Annotated Biliography

Lifelong Learning: An
Annotated Bibliography
Compiled by Beverley Axford and Thea Moyes
LifeLong Learning Network

University of Canberra
03/15
Evaluations and Investigations Programme

Research, Analysis and Evaluation Group
Lifelong learning bibliography
© Commonwealth of Australia 2003

ISBN 0 642 77391 2
This work is copyright. It may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or

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This report is funded under the Evaluations and Investigations Programme of
the Department of Education, Science and Training.
The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the views of the
Department of Education, Science and Training.
ii
Contents
Introduction................................................................................................. iv
Information for Readers............................................................................... ix
Policy (general)............................................................................................ 5
Policy statements, reports, and research monographs ........................................... 5
Conference papers and conference proceedings ................................................ 11
Journal articles................................................................................................ 12
Books and book sections.................................................................................. 17
Sectoral perspectives ................................................................................. 19
Schools .......................................................................................................... 19
Higher Education ............................................................................................ 29
Vocational Education and Training ................................................................... 38
Adult Community Education ............................................................................. 44
Cross sectoral perspectives ........................................................................ 51
Policy statements, reports, and research monographs ......................................... 51
Books............................................................................................................. 62
Labour markets and education/training ..................................................... 63
Policy statements, reports, and research monographs ......................................... 63
Books............................................................................................................. 76
References (author/title list) ....................................................................... 77
Keywords .................................................................................................. 91
APPENDIX A: Abridged list of lifelong learning bibliographical
entries ................................................................................................ 94
iii
Introduction
This annotated bibliography has been prepared for the Lifelong Learning Network
as part of the DEST funded project LifeLong Learning in Australia: Policy Directions and
Applications. Stage 1 of the project was to “identify gaps in research that need to be
addressed”. This annotated bibliography brings together 224 separate reports and
research papers assembled by the Lifelong Learning Network to illustrate the scope
of contemporary research on lifelong learning. The collection is not exhaustive. The
number of publications either drawing on the concept or on associated issues is
expanding daily. At the same time, and for reasons discussed below, it is difficult to
draw a clear boundary around ‘lifelong learning’ as a policy and research domain.
Breadth of issues
The bibliography aims to demonstrate the breadth of issues being addressed under
lifelong learning. It is arranged under a series of subject headings that reflect:
• The traditional education and training structures;
• Current moves towards increased cross-sectoral provision of education and
training; and
• Current trends towards linking education and training provision and outcomes
more directly with labour markets.
The bibliography indicates that lifelong learning is a term widely adopted by
politicians and policy agencies as a ‘catch-all’ term used to address the wide range of
education and training issues that have arisen along side the economic and
technological changes that have occurred in recent times and that are captured by
the term ‘globalisation.’ Thus lifelong learning is a central concept in international
forums such as OECD and UNESCO.
In Australia lifelong learning has been a key theme in policy statements and reviews
of education and training in each of the sectors: schools, higher education,
vocational education and training (VET), and adult community education (ACE).
For example, key government reviews that draw on the concept have included:
• West, R. (1998). Learning for life: Final report - Review of higher education
financing and policy (West Report). Canberra, Department of Employment
Education Training and Youth Affairs (DEETYA).
• ANTA (Australia National Training Authority) (1998). A Bridge to the Future.
Brisbane, ANTA.
• Crowley, R. (1997). Beyond Cinderella: Towards a learning society. Canberra, Australia
Senate Employment Education and Training References Committee
• Crowley, R (Chair) (1998) A Class Act: An Inquiry into the Status of the Teaching
Profession. Canberra, Australia Senate Employment Education and Training
References Committee
iv
of the flavour of a ‘motherhood statement’ – that is, it is ‘unquestionably worthy of

support, unarguably meritorious and praiseworthy’ (Macquarie Dictionary). As a
consequence, although the term is widely used in policy contexts, it continues to
lack a unitary conceptual foundation. In fact, the term appears to be used to
support a number of distinct discourses and political agendas.
In the materials reviewed for this bibliography there appear to be at least three
discernible theoretical trajectories drawing on the term. The first of these appears to
be drawing on learning theory, the second from a redefinition of education and
training as a valuable commodity, the third posits a link between education and
training and human resource development (or labour markets).
Learning as empowerment
Much of the rhetorical power of the term ‘lifelong learning’ stems from its
resonance with established concepts drawn from learning theory. One of the best
exemplars of this use of the concept is to be found in the 1996 UNESCO report
Learning, the Treasure Within (the Delors Report). The ‘pillars’ of learning identified in
this report speak to a humanist tradition in educational theory that harks back to
the educational philosophy of John Dewey and others. The pillars of learning
identified in the UNESCO report are:
• Pillar 1: learning to know
• Pillar 2: learning to do
• Pillar 3: learning to live together
• Pillar 4: learning to be.
These ‘pillars’ allow the notion of life long learning to be coupled with a wide range
of curriculum issues – from, for example, ‘learning to learn’ to education for
citizenship, to increased vocational emphasis in the curriculum. This notion also
allows engagement with international concern over basic education provision for
the world’s poor – which is an important element of the UNESCO agenda.
Learning and education and training structural reform

A second arena in which the term life long learning is currently being invoked is
that of structural reform of education and training provision. On this trajectory
issues of articulation, credit transfer, and sectoral boundaries have become central
policy issues. ‘Pathways’, ‘seamlessness’, ‘open education markets’ and ‘private
providers’ have become key concepts – all aimed at achieving greater ‘flexibility’
and ‘responsiveness’ which will, in turn, benefit the students/clients by making the
system more responsive to their changing education and training needs.
It is at the rhetorical level – at the level of justifying structural change in terms of
benefits to students (and the community) - that notions embedded in the term
‘lifelong learning’ (drawn from the ‘learning as empowerment’ paradigm) appear to
find their appeal within this discourse.
v
Learning and labour market reform

The notion of lifelong learning resonates well with contemporary debates over the
needs of workers/organisations in the globalised market place. The rhetorical
coupling of continual skills upgrading and economic success (maintaining ‘a
competitive edge’) gives the concept a powerful link to contemporary agendas that
lie outside the traditional fields of education and training. Within this paradigm
education and training outcomes are defined in terms of their links with
employment destinations, human-resource planning and supply-side economics.
Reports from the OECD provide some of the best examples of the approach to
lifelong learning, although there are many Australian examples in the
bibliographical collection. This way of conceptualising lifelong learning has
generated research related to issues as diverse as:
• Education and training links with employment destinations;
• Workplace restructuring, and workplace training and retraining;
• On-the-job and ‘just-in-time’ training; and
• Continued professional development.
Audience
The bibliography clearly illustrates the diverse range of policy issues that draw on
the rhetorical power of the lifelong learning term. But to what extent has this term
reached beyond the boundaries of policy-makers and been actively taken up by
either the academic community or by education and training practitioners? Or, to
put it another way, how much critical debate is taking place outside the policy-
making domain? To address this question we have divided each section in the main
bibliography into four sections, as follows:
• Policy statements and reports. The reports include both government reports
and research monographs;
• Conference papers and published collections of conference papers;
• Journal articles; and
• Books and book sections.
In addition, we have drawn from the main bibliography a sub-set of the materials
that refer specifically to lifelong learning in their titles or abstracts This resulted on
a sub-set of 64/224 items (see Appendix A). This sub-set was then divided into the
same categories as those set out above, with the following results:
• Policy statements and reports (25/64);
• Conference papers and published collections of conference papers (22/64); and
• Journal articles, books and book sections (17/64).
In dividing the materials in this way it was assumed that the first set of materials are
those that promote the policy agenda directly either through policy statements or as
agency-funded research.
vi
The middle section—conference papers—tend to lie at the intersection between

the policy-driven construction of issues and the research community. The
conference papers tend to be a mix of:
• Policy-makers’ (and funding bodies) speeches to the research community; and
• Presentations to peers of research methods and findings.
It is assumed that the third section—journals and other non-report writing—
represent the ‘space’ where more independent and critical analysis of the policy
constructs takes place. We should emphasise that we are not claiming that the
bibliography, or the sub-set drawn from it, is exhaustive. The bibliography was
designed to illustrate the range of themes currently being addressed in policy
debates in the area. Given the ‘motherhood statement’ status of the lifelong
learning term an exhaustive collection would need to incorporate most current
debates in education and training—from foundation studies, to training and
retraining, to the University of the Third Age (or ‘cradle to grave’ learning).
Nevertheless, if the bibliography is representative of the range of materials in the
area then the different types of materials, and their relative numbers, can be taken
as an indication of the extent to which the lifelong learning concept is policy driven.
From this perspective, the fact that independent journal articles make up so small a
part of the sub-set on lifelong learning is significant in that it suggests that the
concept is not one that is being widely taken up outside the policy domain or
subject to much critical analysis.
Obviously not all journal articles are equally rigorous or challenge the policy-
makers’ assumptions to the same degree. Of our sample at least half could be
defined as articles that accept the meaning of lifelong learning as self-evident – that
is, the concept appears unproblematic (examples include Aspin et al., Chapman,
Bagwell, Sinclair). Of those remaining we found a predominance of articles
addressing higher education concerns, particularly in relation to theories of adult
learning (examples: Cornford, Duke) and changes in delivery modes brought about
by the new communications technology (example: Gorard & Selwyn). Several, most
notably Allport and Schuler & Field, and Tight, address deeper assumptions about
the nature of globalisation and economic restructuring and its relationship to
education and training. One article in the sample, that by Levin, looks at the
question of lifelong learning from the perspective of the economics of education.
By using this rather crude categorisation we conclude that the lifelong learning
concept appears to have been widely adopted at the policy level but has less
purchase in the wider education and training community. This is not to say that the
term does not have the rhetorical power associated with its ‘motherhood statement’
status – it would be difficult to find someone who, at the common sense level of
understand, thought ‘lifelong learning’ was a ‘bad’ thing. What it does suggest is
that the term is not being critically interrogated by the education and training
profession and its meaning is not a ‘site of struggle’ for practitioners. Or, to put it
another way, our examination of the literature leads us to conclude that the term
appears to have little resonance with the curriculum issues faced by teachers and
trainers in their day-to-day practice.
vii
Conclusion
This bibliography illustrates the wide range of education and training issues that
have drawn upon the rhetorical power of lifelong learning. It demonstrates that,
because the concept draws on traditional notions of the importance of education
and training for personal and social development, it has found acceptance both
within the education and training profession and in the wider community.
However, the bibliography also indicates that the ready adoption of the term by
policy makers, addressing a range of issues from structural reform of education and
training provision to human resource management and the impact of technology,
has rendered the term rather hollow – something of a ‘motherhood’ statement –
the meaning of which is mostly assumed. The different ways it is used in policy
statements and commissioned research is not sufficiently interrogated in the
academic literature for the concept to develop the strength necessary to usefully
engage with current education and training issues and debates. The emerging trends
do not give much heart to those who would wish to see the concept become more
sharply defined.
viii
Information for Readers
Sources
The reports and papers listed in this annotated bibliography come from a range of
electronic and print sources, most of which are readily accessible in Australia.
Readers should consult their library about the best way to obtain copies of the
publications. Most reports and papers published in Australia and overseas relating
to vocational education and training (VET), adult education and lifelong learning
are available through the VOCED database at the NCVER website:
<www.ncver.edu.au>. European publications on vocational education and training
can be accessed through the European Training Village website:
<www.trainingvillage.gr>. OECD reports can be purchased from the OECD
website: <www.oecd.org>. Recent government reports are generally accessible
through the web-site of the relevant government department. All publications
printed in Australia should be held by the National Library of Australia in Canberra.
Endnote bibliographical software

The bibliography has been prepared using Endnote bibliographical software. The
data can be provided to any work station that supports the Endnote software. If
read in this format the database can be searched on any of the fields shown on the
Word or hardcopy versions.
Further information
For further information about the bibliography, or the availability of any of the
specific items listed, contact the Lifelong Learning Network, as follows:
Lifelong Learning Network

Division of Communication and Education
University of Canberra
Phone: 02 6201 2478
email: bevp@comedu.canberra.edu.au
ix
Annotated
bibliography
3
Policy (general)
Policy statements, reports, and research monographs

Aungles, P., Karmel, T., & Wu, T. (2000). Demographic and social change:
Implications for education funding: Occasional Paper Series No. 00B.
Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.
This paper focuses on the ageing population, changes in educational participation
and the growth of social expenditures as potential key pressures on the funding of
the education sector to the Year 2021. The purpose of the paper is to explore
current issues and trends and the environmental pressures within which policy may
need to operate. It is evident that population growth and changes in the age
structure represent a steady, though moderate pressure, on education funding over
the longer term. It is difficult to predict the influence of broader factors such as
longer term trends in participation and the impact of social expenditures. Future
trends in mature age participation and developments in lifelong learning could have
significant ramifications for education funding over the next twenty years, as could
the trend by young people to undertake longer courses.
Borthwick, S., Roussel, S. and Briant, J (2002), Why people don’t participate: factors
inhibiting individual investment in education and training. DEST, 2002.
This study uses survey data (particularly the Australian Bureau of Statistics 1997
Survey of Education and Training) to analyse individuals’ reasons for not investing
in post-secondary education and training. Empirical studies suggest that individuals
regard the costs and benefits of education and training as a package: a given barrier
may prevent, limit, or make no difference to an individual’s investment in human
capital, depending on the extent of incentives to learn. Non-investment by
individuals may be either a rational response to the expected balance of costs and
benefits or a decision arising from unawareness of the costs and benefits.
Business/Higher Education Round Table. (2001). What is needed to make

Australia a knowledge-driven and learning-driven society? (BHERT
Position Paper No. 5).
This paper aims to identify major public policy challenges that stem from a proper
understanding of the nature of knowledge and learning. The question under
consideration has two aspects:
• Are our prevailing notions about 'knowledge' and 'learning' adequate to meet
the demands of contemporary society?
• Are our systems of education appropriately structured to maximise their
potential social and economic benefits?
5
Curtain, R. (2001). An Entitlement to Post-compulsory Education: International

Practice and Policy Implications for Australia. Adelaide: National Centre for
Vocational Education Research.
This paper surveys European and United States approaches to public funding for
post-compulsory education and offers an analytical framework describing how
funding is allocated. The author identifies the principles which governments use to
determine access to public funding for post-compulsory education. The paper has
identified two stages in post-compulsory education now common in Europe and
more recently the United States of America (USA) and their respective
entitlements. The first stage refers to the additional education undertaken between
the age at which the requirement for compulsory schooling ends and the attainment
of a 'threshold qualification'. The second stage refers to education beyond a
minimum threshold level. This paper identifies the different underlying principles
that governments use in funding the two stages of post-compulsory education in
Europe and the USA, describes mechanisms for disbursal of government funds for
post-compulsory education and discusses implications for Australia.
DEETYA (Department of Employment Education Training and Youth Affairs)

(1998) Australia's young people: Towards independence - A report on youth
affairs. Canberra, Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs.
Outlines the Commonwealth Government's policies affecting young people aged
15-24 years as a commitment to:
• Encouraging young people to complete secondary education and to undertake
post-school education and training
• Improved assistance to young unemployed people to ensure they are better
prepared for work
• Ensuring that young people can assess a satisfactory level of service and that
their needs are catered for in mainstream delivery of services
• Ensuring that services to young people are well co-ordinated; and young people
are given an effective voice in government.
Delors, J. (Chair) (1996) Learning: The Treasure Within - Report to UNESCO of

the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century.
UNESCO.
Education has a fundamental role to play in personal and social development. It is
one of the principal means available to foster a deeper and more harmonious form
of human development and thereby to reduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance,
oppression and war. The coming century, dominated by globalisation, will bring
with it enduring tensions to overcome, tensions between the global and the local,
the universal and the individual, tradition and modernity, long-term and short-term
considerations, competition and equality of opportunity, the unlimited expansion of
knowledge and the limited capacity of human beings to assimilate it, and the
spiritual and the material whatever the diversity of cultures, and systems for social
organisation, there is a universal challenge of reinventing the democratic ideal to
create, or maintain, social cohesion. In this context, learning throughout life will be
one of the keys to meeting the challenges of the twenty-first century. The
International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, chaired by
6
former European Commission President Jacques Delors, proposes in this report

that all societies should build on the four pillars that are the foundations of
education - learning to be, learning to know, learning to do, and learning to live
together.
DETYA (Department of Education Training and Youth Affairs) (1999) Preparing

youth for the 21st century: The policy lessons from the past two decades.
Speech by the Minister, The Hon Dr David Kemp
Ministerial speech delivered in Washington DC, February 1999. Outlines Australian
Government policies in relation to youth. (See also DETYA 1998 'Australia's
Young People: Towards Independence'.)
Doets, C., & Westerhuis, A. (2001). A life long of learning: elements for a policy
agenda: the six key messages of the European Memorandum in a Dutch
perspective. Hertogenbosch, Netherlands: CINOP.
The European Union's 'Memorandum of Lifelong Learning' published at the end of
2000 emphasised the importance of lifelong learning for all citizens in the Member
States. The Memorandum proposed a number of possible policy measures in the
form of six key messages which Member States were requested to discuss and to
formulate a standpoint where possible. As a response to this request, CINOP was
commissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Sciences to
undertake a literature study of recent discussions around the six key messages and
associated measures at a national level in the Netherlands. The study focused on
what is known about the demand for lifelong learning from citizens, the existing
provision of lifelong learning opportunities, and the policy of government and
social partners. This report presents lifelong learning development trends in the
Netherlands and an examination of recent developments with respect to each of
the six key messages of the Memorandum. The report concludes with a synthesis of
the key points from the previous chapters into the elements of a policy agenda for
lifelong learning in the Netherlands. Appendices contain a bibliography and the text
of the Memorandum.
European Commission for Research Technological Development and Innovation

and Education Training and Youth (1995) European Commission white
paper teaching and learning: Towards the learning society.
This White Paper stems from the observation that the changes currently in
progress have improved everyone's access to information and knowledge, but have
at the same time made considerable adjustments necessary in the skills required and
in working patterns. It is a trend that has increased uncertainty all round and for
some has led to intolerable situations of exclusion. Everyone's position in society
will increasingly be determined by the knowledge he or she has built up.
Tomorrow's society will be a society that invests in knowledge, a society of teaching
and learning, in which each individual will build up his or her own qualification. In
other words, a learning society.

and Education Training and Youth (1997) Towards a Europe of Knowledge.
A communication, prepared by the European Commissioner for research,
technological development and innovation and education, training and youth, that
7
sets out guidelines for future Community activities in the fields of education,
training and youth for the period 2000-2006. The communication was prepared for
the Council of Ministers concerned with a view of preparing for the presentation of
legislative proposals in spring 1998 and deals with decisions about the new
European Programs dealing with education, vocational training aid youth to be
taken in 1999.
Finn, B. (Chair) (1991) Young people's participation in post-compulsory education

and training: Report of the Australian Education Council Review
Committee. Canberra, Australian Education Council Review Committee:
188.
Both individual and industry needs are leading towards a convergence of general
and vocational education. There is an increasing realisation internationally that the
most successful forms of work organisation are those which encourage people to
be multi-skilled, creative and adaptable. At the same time schools are broadening
their programs and curriculums to offer greater access to vocational education for
the increasing proportion of young people staying on past the end of compulsory
schooling. There is also a related process of convergence between the concepts of
work and education. Increasingly, as regular updating of skills and knowledge
becomes essential to maintaining and enhancing productivity in the workplace, the
concepts of working and learning will converge. This view implies that in order to
serve their clients' needs, both schools and TAFE will need to change: schools to
become more concerned with issues of employability and the provision of broad
vocational education; TAFE to recognise that initial vocational courses must
increasingly be concerned with competencies that are more general than those
which, for example characterised the traditional craft-based apprenticeships. In
industry, all parties will need to take a more active role in the development and
support of on-going training which is integrated with employment. The Finn
Committee recommends the adoption of a new national participation target '...that
by the year 2001, 95 percent of 19 year olds should have completed Year 12, or an
initial post-school qualification or be participating in formally recognised education
or training (Recommendation 3.2)'.
Great Britain Dept for Education and Employment. (2001). Opportunity and skills
in the knowledge-driven economy: a final statement on the work of the
National Skills Task Force from the Secretary of State for Education and
Employment. Nottingham, U.K.: DfEE.
The National Skills Task Force was established in the United Kingdom (UK) in
1998 to develop a National Skills Agenda to ensure that the workforce had the
necessary skills to maintain high levels of employment, to compete in the global
marketplace, and to provide learning and employment opportunities for all
individuals. This document from the Secretary of State for Education and
Employment, sets out the Dept for Education and Employment's (DfEE's) plans
to act on the recommendations of the National Skills Task Force to realise the skill
development required for economic success. The plan aims to strengthen the link
between learning and employment, create excellence in vocational learning, provide
second chance learning opportunities for adults, ensure equal opportunities for
both men and women in job searching and skill development, and engage
employers in the skills agenda.
8
National Board of Employment, Education and Training (1996), Lifelong Learning

- Key Issues.
The paper identifies seven key issues: assessment; delivery; the social dimension of
learning; access to lifelong learning opportunities; curriculum; recognition of prior
learning; and technology. These issues are discussed particularly in relation to the
VET and schools sectors.
OECD (1996) Lifelong Learning for All. Paris, OECD.

How can education and training systems adapt to the evolving needs of an
increasingly global and information-based economy? What kind of policies can
respond directly to the recognised need to develop the capacity to continuously
adapt and renew? OECD Education Ministers adopted a program of lifelong
learning for all as the strategic framework for guiding education and training policy.
This framework seeks to foster learning societies where every individual receives
the necessary knowledge and skills, where all are encouraged to engage in lifelong
learning. Emphasising individual capacity and motivation to learn means tapping
the potential for strengthening innovative energies, democratic foundations and
social cohesion; it also means encouraging wide economic participation. This report
provides elements of broad strategies, tailored to each OECD country.
OECD (1999) OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard:

Benchmarking Knowledge-based Economies. Paris.
As economies become increasingly knowledge-based and globalised, scientific and
technological efforts become essential determinants of industrial performance and
international competitiveness. For policy design and evaluation purposes,
governments need to be able to monitor as accurately as possible recent trends and
structural shifts pertaining to industry and technology, not only in their own
countries, but also as they compare to others. This report provides recent
information on trends and competitive challenges in science, technology and
industry in the OECD countries. It draws on a large number of statistical databases
and indicators.
OECD. (2001). Cities and Regions in the New Learning Economy: OECD, Paris.
Is there a "new learning economy"? Do regions and cities play new roles in terms of
governance and intervention in order to promote learning, innovation, productivity
and economic performance at the local level? This publication explores the idea
that learning regions and cities, which are especially well attuned to the
requirements of the new learning economy, may be fostered through the
development of appropriate strategies of public governance and intervention. The
relationships between various forms of learning and economic performance at the
regional level are analysed and provide strong evidence of the importance of
individual and firm-level organisational learning for regions' economic
performance. Case studies of five regions and cities indicate that social capital
affects both individual and organisational learning.
OECD. (2001). Economics and Finance of Lifelong Learning. OECD, Paris

OECD Member countries have committed themselves to making lifelong learning a
reality for all. But the resources required to meet that goal are potentially large and
countries differ in their capacity to generate them. Can OECD Member countries
9
rise to this challenge? This report seeks to provide some answers by identifying and
examining the economic and financial issues that arise in implementing the goal,
and the strategies that the public and private sectors are pursuing to achieve it. It
deals with issues such as individual learning accounts, recognition of non-formal
learning, and measures to raise rates of return to lifelong learning. The report is
intended to provide a basis for continued in-depth discussion by public authorities
and their social partners. It aims to inspire future actions that ensure that lifelong
learning serves as a sustainable and equitable strategy for human development. The
report draws on analyses, findings, and lessons from the OECD's earlier work and
the proceedings of the international conference on "Lifelong Learning as an
Affordable Investment" (Ottawa, December 2000).
UNESCO International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century

(1998) Education for the twenty-first century: Issues and prospects.
UNESCO Publishing, Paris.
Contributions to the work of the International Commission on Education for the
Twenty-first Century, chaired by Jacques Delors. Prepared during the work of the
Commission (whose report, Learning: The Treasure Within, was published in
1996), the papers that make up this volume were intended to complement existing
literature, to respond to questions that arose in the course of the Commission's
work, and to illuminate specific issues that cross disciplines. They are a sampling, a
series of insights into issues and problems as seen by some outstanding
contemporary thinkers on education.
Victoria. Dept of Education Employment and Training. (2001). Knowledge,

innovation, skills and creativity: a discussion paper on achieving the goals
and targets for Victoria's education and training system. Melbourne:
Communications Division, Dept of Education, Employment and Training,.
In October 2000, the Victorian Government set challenging goals and targets for
education and training across the state. The Dept of Education, Employment and
Training (DEET) has identified a range of issues and options associated with
achieving the goals and targets. These are outlined in this discussion paper. A series
of public consultations have also been planned that will feed into a final report to
Government on the short, medium and long-term strategies to achieve the goals
and targets, associated advice on resources and the process for measuring and
reporting on progress towards them.
Watson, L. (1999) Lifelong learning in Australia: Analysis and Prospects.

Discussion Paper No 1, Lifelong Learning Network,University of Canberra.
This paper examines the implications of the OECD policy goal of lifelong learning
for Australian education and training. Lifelong learning for all is an economic policy
goal that challenges the focus and purpose of Australia's traditional system of
education and training provision through schools, vocational education and
training, and higher education institutions. The paper begins with a definition of
lifelong learning and describes the economic rationale behind the goal of lifelong
learning for all. The paper then looks at the extent to which Australia is achieving
lifelong learning for all. The final section identifies competing policy perspectives in
education and training that could stand in the way of Australia becoming a learning
society.
10
Conference papers and conference proceedings

Coffield, F. (1996), “A Tale of three little pigs: building the learning society with straw”.
Paper presented at the EU Conference on Research on Lifelong Learning:
Implications for Policy and Practice at Newcastle University.
The first part of the paper argues that the policies of both the British government
and the European Commission with regard to building a learning society are timid,
narrowly conceived and inadequate to the task. Politicians are trying to construct a
new society with the equivalent of straw rather than bricks. Strategies for a learning
society concentrate on improving the vocational education and training of
individuals, diverting attention away from more radical measures. The second half
of the paper proposes some more robust policy alternatives for discussion and
debate.
Gallagher, M. (1999) ‘Life-long learning: Emerging issues for policy makers’.

Lifelong Learning Network First National Conference, held 27 August 1999,
Canberra.
Examines five policy areas: forming partnerships for taking the agenda forward;
establishing effective foundations in basic education and workforce entry-level
training related to agreed learning outcomes; increasing accessibility by building
pathways across sectors and formal and informal learning modes; addressing
affordability of participation through a fair sharing of costs; and providing
consumer protection through accreditation and quality assurance and performance
reporting.
Haw, G. W. and Hughes, P. W. (eds) (1998) Education for the 21st century in the
Asia-Pacific region: Report on the Melbourne UNESCO conference 1998,
Canberra, Australian National Commission for UNESCO.
Education is the priceless investment in our current and future generations...Our
challenge is to focus on ways to improve the delivery of education in the Asia-
Pacific Region through the development of national initiatives that recognise our
diverse backgrounds and vastly different needs. As a method of meeting this
challenge, UNESCO initiated the International Conference, Education for the 21st
Century in the Asia-Pacific Region, which took place in Melbourne in March
1998...This book is the compendium of all proceedings, including the
recommendations, of the Melbourne Conference. It offers us a range of options for
the way we could proceed in education in the next century, a focus for local
discussion and an aid to planning in education.
Kennedy, K. J. (1997) ‘Implementing life long education as a policy priority for the
twenty first century’. OECD Seminar, Korean Educational Development
Institute, Seoul, Unpublished.
Ministers from OECD countries agreed on the importance of life long learning as a
policy priority in 1996 (OECD, 1996). A common argument to support their
position is based on the widely held view that a skilled workforce is essential to the
economic competitiveness of modern nations. The assumed link between education
and the economy also raises important equity considerations, as has been argued
more recently (OECD, 1997). The equity issue is to ensure that all citizens have
access to education and training opportunities. The economic and social justice
11
arguments in relation to life long learning are not mutually exclusive: they are
different sides of the same policy coin.
McKenzie, P. (1999) ‘How to make lifelong learning a reality’. Rapid Economic

Change and Lifelong Learning Conference, Melbourne, Centre for the
Economics of Education and Training.
'Lifelong learning' has become one of the most frequently used terms in education
and training circles in the late 1990s. Policy documents at national, state and
institutional levels are increasingly being framed from a lifelong learning
perspective. At international level lifelong learning has been adopted as the key
organising concept in the education and training programs of the European Union
(1995), the OECD (1996) and UNESCO (1996). In Australia recent reports on the
future shape of higher education (West, 1998) and the national strategy for
vocational education and training (ANTA, 1998) have been framed in terms of the
need for continual learning over the life span. Lifelong learning is a response to the
increasingly rapid changes under way in modern societies. Those nations,
enterprises and individuals who are not able to anticipate and adapt to change - to
continue learning - face bleak futures in an increasingly competitive world. The
need to equip young people to be active and engaged learners over their adult lives
is widely recognised, as is the need to provide retraining and updating opportunities
for adults on an on-going basis. This paper focuses on some of the key policy issues
for furthering the goals of lifelong learning. The paper addresses five main
questions: what is lifelong learning; what are the key elements of the policy agenda;
what are the highest priorities; how much will lifelong learning cost; and how can
investment in lifelong learning be stimulated.
Ralph, D. (2000, 7-8 September 2000). Creating a state of learning: The South
Australian strategy. Paper presented at the Agenda for the Future: Adult
Learners Week Conference, 7-8 September 2000, Adelaide, SA.
The author examines initiatives being undertaken to establish South Australia as a
'state of learning'. He presents an overview of the policy context then some key
strategies being used. These strategies include: the establishment of the Centre for
Lifelong Learning and Development, the Information Economy 2002 Statement,
structural and legislative changes within the Education portfolio, strengthening the
adult community education (ACE) sector, the development of learning
communities, the Community Builders program and the Learning to Learn project.
The paper concludes with an examination of some future challenges.
Journal articles
Blackmore, J. (1998) “Changing educational policies [Review of the essay

‘Educational policy and the politics of change’ by S. Taylor, F. Rizvi, B.
Lingard, and M. Henry.” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of
Education 19(2): 249-253.
Education policy has become a contentious area in recent times. The context of
education policy has significantly altered during the 1980s, and restructuring has
transformed how education is organised, funded, and delivered, as well as how
12
research in education is undertaken. How policy works, both symbolically and in

practice, is a key issue for government and for those in education.
Doyle, J. (1994) “Reflecting on 'new right' agendas in education policy reform.”

Forum of Education 49(2): 53-61.
Examines the nature of 'New Right' discursive practices in educational policy
formation by reviewing current themes and debates at both the compulsory and
post-compulsory level in Australia and Britain. Explores the emergence of the
educational 'new right' in view of the traditional tensions between liberal and
Marxist rhetoric. In this conservative climate, the need for a critical 'lens' when
analysing education policy discourse is crucial if social justice issues are to remain
'visible' in the policy arena. Such a 'lens' can be established by using Gramsci's
concept of 'hegemony' as a theoretical framework when analysing policy formation
at the broader societal level.
Dwyer, P. (1997) “Outside the educational mainstream: Foreclosed options in youth

policy.” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 18(1): 71-85.
There is a double-edged effect to recent developments in the area of youth policy:
while the formation of a 'highly-skilled' and 'flexible' workforce is a professed goal
of national policy, the 'flexible' demands of economic markets are currently at odds
with what the 'highly skilled' have been led to expect for themselves. What remains
for both the mythical mainstream and the disadvantaged minority as a common
outcome is the prospect of foreclosed options written into current youth policy.
Edwards, R., Armstrong, P., & Miller, N. (2001). Include me out: Critical readings
of social exclusion, social inclusion and lifelong learning. International
Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(5 (Sept-Oct)), 417-428.
Social exclusion and inclusion have emerged as strong policy-leading concepts at
both the national and international level in recent years. Policies on lifelong learning
are themselves in part premised on the contribution education and training can
make to promoting an inclusive society. It is argued that social exclusion offends
against human dignity, denies people their fundamental human rights and leads, in
conjunction with social and economic instability, to marginalisation and deepening
inequalities, which threaten the stability of democracy. Social inclusion therefore
appears to be an unconditional good. The argument in this paper suggests that this
is not the case. Drawing on critical social policy studies and post-structuralist
philosophy, the authors argue that the notion of inclusion relies on exclusions,
some of which may be chosen and even desirable. They suggest that those
interested in lifelong learning should take a more critical stance towards the social
inclusion agenda to which it is being harnessed.
Gorard, S., Rees, G., Fevre, R. and Furlong, J. (1998) “Society is not built by
education alone: alternative routes to a learning society.” Research in Post-
compulsory Education 3 (1): 25- 37.
This article examines the notion of a learning society in Britain by outlining some
of the chief arguments currently being used to advocate the establishment of such a
society. These arguments have two main strands – that the standard of education
and training has a direct impact on the economy and that therefore expenditure on
lifelong learning is an investment which will be recouped, and the claim that there is
13
a lack of justice in the distribution of education and its rewards in Britain today.
The article also involves a brief consideration of the extent to which a learning
society already exists. Using preliminary findings from a large-scale study of
participation in adult education and training over 50 years in industrial South Wales,
it concludes that to some extent “learning society” is used by policy-makers and
academics as a term of convenience. It is an ideal notion (but one with very prosaic
targets couched in terms of certification) which helps mask the lack of real progress
in some respects towards an “educated public”.
Gorard, S. and Selwyn, N. (1999) “Switching on the learning society? - Questioning

the role of technology in widening participation in lifelong learning.” Journal
of Education Policy 14(5): 523-534.
The creation of technologically-based 'virtual education' has been portrayed as a
means of widening access to learning opportunities for those currently excluded
from participation in lifelong education and training. Now in the UK these claims
are being operationalised under the 'University for Industry' initiative and associated
Virtual College programs all of which aim to make real the concept of Britain as a
'learning society' for all with an emphasis on reaching those traditionally seen as
non-participants in learning. This paper examines these claims in the light of
current knowledge about the characteristics of non-participants in lifelong learning
and the barriers that they face. It is suggested that the application of 'technological
fixes' to underlying socio-economic determinants of participation will solve some
problems, create others, and leave many unaffected. In this way the paper argues
for independent research on the impact of the 'virtual college' movement, and
begins to outline the form such research could take.
Kazuhiko, F. (2001). Lifelong education in Japan, a highly school-centred society:

Educational opportunities and practical educational activities for adults.
International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20 (1 & 2)(January-April), 127-
136.
In Japan the use of the term lifelong education has become widespread throughout
the 1990s and is central to educational policies, which actively tackle crucial subjects
that take place in a wide area of education in a drastically changing contemporary
society. This paper examines in detail the present situation of the development of
lifelong education, in particular concerning adults, relating to the traditional ideas
and systems on education called a highly school-centred society.
Keep, E. and Mayhew, K (1999), “The Assessment: Knowledge, Skills and
Competitiveness”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 15, No.1.
The paper introduces a number of studies of recent progress in research and policy
thinking about the UK system of vocational education and training. Policy changes
are seen as concentrating almost exclusively on promoting the supply of skills, with
little stress on the possible lack of a demand for skills. The systems failure
underlying the lack of demand has been much less researched than market and
administrative failures. Skills and knowledge form simply one important element
within a much wider matrix that helps support high levels of economic
performance.
Levin, H. M. (1998) “Financing a system for lifelong learning.” Education

Economics 6(3): 201-217.
14
This article attempts to set out a framework for financing lifelong learning that will
be more comprehensive, efficient, equitable and flexible than the existing approach.
After specifying the essential components of lifelong learning, it raises the question
of how the system should be financed and who should pay. The article proceeds by
suggesting a method for constructing both international and national databases on
lifelong learning that can assist in improving finance. Special emphasis is placed on
the roles of information, incentives and consolidation of existing sources of finance
into a more nearly unified approach.
McKenzie, D. (1997) “Educational vouchers: An idea whose time should never

come.” New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies 32(2): 163-174.
In the drive to produce more pedagogically effective and/or more economically
efficient education systems, policy makers, politicians, and social reformers seem to
periodically 'rediscover' certain educational practices and offer them as solutions to
current crises. This paper outlines the historical roots of, and current arguments
for, educational voucher schemes as the panacea for improving the quality of state
education. It takes the position that such schemes, and the assumptions that
underpin them, have never in fact presented a strong case pedagogically, even
though they have appeal within certain political ideologies, and should continue to
be resisted.
Meredyth, D. (1997) “Invoking citizenship: Education, competence and social

rights.” Economy and Society 26(2): 273-295.
This article explores the effectiveness of appeals to 'active citizenship' as an answer
to the 'neoliberal' political vocabulary of consumer choice and market freedom. It
does so through a case study on recent reforms to post-compulsory education in
Australia. a common response to education and social welfare policy is to expect
government to accord with ideals of citizenship such as self-determination,
participation and equality. However, the case study suggests that the governmental
rationalities of modern mass-education systems are irreducible to these abstractions.
Reference to the social rights of citizens is embedded in the rationales of social and
education policy. Nevertheless, this should not be construed as the recognition or
misrecognition of an absolute ideal or principle. Instead, the negotiation of social
rights can be seen as the product of the mass school system's own capacity to apply
common norms to a population and to use these norms in maintaining the
settlements negotiated within expanding social welfare systems.
Noble, D. (1994), “Let them eat skills”, The Review of Education Pedagogy/ Cultural
Studies, 16 (1), pp. 15-29.
The paper contends that any link between educational achievement and the nation’s
economic strength is mediated by a host of prior factors such as adequate jobs,
appropriate management, a strong labor presence and a committed employment
policy. Reich’s argument that a highly skilled workforce will attract corporate
investment and thus create quality jobs is seen as putting the cart before the horse
by insisting on the primacy of education and training. Current problems lie largely
in the existence of a labour surplus rather than a skill shortage.
Schuler, T. and Field, J. (1998) “Social capital, human capital and the learning
society.” International Journal of Lifelong Education, 1998(19/2/99)
15
The idea of a learning society assumes that certain types of social arrangements are
more likely to promote lifelong learning than others. Yet although the idea of a
learning society has been widely and enthusiastically embraced by politicians and
educationalists, there has been little debate over the precise types of social
arrangement that promote communication, reflexivity and mutual learning over
time. Specific studies of learning within such social institutions as the family or the
workplace have rarely been accompanied by a wider conceptual framework on
societal learning. Considers the potential of one such framework, that of social
capital.
Smith, D. G. (1999) “Economic fundamentalism, globalization, and the public

remains of education.” Interchange 30(1): 93-117.
Economic fundamentalism as the new colonialism. Features of global religious
fundamentalism. This historical rise of economic fundamentalism in the West since
the end of the Cold War. The impact of economic fundamentalism on national
identity, governmental power, and educational policy. Education in the age of
globalisation.
Soucek, V. (1999) “Education in global times: choice, charter and the market.”
Discourse 20(2): 219-234.
The issues of choice and charter do not constitute an easy problematic. They are
charged with antagonistic purpose, integrating progressive notions of teacher,
student, and parental empowerment, excellence in educational achievement and
pedagogical innovation with the invisible but fatefully blind hand of the market. It
is an antagonistic battle, because it is about the access to and control over limited
and diminishing resources. The crucial link between the new social order and
schooling is being forged by the state, which itself is struggling to survive. This
paper identifies four key factors instrumental in making schools a conduit for a
renewed and highly rigidified process of social stratification: market-led
differentiation between schools, worsening conditions for teachers, polarisation of
the teaching workforce, and rekindling the subliminal drives underpinning the class
struggle.
Tight, M. (1998) “Education, education, education! The vision of lifelong learning

the Kennedy, Dearing and Fryer Reports.” Oxford Review of Education
24(4): 473-485.
The year 1997 witnessed the publication of three major policy reports related to the
development of lifelong learning in the UK: the Kennedy, Dearing and Fryer
reports on further, higher and continuing education, respectively. These reports
produced responses from government, and underlay the consultative paper
published early in 1998. This article examines these documents, not so much for
the policies they propose, but for the conceptualisations of lifelong learning they
contain. It concludes that, in this context, while the promotion of lifelong learning
is to be welcomed, the documents suffer from three failings: they accord too much
priority to vocational education and training, VET; they betray a tendency to blame
non-participants, while placing responsibility on them for changing their behaviour;
and they threaten economic and social exclusion for those who do not participate
in the future.
16
Troyna, B. and Vincent, C. (1995) “The discourses of social justice in education.”

Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 16(2): 149-166.
What the existing organisation of schooling presupposes is that in consumption
terms, the world consists of equally powerful individual actors. Such, of course, is
not the case in a hierarchically ordered capitalist system, where labour and capital,
and indeed different forms of both, have differential access to resources enabling
them to consume. By largely intervening only in provisional relations, the state fails
to recognise the central dynamic of education - that provision and consumption are
not coterminous. In essence, state intervention does not go far enough
Wagner, A. (1999) “Tertiary education and lifelong learning: Perspectives, findings

and issues from OECD work.” Higher Education Management: Journal of
the Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education 11(1): 55-
67.
In their call for the progressive implementation of lifelong learning for all, OECD
Education ministers adopted a 'cradle to grave' perspective and emphasised
continuity and transition, learning and learners of all ages. This broad view of
lifelong learning finds parallels in an equally broad vision for tertiary education:
inclusive; diverse in form and content of provision as well as in the backgrounds
and interests of those who participate; and spanning sectors or boundaries. A broad
lifelong learning perspective implies new responsibilities and roles for tertiary
education to bridge the divide between secondary and tertiary education; facilitate
the transition to work; deepen the engagement and partnership with employers; and
widen the sharing of costs. In these fields among others, a broader concept of
lifelong learning opens up new ways of thinking about responses to new challenges
and constraints for tertiary education.
Books and book sections
Aspin, D. Chapman, J. and Collard, J. (1999) Lifelong learning in Australia.

Learning across the life-span. Leicester M and Field J (eds). London,
Falmer.
Overview of lifelong learning policies and practices in Australia. Assumes three
objectives: (a) for economic advance; (b) for personal growth; and (c) for social
inclusion. Argues that the concept of lifelong learning 'is emerging as a unifying
idea for the provision of education across the lifespan in Australia as the country
moves towards the development, furtherance and extension of educational
opportunity in the 21st century.
Chapman, J. (1996) A new agenda for a new society. International handbook of

educational leadership and administration. Leithwood J, Corson D,
Hallinger P, and Hart A (eds). Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Kluwer
Academic. 1, Part 1: 27-59.
International trends in economy and society point to the need for a new
educational agenda, one that is appropriate for the knowledge economy and the
learning society. The changing nature and patterns of employment, population and
demographic change, labour force participation rates, the changing types of jobs
17
and their availability, changes in technology, workplace skills and competencies, and
globalisation, have all set up a series of imperatives that are above and beyond the
possibilities of their being addressed simply within the confines and time scales of
traditional patterns of learning and the front on provision of education and training.
Nothing less that a substantial reappraisal of the provision, resourcing and goals of
education and training and a major reorientation of its direction towards the
concept and value of the idea of lifelong learning is required. To bring this about
government, in cooperation with other agencies and individuals in the public and
private sectors, must reconsider aspects to do with the governance, management
and financing of education; new concepts of knowledge and advances in cognitive
development.
Jarvis, P. (2001). The age of learning: education and the knowledge society.
London: Kogan Page.
Learning is now at the forefront of the educational agenda for teaching
professionals, policy makers and organisations. This book provides a
multidisciplinary analysis of the key features of learning in contemporary society,
including lifelong learning, learning organisations and the learning society. The
chapters are: The emerging idea / Linda Merricks; Social, economic and political
contexts / Stephen McNair; The changing educational scene / Peter Jarvis; From
education policy to lifelong learning strategies / Colin Griffin; The learning society
/ Colin Griffin and Bob Brownhill; Lifelong learning / Bob Brownhill; Paying for
the age of learning / Stephen McNair; Work-related learning / Paul Tosey and
Stephen McNair; Facilitating access to learning: educational and vocational
guidance / Julia Preece; Implications of the learning society for education beyond
school / Linda Merricks; The school in the age of learning / John Holford and Gill
Nicholls; Corporations and professions / Peter Jarvis and Paul Tosey; Implications
for the delivery of learning materials / John Holford and Tom Black; Implications
for including the socially excluded in the learning age / Julia Preece; The public
recognition of learning / Peter Jarvis; Questioning the learning society / Peter
Jarvis; Civil society and citizenship in a learning age / John Holford; Future
directions for the learning society / Peter Jarvis and Julia Preece.
18
Sectoral perspectives
Schools
Crowley, R. (1998) A class act: Inquiry into the status of the teaching profession.
Canberra, Australian Senate: Employment, Education and Training
Reference Committee: pp51 of 1998.
Relevant terms of reference include: the perceived relevance, to young people, of
school and its links to vocational training and employment; social factors
influencing the expectations and attitudes of school students, and especially the
impact on teachers of 'at risk' and violent behaviour from students; new patterns of
work organisation in schools; teachers' work; teachers' continuing professional
development.
Dusseldorp Skills Forum (1998) Summary of a workshop on the concept of a

national youth commitment, Youth Commitment Workshop, Sydney.
Summarises the key issues related to patterns of school retention as set out in a
paper prepared for the Workshop by Helen McDonald of the Brotherhood of St
Laurence. Documents the decline of school retention from a high of 77% in 1992
to just over 71% in 1996, and shows that even at Year10, completion rates have
fallen markedly. Issues facing special needs/'atrisk' groups are addressed.
Dusseldorp Skills Forum (1999) The cost to Australia of early school-leaving.

Dusseldorp Skills Forum, Sydney.
In recent years the Dusseldorp Skills Forum, in collaboration with a number of
Australia's leading research organisations, has endeavoured to provide a
comprehensive picture of the learning and work circumstances of young
Australians. The results of that collaboration are documented in two landmark
reports 'Australia's Youth: Reality and Risk' (1998) and 'Australia's Young Adults: The
Deepening Divide' (1999). It became apparent from these reports that those young
people leaving school early are at much greater risk of becoming trapped in
marginal activity, finding no secure place in either learning or work.
Dusseldorp Skills Forum (1999) How young people are faring, Dusseldorp Skills
Forum, Sydney.
How are young people faring in their move from full-time education to full-time
work? What proportion of young people are at risk of not making a successful
transition and how does this compare over time? How well do young people do in
Australia compared with other similar countries? Is the educational level of young
19
Australians improving? How do our levels of educational attainment compare with

other countries?
Dwyer, P. (1996) Opting out: Early school leavers and the degeneration of youth
policy. National Clearinghouse for Youth Studies, Hobart.
In 1996, over 200,000 Australians aged 15 to 19 were not in full-time education or
full-time work. This Youth Research Centre report determines the concerns,
problems and needs of those defined as early leavers, and identifies effective
strategies that would give them the opportunity to choose to continue their
schooling beyond the compulsory years. The report includes extensive data on early
leavers and reviews both the policy and research backgrounds to the issue, placing
them within an international context. The many programs demonstrate that
effective responses are possible including examples of supportive school cultures
and comments from teachers and students in these schools. 'If we wish to re-
engage potential early leavers, we need quite consciously to disengage their needs
from the current preoccupation with Year 12 retention/completion rates...What is
at stake for them is to find ways in which their future choices are informed by a
positive and successful experience of schooling rather than by a feeling that
"anything is better than school".'
Eldridge, D. (2001). Footprints to the Future: Report from the Prime Minister's
Youth Pathways Action Plan Taskforce. Canberra: Youth Pathways Action
Plan Taskforce.
This report was commissioned by the Commonwealth government to examine
ways of improving assistance for young people and their families as they negotiate
transitions from school to an independent livelihood. It addresses ways to:
• Strengthen pathways for young people from school to work, further education
and active citizenship;
• Provide the earliest possible assistance for those young people at risk
• Strengthen and support the capacity of families and the community to help
young people; and
• Expand opportunities for young people to participate fully in the social and
economic life of their communities.
MCEETYA (Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and Youth

Affairs) (1999) The Adelaide declaration on national goals for schooling in
the twenty-first century, Ministerial Council on Education Employment
Training and Youth Affairs.
Australia's future depends upon each citizen having the necessary knowledge,
understanding, skills and values for a productive and rewarding life in an educated,
just and open society. High quality schooling is central to achieving this vision. This
statement of national goals for schooling provides broad directions to guide schools
and education authorities in securing these outcomes for students. It acknowledges
the capacity of all young people to learn, and the role of schooling in developing
that capacity. It also acknowledges the role of parents as the first educators of their
children and the central role of teachers in the learning process.
20
McIntyre, J., Freeland, J., Melville, B. and Schwenke, C. (1999) Early School
Leavers at Risk. NCVER, Adelaide.
The key problem explored by this research is whether initial vocational education
and training, VET and associated support services assist early school leavers to
negotiate an effective transition from school to adult roles. Despite increased
education and training participation rates, and despite the changes to general and
vocational education, there still exists a significant group of teenagers who have
been identified as 'at risk' in the transition from school to work. It is estimated that
some 15% of 15-19 year olds fall into this category. The experience of early school
leavers are not generalisable: they do not constitute a homogenous group , and their
experiences upon leaving school are variable. The circumstances that influence their
decision to leave school prematurely include socio-economic status, Aboriginality,
ethnicity, geographic location, parenthood, and familial situations. Furthermore, in
all of these cases young females tend to be relatively more disadvantaged than their
male peers.
National Board of Employment Education and Training (1995) Students' attitudes

towards careers and post-school options for education, training and
employment. Canberra,.
This report provides advice to the Minister for Employment, Education and
Training on the ways in which young people acquire knowledge about, and develop
attitudes towards: options for careers and post-compulsory education and training;
and Australia's economic system and the nation's economic future.
OECD. (2000). From initial education to working life: Making transitions work
OECD Paris
This final report from the OECD's thematic review of the transition from initial
education to working life sets out six key features of effective transition systems:
1. Well-organised pathways;
2. Workplace experience combined with education;
3. Tightly woven safety nets;
4. Good information and guidance;
5. Effective institutions and processes; and
6. A healthy economy.
Teese, R., Davies, M., Charlton, M., Polesel, J. (1995) Who wins at school? Boys and
girls in Australian secondary education. Department of Education Policy
and Management, University of Melbourne.
Media stories have given increasing weight in recent years to the view that girls are
now more successful at school than boys. Girls complete school more often, they
study subjects that lead into employment in growth areas in the economy, they are
better at English and perhaps also at maths, and enter university in greater numbers
than boys. The tables have turned. Boys have become the new disadvantaged. They
are more likely to fail, to develop behaviour problems, to experience isolation and
rejection, and to drop out. The jobs they are more likely to get are in decline and
have no long-term career prospects. Who Wins at School? examines trends in
21
participation and performance in different curriculum areas in senior secondary

school across Australia to set these claims - and counter-claims - in perspective.
The authors argue that labour market and workplace training opportunities leave
girls with fewer choices than boys and pressure them to make more intensive use of
school. But the fact that they invest more years in school dies not necessarily mean
that they gain competitive advantages over boys. Everything depends on the
locations within the curriculum which girls take up and on how well they succeed at
these locations, given prevailing pedagogical conditions (including teacher
expectations, sanctioned learning styles, and assessment practice). Over the long
term, girls have steadily colonised the once-male terrain of mathematics and the
physical sciences. But progress has been very uneven and not so impressive during
the last decade. Girls from lower status backgrounds continue to be especially
disadvantaged, and some subjects have proved almost impervious to population
change. There is evidence that girls under-enrol in higher level mathematics and
that their talents and energies are not sufficiently recognised. Conversely, boys tend
to over-enrol in mathematics and pay the corresponding penalty. Socio-economic
status exercises a large influence over participation and performance.
Who Wins at School? illustrates the extreme contrasts which exist between girls from
lower working-class backgrounds and boys from upper professional backgrounds.
It is in English that the disadvantages experienced by boys are most evident, but
once again this depends on family origins and geographical location. Poor
performance in English weakens boys' attainments in other areas, eg., mathematics,
but girls do not necessarily gain advantages over boys from superior performance in
this subject. Relative advantage depends on where a subject is situated within the
hierarchy of the curriculum. Who Wins at School? builds on curriculum and
assessment data drawn together by the Gender Equity in Senior Secondary School
Assessment (ESSSA) project and the Educational Outcomes project, both funded
by DEET.
ACER. (2001). Understanding Youth Pathways: What does the research tell us?
Paper presented at the ACER Research Conference 2001. Understanding
Youth Pathways: What does the research tell us?, Melbourne, 15-16 October
2001.
The conference provided a review of major issues in relation to youth parthways
and lifelong learning in Australia. It includes papers by David Raffe, John
Spierings, Barry Golding, Robin Sullivan, Shelagh Whittleston, Jane Figgis, Richard
Curtain, Harris van Beek, Jan Carter, Peter Buckskin, Richard Sweet and Chris
Robinson.
Ball, K. and S. Lamb (1999) ‘Curriculum choice in senior secondary school and the
outlook for lifelong learning’. Lifelong Learning Network First National
Conference, held 27/8/99, Canberra.
Early post-school education and labour market outcomes influence the
opportunities for individuals to participate in lifelong learning. The paper discusses
the role of subject choice in senior secondary school in assisting young people
access learning opportunities post-school. The paper analyses the post-school
22
outcomes in the tertiary education sector and in the labour market at age 21 of
students surveyed in the Australian Youth Survey who undertook year 12 between
1990 and 1994. The curriculum was mapped nationally to 20 mutually-exclusive
subject groupings, as part of a broader study examining the education, training and
employment pathways associated with year 12 curriculum choices. The subject
groupings are presented under the broad curriculum groups of 'arts and
humanities;, 'business studies', 'business studies and humanities', 'business studies
and sciences', sciences and maths' and 'sciences and humanities'. The methodology
used to achieve the mapping is discussed in the paper. The results of this analysis
provide information on the important role played by curriculum choice in senior
secondary school in providing young people with future learning opportunities.
Spierings, J. (2001). Regional and local government initiatives to support youth

pathways: Lessons from innovative communities. Paper presented at the
ACER 'Understanding Youth Pathways' Conference, October 2001,
Melbourne.
Two years ago the Dusseldorp Skills Forum and the then Australian Student
Traineeship Foundation (now the Enterprise and Careers Education Foundation)
entered a partnership to develop innovative community responses to the need for
more dynamic, locally based pathways for young people. This 'national youth
commitment' project sits alongside a multitude of initiatives including Full Service
Schools (now defunded); Local Learning and Employment Networks in Victoria
(LLEN); the Enterprise and vocational Education strategy in South Australia; the
youth pathways re-evaluation taking place in Queensland; local VET alliances and
partnerships, and others all attempting to provide a more inclusive set of
mainstream learning options for young people. This paper presents an analysis of
the approaches being adopted in national 'youth commitment' communities, the
difficulties and positives encountered and some emerging implications for policy.
Journal articles
Bell, K. (1992) “Overcoming the rural disadvantage.” Youth Studies Australia

(Winter): 46-.
It has long been acknowledged that certain sections of the general community are
disadvantaged in opportunities for adequate schooling and employment. One
significant group classified in this way are those living in rural communities.
Suggestions as to causes of this rural disadvantage and strategies for overcoming it
have been proposed for almost as long as the problem has been acknowledged.
While there have been a number of reforms, the most recent inquiry into education
and training for young people (Finn et al, 1991) makes suggestions that the author
believes sound familiar. For this reason, she has developed a framework that
attempts to incorporate both existing structures and new arrangements more
appropriate to the rural situation.
Bentley, T. (2000-2001). “The creative society: reuniting schools and lifelong

learning.” VOCAL: Australian Journal of Vocational Education and Training
in Schools, 3, 5-9.
23
Education in the United Kingdom is facing a major challenge: individuals need to

become lifelong learners to keep up with the pace of change taking place. The
author argues that while government policies are showing a recognition of this
challenge, they have yet to produce a long term approach. To achieve a learning
society, the social and institutional contexts which underpin learning must also be
transformed. The solution he suggests is the creation of a learning society through
learning communities. This can be achieved through a combination of structural
changes at the national level, a shift in the political climate to encourage judicious
risk-taking among practitioners, and a move towards more systematic innovation at
the school and local community level. He identifies three priorities in making these
changes: reducing curriculum content, increasing opportunities for learning beyond
the classroom, and transforming the nature of teaching.
Beresford, Q. (1993) “The really hard cases: A social profile and policy review of
early school leaving.” Youth Studies Australia (Summer): 15-16.
Increasingly, the interaction between social and educational failure and the need for
policy to address early school leaving is attracting wider attention. This paper
provides an overview of this issue; the extent of the problem; the social
backgrounds of young people affected; and the policy responses called for. Such an
overview serves to highlight both the urgency and the magnitude of educational
reform in the emerging era of 'compulsory' post-Year 10 education.
Biggart, A. and Furlong, A. (1996) “Educating 'discouraged workers': Cultural

diversity in the upper secondary school.” British Journal of Sociology of
Education 17(3): 253-266.
Through a qualitative study of the experiences of young people in the second year
of post-compulsory education in schools in four contrasting Scottish labour
markets, we investigate the existence of a 'discouraged worker' effect. We argue that
in the modern upper secondary school, which contains pupils with a range of
attainment levels, it is possible to identify a number of distinct orientations to
school life and suggest that the types of opportunities available within local labour
markets affect young people's decisions to remain at school. We suggest that
cultural responses to the school have become more individualised and that
'discouraged workers' can be identified in both the middle and the lower attainment
bands.
Borghans, L. de Grip, A. and Heijke, H. (1996) “Labor market information and the
choice of vocational specialization.” Economics of Education Review 15(1):
59-74.
The choice of a vocational specialisation at school is often hampered by the need
for labour market information that is not available. This article investigates whether
students of the Dutch junior secondary technical schools anticipate future labour
market situations. We try to answer this question by introducing two extreme
models: the cobweb model and the rational expectations model. By using the
estimation results, the extent of the information problem is measured, indicating
large mismatches due to unanticipated changes in the labour market. These results
suggest the importance of additional public labour market forecasts to assist
students' choices.
24
Chuang, H.-L. (1997) “High school youths' dropout and re-enrolment behaviour.”
Economics of Education Review 16(2): 171-186.
Numerous studies have investigated the behaviour of high school dropouts from
economic, sociological, and educational points of view. However, data from the
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth indicate that being a dropout is not
necessarily a permanent condition. This paper attempts to empirically study
through the application of logit models the dropout behaviour of youths, as well as
the decision of dropouts whether to return to school. Most results from the logistic
regression for dropping out of school are consistent with the common finding in
the literature. One exception is that the characteristic of being black is found to be
less likely associated with dropping out. Results from the logistic regression for
returning to school parallel the findings in the data analysis. Both results indicate
that a dropout's AFQT (Armed Forces Qualification Test) score, age, and out-of-
school duration are significant factors in determining the probability of returning to
school. However, dropouts' activities during their out-of-school period have little
influence on their decision to return to school.
Cornford, I. R. (1998) “Schooling and vocational preparation: Is a revolution really

taking place?” Australian Journal of Education 42(2): 169-182.
Ongoing technological and economic revolutions have resulted in concerted efforts
to increase the vocational content of the curriculum. Viewed from historical and
sociological perspectives, what is occurring is an overdue realignment of curriculum
content and the needs of the society. Polarisations and false dichotomies promoted
by the idealised liberal education philosophy are disappearing. Changes to the
nature of knowledge, skill, and work require new forms of vocational education
which reconcile the theoretical and practical, while research seeking more effective
academic learning is itself increasingly emphasising the need for closer links
between the theoretical and practical. The major problem remains of a class-based,
discriminatory educational system which separates the more challenging intellectual
and academic from the practical and more occupationally focused. It is argued that
a real revolution in schooling and vocational preparation will only have occurred
when the changed nature of work, knowledge, and skills is reflected in school
curricula.
Crawford, L. and Williamson, J. (1992) “Change the school environment.” Youth

Studies Australia (Winter): 43-.
Some issues in the provision of post-compulsory education examining the type of
facilities, supporting organisation and ambience that could be developed to provide
a learning environment more appropriate and acceptable to young adults.
Dwyer, P. (1995) “Compulsory post-compulsory education and the disaffiliation of

youth.” Forum of Education 50(1): 1-.
Retention to Year 12 has become such an article of faith in the field of education in
Australia since the mid-eighties that few have been ready to challenge the
assumptions that lie behind it. Many educators support the goal of virtually
universal participation and see it as a direct flow-on from the progressive and
reformist agenda of the former Schools Commission and the Whitlam years (Taylor
and Henry, 1994). That agenda now finds expression in the development of
'mainstreaming' policies aimed at universal post-compulsory participation by the
25
year 2001. This article provides a caution based on the long-standing American
experience of mainstreaming policies. It re-examines that policy agenda in the light
of the persistence of a substantial minority who do not conform to the mainstream
expectation. It suggests that in accepting a supposedly progressive target of
universal 'participation' we are also accepting what is in intent a restrictive
redefinition of the transition to adulthood and in effect a disaffiliation of a
significant minority of young Australians.
Dwyer, P. and Wyn, J.(1998) “Post-compulsory education policy in Australia and its
impact on participant pathways and outcomes in the 1990s.” Journal of
Education Policy 13(3): 285-300.
The substantial redefinition of youth and education policy in Australia over the past
decade has been associated with an increased emphasis on university entrance and
the adoption of a sequential model of pathways between the two worlds of study
and work. These new policy settings are examined in the light of research findings
from a major longitudinal study of young Australians who left school in 1991.
Definite signs of incompatibility between policy and outcomes are identified with
regard to non-university study pathways, uncertain career prospects, and the
assumed linear sequence between study and work. The analysis articulates a
theoretical concern about the inappropriateness of the policy settings and leads into
a re-examination of the data with reference to a typology of 'life patterns' more
compatible with young people's experience than the prevailing imagery of
pathways. This shift of focus also opens up the possibility of combining research
findings from the two - often separate - fields of education and youth studies in a
way that would do justice to the increasing complexity of the educational and life
choices confronting the post-1970 generation.
Foskett, N. H. and Hesketh, A. J. (1997) “Constructing choice in contiguous and

parallel markets: Institutional and school leavers' responses to the new post-
16 marketplace” Oxford Review of Education 23(3): 299-319.
Since the 1992 Further and Higher Education Act, the new further education (FE)
marketplace created in England and Wales has demanded that schools and colleges
compete in a bid to secure larger shares of funded post-16 provision. Little
attention has been devoted to establishing how 15 and 16 year-olds interpret this
new competitive culture, or how individual institutions perceive and respond to
their marketplaces. This paper reports some of the key findings of the 'Post-16
Markets Project', a national survey of the decision-making of pupils as they
approach the end of compulsory schooling at 16, and the influence of FE
institutions' marketing practice on that decision-making. Particular attention is
focused on the different educational pathways or 'trajectories' young people choose
in an increasingly diverse FE sector, and on the timing of decisions and the factors
that influence them. The balance between course and institution in decisions is
explored, establishing the market-value placed upon particular educational pathways
by pupils according to, for example, academic intentions and cultural capital. It is
demonstrated that the decision-making processes engaged in by school leavers are
more complex than hitherto identified, and that they have bought into the idea of
their role in the education market as consumers. Analysis enables a
conceptualisation of FE market forms and processes to be identified, within which
diverse perspectives on choice processes and the interplay of supply and demand
on the realisation of student choice emerge.
26
Hammer, T. and Furlong, A.(1996) “'Staying on': The effects of recent changes in
educational participation for 17-19 year-olds in Norway and Scotland.” The
Editorial Board of the Sociological Review 44(4): 675-691.
In this paper we consider some of the implications of the growth of educational
participation for the labour market integration of young people between the ages of
17 and 19 in Norway and Scotland. In particular, we focus on the experiences of
disadvantaged youth and assess the extent to which they benefit from participation
in post-compulsory schooling. We argue that in terms of success in the labour
market, post-compulsory secondary education is only beneficial to those intending
to continue into Higher Education. We demonstrate the existence of persistent
inequalities among 'non-traditional stayers', and show that despite greater access to
post-compulsory education, young people from middle class families will retain
important advantages in both Norway and Scotland. However, we argue that in
Scotland, females and those from less disadvantaged social positions are more
disadvantaged than their Norwegian counterparts.
Hemmings, B. Hill, D. and Kay, R. (1994) “Factors influencing the decision to stay
on at or leave school.” Youth Studies Australia 13(2): 13-16.
In recent years Australian commentators on post-compulsory education have
concentrated on two major concerns: increasing retention rates and the nature of
the senior secondary curriculum. Arising directly from these concerns is the need to
examine how often and how seriously students in the senior school years consider
leaving school. This question provided the focus for the longitudinal study reported
here which followed a 1991 cohort of students through Years 10 and 11 to the
beginning of Year 12.
Lamb, S. (1998) “Completing school in Australia: Trends in the 1990s.” Australian

Journal of Education 42(1): 5-31.
After a period of dramatic growth in school completion in Australia, rates of school
retention have begun to decline. At its peak in 1992 the national rate of retention to
Year 12 was approximately 77 per cent. By 1995 the rate had fallen to 72 per cent.
State, system, and social differences in the recent downturn in school completion
rates in Australia is documented. Data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics and
from the Australian Youth Survey are used to look at patterns across states, school
systems, geographical locations, social backgrounds, and by sex. The results suggest
that during the 1990s the downturn in completion has been uneven and some
groups of users, who had come to rely on schooling during the 1980s for their
future economic security, are now turning away from school. The findings indicate
a continuing need to monitor the numbers of young people completing school and
their backgrounds.
Lindley, R. M. (1996) “The school-to-work transition in the United Kingdom.”

