeller blade effect is mainly induced by the inclination of the

Propeller efficiency is best described as thrust HP to shaft HP.

Gyroscopic precession of the propeller is induced by pitching and yawing.

Increase in RPM would alter the gyroscopic effect of a propeller.

Option (a) is correct.

Questions on Load Factor

Load factor is Lift/Weight.

VA is determined by Manoeuvring limit load factor.

The positive manoeuvring limit load factor for:

A large jet transport aeroplane in clean configuration is 2.5

A large jet transport aeroplane with flaps extended is 2.0

A light aeroplane in the utility category in the clean configuration is 4.4

A combination of 50 ft/sec and VC speed is applicable for structural strength in gust

IAS and all other factors of importance remaining constant:

The gust load increases, when the weight decreases.

The gust load decreases, when the altitude increases.

See https://www.theairlinepilots.com/forum/ ... .php?t=412

Relationship of VMO and MMO, in a climb and descent is that: