Bloom's Taxonomy of

Learning Domains
The Three Types of Learning

There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational
activities:

o Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)

o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)

o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as
categories. Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can
be thought of as “the goals of the learning process.” That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired new skills,
knowledge, and/or attitudes.

The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their
explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level (I guess they never
thought to check with their sports or drama department).

This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined
are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's
taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the

development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition
of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major
categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest
behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the
next one can take place.

Example and Key

Category
Words (verbs)
Knowledge: Recall data or Examples: Recite a policy. Quote
information. prices from memory to a customer.
 Knows the safety rules.

Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists,

matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces,
selects, states.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's

own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an
Comprehension: Understand the meaning, equation into a computer spreadsheet.
translation, interpolation, and interpretation of
instructions and problems. State a problem in one's Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes,
own words. estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example,
infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,
translates.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation

time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written
Application: Use a concept in a new situation or
test.
unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what
was learned in the classroom into novel situations
Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs,
in the work place.
demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates,
predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical

deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers
information from a department and selects the required tasks for
Analysis: Separates material or concepts into
training.
component parts so that its organizational structure
may be understood. Distinguishes between facts
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
and inferences.
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates,
distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,
selects, separates.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual.

Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training
from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to
Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from
improve the outcome.
diverse elements. Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning
Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes,
or structure.
creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies,
organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes,
revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most

qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of
ideas or materials. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts,
criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates,
explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective Domain
The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings,
values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most
complex:
Category
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to
hear, selected attention.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on
the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a
particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may
emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to
respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a
particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This
ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex
state of commitment. Valuing is based on the
internalization of a set of specified values, while clues
to these values are expressed in the learner's overt
Example and Key Words
(verbs)
Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and
remember the name of newly introduced people.
Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds,
identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects,
replies, uses.
Examples:  Participates in class discussions.  Gives a
presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in
order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and
practices them.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms,
discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents,
reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
Examples:  Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is
sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value
diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan
to social improvement and follows through with commitment.
Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.
 Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains,
behavior and are often identifiable. 
follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads,
reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

Examples:  Recognizes the need for balance between

freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for
one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in
solving problems. Accepts professional ethical
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by
standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities,
contrasting different values, resolving conflicts
interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the
between them, and creating an unique value system. 
needs of the organization, family, and self.
The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values. 
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares,
completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes,
identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares,
relates, synthesizes.

Examples:  Shows self-reliance when working

independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays
teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. 
Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value
Displays a professional commitment to ethical  practice on a
system that controls their behavior. The behavior is
daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of
pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most
new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they
importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional
look.
objectives are concerned with the student's general
patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens,
modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions,
revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of
these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven
major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Example and Key Words

Category
(verbs)

Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor
activity.  This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue
selection, to translation.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and
emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that
predetermine a person's response to different situations
(sometimes called mindsets).
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill
that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of
performance is achieved by practicing.
Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a
complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the
movements can be performed with some confidence and
proficiency.
Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor
acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is
indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated
performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category
includes performing without hesitation, and automatic
performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of
satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or
throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what
the result will produce.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can
Examples:  Detects non-verbal communication cues.
Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and
then moving to the correct location to catch the ball.
Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell
and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a
forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to
the pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates,
relates, selects.
Examples:  Knows and acts upon a sequence of
steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's
abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new
process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of
Psychomotor is closely related with the “Responding
to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves,
proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Examples:  Performs a mathematical equation as
demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model.
Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to
operate a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds
Examples:  Use a personal computer. Repair a
leaking faucet. Drive a car.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs,
dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches.
Examples:  Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel
parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
accurately. Displays competence while playing the
piano.
Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes,
grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
organizes, sketches.
NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism,
but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that
the performance is quicker, better, more accurate,
etc.
Examples:  Responds effectively to unexpected
 experiences.  Modifies instruction to meet the needs
of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it
was not originally intended to do (machine is not
damaged and there is no danger in performing the
modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.
new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges,

reorganizes, revises, varies.

Examples:  Constructs a new theory. Develops a

Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular
situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize
creativity based upon highly developed skills.
new and comprehensive training programming.
Creates a new gymnastic routine.
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes,
constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes,
originates.