International Labour Review 135(2): 159-180.
Despite evidence linking youth unemployment to labour market conditions rather
than to poor educational preparation, the policy response since the mid-1980s has
focused on education and training, extending the school-to-work transition.
Although the unemployed include a high proportion of less qualified people, the
efficiency and equity of training as a remedy are questioned. Subsidising post-
compulsory education for the most able can be justified where it develops skills
27
complementary to those of the least able, but tackling hard-core youth

unemployment needs a wide range of policies concerned with economic, social and
physical environments.
McLeod, J. and Yates, L, (1998) “How young people think about self, work and
futures.” Family Matters 49: 28-33.
The 12 to 18 Educational Research Project, commenced in 1993, is a longitudinal
study that is following a number of young people at four different Victorian
schools through each year of their secondary schooling. Twice each year, interviews
are conducted with 24 students (six students at each of the schools), either alone or
with their friends; the interviews are video- and audiotaped. The aim of the study is
to follow qualitatively the thinking of these young people, and their pathways as
they go through schooling and then enter life beyond this. Some findings from this
work in progress are discussed, in particular at how young people in the early and
middle years of secondary schooling are thinking about self, work and futures, and
whether gender is an issue in their approach.
Rees, D. I. and Mocan, H. N. (1997) “Labor market conditions and the high school
dropout rate: Evidence from New York State.” Economics of Education
Review 16(2): 103-109.
A number of cross-sectional studies have examined the impact of labour market
conditions on the decision to drop out of school. However, results from these
studies have been mixed. In this paper the authors use panel data estimation
methods in order to avoid potential omitted variable problems. The results suggest
a negative relationship between the unemployment rate and the proportion of a
district's high school students who drop out in a given year. Educational inputs
such as teacher experience and education do not seem to be reliable predictors of
district dropout rates. The results underline the importance of controlling for
unobservable district characteristics.
Sweet, R. (2001). “Career information, guidance and counselling services: policy

perspectives.” Australian Journal of Career Development, 10(2 - Winter), 11-
14.
Throughout member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD), a number of important policy directions are placing
increasing demands upon career information and guidance services. A growing
emphasis upon lifelong learning for all and active employment and welfare policies
are among the more important. Yet alongside these pressures for wider community
access to career assistance services, recent OECD work reveals weaknesses in the
organisation and delivery of career information, guidance and counselling. A key
challenge facing governments is to widen access to these services in an affordable
way and yet to maintain their quality. This paper describes a new OECD activity on
policies for career information, guidance and counselling services that will examine
this challenge.
Young, M. and Spours, K. (1998) “14-19 Education: Legacy, opportunities and

challenges.” Oxford Review of Education 24(1): 83-.
An analysis of the changes in 14-19 education from the beginning of the 1980s until
the last government's White Paper 14-19 Education: Learning to Compete, which
28
appeared in March 1997. It then considers the tensions in this legacy before
exploring some of the issues that might be involved in realising the Labour Party's
aims as set out, before the General Election, in their policy document Aiming
Higher. Finally, the authors speculate, in light of developments since the Labour
Party's victory on 2 May, on a possible scenario for the next decade and outline the
kind of 14-19 system that we might be wanting to try to develop in the future.
Higher Education
Business/Higher Education Round Table (2000) The Critical Importance of

Lifelong Learning: A Position Paper of the BHERT Task Force on Lifelong
Learning. Melbourne.
Drawing on analyses of lifelong learning policies and practices in Australia and
other OECD countries this paper seeks to identify a number of policy priorities for
government, particularly in the areas of lifelong learning, business and higher
education. Policy priorities include: the need to develop a multi-faceted approach to
policy development; the acceptance of the concept of co-investment; the
development and extension of articulated pathways and partnerships; the
promotion of the idea of the learning workforce; the re-assessment of the role of
universities in the provision of lifelong learning; a consideration of the demand and
supply of lifelong learning; the development of infrastructures for learning
Candy, P, Crebert, G. and O'Leary, J. (1994) Developing lifelong learners through

undergraduate education. National Board of Employment, Education and
Training, Canberra.
This report is the outcome of a study commissioned by the Higher Education
Council. The purpose of the study was 'to identify whether and in what ways the
content, structure, teaching modes and assessment procedures of undergraduate
degrees, and the activities of student support services, are designed to lead to the
formation of attributes which both enable and encourage graduates to become
lifelong learners'. Lifelong learning is considered to be a very broad and
comprehensive idea. It includes all formal, non-formal and informal learning -
whether intentional or unanticipated - which occurs at any time across the lifespan.
The focus of this study was on the extent to which, and the ways in which,
undergraduate education can assist graduates to enhance their skills of and
attributes towards lifelong learning, with the particular intention of allowing them
to take conscious control of their learning after graduation.
DETYA (Department of Employment Education Training and Youth Affairs)

(1999) Equity in higher education. Occasional Paper, DETYA, Canberra.
Presents higher education statistics for 1997 for each university against each of the
equity performance indicators (access, participation, success and retention) for each
of the equity groups, and gives national and State amalgamations of the data. Also
looks at changes in participation rates for the equity groups over the period 1991 to
29
1997. The main points to emerge from the data are: the overall poor rates of
success and retention of indigenous students remain a cause for concern; and other
areas of concern are the continuing low participation rates of people from rural
backgrounds, the low participation and retention rates of people from isolated
backgrounds, and the low participation rates of people from low socio-economic
status (SES) backgrounds.
Howells, J. Nedeva, M. Georghiou, L. Evans, J. and Hinder, S. (1998) Industry-

academic links in the U.K., Higher Education Funding Council for
England.
There has been a spectacular growth in recent years across the United Kingdom in
the scale, number and variety of linkages between higher education (HE) and
industry. These linkages are manifested in research collaboration, provision of
consultancy services, market transactions in the commercialisation of research, and
industry's growing involvement as an interactive user of all types of teaching and
training. Through surveys of industrial liaison officers and continuing education
officers, interviews with senior staff, and compilation of available statistics, this
report describes the status and trends of these relationships.
National Board of Employment Education and Training (1996) Equality diversity

and excellence: Advancing the national higher education equity framework.
DETYA, Canberra.
Assesses the progress of the higher education system towards meeting the original
equity objectives set in the White Paper of 1988 and further enunciated in A Fair
Chance for All: Higher Education That's Within Everyone's Reach (Commonwealth of
Australia 1990), and provides advice to the government on an appropriate
framework for equity in the sector over the next five years. Data are presented on
system-wide access, participation, success and retention patterns over the period
1990-95 for each of the six designated equity groups identified in A Fair Chance for
All, namely, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people; women; people from
non-English-speaking backgrounds; people with disabilities; rural and isolated
students, and people from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds. There
have been improvements in participation and outcomes for a number of these
groups, resulting from a range of special initiatives which have been introduced
during the last five years by the universities. These include the introduction of
access programs, the provision of targeted support services, changes to admissions
requirements and, to a lesser degree, changes in the nature of the curriculum and in
approaches to teaching.
Ramsay, E. Trantor, D. Charlton, S. and Summer, R. (1998) Higher education

access and equity for low SES school leavers, DETYA, Canberra.
Since its establishment, the University of South Australia has implemented a range
of strategies aimed at increasing access and participation of people in the six
targeted equity groups identified by the Commonwealth. Despite this, there has
been little increase in the participation rates of Low SES people. The University's
Special Access Scheme, or USANET, was thus developed. The scheme was
designed to address the particular needs of students whose individual educational
disadvantage, arising from their Low SES status, is compounded by attendance at
schools with significant numbers of students from similar backgrounds. In 1998,
the University expanded the scheme to widen the opportunities for students from
30
isolated country schools. The scheme incorporates three components: Outreach,

access and support.
Walstab, A., Golding, B., Teese, R., Charlton, M., & Polesel, J. (2001). Student
Attrition and Wastage in Tertiary Education. Canberra: Lifelong Learning
Network, University of Canberra.
In taking a snapshot of a cohort of students offered places in University or TAFE
during their first post-school year, this project examines the characteristics and
perspectives of a sample of 1999 Year 12 students as they make decisions about
accepting or rejecting a tertiary offer and their subsequent pathways. As well as the
very high proportion of students who accept their offer and continue their studies,
the cohort includes those who change courses or institutions, students who defer,
students who decide not to take up tertiary study in the first instance as well as
those who withdraw or discontinue for whatever reasons.
The project has two main objectives:
• To identify various institutional practices in monitoring attrition and wastage in
Australian universities and TAFE institutes; and
• To identify the factors contributing to discontinuance of university and TAFE
studies among at-risk students during their first year.
Watson, L. (2000) Survey of Private Providers in Australian Higher Education 1999.

DETYA, Canberra
Presents the findings of a national survey of private providers of higher education
in Australia conducted by the Lifelong Learning Network, University of Canberra,
for DETYA. Survey found that, at March 1999, there were 86 private providers
offering higher education in Australia. The 79 private institutions that responded to
the survey catered to 31 212 students, enrolled on over 200 courses of study. This
translates to a student load of 18 877 Equivalent Full-time Student Units (EFTSU).
This represents 3.4 per cent of total student load in the higher education sector.
Watson, L. (2001). Blurring the Boundaries: Adult Education and Training in

Australian Universities. Canberra: Lifelong Learning Network, University of
Canberra.
The higher education sector is traditionally associated with the provision of courses
of study leading to degrees at the undergraduate or postgraduate level. But the
boundaries of the higher education sector are becoming blurred as universities
expand their role in the provision of short courses for both recreational and work-
related purposes. This study found that all universities are involved in the provision
of adult education and training courses that do not lead to recognised qualifications
or awards. These short courses are provided on a fee-for-service basis.
West, R. (Chair) (1998) Learning for life: Final report of the Review of higher
education financing and policy. DEETYA, Canberra.
In the decade that has passed since the last major review of higher education in
Australia there have been sustained and far-reaching changes to higher education.
These changes have included the abolition of the 'binary divide' between
universities and colleges of advanced education and the transformation of the
31
sector from an elite to a mass higher education system. Over the next two decades,
the increasing globalisation of education services and advances in communications
technology are likely to have a profound impact on the nature of teaching, learning
and research. The report recommends changes to higher education policy that are
based on a clear vision of the role of education in a learning society.
Recommendations encompass issues of funding, fees, student choice and universal
entitlements to post-secondary education and training.
Dobson, I. and Sharma, R. (1998) ‘Lifelong learning: Will it influence the age
composition of Australia's student population?’ Fourteenth General
Conference of IMHE Member Institutions, held 7-9 September 1998, Paris.
In line with the situation in other parts of the world, massification has seen the
rapid growth of enrolments in Australian higher education. An increase of 49%,
from 421,000 to 659,000 occurred between 1989 and 1997. Much of the growth has
been generated by 'school leavers' in undergraduate programs, but growth in the
numbers of older students occurred also, many of whom were attending university
for the first time. In addition, there has been an expansion of enrolments in
postgraduate programs, including research degrees, principally by older students.
This paper examines the growth in the 'mature age' student population, in a period
marked by increasing interest in the lifelong learning concept.
Mackie, S. (1998) ‘Jumping the hurdles’. Higher Education Close Up, an

International Conference held 6-8 July 1998, University of Central
Lancashire, Preston, UK.
Explores student withdrawal behaviour within the context of the first year of a
large (some 450) students), undergraduate modular program in the Business School
of a new university, in the academic year 1996/97. The purpose of the research was
to understand why the 'expectant hope' of some students turns into a need met and
the fulfilment of a desire, while for others, the 'expectant hope' turns to fears
realised, uncertainty and doubt and eventual departure from university. This paper
explores the reasons why some students voluntarily abandon the university
experience, while others, who share the same experience and may face similar
difficulties, remain. The project generated qualitative data to promote an
understanding within the Business School of the way in which students experience
the modular program and the problems that they might face in seeking to adapt to,
and cope within, its constraints and demands whilst also coping with considerable
personal upheaval, for most living away from home for the first time.
Shattock, M. (1998) ‘The impact of the Dearing Report on UK higher education’.

Fourteenth General Conference of IMHE Member Institutions, 7-9
September 1998, Paris.
Reviews the impact of the recommendations of the Report of the National
Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education a year after its publication. Argues
that the Committee should have been established in 1988, before the rapid
expansion of student numbers began rather than after the expansion had taken
place. As it was, the establishment of the Committee was provoked by the funding
32
crisis that resulted from the expansion and the Report's impact must be judged on
the extent to which its recommendations resolved the crisis. A secondary element
of the Committee's work was to offer a framework within which the enlarged
higher education system could be run. While the Report provided an effective
analysis of the financial needs of higher education, its recommendations have in
fact been only partially implemented by the Government. The paper suggests that
higher education must now adjust itself to this level of funding which reflects the
transition from elite to mass higher education. Concludes that the Report's vision
of the Learning Society, however imprecisely expressed, may be its most lasting
contribution.
Journal articles
Allport, C. (2000) “Thinking globally, acting locally: Lifelong learning and the
implications for university staff.” Journal of Higher Education Policy and
Management 22(1): 37-.
The education policy mantra of the new millennium is 'lifelong learning'. This
sacred text can be used to justify both increases and decreases to the public funding
base for higher education, and for luring us towards a single post-secondary sector,
where education and training are one. If lifelong learning is to have reality beyond
the mantra, then it is necessary to take a broad view of public interest and public
benefit. The more we move towards universal participation in education, the
number of people who have a direct stake in education, and want to ensure the
education credential is a high quality one, also grows. And as the public benefit of
higher education increases, then the stronger becomes the argument for public
rather than private funding. Similarly, as higher education expands, the greater is
the obligation for industry and individuals to contribute to the funding of higher
education through progressive taxation.
Carpenter, P. G., M. Hayden, and Long, M. (1998) “Social and economic influences
on graduation rates from higher education in Australia.” Higher Education
35: 399-422.
An examination of national survey data on the graduation rates of young people
who enter higher education in Australia. Two cohorts of young people were
surveyed - those born in 1961 and those born in 1965. Of interest is the influence
of gender and of selected social and economic background characteristics on
graduation rates. The results for both cohorts provide further evidence of the gains
made by young females during the 1980s in terms of educational participation and
attainment. The results for the first cohort show also there were some signs of
lower graduation rates being associated with socioeconomic disadvantage, at least as
indicated by parent's occupational status and family wealth. For the second cohort,
however, there was little evidence of any effect in the same direction. This suggests
that attempts to deal with equity which have focussed on performance within
higher education have either been quite effective or might be better directed
towards the selection processes which lead to higher education.
Cornford, I. R. (1999) “Imperatives in teaching for lifelong learning: Moving beyond

rhetoric to effective educational practice.” Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher
Education 27(2): 107-.
33
Changes wrought by the ongoing technological, economic and social revolutions

have once again emphasised the importance of lifelong learning. Current
projections are for three or four changes of occupation during a working lifetime.
There appears clear evidence of the need for the acquisition of cognitive learning
strategies to cope with continuous change and maintain knowledge and skill
currency during an entire lifetime. The Australian government commissioned report
by Candy, Crebert and O'Leary raised a number of issues at undergraduate level,
but failed to address the need for teaching more broadly for genuinely lifelong
learning. This paper considers a range of approaches and strategies which it will be
necessary to adopt to move beyond rhetoric to effective educational practices.
Central to effective teaching of cognitive learning strategies will be adoption of
appropriate curricula in teacher education courses.
Davies, P. (1999) “Half full, not half empty: A positive look at part-time higher
education.” Higher Education Quarterly 53(2): 141-155.
Explores the largely negative view of part-time higher education in contemporary
policy discourse and the academic community. Presents the available data and re-
interprets it in a positive way demonstrating that part-time students are not only in
the (silent) majority but represent a model of life-long learning, generate significant
income for the universities and represents a resource of great potential for higher
education. However, there remains an outstanding research agenda and policy
debate before its full potential can be realised.
Dobson, I. Sharma, R. and Haydon, A. (1998) “Undergraduate intakes in Australia -

Before and after.” Higher Education Management 10(1): 43-53.
Examines some of the changes in the composition of the student body entering
Australian higher education, before and after the 1988 reforms that saw the
significant increase in access to the higher education system. It seeks to correlate
these changes with 'quality' as measured by students' academic success in higher
education. Student 'quality' could become an important factor in the future, given
the expansion in student numbers and changes to the funding base and funding
policy. With the current interest in performance-based funding, the relative
performance of different groups of students has the potential to become a more
important issue. But the use of student performance as the basis for the distribution
of government funds is not likely to affect universities in the same way. Some
universities are more dependent than others on government funding, and some
attract students who are more likely to be academically successful.
Duke, C. (1999) “Lifelong learning: Implications for the university of the 21st
century.” Higher Education Management: Journal of the Programme on
Institutional Management in Higher Education 11(1): 19-35.
The emergence of lifelong learning and its revival after a period of disuse as an idea
and a social need represent a challenge and an opportunity for universities. This and
other new terms and concepts require clarification. There is a place for new
metaphors. Universities need to become more effective learning organisations and
to embrace and nurture their learning regions in order to flourish. Some new
functions are added onto established ones which will continue, some, like research
and socialisation, in modified form. Organisational learning as well as staff
development is increasingly important. Higher education will diversify further and a
rising proportion of higher education in the emerging universal system will take
34
place outside universities, but their role as cathedrals, repositories and nurturers of
wisdom can be enhanced, as they remain valued places for people to meet and learn
together.
Evans, J. (1998) “Muddled thinking in the funding of tertiary education in New

Zealand.” New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies 33(2): 211-222.
The argument of this paper is that since 1991 the funding of tertiary education in
New Zealand has been based on a piece of muddled thinking. This has led
governments since that year to fund students in the four different types of public,
tertiary, institutions that New Zealand governments support - universities,
polytechnics, colleges of education, and wananga - at the same rate when they are
taking courses within the same broad categories, regardless of the inherent cost of
the education. This muddled thinking is damaging New Zealand universities.
Flew, T. (1998) “Hype and hope at virtual U: Technology, efficiency and

education.” Arena Magazine 38(December): 35-38.
Discussions about the implications for higher education of digitised and converged
communications and information technologies have been premised upon a good
deal of hype and hope. The hype has been generated by that odd mix of
technological utopians and industry players who envisage a paradigm shift in
education, as in many other areas, where an old order of inflexibility, massification
and proscription gives way to a seamless new order of flexibility and self-realisation
for all. This is an educational equivalent of the 'friction-free capitalism' which Bill
Gates muses about in The Road Ahead. Much of the hope has come from
progressive educationalists and those who draw upon the possibilities of new media
forms such as hypertext, who draw attention to the potential for information
technology to promote interconnected and student-centred forms of learning. With
the release of the West Committee's Learning for Life report on the future of
Australian higher education, these hitherto arcane discussions have moved sharply
to the centre of considerations about the future of universities.
Heaton, C. (1999) “The equity implications of public subsidisation of higher

education: A study of the Fijian case.” Education Economics 7(2): 153-.
Most studies of the returns to higher education ignore the effects of taxation on the
distribution of the costs and benefits of education. In an analysis of Higher
Education in Fiji, this study incorporates the tax system in a model of the returns to
education and finds that, rather than subsidising higher education, the public
generate a significant financial benefit from their funding of higher education, in
addition to the profit made by the individual student.
Marginson, S. (1997) “Imagining Ivy: Pitfalls in the privatization of higher

education in Australia.” Comparative Education Review 41(4): 460-480.
The distinction between public, or government-sector, and private higher education
is a juridical one based on legal ownership. Privatisation refers to a change of
ownership from the public to the private sector. The terms 'public' and 'private'
often signify differences in finance, governance, and function. Public higher
education institutions depend largely on public support, while private institutions
rely primarily on private money, so that greater private funding of public
universities constitutes privatisation. Public institutions are more implicated in the
35
state, more complex, and more broadly based. Private institutions tend to specialise
and are strong in such low-cost courses as business, law, and the humanities, while
comprehensive institutions and science-based courses are found mostly in the
public sector. These are global generalisations.
Preece, J. (1999) “Families into higher education project: An awareness raising

action research project with schools and parents.” Higher Education
Quarterly 53(3): 197-210.
Participation in higher education amongst minority ethnic groups is unevenly
spread across higher education institutions and disproportionately low amongst
certain ethnic groups. This article presents some preliminary findings from a small
scale research project which is investigating higher education participation issues
for Muslim families in the north of England. The paper argues for a widening
participation discourse which speaks on the same wavelength as minority groups if
strategies are to be effective. It also argues that those same discourses need to be
heard within higher education if the student experience is to be positive beyond the
recruitment stage.
Ramsay, E. (1999) “The national framework for Australian Higher Education

equity: Its origins, evolution and current status.” Higher Education
Quarterly 53(2): 173-189.
This paper traverses three consecutive policy periods with respect to Australian
Higher Education equity, the first two driven by the policies of successive Labor
Governments and the third by a highly deregulatory market liberal Coalition
Government. It identifies the distinguishing characteristics of the national equity
policy, planning and reporting framework put into place by Australian Labor
Governments in the first of these periods (mid 1980s-mid 1990s). The second and
abruptly concluded period is significant in terms of the evaluation it provides of the
achievements of that framework and the elaboration of the principles, policy and
procedures required to entrench progress over the longer term. The paper goes on
to identify what remains of that framework in the third and contemporary era,
given that the policies of the current conservative Coalition government have
brought about changes in Higher Education funding and policy directions which
threaten to reverse what progress had been made in the two earlier periods.
Sinclair, K. S. (1994) “Education issues for Australia at the turn of the century: The
views of chief executives from business and the universities.” Forum of
Education 49(2): 1-8.
Australia is currently experiencing a period of dramatic social and educational
change. Education is being forced to reconsider its objectives and structures to
make them more appropriate for life in the newly emerging information society. In
this process, dialogue between education, business and government is an important
ingredient and groups such as the Business/Higher Education Round Table have
been formed to facilitate the process. The round Table consists of the university
Vice-Chancellors and Chief Executives of prominent Australian companies. In the
Delphi study to be reported there were three rounds of questionnaires responded
to by a sample of members of the Round Table. In the final questionnaire,
respondents were asked to express their judgement as to the relative importance of
thirty key concerns and issues identified in the earlier questionnaires as being of
special significance for Australian education in the coming decade. Key concerns
36
identified related to standards achieved in secondary education, the quality and

sustaining of teaching and research in universities, business and education
cooperation, high priority curriculum areas, need for life-long education and ways
of attracting and retaining high-quality teachers and academics.
Teichler, U. (1999) “Lifelong learning as challenge for higher education: The state
of knowledge and future research tasks.” Higher Education Management:
Journal of the Programme on Institutional Management in Higher
Education 11(1): 37-53.
The role higher education plays in the framework of lifelong learning according to
the available research literature can be classified according to its function in
comparison to initial degree study, the categories of adult learners addressed as well
as the patterns of programs and modes of teaching and learning. Special attention
in the literature tends to be placed on continuing professional education whereas
the question is hardly addressed how the sequence and character of initial and
continuing education changes in a society that deserves the name lifelong learning
society. Future research should address issues of changing demands for lifelong
learning, the causes for different national policies and actual developments of the
role higher education plays in the framework of lifelong learning as well as the
impacts of varied lifelong learning provisions on participation, change of
competences as well as their consequences for the world of work.
Wagner, A. (1998) “Redefining tertiary education.” The OECD Observer

214(October/November).
Rising participation rates, diminishing labour market opportunities and intense
competition for public and private funds have combined to put tertiary education
policy under renewed pressure. Moreover, education at this level is increasingly led
by demand, with institutions of all types having to adapt themselves to students'
requirements. Governments have to readjust their policies too. (Redefining Tertiary
Education, OECD Publications, Paris, 1998.)
37
Vocational Education and Training
ANTA (Australian National Training Authority) (1999) Marketing Skills & Lifelong
Learning Project. ANTA website.
Summarises the key findings of research with individual and enterprise customers
and offers a range of options for the ways in which the vocational education and
training, VET system can respond to customer's learning values and expectations.
Options for broad strategy directions are presented within the framework of the
key marketing features of learning - product, price, place, position, people and
promotion. Options for responding to defined market segments are presented by
segment and by marketing features. The draft is presented as a prompt for national
discussion and consultation, both about the content of the document and about the
broader aim of promoting lifelong learning in Australia.
ANTA (Australia National Training Authority) (1998) A Bridge to the Future.

ANTA, Brisbane.
Policy statement setting out policy direction for period 1998 -2003. Outlines the
objectives, agreed by all Australian Ministers for vocational education and training,
for the period and the outcomes to be achieved.
ANTA (Australian National Training Authority) (1998) Achieving equitable

outcomes: A supporting paper to Australia's national strategy for vocational
education and training, VET 1998-2003. ANTA, Brisbane
The purpose of this paper is to elaborate the basis, in analysis and thought, of the
Australian National Training Authority Board's proposal that Australia work
towards making the vocational education and training, VET system more
responsive to the diverse needs of clients and potential clients. This paper is one of
five supporting papers to A Bridge to the Future: Australia's National Strategy for VET
1998-2003. It has three functions: to provide up-to-date information relating to the
current position of specific client groups in vocational education and training, VET;
to acknowledge that whilst States and Territories may have differing approaches to
achieving equity in vocational education and training, VET, some consistent,
strategic action around equity is necessary; and to propose how the new
accountability and planning mechanisms for vocational education and training,
VET can be utilised to support the achievement of equity.
Billett, S. Cooper, M. Hayes, S. and Parker, H. (1997) VET policy and research:
Emerging issues and changing relationships, Office of Training and Further
Education, Victoria.
In relation to lifelong learning argues that there is increased participation in VET by
older Victorians (25-64 year olds) and that individuals are showing an increased
commitment to training through participation in Associate Diploma and Advanced
38
Trade courses, while enterprises are demanding simplicity and exercising a

preference for shorter term programs.
FitzGerald, V. (2001). Skills in the knowledge economy: Australia's national

investment in vocational education and training . Melbourne: Allen
Consulting Group.
Competing in the knowledge-based economy is primarily competition in building
intangible capital, and particularly human capital - essentially skills and knowledge,
and the ability to carry those into work processes and to adapt and innovate. For
Australia, this is not a matter only for the elite level of the workforce, or just for the
'high tech' sectors of our economy. Even in the high tech 'new economy' sectors
narrowly defined, demand for those with VET qualifications is strong and growing.
Across the Australian economy generally, demand for those with VET skills,
especially middle level and advanced VET skills, is both much larger than demand
for HE graduates and is the area of fastest growth. VET has a particularly critical
role in lifting the skills and qualifications of those with low skills - a very important
matter for social cohesion and for avoiding growing polarisation by income level, as
well as for national economic performance.
Kearns, P. McDonald, R. Candy, P. Knights, S. Papadopoulos, G. (1999) VET in the

learning age: The challenge of lifelong learning for all. Volume 1, NCVER,
South Australia.
This study of the implications of lifelong learning for vocational education and
training, VET (VET) was commissioned by the National Centre for Vocational
education and training, VET, and was undertaken by Global Learning Services
during 1998.
Kearns, P. McDonald, R. Candy, P. Knights, S. Papadopoulos, G. (1999) VET in the

learning age: The challenge of lifelong learning for all. Volume 2 Overview
of international trends and case studies. NCVER, South Australia.
The consecration of the concept of lifelong learning has been the most remarkable
phenomenon in the international discourse on education over the decade of the
nineties. Even more remarkable has been the widespread acceptance that strategies
for lifelong learning would provide the panacea to many of the problems -
economic, social, cultural and even political - confronting our societies at the
doorstep of the 21st century. Both the rationale and the objectives of policies for
lifelong learning have been amply stated - and advocated - in the work of
international organisations, in official policy statements by governments, and in the
rapidly growing volume of specialised literature in this field. They will be
comprehensively recorded in the main body of this report. What is important to
underline here is the gap which exists between the acceptance of the concept and
its practical application as policy. It has happened before: governments find it easy
to endorse concepts and principles of drastic educational change only to find that
their practical application gets thwarted by the lack of new resources, and the
corporatist behaviour of the established system, buttressed by vested interests,
including political ideologies.
39
Nelson, B. (Chair)(1998) Today's training: Tomorrow's skills. Canberra, House of

Representatives Standing Committee on Employment Education and
Training, AGPS
The Committee's inquiry into the appropriate roles of TAFE and the extent to
which they should overlap with universities was prompted by the Committee's
concern that conflict was occurring at the boundaries between TAFE and higher
education. TAFE no longer enjoys the protection of being a government monopoly
and the only recognised VET provider. In the light of these recent developments it
is timely to re-examine the roles of TAFE. There are demographic factors spurring
competition at the interface between TAFE and universities. One consequence of
this pressure on universities is a more generous approach to credit transfer for
TAFE studies and an increase in the admission of TAFE graduates to university
courses.
Symmonds, H. Burke, G. Harvey-Beavis, A. and Malley, J. (1999) Workplace and

institute accredited training: Costs and satisfaction. NCVER, South
Australia,
The main purpose of this study is to provide a comparative analysis of the costs of
delivery of comparable accredited courses delivered in educational institutions as
opposed to those delivered in the workplace. A secondary purpose is to provide a
comparative measure of student satisfaction related to each delivery mode.
UK National Centre for Education Statistics (1996) Vocational education in G-7

countries: Profiles and data (online).
NCES focuses on describing and presenting statistical information about vocational
education in the G-7 countries - Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United
Kingdom, and the United States - which are among the most highly developed
economies. These comparisons were believed to be especially useful, since they
reflect circumstances across countries that share many similarities but that use
substantially different early vocational education and training, VET strategies.
Bradbery, P. (2000) ‘The nature of the relationship between TAFE NSW and NSW
schools in the context of delivering vocational education and training, VET
in schools’. 9th Vocational Education Researchers Conference, held 6-9 July
2000, Coffs Harbour.
Reports on a research study originated in the Primary Industries and Natural
Resources Educational Service Division of TAFE NSW. The Western Research
Institute, Inc. was commissioned by them to carry out most of the research
component of the project. It focuses in particular on the relationship between
TAFE NSW and schools in respect of the provision of Vocational education and
training, VET (VET) in schools. It was based on a proposition that mentoring was
an appropriate definition for significant parts and numbers of those relationships.
As part of this study, thirty-eight interviews were conducted with TAFE and school
personnel involved in the VET for senior secondary school students. Uses those
interviews to identify some of the important characteristics of the relationship
between TAFE NSW and NSW schools in relation to VET in Schools.
40
Golding, B. and Volkoff, V. (1998) ‘Group handicap in the VET stakes’. Vocational
Knowledge and Institutions: Changing Relationships - 6th Annual
International Conference on Post-compulsory Education and Training held
2-4 December 1998, Surfers Paradise, Queensland.
Reports and explores selected findings from a national, longitudinal (1996-98) study
of the experiences of selected students from individual client groups over the
course of their vocational education and training, VET (Golding and Volkoff
1998). The study was based primarily on focus group interviews with students
enrolled in a wide range of VET programs and providers in Tasmania, Victoria,
Queensland and the Northern Territory. The interviews explored factors affecting
access, participation and outcomes for a range of groups seen to be disadvantaged,
for different reasons, in VET: because of their language or cultural backgrounds;
gender; rurality; disability; lack of skills or unemployment status. Focuses primarily
on findings that apply to members of these groups, the key barriers and
disadvantages they experience, as well as their commonly reported intentions and
outcomes. The paper uses some racing analogies in order to identify some
implications of the key findings for access and equity policies in a range of VET
settings. It highlights both the critical vocational and non-vocational outcomes of
participation in VET for the wider community, as well as for groups and
individuals.
Kearns, P. (1999) ‘VET in the learning age: The challenge of lifelong learning for
all’. Post-Compulsory Education and Training: Looking to the Future held
27 August 1999, Canberra.
The study concluded that the growing pressures for lifelong learning had radical
implications for VET policy and development. Five key challenges were identified
which are relevant to all sectors of education and training. A particular requirement
with cross-sectoral implications resides in the need to build strategic partnerships to
foster lifelong learning. Action being taken countries such as Britain and the United
States illustrates innovative approaches to this requirement.
Kilpatrick, S. and I. Falk (1999) ‘How learning for VET can build social capital for
regions’. Lifelong Learning Network first national conference, held 27/8/99,
Canberra.
Social capital helps communities respond positively to change. Our research into
managing change through vocational learning in communities and in small
businesses has highlighted the importance of relationships between people and the
formal and informal infrastructure of communities to the quality of outcomes
experienced by communities, businesses and individuals. Communities can be
geographic communities or communities-of-common-purpose, such as agricultural
discussion groups. In this paper we present our model of the simultaneous building
and use of social capital and explore the ways in which vocational learning as part
of a community-of-common purpose can be used to bring benefits to regions.
Robinson, C. (1999) ‘New skills, new pathways: Lifelong learning is the key’.
University of Canberra.
The changes that we have experienced in the workforce, the economy and in our
society have been rapid in the closing decades of the 20th century. The main focus
41
in the post-compulsory education and training system in Australia to date has been
on how well it has been able to better prepare young people for the world of work.
In this paper, developments in the changing nature of work and demographic
structure of the population are examined in terms of what implications they might
have for changes in Australia's approach to skill formation.
Journal articles
Broadbent, R. (1998) “National vocational training policy and youth work training.”
Youth Studies Australia 17(2): 11-17.
In the 1980s, against a backdrop of major economic reform and the globalisation of
the Australian economy, the Hawke Labor Government began the process of
reforming the national vocational training system, a system viewed at the time as
antiquated and unresponsive. Much of the research and policy work of this period
was concerned with identifying changes in policy that would assist the country's
economic growth and development. This paper briefly considers the history that
underpins the principles of training reform in the 1990s and then reviews the
changes that drove specific training policy reforms affecting youth work training.
Cooper, J. (1995) “Education and training for the young in Scotland: A regional
example”. Journal of European Industrial Training 19(7): 8-12.
The emergence and principal characteristics of the contemporary Scottish
education system are outlined and compared with that of other parts of the UK. An
examination is made of the problems of post-16 education, together with the
various recent reforms that have been introduced in Scotland to deal with the
deficit in the amount and quality of vocational education. A number of pertinent
observations are made that reflect on the significance of what has been undertaken
with regard to various issues, including certification, the parity of vocational
qualifications with others, post-school training, and specific Scottish organisational
considerations.
Seddon, T. and Angus, L. (1999) “Steering futures: Practices and possibilities of

institutional redesign in Australian education and training”. Journal of
This paper reports findings from an ethnographic study of educational restructuring
in an Institute of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) in Victoria Australia.
Educational restructuring is analysed as a process of institutional redesign and
theorised in relation to recent debates in institutional theory concerning the nature
of institutional change. The review distinguishes between hyperrational approaches
to institutional redesign based upon assumptions about rational actors and their
motivations and behaviours, and social and cultural perspectives on institutional
redesign that sees purposeful institutional change achieved through processes of
'institutional gardening'. The paper documents the way Australian governments
have adopted hyperrational strategies aimed at changing education and training by
reworking institutional rules that frame the day-to-day practices within particular
organisations. Reworking these practices or organising serves to steer change by
restructuring and rearticulating relationships, practices and centres of power within
organisations. Data drawn from interviews with the TAFE Institute Director, and
42
various managers and teachers are used to track the effects of government steering
in the TAFE Institute. This analysis shows that government steering drives
management steering in the TAFE Institute, creating new imperatives and work
organisation. These organisational changes are influenced by local conditions and
management priorities. They also call forth counter-steering by teachers and
managers as they attempt to deal with change. The paper suggests that
hyperrational government steering drives towards probable educational futures but
is also interrupted by counter-steering oriented to other values and priorities. While
there are probable futures, there are also preferred futures to be willed for and
worked for.
43
Adult Community Education
ACFE Victoria (Adult Community and Further Education Board of Victoria) (1998)
Adult, community and further education: Access for adults - 1998. ACFE,
Melbourne.
This report is the fourth of Access for Adults, utilising 1998 Victorian adult student
statistical data collected by the Office of Training & Further Education, the Adult,
Community and further Education (ACFE) Board and Regional Councils of
ACFE, combined with demographic data from the 1996 ABS Census. Access for
Adults - 1998 has been compiled to give an overview of the participation in further
education and adult community education across Victoria. It has been designed to
assist providers, Regional Councils of ACFE, the State Training Board and the
ACFE Board in their planning to meet local needs. It will also enable comparisons
of participation patterns across Victorian Local Government Areas (LGAs) and
ACFE Regions. This report provides summaries for each Local Government Area,
ACFE Region and the State, including: a demographic snapshot (Section 1); a
profile of participation in further education and in community-based education and
how this participation compares with the population profile overall (section 2);
details of relative participation in further education (section 3); and community-
based education (section 4). In addition, for each region and the state, it provides
summary and comparative information LGAs in each Region, or between the 9
Regions in the State (section 5).
ANTA (Australian National Training Authority) (1997) Australian personal

enrichment education and training programs: An Overview. NCVER,
Adelaide.
Recreation, leisure and personal enrichment education and training programs play
an important role in the total education and training undertaken in Australia. They
cover a wide variety of courses. The commitment to lifelong learning is a driving
force for personal enrichment training activity in Australia. This is reflected in the
broad age range of participants, with a median age of 39 years.
ANTA (Australian National Training Authority). (2001). Australian Adult and

Community Education: An Overview - Statistics 2000. Leabrook, SA:
NCVER.
Australian adult and community education: An overview provides information on adult and
community education delivered in 2000 by publicly-funded providers who report to
the national VET data collection. In particular, it includes data on student numbers
and characteristics, ACE training activity and training outcomes.
44
Borthwick, J., Knight, B., Bender, A., & Loveder, P. (2001). Scope of ACE in
Australia: Analysis of existing information in national education and training
data collection - Volumes 1 & 2, [Online]. NCVER. Available:
http://www.ncver.edu.au/cgi-bin/srchCat.pl31/1/02].
Volumes 1 and 2 scope the provision of adult and community education in
Australia. The authors scope the current collection of data at the national and State
levels, including the purpose of the data to assist in a statistics collection that
measures achievement against objectives. The authors identify gaps in data
elements collected nationally, including looking at the feasibility of expanding the
current collection arrangements to allow for a more comprehensive collection and
reporting of ACE delivery and estimate the costs nationally (and to
States/Territories) of any possible expansion of reporting ACE delivery.
Crowley, R. (1997) Beyond Cinderella: Towards a learning society. Canberra,

Australia Senate Employment Education and Training References
Committee. AGPS, Canberra
Terms of reference included examination of any significant changes in the pattern
and level of participation by adults in education and training. The Review
Committee recommended, among other things, that the Commonwealth
Government: make an unequivocal commitment to the concept of lifelong learning
and the promotion of a learning society; imbue its education policies and associated
funding mechanisms with the values and principles of lifelong learning for all
Australians; and bring together the National ACE policy and National VET Policy
to establish an integrated National Adult Community and Vocational Education and
Training (NACVET) Policy giving effect to the commitment to lifelong learning.
Duncan, P., & Thomas, S. (2001). Evaluation of the Community Champions and
the Community Development Learning Fund. (Vol. Research Report No.
280). Nottingham, UK: Great Britain. Dept for Education and Skills (DfES).
This evaluation of two government programs in the UK was carried out with the
aims of: reporting on the range of methods that exist for allocating government
funding to communities; assessing the impact of the different methods of allocation
in terms of who they reach and what they support; assessing the delivery of the
Community Champions and the Community Development Learning Fund (CDLF)
initiatives and their supporting activities; assessing the outcomes of Community
Champions and CDLF funding; making recommendations for improving the
operation of Community Champions and CDLF; and developing relevant
outcomes for linking community activity to education, training and employment
activities. This report includes suggestions for the development of outcome
measures linking community activity to education, training and employment
activities.

Affairs) (1997) National policy: Adult community education. Carlton South
Victoria,
The National Policy Adult Community Education was initially released by the
Commonwealth, State and Territory Ministers in December 1993, to provide a
framework for government activity to recognise and support Adult Community
45
Education. Considerable changes have occurred in the education and training

environment since 1993 and a review of the policy was proposed in June 1996 by
the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs
(MCEETYA) Taskforce on Adult Community Education. At its July 1996 meeting
MCEETYA endorsed the Taskforce's proposal to revise the policy. A review
process was conducted from December 1996 to April 1997, involving consultation
in all States and Territories. This policy takes account of that process. At the
seventh meeting of MCEETYA held in Darwin on 12 and 13 June 1997, Ministers
endorsed the revised National Policy Adult Community Education.
Riddell, S., Baron, S., & Wilson, A. (2001). The learning society and people with
learning difficulties. Bristol, U.K.: Policy Press.
Lifelong learning is viewed as a major strategy for addressing the social exclusion of
a range of minority groups, including people with learning difficulties. This
monograph is based on a research project entitled 'The meaning of the Learning
Society for adults with learning difficulties' which was undertaken as part of a wider
research program, 'The Learning Society: knowledge and skills for employment',
funded by the United Kingdom Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)
between 1995 and 2000. The project - Investigating the learning society and people
with learning difficulties - explored the range of education, training and
employment opportunities accessible to this significant minority group. The aim
was to analyse the experiences of this marginalised group in the learning society
and, through the analysis, reach an understanding of the learning society itself. This
report examines the range of policy areas which are increasingly intervening in the
field of lifelong learning and the agencies taking part in services delivery and their
varying cultures. It provides detailed case studies of the experiences of people with
learning difficulties as they engage in lifelong learning options. The research
demonstrates that policy based on human capital premises has generated forms of
lifelong learning which aggravate the marginalisation of people with learning
difficulties.
Smith, A. (1999) Creating a future: Training, learning and the older person.
NCVER, Adelaide.
As people live longer and healthier lives, the old assumptions about people retiring
from work completely at the age of sixty or younger and living lives unconnected to
the world of work are giving way to a situation in which an increasing number of
older people prolong their working lives well past the conventional age of
retirement. At the same time as the expectations of people regarding their working
lives are changing, the nature of work has also been the subject of significant
change in recent years. More people are experiencing multiple changes in career as
the security of employment once offered by large enterprises and the public sector
has disappeared in the wake of downsizing. Changes in career and the desire of
many to remain active in the workforce longer are two of the most important
forces reshaping the training and learning experiences of older Australians. The aim
of this book is to explain how training and learning has assisted the participation of
older workers in the workforce, and identifies the specific training issues facing
older Australians, to assist this sector of the workforce in achieving its potential.
46
Adult Learning Australia. (2000). Agenda for the future: Proceedings of the Adult
Learners Week 2000 Conference. Paper presented at the Agenda for the
Future: Adult Learners Week Conference 7-8 September 2000, Adelaide,
South Australia,.
The "Agenda for the Future Conference", held in Adelaide from 7-8 September
2000, focused on what is perceived to be a move from an industrialised to an
information world in which the creation and dissemination of knowledge is of
paramount importance. To combat social exclusion and to maintain
competitiveness in a global economy, education must go beyond the framework of
initial schooling and support citizens in lifelong learning. The conference papers
address this broad theme.
Allender, S. C. (1998) ‘Australia's migrants and refugees: Opening the door to

lifelong learning - How adults learn a new language’. How Adults Learn -
An International Conference sponsored jointly by the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development and the United States
Department of Education, held 6-8 April 1998, Washington, DC.
A report examines the situation of adult education for immigrants and refugees in
Australia. The first section situates the nation's immigration program within
national economic development. The second section outlines the development of
policy and programs relating to language and literacy education for migrants and
refugees, and describes how policy and institutional approaches recognise diversity
in the design and delivery of services. The third section summarises research
undertaken within the Adult Migrant English Program to identify groups of adult
learners with special needs and the learning barriers that face them. These studies
focus on how characteristics, expectations, and previous experiences of learning
influence migrant learners' attempts to interpret and cope with the curriculum,
teaching methods, resources, and tasks of the Australian language classroom. This
section also details policies and practices developed to overcome these barriers and
improve the effectiveness of learning.
Brown, T. (1999) ‘Adult community education and lifelong learning’. Lifelong

Learning Network First National Conference, held 27/8/99, Canberra.
This paper sets out to briefly review the evolving expression of lifelong learning
since the landmark UNESCO report Learning to Be, then consider the role adult and
community education can play in contributing to an expanded view of learning, and
the challenges involved in responding to new learning needs.
Brown, T. (2000) Lifelong learning: Making it work. Adult Learning Australia,

Canberra
The result of a seminar on lifelong learning policy held in Canberra in September
1999 as part of Adult Learners Week. One recommendation arising from the
seminar was that materials be provided to organisations involved in the practice of
adult learning that would facilitate discussion. The paper is in two parts: brief
overview papers from key speakers at the seminar; and key statements on lifelong
learning from Australian and overseas sources.
47
Illeris, K. (2000). Lifelong learning as mass education. Paper presented at the

Working knowledge: productive learning at work: conference proceedings,
University of Technology, Sydney University of Technology, Sydney (UTS).
This paper looks at adult education in Denmark, suggesting that there are broad
education systems which mainly serve adults with little schooling and unemployed
people. These systems have expanded rapidly during the last eight years partly as a
consequence of the government's active labour market policy, but to some extent
also because a growing number of adults are attracted to or feel it necessary to take
an interest in adult education. The author suggests that adults are ambivalent in
their attitudes to adult education. Many of the participants enter the programs
because they are more or less forced to by labour market policy. At the same time,
most people want to get or keep jobs and improve their position at work. The
author suggests that they hope to enrich and challenge but fear being humiliated or
challenged above their capabilities.
Jenkin, J. Volkoff, V and Golding, B. (1998) ‘Courage, confidence and

competencies: Community based providers deliver VET and more’.
Vocational Knowledge and Institutions - Changing Relationships:
Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Conference on Post-compulsory
Education and Training held 2-4 December 1998, Surfers Paradise,
Queensland.
This collaborative research project, conducted during 1998 for the National
Research and Evaluation Committee, investigated the delivery of vocational
education and training, VET (VET) in adult and community education (ACE)
settings. The questionnaire and interview sample for the study has been drawn
from 285 learners in community owned and managed contexts in rural and urban
areas in three Australian states. A sample of 371 learners in TAFE programs has
been included for comparison. This paper discusses how the delivery of VET
within the ACE sector builds upon and complements the more general provision of
education and other services within ACE settings and provides educational
opportunities for those learners that other VET providers largely do not cater for.
It particularly identifies the facility for people to use ACE to recover confidence,
develop vocational skills and adapt to unforeseen changes in their lives. It also
explores the strengths of the ACE sector in VET provision and the valuable
outcomes for learners and their communities beyond individual paid work in
industry.
McIntyre, J. (2001). ‘The discursive construction of ACE in national policy.’

Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 41(1 - April), 56-71.
This paper explores how the adult community education (ACE) sector was
discursively constructed in national policy during the period of Australian training
reform. ('ACE sector' refers to a policy construction as well as the complexities of
provision). The author argues that the ACE sector has developed a life of its own
where high policy values are in tension with the community-based practice of
neighbourhood houses, community colleges and adult education centres. ACE
national policy reaches far beyond traditional community providers: the ACE sector
is a policy construct that has had an extraordinary effect in Australian training
reform and education policy. ACE has been included in national training
48
arrangements (with a move away from its role within liberal individualism) but its
potential for achieving equity of access in vocational education and training (VET)
is not fully recognised.
Thomas, S. (1999) ‘The national policy adult and community education: A

framework for government action’. Lifelong Learning Network First
National Conference, held 27/8/99, University of Canberra.
The national policy was initially released by Commonwealth, State and Territory
Ministers in 19934 to provide a framework for government activity to recognise
and support Adult Community Education. The policy was revised in early 1997 and
in June 1997 Ministers endorsed the revised National Policy Adult Community
Education. This seminar will provide an overview of the policy and describe the
impact of the policy on government action in States and Territories.
UNESCO (1997) ‘Monitoring adult learning for knowledge-based policy making:

Improving conditions and quality of adult learning.’ Fifth International
Conference on Education (Hamburg, Germany, July 14-18, 1997), Hamburg,
Germany, UNESCO.
This booklet, which was produced as a follow-up to the Fifth International
Conference on Adult Education, examines monitoring adult learning for
knowledge-based policymaking. The following are among the topics discussed in
the booklet: 1) the need to reconstruct the reality of adult learning in consideration
of the concepts of lifelong learning and formal, non-formal, and informal learning;
2) key issues in monitoring adult learning; 3) the importance of developing a
framework for adult education indicators; 4) the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) framework for adult education indicators,
which includes indicators related to area (contextual data, input, process, outcome)
and levels (individuals, institutions, and region); 5) learning modalities that could
possibly be included in the OECD framework; 6) development of a multi-layered
monitoring and information system and data collection avenues to be included in
the system (administrative and institutionally based statistics and survey-based
approaches and specialised household surveys); 7) shortcomings of surveys and the
importance of process information from the practice of adult education; 8) key
results of the first International Adult Literacy Survey; 9) implications of surveys
for policymakers; 10) the need for complementary qualitative interpretations; and
11) workshop participants; recommendations regarding improving existing
monitoring of adult learning.
Books
Belanger, P. and Tuijnman, A. (eds)(1997) New patterns of adult learning: A six

country comparative study. Oxford, UK, Pergamon and UNESCO Institute
for Education.
Presents a systematic, empirical and comparative analysis of the multiple factors
that explain a substantial part of the variance in the patterns of adult education
participation. The same data set is analysed in all chapters. Collected in 1994 as part
of the international Adult Literacy Survey, it involves records collected from over
20,000 individual respondents in samples representative of the adult population
49
aged 16-65 in six countries: Canada, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland,
and the United States. While the criterion of adult education participation and non-
participation is constant across the ten chapters, the authors focus on different
contextual, explanatory, and mediating variables. The authors' choice of these
variables is influenced by the findings of previous research studies on adult
education participation as well as by their use of different sociological, economic,
social-psychological and anthropological conceptual frameworks, theories, and
research methodologies. Collectively, the chapters in this volume seek to contribute
to cross-disciplinary theory building in the field of adult learning, to offer an
international perspective on the phenomenon, scope and patterns of adult
education participation in the countries studied, and to identify the factors that
explain this phenomenon and the observed cross-national similarities and
differences.
50
Cross sectoral perspectives
Borthwick, S. (1999) Overview of student costs and government funding in post-

compulsory education and training. DETYA, Canberra.
The funding of educational institutions and the proportion of that funding which
should come from private and public sources are the subject of much controversy.
This paper seeks to inform that debate through the presentation of a range of
information on government funding mechanisms, unit costs, and levels of public
subsidy for senior secondary school (Years 11 and 12); vocational education and
training, VET (VET); and higher education. The paper complements other recent
work on expenditure on education and training.
Carnegie, J. (2000) Pathways to partnerships: Qualification linkages between

vocational education training and higher education. ANTA/AVCC.
At the end of 1998, ANTA and the AVCC commissioned a joint study on credit
transfer and articulation between the Vocational education and training, VET
(VET) and Higher Education (HE) sectors. The project was initiated in response to
the need for research on the impact of Training Packages and the Australian
Recognition Framework on cross-sector arrangements; the objective was to
develop a combined ANTA/AVCC draft national policy that reflected the new
VET environment and the evolving nature of cross-sector collaboration. The
project was conducted through the course of 1999 and involved four case studies, a
national survey of key stakeholders and widespread consultations. The initial focus
on credit transfer and articulation extended into a broader notion of 'qualification
linkage'; a term that encompasses the range of models for cross-sector collaboration
through qualification arrangements.
Chapman, B. Doughney, L. and Watson, L. (2000) Towards a cross-sectoral

funding system for education and training. Discussion Paper No 2, Lifelong
Learning Network, University of Canberra.
Current patterns of student participation are leading to the breakdown of traditional
divisions between the sectors of schools, vocational education and training, VET,
higher education and adult and community education. The new pattern of student
participation, which involves increasing two-way movement between VET and
higher education is consistent with current policies to promote lifelong learning.
The separate funding arrangements for each sector are an impediment to achieving
the policy objective of lifelong learning because they: 1) create disincentives for
institutions to implement seamless course provision; and 2) impose financial
barriers to student participation. This is a preliminary analysis of the arguments for
changing the present funding system and identifying issues for consideration in
developing a cross-sectoral funding system.
51
Cummins, G. Rutten, B. and Wagstaff, D. (1998) Movement of students from TAFE

to university: Analysis of data from DEETYA higher education student
collection. Canberra Institute of Technology, Canberra
Admission procedures and credit transfer arrangements have recently received
renewed attention in the context of the heightened debate on sectoral interfaces
and the concept of a 'seamless' post-compulsory education system. Questions are
raised about both the effectiveness of credit transfer policies and the commitment
of policy makers and institutions to those policies. In the TAFE sector there is a
renewed interest in how students admitted to university with prior TAFE studies
fare in the interpretation and application of credit transfer policies and guidelines at
institution level.
Kirby, P. C. (Chair) (2000). Ministerial review of post compulsory education and

training pathways in Victoria: Final report: Department of Education,
Employment and Training.
In January 2000, the Victorian Minister for Post-Compulsory Education, Training
and Employment, the Hon. Lynne Kosky, appointed an independent Panel, chaired
by Mr Peter Kirby, to review participation and outcomes of young people in post-
compulsory education and training in Victoria.
An overriding theme of the Kirby report is the need to engage all young people in
education and training of good quality, which will provide the individual with a
successful outcome. The report argues that this requires courses and qualifications
that are coherent, comprehensive and flexible, and secondary colleges and TAFE
institutes to reorganise so that they welcome young learners and provide for them
as conveniently and as comprehensively as possible. The report has 31
recommendations, several of which have been implemented by the Victorian
government.
Golding, B. (1998) Summary of findings from a major study of the two-way study of
movement and recognition between university and TAFE in Victoria, 1990-
1996. Melbourne, University of Melbourne
This paper is a summary of findings of a major doctoral research study of the two-
way movement of people between university and TAFE. While the research was
focussed on Victoria, some of the data and findings have implications for post-
compulsory education and training policies. The paper is necessarily brief. It is
simply a summary, and does not include detailed rationale, methodology, results or
policy implications or reference to other research. The list of publications, journal
articles and papers by the author between 1995 and 1996 are designed to give
readers of the paper access to detailed treatments of particular parts of the research.
Lamb, S. J. Polesel, and Teese, R. (1995) 'Where do they go?' An evaluation of

sources of data used for the monitoring of students' destinations and other
educational outcomes in Australia. National Board of Employment,
Education and Training, Canberra
Data on student progress in post-compulsory education and training are currently
generated by a range of different national and state-level projects. The more
established of these surveys involve nationally representative samples, either of
students in school or of young people more generally. Few States or Territories
operate student-monitoring projects, and the projects that are operating are quite
52
recent. In each of the Australian States a centralised tertiary admissions system is in

place. These systems usually cover university applicants only, but in South Australia
and in Victoria they also include TAFE applicants (though not all categories).
Tertiary admissions systems were not established to monitor student pathways and
the admissions centres are not research-oriented. But admissions data can be used
to undertake analyses of levels of demand and of take-up of tertiary places. Data on
enrolments in higher education are also maintained by the Department of
Employment, Education and Training and are a source of reporting on school
leaver transitions (eg. in the National Report on Schooling).
National Board of Employment Education and Training (1995) Cross-sectoral

collaboration in post-secondary education and training, AGPS Canberra
Cross-sectoral collaboration is a valuable component of Australia's education and
training system, and it is one that should be encouraged to enhance the ability of
the education and training sectors to meet the needs of their clients. Cross-sectoral
collaboration has been the focus of government policy for some time. Many of the
major developments in education and training policy that have occurred over the
last few years, such as the increased provision of vocational education and training,
VET to school students, the Australian Vocational Training System, credit transfer
arrangements and the Australian Qualifications Framework, have a cross-sectoral
focus.
McInnis, C. R. Hartley, Polesel, J. and Teese, R. (2000) Non-completion in

vocational education and training and higher education: a literature review.
DETYA, Canberra.
Reviews the literature on the reasons for non-completion, and the strategies
designed to reduce non-completion in vocational education and training and higher
education. Draws mostly on Australian material but with supporting material from
US and UK. The reviewers were also asked to provide an examination of the
adequacy of the current data sources, and to identify areas in need of further
research.
Misko, J. (1999) Transition pathways: What happens to young people when they
leave school. NCVER, Adelaide
This paper has reported on the major transition pathways which Australian young
people take when they reach post-compulsory age. The pathways have been
presented as the 1. compulsory to post-compulsory school pathway; 2. school-to-
university/higher-education pathway; 3. school-to-VET (vocational education and
training) pathway; 4. apprenticeship/traineeship pathway; and 5. school-to-work
pathway. There are also pathways taken by young people, particularly early school
leavers, that do not involve further training and have the unintended consequences
of leading to prolonged bouts of unemployment or to withdrawal from the labour
market altogether.
OECD, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, (1999) Adults in Training:
An International Comparison of Continuing Education and Training. Paris.
Examines the incidence and volume of continuing education and training among
adults across OECD countries. The main focus is on differences between countries
in participation of adults, the duration of courses, and financial sponsorship. The
53
paper also examines cross-national similarities and differences in education and

training by gender, age group, educational attainment, literacy levels, occupation,
and the size and type of the organisations in which people work.
Roussel, S. (2000) Education and training participation: Factors influencing

participation in post-secondary education and training in Australia: 1989 to
1997. Research and Evaluation Branch, DETYA, Canberra.
Identifies the characteristics of individuals who get training as well as those who do
not. An individual's demographic, socioeconomic and labour market characteristics
are used to determine his/her participation in education and training.
Characteristics more likely to influence participation rates are identified, and some
discussion is devoted to factors less likely to influence participation.
Roussel, S. and Murphy, T. (2000) Participation in post-compulsory schooling.

IAED Occassional Papers Series 3/2000, Research and Evaluation Branch,
DETYA, Canberra.
The purpose of the paper is to provide a summary of the current state of research
on factors affecting participation in post-compulsory schooling by summarising the
findings from a number of empirical studies and presenting them in an integrated
framework. Focus is on variables that explain the change in the overall participation
rate (rather than seeking to examine which factors determine who is more likely to
participate).
Roussel, S. and Murphy, T. (2000) Public and private provision of post-secondary

education and training: 1993 and 1997 compared. DETYA,Canberra.
Provides an estimate of how the supply market for post-secondary education and
training was shared between public and private providers in 1993 and 1997; and
how the public and private shares of this market changed between 1993 and
1997.While the procedure does not lead to exact numbers, the estimates indicate
that private providers accounted for approximately 10% of award courses in both
1993 and 1997. Private sector employers provided approximately half of all in-
house non-award courses in both 1993 and 1997. Approximately half of all external
non-award courses were privately provided.
Ryan, C. (2000) Where to next? A comparison of the outcomes and destinations of

graduates from the Australian higher education and vocational education
and training. NCVER, Adelaide.
Analyses the education and training outputs of the Australian Higher Education
and Vocational education and training, (VET) sectors. "Outputs" are defined as the
education and training services and products provided by the sectors to other
persons or entities, while 'outcomes' are defined as the effect of completion of a
course provided by a sector for its clients. Data on the post-course activities of a
sector's clients is used as indicators of that sector's outcomes.
Teese, R., & Watson, L. (2001). Mapping and tracking: Data collections for
monitoring post-compulsory education and training. Leabrook, S.A.:
NCVER.
54
This research project investigates the usefulness of institutional data collections for
monitoring student pathways between the sectors of:
• Schools;
• Vocational education and training (VET);
• Higher education; and
• Adult community education (ACE)
The authors conclude that the data collections for each sector have some strengths
and weaknesses in terms of their potential for tracking cross-sectoral student
movement. The authors suggest several modifications to improve the utility and
comparability of the data collections for researchers and policy-makers monitoring
student movement between the sectors.
Watson, L, Wheelahan, L and Chapman B (2002) Fair and Feasible. The scope for
a cross-sectoral funding model in Australian education and training. A
discussion paper. NCVER Adelaide.
The National Research and Evaluation Committee (NREC) commissioned the
authors of this discussion paper to investigate the development of a cross-sectoral
funding model for post-compulsory education and training in Australia. The project
aimed to identify issues arising from differences in the funding arrangements for
the four sectors (ie. senior secondary schooling, vocational education and training,
higher education and adult community education) and to discuss whether a cross-
sectoral funding model would address any of these issues. The authors propose an
incremental approach to developing a cross-sectoral funding model for education
and training. This would involve agencies and governments pursuing greater
consistency between the sectors in six key areas: Funding levels per student;
Accreditation frameworks; Processes for determining funding priorities;
Mechanisms for allocating resources to institutions; Student contributions; and
Equity strategies. By developing common principles, policies and practices in each
of these six areas, the authors argue that Australian education and training would
become more supportive of cross-sectoral provision. Over time, the system for
distributing public funding for post-compulsory education and training should be
based on principles that are consistently applied, regardless of the sector in which
studies are undertaken.
Watson, L. Kearns, P. Grant, J. and Cameron, B. (2000) Equity in the learning

society: rethinking equity strategies for post-compulsory education and
training., Prepared for NCVER by the Lifelong Learning Network,
Canberra.
In Australian education and training traditional divisions are breaking down as
students increasingly move between the sectors in the pursuit of lifelong learning. A
cross-sectoral perspective is needed if governments are to respond effectively to
these changing patterns of demand. The report argues that, while it is not necessary
to re-define equity in the context of lifelong learning, governments may need to
develop new approaches to equity policies and programs to ensure that workers are
able to participate effectively in the knowledge economy. A review of the equity
and access policies in schools, vocational education and training, VET, higher
education and adult community education is provided. It is argued that government
55
equity strategies could be improved by: targeting low-SES students within all equity
groups; identifying two new target groups: those with low skills and the long-term
unemployed; reporting performance in a way that focuses on the outcomes (in
addition to the outputs) of education and training; and strengthening pathways to
employment from education and training. Also compares the educational outcomes
of targeted equity groups in each sector and finds that participation by
disadvantaged groups is higher in sectors where education and training provision is
more decentralised (such as VET or regional universities) but concludes that this
issue requires further research. Suggests that performance reporting could be
improved by collecting and publishing data in all sectors to the standard set by the
vocational education and training, VET sector; adopting the same sets of criteria
for identifying equity target groups; reporting outcomes for two additional sub-
groups: people with low skills; and people who are long-term unemployed;
capturing the socio-economic status of students by identifying at point of
enrolment the highest educational level and occupation of the student's parents;
and publishing data by ABS labour force region.
Wheelahan, L. (2000) Bridging the divide: Developing the institutional structures

that most effectively deliver cross-sectoral education and training. NCVER,
SA.
A study of the issues faced by dual-sector institutions that recommends: 1) the
development of a nationally coherent policy on lifelong learning. This could be
structured around elements identified by the OECD as being fundamental to the
development of a tertiary system that is equipped to support students to make the
transition from school to study and work. A coherent system should also have
comparable reporting requirements across the two sectors. 2) Consistent capital
funding formulas across the sectors would improve the efficiency and effectiveness
of dual-sector universities, and promote collaboration between the sectors within
these universities. Governments should also aim to promote a single industrial
award for higher education and TAFE teaching staff. 3) Adequate funding for both
sectors would promote collaboration as partners would not be locked in grim
scrambles for market position, and overwhelmed by workloads that exclude
attention being directed to matters such as cross-sectoral collaboration.

Ballagh, A. H. Ling, and Stewart, J. (1999) ‘Seamlessness at RMIT: Steps towards a
learning university’. Lifelong Learning Network first national conference,
held 27/8/99, Canberra.
RMIT University is one of Australia's largest dual sector universities. To enhance
cross sectoral opportunities available to students, in 1996 RMIT implemented an
organisational structure in which the higher education and TAFE sectors were
integrated into single faculties. Over the last few years, there has been considerable
emphasis given to developing a 'seamless' university, with an emphasis on the
identification of curriculum pathways and associated credit transfer and dual award
arrangements, as well as new structural arrangements. This research project aims to
capture the experience of 'seamlessness' at RMIT and to inform future directions.
Preliminary findings indicate that while formal cross sectoral pathways and dual
56
award programs are useful, other dimensions of seamlessness require equal

attention to enable more people to move between educational sectors in response
to specific learning needs and job aspirations. These other dimensions include a
client focus, organisational vision and mission, sector culture, and approaches to
teaching and learning.
Doughney, L. and Leahy, M. (1999) ‘Tailor-made, customised and mass-produced:

Finding the common thread in university learning and teaching for near
universal participation’. Improving University Teaching Conference, held
July 1999, Griffith University, Brisbane.
Describes how the concept of the educational pathway can enable students to link
courses within current structures and reconfigure those structures to suit their
individual needs. These links are negotiated and recorded in a student compact in
Victoria University of Technology's personalised access and study policy. The
combination of the articulation of standard pathways and the recording of
arrangements for individual students in this policy combines the efficiency of the
'off-the-peg' programs for students who follow traditional study patterns with the
flexibility of 'customised' programs for students who wish to adapt traditional
patterns and tailor-made programs for students with unique needs or interests.
Golding, B. (1999) ‘Shifting workplaces, drifting students’. Lifelong Learning

Network First National Conference, held 27/8/99, Canberra.
The movement of people between post-secondary education and training sectors
has previously been theorised as a logical and reasonable linear, upward transition
in the context of a stable workplace. A recent detailed study of the two-way
movement of people between university and TAFE in Australia for a doctoral
thesis has produced findings that suggest the need for the development of new,
two-way models of movement. Such models would anticipate and accommodate a
very diverse pattern of observed movement not previously anticipated or described.
They would also need to take particular account of the prevailing instability and
change in the workplace, the need for broadening rather than deepening of
employment related skills and the wide choice of sites available for learning in the
community, many of which lie outside university.
Kulevski, B. and Frith, D. (1998) ‘Convergence in recognition: Vocational

knowledge and credit transfer arrangements in TAFE NSW’. 6th Annual
International Conference on Post Compulsory Education and Training,
Griffith University, 2-4 December, 1998, Griffith University, Brisbane,
Queensland.
Policy decisions, both at the state and national level over the years have driven
(funded) an educational and training agenda and have had a significant impact on
VET researchers, practitioners and institutions. The notion of vocational
knowledge that is the theorisation of the vocational educational practices in post-
compulsory educational institutions, is both a response to the VET Training
Agenda, a critical re-appraisal of those practices, and a legitimisation of them.
Credit Transfer and articulation arrangements in TAFE NSW (HSC/TAFE, Other
VET Providers/TAFE, TAFE/Unis/TAFE) are examined as a form of
Recognition and an area of touchstone to illustrate convergence among existing
views about the nature of vocational knowledge and the changing relationships
between them. There is an increasing level of recognition and agreement between
57
post-compulsory practitioners that we are talking about like things when we talk
about 'Vocational Knowledge' and that we engage in similar research and
educational practices. As a result of this convergence, the best way to develop
'vocational knowledge' is not to distinguish it as a separate form of knowledge
domain or activity, sui generis and therefore distinct from other kinds of knowledge,
but an activity that is part of the common and therefore shared practice of
education that we all engage in.
Leahy, M. (1999) ‘Seamless, patchwork: Towards a student centred system’.

Lifelong Learning Network First National Conference, held 27/8/99,
Canberra.
The notion of 'seamlessness' or of a 'seamless education system' now has wide
currency. The ideal is that students negotiating within an education system
differentiated by sectors with diverse objectives, traditions and types of
qualifications, should experience seamless transitions. However from the
institutional perspective we see and seek to retain the patchwork of different types
of education and training. Defines and explores the characteristics of a seamless
education system and then briefly discusses some of the issues that must be
addressed if we are to increase the choices available to a diverse student population.
Praetz, H. (1999) ‘Seamlessness: The way of the future’. Lifelong Learning Network
First National Conference, held 27 August 1999, University of Canberra.
Seamlessness is defined as a total system of education which provides vocational
outcomes at all levels and with pathways across levels. It is seamless from the
perspective of the student. discussions of seamless education benefit from the
Higher Education Council publication, Universities and TAFE (Summerlad, Duke
and McDonald 1998) and from Kinsman's analysis (1998). Under these schema,
RMIT is located on the end of the amalgamated spectrum, having abolished its
TAFE and higher education divisions in 1996 and incorporated the twenty or so
TAFE departments into eight, now seven Faculties. In practice, this meant that the
Dean of each Faculty took on responsibility for managing the overall performance
of both TAFE and higher education programs and personnel; and Faculty collegial,
advisory and decision making structures were re-shaped.
Teese, R. and Polesel, J. (1999) ‘Tracking students across institutional and sector
divides: The potential of TAFE and higher education statistical collections’.
Changing patterns of student participation suggest increasing movement between
the sectors of higher education, vocational education and training, VET, schools
and adult community education. Policy makers need better information on the
nature of student transitions in order to monitor the effectiveness of cross-sectoral
policies and programs. This paper discusses the usefulness of two data collections
for tracking students across the institutional divides of higher education and TAFE
institutions. The institutional data collections analysed in this report can only be
used in a limited way to map cross-sectoral student movement.
58
Watson, L. and Pope, B. (2000) ‘Equity in Australian education and training: an

examination of access and outcomes data across the sectors’. AVETRA
Conference 23-24 March 2000, Canberra.
Reviews the available data on education and training outputs and outcomes across
the sectors for six major equity groups. The review indicates that:
• Cross sectoral analyses of equity outcomes are hampered by the lack of
uniformity of data;
• While education and training outputs and outcomes for most targeted sub-
groups have improved in absolute terms over the past decade, members of
these social groups remain disadvantaged in relation to the rest of the
population;
• Not all members of a particular target group are equally disadvantaged and
membership of more than one equity target group has been shown to
compound the educational disadvantages faced by individuals;
• Low socio-economic status is a significant sub-category associated with poor
educational outcomes within all target groups;
• A low level of educational attainment is a predictor of poor participation and
achievement in post-school education and training, including participation in
adult community education;
• A low level of educational attainment is also associated with low-socio
economic status; and
• Year 12 retention is an inadequate indicator of educational outcomes from
schooling. As school subject knowledge remains highly structured and
hierarchical, the subject participation and achievement (outcomes) for specific
social groups need to be monitored along with retention rates (outputs).
Journal articles
Ainley, P. and Corbett, J. (1994) “From vocationalism to enterprise: Social and life
skills become personal and transferable.” British Journal of Sociology of
Education 15(3): 365-374.
Addresses Cohen's (1985) argument in 'Against the New Vocationalism' by
broadening the debate into an examination of how generic skills have gained a
wider application with the emergence of new technology and structural economic
change. In order to demonstrate the extent of this development, we include
examples from training programs in social and life skills for young people with
learning difficulties and examine the Enterprise in Higher Education Initiative
(EHEI), which, among other things, aims to give students personal and transferable
skills. In this process, we extend Cohen's analysis to diverse ways in which a
behaviouristic model of skill transfer has been adopted.
59
Avis, J. (1993) “A new orthodoxy, old problems: Post-16 reforms”. British Journal of
Sociology of Education 14(3): 245-260.
Explores the emerging consensus around post-compulsory education and training.
It argues the notion of settlement needs to be developed to incorporate concepts of
race and gender. It suggests a settlement is developing amongst the major political
parties and other constituents who have a stake in post-compulsory education and
training. These constituents share a common analysis of the problem facing
education and training. Whilst these different groups have varying strategies to
address the problem these are held under the sway of a capitalist logic. Post-Fordist
arguments celebrate the progressive possibilities that inhere in a high skill, high
trust economy, however such optimism is easily co-opted and colonised by
capitalist interests.
Bennett, R. H. Glennerster, and Nevison, D. (1995) “Investing in skill: Expected

returns to vocational studies.” Education Economics 3(2): 99-117.
Estimates forecast equations and real rates of return for 16-19 year olds from
different vocational qualifications in Britain. The data used for estimation are the
individual responses in the General Household Survey for the years 1985-1988. The
earnings equations are estimated separately for males and females. The research
suggests that, at the minimum school leaving age, the demand for qualifications will
be influenced by anticipated earnings. It demonstrates that inadequate returns to
low-level vocational qualifications compared with higher qualifications or no
qualifications may discourage individuals from engaging in some forms of
vocational training. The paper concludes that changes are still required by
employers, in matching wages to the achieved level of training, and by government
in developing systems of qualifications that truly achieve a 'parity of esteem'
between different qualifications.
Cardak, B. A. (1999) “Heterogeneous preferences, education expenditures and

income distribution.” The Economic Record 75(228): 63-76.
Introduces heterogeneous preferences to a growth model which incorporates
human capital, accumulated through either public or private education. The
implications of heterogeneous preferences for income and its distribution are the
focus of the paper. Public education expenditure is determined through a voting
mechanism where the median preference rather than median income household is
the decisive voter. The paper extends the work of Glomm and Ravikumar (1992)
and shows first, that heterogeneous preferences increase income inequality in the
private education model and second, public education can overcome the added
heterogeneity and reduce income inequality. The results strengthen the arguments
for public education as a redistributive mechanism.
Davies, P. Gallacher, J. and Reeve, F. (1997) “The accreditation of prior experiential

learning: A comparison of current practice within the U.K. and France.”
International Journal of University Adult Education 36(2): 1-21.
Explores how different partner institutions approach the Accreditation of Prior
Experiential Learning (APEL) at the University of Lille and the University of
Valladolid. Also draws on French research on the impact of credit based systems of
learning. Paper focuses on France and the UK. Although in both countries APEL
60
exists outside higher education - in further education in the UK and in secondary

level vocational training in France - this paper concentrates on higher education
and seeks to locate developments in the context of that sector.
Durand-Drouhin, M. P. McKenzie, and Sweet, R. (1998) “Opening pathways from

education to work.” OECD Observer (No 214 Oct/Nov 1998).
The pathways linking full-time education and work can be long and complicated.
The journey is an uncertain one, particularly for those young people who have
struggled in education from an early age and expect to have little or no contact with
tertiary education. Government policy in OECD countries has often concentrated
on providing support to these groups after they have left school. Yet the evidence
suggests that improving educational attainment would boost young people's
changes and at a lower cost to the public purse.
Nicoll, K. and C. Chappel (1998) “Policy effects: 'Flexible learning' in higher

education and the 'de-differentiation' of the vocational sector.” Studies in
Continuing Education 20(1): 39-50.
The contemporary constitution of discourses of 'flexible learning' within the
Australian higher education sector as an effect of government policy is explored. At
the same time it is argued that policy analysts have in the past conceived of their
work in terms of sectorial analyses, and that this is no longer adequate. In analyses
which are sectorially based only a limited understandings of policy influence and
effects are achieved. This argument is supported through the two sectorially based
analyses. First, 'flexible learning' as the discursive effect of higher education policy
is explored. Second, the discursive influence of vocational policy within the
vocational sector is examined. When the two analyses are taken together a complex
picture emerges that broadens understanding of the possible meanings of 'flexible
learning' as policy effect within the higher education context. In examining these
meanings wider social and economic policy agendas begin to emerge.
Raffe, D. and C. Howieson (1998) “The unification of post-compulsory education:

Towards a conceptual framework.” British Journal of Sociology of
Education 46(2): 169-187.
The drive to 'unify' post-compulsory education and training systems is one of the
most important current developments in education policy. However the concept of
'unification' lacks clarity, is not widely recognised, and is pursued through different
measures in different countries. A conceptual framework is proposed for analysis of
the different meanings of and debates about unification. Using England and
Scotland as examples, we show how the framework may be used to analyse existing
systems, reform strategies, and processes and pressures for change. The framework
is exploratory and will need to be tested and developed in relation to a wider variety
of education systems.
Slusarchuk, R. V. (1997) “From compacts to progression accords: A review.”