Other Psychomotor Domain

Taxonomies

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed
above is by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

Dave's (1975):

o Imitation — Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example:
Copying a work of art.
o Manipulation — Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating
work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.
o Precision — Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something,
so it will be “just right.”
o Articulation — Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a
video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.
o Naturalization — Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples:
Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's (1972):

o Reflex movements — Reactions that are not learned.

o Fundamental movements — Basic movements such as walking, or grasping.

o Perception — Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.

o Physical abilities — Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility.

o Skilled movements — Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.

o No discursive communication — Effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

 Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in the learning taxonomy in the mid-nineties and made some
changes, with perhaps the two most prominent ones being, 1) changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms, and 2)
slightly rearranging them (Pohl, 2000).

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate:

An analysis of training need is an essential requirement to the design of effective training. The purpose of training need
analysis is to determine whether there is a gap between what is required for effective performance and present level of
performance.

Why training need analysis?

Training need analysis is conducted to determine whether resources required are available or not. It helps to plan the budget of the
company, areas where training is required, and also highlights the occasions where training might not be appropriate but requires
alternate action.

The seating arrangement can impact the learning environment, interactions, an instructor's availability to learners,
and the effectiveness of media. The seating arrangements according to CTT+ are as follow:

 Assembly Seating Style: In the assembly seating style, chairs are arranged in long rows in the same way as in auditorium.
This style is mainly used for lectures in which only one-way communication is to be performed with the focus on a presenter. The
assembly seating style discourages the interaction between the instructor and learners. It also increases the pressure on the
instructor to keep the audience interested and engaged. Audio and video media can be used very effectively in this seating style.
 Closed Class Room Seating Style: In the closed class room seating style, desks are arranged in rows, creating groups of
learners. This style is ideal to work with the small groups of learners. Each group might interact with the instructor, or amongst
themselves, but the communication between the groups is not done.
 Open Seating Style: In the open seating style, desks are arranged side-by-side, with a walkway between them. This
approach creates smaller groups and provides greater flexibility for movement around the room. If this seating style is used, an
instructor can move through the aisles and have closer interaction with learners. This approach will be good for especially hands-
on training activities.
 Conference Room Seating Style: The conference room seating style has several variations. In one variation, seating is
arranged in the U-shaped manner. This style increases the interaction among the group and enables the presenter to move easily
in and out of the group.
 Conference Rectangle Seating Style: In the conference rectangle seating style, chairs are arranged in a closed square (or
rectangle), with participants facing the inside, as they are seated around a conference table. This style is ideal for communication
among an entire group and is commonly used for group-related activities. In this approach, the main focus is on the group and the
presenter plays a facilitator role.
 Hexagon Seating Style: The hexagon seating style is similar to a conference square style. It enhances the communication
among participants, placing the presenter in a facilitator role, functioning outside the group. This style should mainly be used for
brainstorming ideas, group discussions, and resolving problems and issues.
 Chevron Seating Style: The chevron seating style is same as the closed classroom style. However, in this approach,
desks are slightly angled to form a chevron. This seating style mainly focuses on the presenter. However, this style also promotes
greater interaction with the group and peer facilitation.
 V-shaped Seating Style: In the V-shaped seating style, chairs are arranged in a V-shape (like a single, large chevron).
While this style does encourage some interaction between participants, the main focus is on the presenter. This style can be
useful for audio and video media.
 Herringbone Seating Style: In the herringbone seating style, chairs are arranged in tables that form a broken V-shape,
with an aisle down the middle. This style emphasizes small-group interaction, with each table working as a unit. In this approach,
there is little or no interaction between participants at different tables.
 Banquet Seating Style: In the banquet seating style, chairs are arranged in round tables so that participants can see each
other. This style is ideal for group discussions. The presenter can act either as part of the group or as a facilitator. In this
approach, audio and video aids are not recommended, as there is not a convenient placement of the equipment for all participants

Competency Gap is the difference between the current competency level (CCL) of your employees
and the required competency level (RCL).

In other words, the disparity or difference between the existing abilities and skills of your employees and what are
expected of them in achieving the objectives that you wan them to achieve is the skill and knowledge gap.

"Competency" consists of the skills and knowledge required by employees to effectively perform their jobs or
specific tasks that you assign to them from time to time.

Your organization needs this information in order to improve the quality of your human resource training and
development programs.

W h a t i s a Tr a i n i n g P l a n ?
The training plan will outline who will deliver the training, and when and where your apprentice or trainee needs to go to receive the structured
component of the training.
A training plan must be devised within three months of an apprentice or trainee commencing their apprenticeship or traineeship and prior to the delivery
of any structured training.

Treat the training plan as a working document. It should be flexible enough to meet all your needs. Remember that you can talk about this to your
registered training organisation at any stage during the training.

What to include in the training plan

The training plan must specify the following:

 the competencies to be obtained

 the time-frame for achieving the competencies
 the training to be undertaken
 the delivery modes to be employed
 the details (when, how and how much) of the time allocated outside routine work duties
is for off-the-job training
 who is responsible for the delivery and/or assessment of each competency
 assessment details and arrangements
 a record of any recognised prior learning (RPL) for qualifications and cross-credit hours
granted prior to commencing the apprenticeship or traineeship. RPL involves the
assessment of any existing relevant skills and/or qualifications. This crediting process
can reduce the length of the off-the-job training or the duration of the overall
apprenticeship or traineeship.
 the name of the qualification to be issued
 any other specific requirements to be met in accordance with the particular training
contract in question

For small groups, the ideal seating arrangements encourage active communication and participation
among attendees. These are the choices:

1.    Hollow Rectangle or Square Arrangement

 Suited for sessions where rank is not an issue

 Best for facilitator-led sessions

 Tables are arranged to form a rectangle or a square with the ends touching.

2.    Boardroom Arrangement

 Setup uses one long, big table

 Head speaker sits on top of the table and the participants sit around the table

 A formal arrangement with emphasis on hierarchy

 Good for groups between 6 and 15

3.    Perpendicular Arrangement

 Tables are placed parallel to each other and perpendicular to the stage

 Seats may be placed on either side of the tables

 Facilitator has a small separate table or lectern

 Provides easy interaction among participants and facilitator

 Center aisle provides easy access when there are demonstrations and informal discussion

4.    U-Shaped Arrangement

 Same as the perpendicular arrangement with a smaller table on one end to form a U.

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 Facilitator can have a separate table or use a lectern

 Setup encourages collaboration and easy access for hands-on demonstration and audience
participation

5.    Circle or Semi-Circle Arrangement

 Suited for very small groups

 Can be with or without tables

 For more intimate discussions

 Facilitator can have another table, chair, a lectern or none at all

6.    Cluster Type Arrangement

 Suited for sessions with break away groups

 Tables can be round or small rectangles that can seat between 4 to 8 people
 Facilitator uses a lectern

For big groups, here are some suggested arrangements:

1.    Theater Style

 Used for very large audiences where the speaker is the main focus

 Does not encourage note-taking since there are no tables provided for this seating
arrangement

 Participants sit side by side in long rows

2.    Classroom Style

 Same as theater style but with tables

 Seating arrangement varies depending on how many people can sit in one table

 Encourages note-taking

3.    Chevron or Herringbone Style

 Encourages interaction among participants

 Facilitates viewing of visual presentations

 Tables arranged at an angle

 Most dynamic of all the seating arrangements

4.    Modified Chevron Style

 Center tables are arranged in parallel rows

 Side tables are arranged at an angle

 Facilitates viewing of visual presentations and demonstrations even from the sides

 Better choice than theater or classroom type if space and number of participants permit

Select the right seating arrangement that will support the presenter and theme of the conference or
training session. Ensure also the comfort of participants and request for chairs that are adjustable and
comfortable for long sessions.

Donald Kirkpatrick is Professor Emeritus of the University of Wisconsin in North America and a past president of the American Society for
Training and Development (ASTD). He is best known for creating a highly influential model for training evaluation, consisting of four levels of
learning evaluation. Kirkpatrick's ideas were first published in 1959, in a series of articles in the US Training and Development Journal but
are better known from a book he published in 1975 entitled, "Evaluating Training Programs".

[edit] Four Levels of Learning Evaluation

The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model essentially measure:

 Reaction of student - what they thought and felt about the training
 Learning - the resulting increase in knowledge or capability
 Behavior - extent of behavior and capability improvement and implementation/application
 Results - the effects on the business or environment resulting from the trainee's performance
All levels of evaluation are important. Sometimes people skip the "level 1" evaluation because it doesn't directly relate to learning; however, if
the student is distracted by something in the learning experience, his or her ability to learn can be impacted. Levels 3 and 4 are the most
important because a difference in behavior is what we strive for. Levels 1 and 2 should be measured to make sure nothing gets in the way
related to the training event/solution itself.