Research in Post-Compulsory Education 2(2): 151-164.
There is continuing debate about partnerships in post-compulsory education. This
review of progression accords and compact arrangements are based upon action
research in the North West region. It is from a further education perspective. The
paper briefly examines some of the ideological ideas that have framed compacts
61
and progression accords, and proceeds to propose a typology. The paper seeks to
locate the typology in the emerging paradigm focusing upon lifelong learning,
widening participation and progression. Finally, this paper provides a personal
summary of the nature and purpose of partnerships and concludes by suggesting
their potential value for learners.
Temple, P. (2001). The HE/FE divide: Is the end in sight? Perspectives, 5(3), 78-82.
The distinction between Higher Education (HE) and Further Education (FE) is
perhaps taken for granted by most people working in both these sectors of post-
compulsory education in the UK. A host of operational, financial and cultural
factors conspire to keep them separate. But profound changes, originating outside
the world of education, are having an impact on this long-standing distinction.
These changes make the HE/FE structural divide in England (in any case never so
apparent in other major industrial states) appear increasingly anachronistic in
developing a mass post-compulsory system supporting a learning society. Some
kind of institutional differentiation may be needed for practical purposes; but
policies aiming at greater diversity, moving away from the rigid HE/FE divide
towards a variety of more adaptable institutional structures able to meet a wider
range of needs, will be more in tune with modern needs.
Books
O'Banion, T. (1997) Creating more learning-centered community colleges. League

for Innovation in the Community College, Mission Viejo, California.
The measure of whether or not community colleges have been successful in
becoming more learning-centered can be gauged by embedding two questions in
the culture of the institution: 'Does this action improve and expand learning?' and
'How do we know this action improves and expands learning?' The educational
institution that consciously and visibly links every action with learning and
consciously and visibly evaluates the outcomes of those linkages will be an
institution engaged in becoming more learning-centred.
62
Labour markets and

education/training
DETYA (Department of Employment Education and Training) (1995) Australia's

workforce 2005: Jobs in the future. AGPS, Canberra.
The purpose of this report is to identify the trends and developments that will
shape Australia's workforce and skill needs over the next decade. It updates the
previous report, Australia's Workforce in the Year 2001 released in 1991. Given the
wide range of labour market and education and training issues covered in the report
it will be of interest to business, unions, students, community groups, educators and
trainers as well as Government.
Field, l., & Mawer, G. (1996). Generic skill requirements of high performance
workplaces. New South Wales Key Competencies Pilot Project, Department
of Training and Education Coordination.
This study examines what kinds of generic skills (that is, general, transferable skills
like problem-solving, teamwork and communications) are associated with work in
high performance workplaces. It uses ten detailed case studies within Australian
high performance enterprises, encompassing a range of office and plant
environments, as well as conducting interviews at five other enterprises where
considerable workplace reform had occurred. The types of skills and attributes that
employees and managers described as crucial are:
• An intellectual and attitudinal core;
• Routine technical skills;
• Generic skills (the key competencies);
• Learning; and
• Empowerment.
Hall, R., Buchanan, J., Bretherton, T., van Barneveld, K., & Pickersgill, R. (2000).
Making the grade? Globalisation and the training market in Australia. (Vol.
1). Leabrook, SA: NCVER.
Current conventional wisdom holds that the forces of globalisation are profoundly
reshaping the nature of economic life in general and working life in particular. It is
often asserted that institutional arrangements which may have worked in a previous
age are no longer workable today. Furthermore, it is generally assumed that change,
in particular the greater reliance now placed on market mechanisms, is required to
meet the new challenges. The primary objective of this project has been to assess
63
the validity of these assumptions, especially as they concern the field of vocational
education and training (VET). Two questions in particular have been addressed:
• How does the industry training market actually operate in contemporary
Australia?
• How well does the training market meet the needs of employers grappling with
the challenges of globalisation?
The report identifies a series of challenges with globalisation and a series of
problems associated with the implementation of some of the most significant
elements of recent training policy reform.
Kearns, P. (2001). Generic skills for the new economy. Adelaide: National Centre for
This review of research into generic skills has been undertaken at a time of radical
change in the workplace, economy and in society. The review considers the
implications of key contextual shifts for generic skills, raising a range of conceptual
issues which go to the character and role of generic skills and their link to human
development over the life cycle.
Kilpatrick, S. and S. Crowley (1999) Learning and training: Enhancing small

business success. NCVER, Adelaide.
This report addresses some of the issues surrounding small business participation in
training and other learning activities, and the relationship between participation and
business success.
Long, M. and Burke, G. (1998) An analysis of the 1997 training practices survey.
Monash University - ACER, Centre for the Economics of Education and
Training, Melbourne
The 1997 Training Practices Survey (TPS) is a mail survey of some 6000 business
and government organisations. The results of the survey are reported in Employer
Training Practices Australia, February 1997 (ABS 6356.0). This report discusses
four aspects of the survey: the extent of training provision, the determinants of
training, limitations on structured training, and the training market.
Marginson, S. (2000). Changing nature and organisation of work and the

implications for VET in Australia. Leabrook, SA: NCVER.
This issues paper is a summary of some of the important trends worldwide in the
organisation of work and how some international economic developments have
affected the position of workers. The author examines some of the issues these
trends raise for education and training and argues for government intervention in
vocational education and training on economic and equity grounds.
Meagher, G. A. (1997) Structural change, the demand for skilled labour and lifelong
learning. Centre of Policy Studies, Monash University, Melbourne.
This paper investigates the distribution of employment across occupations in
Australia. Three changes in this distribution are considered: the change that actually
occurred between 1986-87, a forecast of the change that is likely to occur between
1994-95 and 2002-03, and an estimate of the change that will result from trade
64
liberalisation proposals advanced by the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum.

In each case the change in the occupational distribution is used to infer the effect
on the demand for labour differentiated by qualification level, qualification field and
age group. Unlike much of the structural analysis that accompanies discussions of
lifelong learning, the approach here is comprehensive. The analysis is not restricted
to occupations thought on a priori grounds to have a particular affinity to lifelong
learning, but considers changes in employment across all occupations. Hence the
role of particular occupations, such as those associated with information
technology, for example, are able to be placed in an economy-wide perspective.
O'Connell, P. J. (1999) Adults in training: An international comparison of

continuing education and training. The Economic and Social Research
Institute, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, OECD.
This paper seeks to exploit the new opportunity offered by the International Adult
Literacy Survey, which collected detailed information on participation in training in
the twelve months prior to the survey, to compare continuing education and
training of adults across countries. The main focus of the paper is on differences
between countries in participation in education and training, the duration of
courses, and financial sponsorship. The paper also examines cross-national
similarities and differences in education and training by gender, age group,
educational attainment, literacy levels, occupation, and the size and type of the
organisations in which people work.
OECD (1998) Human capital investment: An international comparison, OECD,

Paris.
Though knowledge and skills have virtually replaced machines as the most vital
asset for making economies work, the public accounting systems are still lagging
behind in their ability to adequately demonstrate the importance of educational and
training investment. Instead, education and training budgets of both governments
and businesses are counted as current consumption, and not regarded as yielding
any payback in terms of higher income, increased productivity, or better
functioning societies.
OECD (2000) OECD Employment Outlook 2000. Paris.

Provides an annual assessment of labour market developments and prospects in
OECD countries. Contains an overall analysis of the latest market trends and short-
term forecasts, and examines key labour market developments. Points out that the
long-term well-being of individuals on the bottom rung of the economic ladder
depends both on increasing employment opportunities and raising their
productivity. While wage-related policies can assist some to get a toe-hold in the
labour market, they need opportunities for lifelong learning if they are to enjoy
good careers and prospects. It is only by directing attention to the additional need
to develop long-run policies to increase the skills and competences of the less-
skilled, and to encourage the businesses where they work to invest in this human
capital, that further sustained progress on improving the standards of living of
disadvantaged groups in the OECD countries will be possible.
OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (1998) Education policy
analysis 1998. OECD, Paris.
65
This volume is the companion to the 1998 collection of international education

indicators from the OECD publication Education at a Glance - OECD Indicators. It
aims to deepen the analysis of current policy issues, particularly those pertaining to
lifelong learning, and facilitate interpretation of data using selected indicators of
particular relevance to policy issues under consideration. The four chapters analyse:
1) lifelong learning; 2) teachers for tomorrow's schools; 3) supporting youth
pathways; and 4) paying for tertiary education. This volume provides both an
overarching framework which sets out key elements of a lifelong learning approach
and an analysis of priority issues from a lifelong learning perspective. A monitoring
tool to track progress toward the realisation of lifelong learning is advanced for the
first time.
OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (1999) Education Policy
Analysis 1999. OECD, Paris.
As the desire for education continues to grow, the debate about goals for learning
does not abate. In this perspective, the chapters in this volume offer a strong,
common underlying theme: more investment may be needed to meet the demand,
but it is the nature and quality of that investment that counts. The challenge, in this
era of expanding, deepening and diversifying demand for learning over a lifetime, is
how best to meet the volume demand while ensuring that the nature and types of
learning respond effectively to needs. The new quality imperative, with its strong
focus on outcomes, responds to a desire for increased accountability for the use of
public funds. More generally, it reflects a wider concern about performance levels,
either that might be falling or that are not rising to meet the needs of today or
tomorrow - for individuals, for the economies in which they work and for the
societies in which they live. In this perspective, systematic monitoring of outcomes
has the potential to encourage flexibility in education systems by remitting more
decisions about the management of inputs and educational processes to regions and
institutions, while holding them accountable for the outcomes achieved.
Stasz, C. and Chiesa, J. (1998) Education and the new economy: Views from a
policy planning exercise. Rand Education, Santa Monica, CA.
During the 1990s, policymakers have become increasingly attentive to the
relationship between education and national economic health and society's need to
upgrade and equalise workforce skills, talent, and wages. The U.S. education and
training system is fragmented, decentralised, and in flux, as more responsibility
moves from federal to state governments and the private sector. To explore how
education might meet new economic challenges, the National Centre for Research
in Vocational Education joined with RAND to sponsor a policy exercise based on
Department of Defence 'war games'. The June 1997 Policy Planning Exercise on
Education and the New Economy assembled vocational-education researchers,
federal and state vocational-education officials, leaders of interested non-profit
organisations, and business community representatives. Exercises required panelists
to allocate funds for a January 1998 training program in a hypothetical 'state',
redesign a 2002 update of this education and training system, and apply what they
had learned to federal policy in the near term. This paper synthesises panelists
observations about the nation's first-chance and second-chance education systems;
standards, certifications, and institutional accountability; lifelong learning; teacher
training and development; an integrated academic and vocational training system;
and the federal government's role.
66
Victoria Training Board (1998) A vision for training and further education in
Victoria. Victoria Training Board, Melbourne.
The state of Victoria (Australia) needs a well-educated, adaptable work force to face
the numerous challenges stemming from the following: shifts in employment
toward 'knowledge workers'; the impact of competition, technological change, and
the microeconomic reform; aging of the population; disparate views regarding the
purpose of education; and the increasing internationalisation of capital, labour, and
education. To cope with these and other changes, Victoria must ensure that people
can learn throughout their working lives by working focusing on the following
strategic directions: establishing new, more effective relationships between industry,
students, service providers, and government (providing client-oriented
differentiated services; planning and implementing industry-specific training
strategies; improving industry and community understanding of the benefits of
training and further education); giving meaningful expression to learning through
life (meeting the increasing demand for just-in-time training, teaching people to
learn, recognising individual learners as primary clients); providing leadership in
learning through new technologies (improving learning outcomes, enabling
universal access to training, ensuring that local communities retain a major
influence over work force training); and securing and developing resources for the
future (ensuring that the level and mix of human and financial resources available
to training and further education are flexible and adaptable enough to achieve
desired outcomes).
Waterhouse, P., Wilson, B., & Ewer, P. (1999). The changing nature and patterns of
work and implications for VET: Review of research: NCVER.
This review of research provides an overview of the literature on the way in which
work is changing and the effects such changes have on the VET sector. The nature
of the changes is described, including the decrease in full-time permanent work, the
move towards increasing part-time and casual work and employment shifts across
industries. If VET programs are to be judged successful they need to address the
needs of multiple clients simultaneously, and be tolerant of diversity while
balancing the tensions between national and/or State policy frameworks and more
localised needs. Regional frameworks to connect VET with local and community
development networks are particularly important.
Wooden, M., VandenHeuvel, A., Cully, M., & Curtain, R. (2001). Barriers to training
for older workers and possible policy solutions . Canberra: DETYA.
This report was commissioned by the Analysis and Equity Branch of the
Commonwealth Dept. of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA). Its
objectives were to report on barriers facing older Australian workers (aged 45 years
and over) in gaining access to, and benefit from, training, and innovative and
achievable policies for addressing these barriers.
67
Burke, G. (1998) ‘Economic change: implications for jobs, income and joblessness’.
Rapid Economic Change and Lifelong Learning, held 31 August 1998,
Melbourne.
Australia has experienced faster economic growth than most other OECD
countries and has increased its rate of productivity growth in recent years. This
apparent successful aggregate outcome has occurred along with increasing internal
deregulation, privatisation, and exposure to international forces. Considerable
changes in patterns of employment, joblessness and income distribution have
accompanied these changes.
Burke, G. Long, M. Malley, J. and McKenzie, P. (1999) Individual and enterprise

investment in learning in a rapidly changing economy. In Robinson, C. and
K. Arthy (eds) Lifelong learning: Developing a training culture. NCVER,
Adelaide.
This research was undertaken by the Centre for the Economics of Education and
Training (CEET) to examine factors that inhibit or promote investment in learning.
The context is the rapidly changing economy with a number of features that
increase the need for ongoing learning but reduce the likelihood of it being
accessed, eg. casualisation of employment. Individual access to learning
opportunities is associated with family income, family background, and student
finance. The attraction of post-school education and training is related to the likely
costs and returns. Student satisfaction with courses and knowledge of the available
opportunities for study and employment affect perceptions of costs and returns.
Surveys of employers show a number of features that shape training provision.
Large employers and leading edge companies provide more and different forms of
training. Employers have less chance of recovering their investment in training for
casual or part-time workers or where turnover is high. Changes in expenditure are
related to workplace change, to technological change and to quality assurance.
Contrary to standard economic theory, employers do provide and finance general
training. Some evidence suggests that employers' per capita expenditure on training
has fallen in recent years. The reasons for this are considered. CEET's research has
considered some of the recent reforms for increasing access of young people to
learning, particularly the shifting boundaries for the delivery of entry-level training.
Fairweather, P. (1999) Employers' perceptions of training and the way forward. In

Robinson, C. and K. Arthy (eds) Lifelong learning: Developing a training
culture. NCVER, Adelaide.
Employers are critical clients of the vocational education and training, VET system.
Their requirements need to be taken into account and acted upon if the system is to
supply the necessary skills for an internationally competitive workforce. This paper
examines the results of the Employer satisfaction with vocational education and training,
VET 1997 (NCVER 1997) survey to see what employers actually think about the
vocational education and training, VET system.
Falk, I. Sefton, R. and Billet, S. (1999) What does research tell us about developing a
training culture? In Robinson, C. and K. Arthy (eds) Lifelong learning:
Developing a training culture. NCVER, Adelaide.
68
This paper is the work of three different researchers looking that the question 'what
does research tell us about developing a training culture?’. Ian Falk begins by
considering the need for a radical new model for thinking about workplace learning,
change and research. The old model is almost past its use-by-date, and practitioners
are moving beyond researchers in a number of significant ways. Robin Sefton talks
of the necessity to develop a culture of practice in VET that values and encourages
research, particularly that of the critically reflective workplace educator. Stephen
Billett picks up on the theme of transferability of some of the latest research
outcomes on further evidence for the relationship between learning, change and
research. Essentially, they argue collectively that if we are looking for the answer to
the question about how to change the training culture (for industry, for any
organisation or for society), the answer should involve a heavy reliance on research.
Whatever name you call it, research of some kind is the quality-assured process
through which change ought to occur.
Gibb, J. (1999) The relevance of a training culture to small business in Australia. In

Reviews what current research in VET tells us about small business and its need for
an commitment to training. It is argued that our understanding of a training culture
must acknowledge the fact that small business undertakes training and learning for
the purpose of maintaining and developing its business performance. Training
which incorporates a cluster of services to support small business and which offers
advice, information and business development rather than purely delivery of
training is in demand. To this end, many people in small business acquire skills and
competencies for the job using a number of strategies, not only training. Thus a
training culture based predominantly on accredited and structured training for the
purpose of gaining a qualification is not the training culture that reflects the training
and learning that happens in small business.
Hallett, R. (1999) ‘Staff development in cross sectoral settings’. Post-Compulsory

Education and Training: Looking to the Future Conference, held 27 August
1999, Canberra.
Changes taking place in higher education are intimately related to changes taking
place in the organisation and practice of staff development in universities both in
Australia and internationally. In Australia in particular, these changes are stimulating
discussion about practices and principles underpinning staff development, so that
future directions are informed by common underlying principles and values for
what is emerging as a relatively new 'profession' in Australia, the UK and the US
(for example Brew et al, 1995 in Australia, Angelo and Cross, 1998, in the US, and
SEDA in the UK),
Katz, L. F. (1999) ‘Technological change, computerisation and the wage structure.’

Understanding the Digital Economy: Data, Tools, and Research Conference
, held May 1999, Washington, DC.
Our understanding of how new computer-based technologies are affecting the
labour market has been hampered by the lack of large representative data sets that
provide good measures of work-place technology, worker technology use, firm
organisational practices, and worker characteristics. Research on representative
national data sets has been forced to use crude measures of employee computer
69
usage from the occasional supplements to the CPS or has had to link CPS data on
worker characteristics to noisy measures of industry-level information technology
investments and capital stocks. Matched employer-employee data sets with detailed
information on technologies, worker attributes, and personnel practices would
greatly enhance our ability to sort out how new technologies are affecting skill
demands and the organisation of work.
Long, M. (1998) ‘The match between educational qualifications and jobs.’ Rapid
Economic Change and Lifelong Learning Conference, held 31 August 1998,
Melbourne.
Explores the extent to which educational qualifications were required by employers
in Australia in order to obtain their jobs. Results bear on the supply and demand
for educational qualifications. Some of the research literature and policy documents
on education and employment assume that increases in educational qualifications
produce increases in productivity regardless of whether there are jobs in which the
skills embedded in those qualifications can be used - that is, there is a focus on the
supply of qualifications at the expense of the demand for qualifications.
McDonald, R. (1999) Research and a training culture: Implications for large and
small businesses. In Robinson, C. and K. Arthy (eds) Lifelong learning:
Focuses on the idea of a training culture at the enterprise level. Drawing on
Australian case studies, research evidence from the USA, Europe and a major
national survey, the key elements in the business that form the building blocks of
an enterprise training culture are examined in this paper. The implications for
enterprises and training providers are then drawn out.
McKenzie, P. (1998) ‘The transition from education to work in Australia compared

to selected OECD countries.’ Sixth International Conference on Post-
Compulsory Education and Training, held 2 December 1998, Gold Coast,
Queensland.
Provides an international perspective on young people's transition from education
to work in Australia. It draws on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) review of the education-to-work transition process in
member countries, on which the author worked from 1996 to mid 1998. The first
part of the paper provides some background on the OECD review. In the second
part, transition structures, processes and outcomes are described in comparative
terms, and strengths and weaknesses of the Australian approach discussed.
Robinson, C. (1999) Promoting a training culture in industry. In Robinson, C. and

K. Arthy (eds) Lifelong learning: Developing a training culture. NCVER,
Adelaide.
The evidence about the extent to which a training culture exists amongst Australia's
enterprises is reviewed in this paper. The findings suggest that a widespread training
culture is prevalent amongst large enterprises, whether they are private businesses
or public sector organisations. Most medium sized enterprises also provide some
kind of training to their employees. The same cannot be said for small-sized
enterprises, particularly micro businesses.
70
Robinson, C. and Arthy, K (eds) (1999) Lifelong learning: Developing a training

Lifelong learning is no longer an abstract concept or an 'optional extra' for any
nation wishing to position itself to take full advantage of emerging opportunities. A
key element of lifelong learning - the promotion of a training culture - is examined
in this book. This book contains papers which were presented at the Australian
National Training Authority (ANTA) conference 'Creating Our Future: A New
Training Culture for Australia' in Brisbane in August 1998.
Shah, C. and L. Maglen (1998) ‘How have jobs in Australia been affected by
globalisation and rapid technological change?’ Rapid Economic Change and
Lifelong Learning, held 31 August 1998, Monash University, ACER Centre
for the Economics of Education and Training, Melbourne.
To examine the impact of globalisation on the Australian labour market, the
authors re-classify ABS labour force occupations to reflect Robert Reich's typology
of "3 jobs in the future". The findings are that between 1985-86 and 1995-96,
employment among Symbolic Analysts has increased. However employment at the
lower skill level of In-person Services occupations is also on the rise. The
implications of these findings are discussed.
Smith, A. (1999) The elements of a training culture. In Robinson, C. and K. Arthy

(eds) Lifelong learning: Developing a training culture. NCVER, Adelaide.
Explores the notion of an enterprise training culture. Some recent statistics have
suggested that the volume of training in Australian enterprises might be dropping.
The concept of training culture is being used by education and training authorities
to encourage the rebuilding of enterprise commitment to training. Draws on
qualitative evidence from recent studies of training in Australian enterprises to
suggest the major elements that might constitute a training culture at the enterprise
level.
Journal articles
Bagwell, S. (1998) “Marketing continuing vocational education to small and

medium sized enterprises: Key issues for high education institutions”.
Innovations in Education and Training International 35(3): 216-223.
Higher education institutions (HEIs) are increasingly being encouraged to develop
links with and address the lifelong learning needs of small and medium sized
enterprises (SMEs). Experience to date suggests that HEIs find this a particularly
difficult task. This paper sets out to raise some of the issues that need to be
considered when marketing continuing vocational education (CVE) to SMEs. It
draws on the University of North London's (UNL) own experience of working
with SMEs, and the results of a UNL survey of other institutions and focus group
discussions with managers and employees from a range of small businesses. The
paper also looks at the reasons why HEIs should be working with SMEs, and
which SMEs are most likely to be interested in CVE. It highlights some of the
barriers that need to be overcome, and suggests strategies that HEIs can adopt to
develop closer links with SMEs. Key aspects of program design are covered,
71
including price, content, structure and accreditation, and a variety of successful

promotional strategies are described. Finally, the paper suggests that the issues
raised have important implications for the funding of work with SMEs, and argues
for a more coordinated approach to the funding and delivery of work in this field.
Becher, T. (1999) “Universities and mid-career professionals: The policy potential.”