Several authors have suggested an addition of a fifth level of evaluation. JJ Phillips has argued for the addition of a "Return on Investment
(ROI) level which is essentially about comparing the fourth level of the standard model to the overall costs of training. [1] Roger Kaufman has
argued that ROI is essentially a level-four type of evaluation since it is still internal to the organization and that a fifth level of evaluation
should focus on the impact of the organization on external clients and society. [2]

Assessing training effectiveness is critical. Donald Kirkpatrick developed a four-level

1 - Reactions: Measures how participants have reacted to the training.

2 - Learning: Measures what participants have learned from the training.

3 - Behavior: Measures whether what was learned is being applied on the job.

4 - Results: Measures whether the application of training is achieving results.

Each successive level of evaluation builds upon the evaluations of the previous

level. Each successive level of evaluation adds precision to the measure of

effectiveness but requires more time consuming analysis and increased costs.

Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation

Level 1 Evaluation - Reactions

This level measures how participants in a training program react to the training .Every program should
at least be evaluated at this level to answer questions regarding the learners' perceptions and improve
training. This level gains knowledge about whether the participants liked the training and if it was
relevant to their work. Negative reactions reduce the possibility of learning.

Evaluation tools:

Program evaluation sheets

Face-to-face interviews

Participant comments throughout the training

Ability of the course to maintain interest

Amount and appropriateness of interactive exercises

Ease of navigation in Web-based and computer-based training

Participants' perceived value and transferability to the workplace

This type of evaluation is inexpensive and easy to administer using

interaction with the participants, paper forms and online forms.

Level 2 Evaluation – Learning

Level 2 evaluations are conducted before training (pre-test) and after training (post-test) to assess
the amount of learning that has occurred due to a training program

Figure 2 - Level 2 Evaluation Showing Results of Pretest and Post Test

Level 2 evaluations assess the extent learners have advanced in knowledge, skills or attitude. Level 2
evaluation methods range from self-assessment to team assessment to informal to formal
assessment.

Evaluation tools:

Individual pre- and post-training tests for comparisons Assessment of action based learning such as
work-based projects and role-plays Observations and feedback by peers, managers and instructors

3 Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation

3 Evaluation - Transfer

Evaluations at this level attempt to answer the question of whether the training has been transferred
back to the job. This evaluation is typically performed three to six months after training. The evaluator
would ask questions such as "Are the newly acquired knowledge, skills or attitude being used in the
environment of the learner"? This evaluation represents the truest assessment of a program's
effectiveness but is costly. It is often impossible to predict when changes in behavior will occur.
Careful planning decisions are needed for this level of evaluation in terms of when to evaluate, how to
evaluate and how often to evaluate.

Evaluation questions:
Did the trainees put their learning into effect when back on the job?

Were the relevant skills and knowledge used

Was there noticeable and measurable change in the activity and

performance of the trainees when back in their roles?

Was the change in behavior and new level of knowledge sustained?

Would the trainee be able to transfer their learning to another person?

Is the trainee aware of their change in behavior, knowledge, skill

level?

Did the representative open each telephone customer dialog using his

or her name and department?

Was the representative able to describe to you and categorize the

customer's objections as either misinformation or valid?

Did the representative use the appropriate model answer in response

to each objection?

Did the representative close each sales call with a request for

purchase?

If the prospect did not make a purchase, did the representative end

the call with specific future action steps?

Did the representative complete call history records that include

summaries of who, what, where, when, and why?

Evaluation tools:

Individual pre- and post-training tests or surveys

Face-to-face interviews

Observations and feedback from others

Focus groups to gather information and share knowledge

5 Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation

Level 4 Evaluation- Results

This evaluation measures the success of the training program in term that executives and managers
can understand such as increased production, increased sales, decreased costs, improved quality,
reduced frequency of accidents, higher profits or return on investment, positive changes in
management style or in general behavior, increase in engagement levels of direct ports and favorable
feedback from customers, peers and subordinates. For example, after training in April 2005, the sales
continued to increase throughout 2005 (Figure 3).

However, Level 4 evaluations are difficult to measure and correlate with training.

For example, the increase in sales could be attributed to several factors such as

training and product promotions.

Evaluations:

Quality training. Measure a reduction in number of defects.

Safety training. Measure reduction in number or severity of

accidents.

Sales training. Measure change in customer retention, sales volume,

and profitability on each sale after the training program has been

implemented.

Management training. Measure increase in engagement levels of

direct-reports.

Technical training. Measure reduction in time to complete tasks,

forms and reports; reduced calls to the help desk; or improved use of

software or systems.

Other: Measure changes in staff turnover, number of complaints,

growth, attrition, wastage, failures, non-compliance, quality ratings,

achievement of standards and accreditations and customer retention.