Higher Education Quarterly 53(2): 156-172.
To date, few universities have become substantially involved in providing for the
learning needs of professionals in mid-career. This paper argues the case for their
doing so in the future. It begins with a review of the current provision of formal
continuing professional development (CPD) - in which universities can be seen to
perform only a limited role - and goes on to examine the attitudes of practitioners
towards various forms of learning experience and their resulting interactions with
the academic world. The reasons why such interactions are predominantly ad hoc
and individualistic, rather than systematic and collective, are briefly considered
before the opportunities for greater, more coherent mutual involvement are
explored. The concluding section briefly reviews the policy decisions and
organisational changes which appear to be needed before the full potentialities are
realised.
Borland, J. (1999) “Earnings inequality in Australia: Changes, causes and

consequences.” The Economic Record 75(229): 177-202.
This article reviews research on recent developments in earnings inequality in
Australia. Four main issues are addressed. First, what are the main changes in
earnings inequality which have occurred? Second, what do we know about the
causes of changes in earnings inequality? Third, how have earnings differentials
between workers in different skills groups changed, and to what extent can those
changes be explained by shifts in the relative demand for labour and relative supply
of labour by level of skill? Fourth, how have changes in earnings inequality affected
the distribution of income?
Caley, L. and Hendry, E. (1998) “Corporate learning: Rhetoric and reality.”

Innovations in Education and Training International 35(3): 241-.
The concept of lifelong learning has been much debated, and great strides have
been made in the development of work-based learning. But, while evidence
suggests that the majority of organisations recognise the value of delivering learning
in the workplace, it tends to be conventional, formal, classroom-based and
concerned with perpetuating existing organisational practice. This paper argues a
case for the development of innovative approaches to work-related learning, using
both formal and informal opportunities. This is possible if the work environment is
supportive. Two new programs are described, developed by the university
continuing professional development unit, which begin to address these ideas. The
paper concludes with a review of some of the outstanding issues which are the basis
for two new funded research projects being managed by the unit.
Cappelli, P. (1996) “Technology and skills requirements: Implications for

establishment wage structures.” New England Economic Review
May/June: 139-156.
72
The concept of skill reflects the capacities and human capital that workers bring to
jobs - what psychologists refer to as 'knowledge, skills, and abilities' - and the
specific demands that individual jobs make on workers who occupy them. Whether
the demand for skills is changing is a vitally important question for public policy.
Such changes help determine the distribution of income and the extent of
technological unemployment; they also help determine whether relative skill
shortages exist that may lead to a lack of competitiveness, especially in relation to
other economies that possess the valued skills in more abundance. An extensive
literature has examined the causes of technological change and its effects on the
demand for skills and the structure of wages. This article begins by reviewing this
literature, which spans economics, sociology, and other social science disciplines
that examine industrial behaviour. It then makes use of an extensive establishment-
level survey to examine the effects of organisational structure and investment
activity on wages. The study finds that establishments that adopt new technologies
pay production workers more than those that do not, and also pay them more
relative to the pay of supervisors. Thus, the results suggest that recent changes in
workplaces are increasing skill requirements for production workers. The article
concludes with some comments on how this trend will play out in terms of labour
market adjustments.
Cully, M. (1999) “A more or less skilled workforce? Changes in the occupational

composition of employment, 1993 to 1999.” Australian Bulletin of Labour
25(2): 98-104.
In 1996, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) adopted a revised occupational
classification system, a significant but thus far unremarked change in how labour
markets are conceptualised and change in them monitored. Occupational
classifications have been used as the basis for dividing employees into white and
blue collar workers, manual and non-manual workers, and, together with
information on employment status, have been used to assign employees to a social
class.
Fuhrer, J.C. and Little, J.S. (1996) “Technology and growth: An overview.” New
England Economic Review(November/December 1996): 3-25.
Most of the industrial world has experienced a decline in trend and productivity
growth, an increase in income inequality, and even slower job creation than seen in
the United States. While some (particularly Asian) developing countries are rapidly
joining the ranks of the industrialised, most remain mired in poverty. According to
the World Bank's recent report on poverty, over 20 percent of the world's
population lives on less than one dollar a day. This situation wastes human talent
and contributes to political instability. While raising trend growth rates would not
directly address distributional issues, increasing growth rates by even a fraction of 1
percent would, with compounding, have profound implications. Unfortunately,
economists and policymakers do not know how to engineer such an outcome.
While the determinants of growth are widely agreed to be capital, labour, and a
composite including managerial skills and organisational culture that Robert Solow
abbreviated as 'technology', the interrelationships among these variables are not
clearly understood. In the developed economies, at least, recent large capital
investments have shown surprisingly little positive impact on productivity or
potential growth. Accordingly, attention has increasingly turned to the role of such
intangibles as human capital, social organisation, and technology.
73
Gordon, K. (1995) “The United States: Developing the workforce.” OECD Observer
197: 49-49.
Responding to trends in relative wages that lowered the cost of employing low-
skilled workers, US enterprises have identified promising activities, implemented
suitable technologies and garnered the financial resources required to employ the
existing stock of workers and skills. According to this view, recent trends in wages
and jobs creation reflect a market system that, in the course of equating the supply
of and demand for labour, has merely placed a price tag on the economic
dimension of some deeply rooted problems. Chief among these is an initial
education system that, for many communities, functions very poorly. Some analysts
hold forth the hope that, by increasing the skills and knowledge of the adult
workforce, the deficiencies of the initial education system might be repaired.
Green, F. Koskins, M. and Montgomery, S. (1996) “The effects of company training,

further education and the youth training scheme on the earnings of young
employees.” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 58(4): 469-488.
Evidence is presented on the impact of company training, of post-compulsory
education and of the UK Youth Training Scheme in the late 1980s on the earnings
of 21-year-old employees in England and Wales. Earnings equations are estimated
for each of 7 groups of employees who have followed alternative routes from
compulsory education into employment, allowing for selectivity into these routes.
There are several findings, including: both high parental social class and better
school qualifications help to channel people into higher status routes, while high
local unemployment has the opposite effect; participation in company training in
long spells substantially raises wages but short spells do not; YTS participation fails
to raise, and possibly substantially lowers, wages even 3 years after graduation
compared to those who left school at 16 and went to work and received no
training; there is weak evidence that, even for those that do not enter higher
education, it is better to stay on at school after 16 than go into YTS.
Grubb, W. N. (1995) “Postsecondary education and the sub-baccalaureate labor

market: Corrections and extensions.” Economics of Education Review 14(3):
285-299.
This paper presents results based on corrections to the data - the National
Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 (NLS72) - used in two earlier papers on the
effects of education in sub-baccalaureate labour markets. The corrected results
confirm most of the earlier results except that, for men, the effects of vocational
Associate degrees are insignificant while the effects of vocational credits earned are
significant - confirming that under some circumstances there are economic benefits
to small amounts of community college without earning degrees. Other corrected
results confirm that those levels of education with positive returns seem to act as
signals of ability. Finally, some extensions using the Survey of Income and Program
Participation (SIPP) data are presented, generally confirming the variation in returns
within the sub-baccalaureate labour market and the value of competing credentials
rather than incomplete programs.
Hicks, P. (1996) “The impact of aging on public policy.” OECD Observer 203: 19-
21.
74
The assumptions about the composition of society that underlie much public policy
have been undermined by a trend towards older populations and by changes in
living patterns. The repercussions are likely to be substantial. The aging of
individuals and the changing patterns of education, employment and retirement will
necessitate changes in four major areas of policy:
• Fiscal policies;
• Policies that support markets;
• Policies that support the provision of services; and
• Public policies.
Government policies influence the allocation of time over the life-course in many
ways, both intended and unintended.
Kettunen, J. (1997) “Education and unemployment duration.” Economics of

Education Review 16(2): 163-170.
This paper studies the relationship between the level of education and the
probability of re-employment. Search theoretical models predict that on the lowest
levels additional education increases the probability of re-employment, but on the
highest levels the relationship turns negative. Using Finnish microeconomic data on
employed workers, it is shown that unemployed persons who have about 13-14
years of education have the highest re-employment probability.
Killeen, J. Turton, R. Diamond, W. Dosnon, O. and Wach, M. (1999) “Education

and the labour market: Subjective aspects of human capital investment.”
Journal of Education Policy 14(2): 99-116.
This paper explores subjective aspects of human capital investment decisions in
education. It gives an insight into ways in which students in Year 11 and Year 13
perceive the connection between their education and the labour market and the
mechanisms by which qualifications translate into life chances. An instrument is
described which was used to assess perceptions in terms of 'productivity',
'screening', and 'credentialism'. Our findings suggest that most students believe
education to play a market signalling role and that its role in raising productivity is
subordinate. The influences of age, gender, educational intentions and school type
are examined.
Race, P. (1998) “An education and training toolkit for the new millennium?” IETI
35(3): 262-271.
Continuing professional development should be about much more than equipping
professional people with a licence to practice in their field, it should also equip
them to be able to develop themselves as autonomous learners. The processes
whereby effective learning is achieved change very slowly indeed, and renewed
attention to the quality of learning may be the bridge to harness the power of the
variety of delivery mechanisms that now exist, to equip professional people and
others for future work and life. The range of terms and acronyms in the world of
continuing education, lifelong learning and training should be regarded as
representing a toolkit, rather than a series of separate compartments, and educators
and trainers need to be successful general practitioners in their application of this
75
toolkit to continuing professional development, rather than specialists or

consultants in the use of narrow areas of the toolkit.
Books
Krugman, P. (1994) Peddling prosperity: Economic sense and nonsense in the age
of diminished expectations. W.W. Norton & Company, New York.
Krugman summarises US postwar economic performance up to 1994 and is critical
of supply side economic policies that see the cause of slow US economic growth
was high taxation and excessive regulation. Argues that supply-siders asserted big
government was the problem and the cure required tax cuts which would 1) bring
back growth, 2) raise investment, and 3) enable deficit reduction. All these
assumptions are incorrect. Krugman is also critical of Robert Reich's thesis that US
economy is being transformed by the impact of technology and globalisation.
Reich, R. B. (1991) The work of nations: Preparing ourselves for 21st century
capitalism. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
The author analyses the impact of rapid economic change and globalisation on the
US labour market and identifies "3 jobs of the future": Symbolic Analysts, In-
person Services and Routine Production Services. He predicts that national
economic prosperity rests increasingly on the capacity to export symbolic analytic
services in a competitive global market.
76
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89
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90
Keywords
A completion equity
access continuing education evaluation
admission convergence expenditure
adult community corporatism
education costs
adult learning credit transfer F
articulation cross-sectoral finance
attainment Crowley report Finn Targets
attrition culture flexible learning
autonomy curriculum foundation studies
four pillars
Foyer Federation
B D funding
barriers demographic factors further education
benchmark developing countries
borderless education digital
business disabilities G
disadvantaged gender
distribution generic skills
C diversity globalisation
careers dual sector institutions government
casual
choice
citizenship E H
client needs early school leaving higher education
collaboration economy homeless
communications education human capital
community education employment
competencies enterprises
competition entitlement
91
I,J N R
income Nelson report Recognition of Prior
Learning
indicators new right
regional issues
industry
Reich
inequality
relationships
international O
research
Internet OECD
retention rates
older people
RPL
outcomes
K outsourcing
knowledge society
S
knowledge workers
knowledge-based schools
P
economy seamless education
participation
secondary education
partnerships
services
part-time
L skills
pathways
labour market small business
pedagogy
learning social capital
personal enrichment
learning society social factors
policy
life skills society
post-compulsory
lifelong learning education socio-economic
environment
literacy postgraduate
special needs
low-skilled workers private providers
standards
privatisation
statistics
productivity
strategies
M professional
development student organisations
management
public education students
market
support
marketing
support services
mass media
Q symbolic analysts
mature age students
quality assurance
mentoring
minority groups
motivation
multiskilling
92
T
TAFE
taxation
teaching
technology
television
tertiary education
training
transition
U
undergraduate
unemployment
UNESCO
university
urban issues
V
VET
virtual education
vocational education and
training
voucher schemes
W
West Report
work practices
work-based learning
work-related learning
X,Y,Z
young people
93
APPENDIX A
Abridged list of lifelong learning bibliographical entries.

(Items from the main database that use lifelong learning as a key term, arranged by
publication type).
Reports and policy statements

ANTA (Australia National Training Authority) (1998). A Bridge to the Future.
Brisbane, ANTA.
⎯ (1997). Australian personal enrichment education and training programs: An Overview.
Leabrook, South Australia, National Centre for Vocational Education
Research (NCVER): 28.
Aungles, P., Karmel, T., & Wu, T. (2000). Demographic and social change: Implications for
education funding: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.
Billett, S., M. Cooper, et al. (1997). VET policy and research: Emerging issues and changing
relationships, Office of Training and Further Education, Victoria.
Business/Higher Education Round Table (2000). The Critical Importance of Lifelong
Learning. A Position Paper of the BHERT Task Force on Lifelong
Learning. Melbourne.
Candy, P. C., G. Crebert, et al. (1994). Developing lifelong learners through undergraduate
education. Canberra, National Board of Employment, Education and
Training: 330.
Carnegie, J. (2000). Pathways to partnerships: Qualification linkages between vocational
education training and higher education, ANTA/AVCC: 345.
Chapman, B., Doughney, L, & Watson, L. (2000). Towards a cross-sectoral funding system
for education and training. Canberra, LifeLong Learning Network,
University of Canberra: 26.
Coffield, F. (1996), “A Tale of three little pigs: building the learning society with
straw”. Paper presented at the EU Conference on Research on Lifelong
Learning: Implications for Policy and Practice at Newcastle University.
Crowley, R. (1997). Beyond Cinderella: Towards a learning society. Canberra, Australia
Senate Employment Education and Training References Committee:
144.
94

(1998). Australia's young people: Towards independence - A report on youth affairs.
Canberra, Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs: 31.
Delors, J. (1996). Learning: The Treasure Within - Report to UNESCO of the
International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century.,
UNESCO.
DETYA (Department of Education Training and Youth Affairs) (1999). Preparing
youth for the 21st century: The policy lessons from the past two decades. Speech by
the Minister, The Hon Dr David Kemp,.
Doets, C., & Westerhuis, A. (2001). A life long of learning: elements for a policy agenda: the
six key messages of the European Memorandum in a Dutch perspective. 's-
Hertogenbosch, Netherlands: CINOP.
compulsory Education 3 (1): 25- 37.

136.
Kearns, P., R. McDonald, et al. (1999). VET in the learning age: The challenge of lifelong
learning for all. Volume 1. Leabrook, South Australia, NCVER. 1: 178.
⎯ (1999). VET in the learning age: The challenge of lifelong learning for all. Volume 2
Overview of international trends and case studies. Leabrook, South
Australia, NCVER (National Centre for Vocational Education
Research). 2: 89.
Meagher, G. A. (1997). Structural change, the demand for skilled labour and lifelong learning.
Melbourne, Centre of Policy Studies, Monash University: 26.
National Board of Employment, Education and Training (1996), Lifelong Learning -
Key Issues. AGPS Canberra
OECD (2000). OECD Employment Outlook 2000. Paris, France, OECD: 233.
OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (1998). Education policy
analysis 1998. Paris, OECD: 84.
OECD (1996). Lifelong Learning for All. Paris, OECD.
OECD. (2001b). Economics and Finance of Lifelong Learning.
Riddell, S., Baron, S., & Wilson, A. (2001). The learning society and people with learning
difficulties. Bristol, U.K.: Policy Press.
Ryan, C. (2000). Where to next? A comparison of the outcomes and destinations of graduates
from the Australian higher education and vocational education and training.
NCVER.
Stasz, C. and J. Chiesa (1998). Education and the new economy: Views from a policy
planning exercise. Santa Monica, CA, Rand Education: 10.
95

(1998). Education for the twenty-first century: Issues and prospects, UNESCO
Publishing, Paris.
Watson, L. (1999). Lifelong learning in Australia: Analysis and Prospects. Discussion
Paper No 1, Lifelong Learning Network, University of Canberra: 22.
⎯ (2000). Survey of Private Providers in Australian Higher Education 1999. Canberra,
Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs: 35.
Watson, L., P. Kearns, et al. (2000 (forthcoming)). Equity in the learning society:
rethinking equity strategies for post-compulsory education and training. Prepared for
NCVER by the Lifelong Learning Network, Canberra.
West, R. (1998). Learning for life: Final report - Review of higher education financing
and policy (West Report). Canberra, Department of Employment
Education Training and Youth Affairs (DEETYA): 234.
Wheelahan, L. (2000). Bridging the divide: Developing the institutional structures that most
effectively deliver cross-sectoral education and training, NCVER.
Conference papers and collections of conference papers

Adult Learning Australia, (2000). Agenda for the future: Proceedings of the Adult Learners
Week 2000 Conference. Paper presented at the Agenda for the Future:
Adult Learners Week Conference 7-8 September 2000, Adelaide, South
Australia,.
Allender, S. C. (1998). ‘Australia's migrants and refugees: Opening the door to
lifelong learning - How adults learn a new language’. How Adults Learn -
An International Conference sponsored jointly by the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development and the United States
Department of Education, held 6-8 April 1998, Washington, DC.
Ball, K. and S. Lamb (1999). ‘Curriculum choice in senior secondary school and the
outlook for lifelong learning’. Lifelong learning network first national conference,
Ballagh, A., H. Ling, et al. (1999). ‘Seamlessness at RMIT: Steps towards a learning
university’. Lifelong learning network first national conference, held 27/8/99,
Canberra.
Bowman, K. (2001). Recent research on the role and contribution of ACE.
Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 41(1), 40-55.
Brown, T. (1999). ‘Adult community education and lifelong learning’. Lifelong
learning network first national conference, held 27/8/99, Canberra.
⎯ (2000). Lifelong learning: Making it work, Canberra, Adult Learning Australia.
Burke, G. (1998). ‘Economic change: implications for jobs, income and
joblessness’. Rapid Economic Change and Lifelong Learning, held 31 August
1998, Melbourne.
Dobson, I. and R. Sharma (1998). ‘Lifelong learning: Will it influence the age
composition of Australia's student population?’ Fourteenth General
Conference of IMHE Member Institutions, held 7-9 September 1998, Paris.
96
Gallagher, M. (1999). ‘Life-long learning: Emerging issues for policy makers’.

Canberra.
Golding, B. (1999). ‘Shifting workplaces, drifting students’. Lifelong learning network
first national conference, held 27/8/99, Canberra.
Kearns, P. (1999). ‘VET in the learning age: The challenge of lifelong learning for
all’. Post-Compulsory Education and Training: Looking to the Future held 27
August 1999, Canberra.
Kennedy, K. J. (1997). ‘Implementing life long education as a policy priority for the
twenty first century’. OECD Seminar, Korean Educational Development
Institute, Seoul, Unpublished.
Kilpatrick, S. and I. Falk (1999). ‘How learning for VET can build social capital for
regions’. Lifelong learning network first national conference, held 27/8/99,
Canberra.
Leahy, M. (1999). ‘Seamless, patchwork: Towards a student centred system’. Lifelong
learning network first national conference, held 27/8/99, Canberra.
Long, M. (1998). ‘The match between educational qualifications and jobs’. Rapid
Economic Change and Lifelong Learning, held 31 August 1998, Melbourne.
McKenzie, P. (1999). ‘How to make lifelong learning a reality’. Rapid Economic
Change and Lifelong Learning, Melbourne, Centre for the Economics of
Education and Training.
Praetz, H. (1999). ‘Seamlessness: The way of the future’. Lifelong Learning Network
First National Conference, held 27 August 1999, University of Canberra.
Ralph, D. (2000, 7-8 September 2000). Creating a state of learning: the South Australian
strategy. Paper presented at the Agenda for the Future: Adult Learners
Week Conference, 7-8 September 2000, Adelaide, SA.
Robinson, C. (1999). ‘New skills, new pathways: Lifelong learning is the key’.
Robinson, C. and K. Arthy (1999). Lifelong learning: Developing a training culture,
Adelaide, NCVER.
Shah, C. and L. Maglen (1998). ‘How have jobs in Australia been affected by
globalisation and rapid technological change?’ Rapid Economic Change and
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Lifelong Learning: An

Compiled by Beverley Axford and Thea Moyes

LifeLong Learning Network

Evaluations and Investigations Programme

© Commonwealth of Australia 2003

This work is copyright. It may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or

of the flavour of a ‘motherhood statement’ – that is, it is ‘unquestionably worthy of

Learning and education and training structural reform

Learning and labour market reform

The middle section—conference papers—tend to lie at the intersection between

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Endnote bibliographical software

Lifelong Learning Network

Policy statements, reports, and research monographs

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European Commission for Research Technological Development and Innovation

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McKenzie, P. (1999) ‘How to make lifelong learning a reality’. Rapid Economic

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Wagner, A. (1999) “Tertiary education and lifelong learning: Perspectives, findings

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