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CHAPTER 4

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

4.1 What is Traffic Engineering?

Trame engineering is concerned with the safety of the public, the efficient use of transportation resources, and the mobility of people and goods. While it is all too easy to become engrossed in operational details, these three purposes are the true foundation of the profession.

Traffic engineering is the application of scientific principles, tools, methods, techniques, and findings to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, and economic movement of persons and goods.

• Traffic engineer is a planner not a deviser.

•

•

• Traffic engineer is a builder not a repairman.

• Traffic engineer is surgeon not a first-aid traffic corpsman.

A. TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY

4.2 Introduction

Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical relationships among the primary elements of a traffic stream: flow, density, and speed. These relationships help the traffic engineering in planning, designing, and evaluation the effectiveness of implementing traffic-engineering measures on a highway system. Traffic flow theory is used in design to determine adequate lane lengths for storing left-tum vehicles on separate left-tum lanes, the average delay at intersections and freeway ramp merging areas, and changes in the level of freeway performance due to the installation of improved vehicular control devices on ramps. Another important application of traffic flow theory is simulation, where mathematical algorithms are used to study the complex interrelationships that exist among the elements of a traffic stream or network and to estimate the effect of changes in traffic flow on factors such as accidents, travel time, air pollution, and gasoline consumption.

Methods ranging from physical to empirical have been used in studies related to the description and quantification of traffic flow. This section, however, will introduce only those.

87

aspects of traffic flow theory that can be used in the planning, design, and operation of highway systems.

4.3 Traffic Flow Elements

Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a highway during a time period less then 1 hr. It can be determined by

nx3600 h

q = vp

T

where

n = the number of vehicles passing a point in the roadway in T sees. q = the equivalent hourly flow.

Density (k), sometimes referred to as concentration, is the number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of highway at an instant in time. The unit length is usually 1 mi, thereby making vehicles per mile (vpm) the unit of density.

Speed (u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time. It can be expressed in miles per hour (mph), kilometers per hour (km/h), or feet per second (ftlsec).

There are two types of mean speeds:

1. Time mean speed

2. Space mean speed

Time mean speed (1-11 ) is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway during an interval of time. The time mean speed is found by

where

n = number of vehicles passing a point on the highway Pi = speed of the ilh vehicle (ft/sec)

88

Space mean speed (u, ) is the harmonic mean of the speed of vehicles passing a point a highway during an interval of time. It is obtained by dividing the total distance traveled by two or more vehicles Oil a section of highway by the total time required by these vehicles to travel that distance. This is the speed that is involved in flow-density relationships. The space mean speed is found by

n

J..l, =----

f (1 / u.]

nL

where

Us = space mean speed (ft/sec) n = number of vehicles

ti = the time is takes the ith vehicle to travel across a section of highway (sec) u, = speed of the ilh vehicle (ft/sec)

L = length of section of highway (ft)

Time headway (h) is the different between the time the front of a vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at that same point. Time headway is usually expressed in seconds.

Space headway (d) is the distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of the following vehicle. It is usually expressed in feet.

Example 4.1: Determining flow, Density, Time Mean Speed, and Space Mean Speed

85'

20' 55'

II 'I

45 mph Direction

IT] Y

oftlow

20 mph 35 mph 40 mph

X [[] W IT]

300'

~----------.------~--------------~

Figure 4.1 Location and Speeds of Four Vehicles on a Two-Lane Highway at a Instant of

Time

89

Figure 4.1 shows vehicles traveling at constant speeds on a two-lane highway between sections X and Y with their positions and speeds obtained at an instant of time by photography. An observer located at point X observes the four vehicles passing point X during a period of T sec. The velocities of the vehicles are measured as 45, 40, 35 and 20 mph, respectively. Calculate the flow, the density, the time mean speed, and the space mean speed.

Solution: The flow is calculated by nx3600

q=

T

= 4 x 3600 = 14,400 vph

T T

With L equal to the distance between X and y (ft), density is obtained by k = E..

L

4

= - x 5280 = 70.4 vpm 300

The time mean speed is found by

2 0 + 35 + 4 0 + 4 5 = 3 5 mph 4

The space mean speed is found by

n

)..ts = II

I (1/ u)

1=;

Ln

=

300n

=

where t, is the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel from X to Y at speed u., and L (ft) is the distance between X and Y.

90

L

t, = sec

1. 4 7ui

300

t A == = 4.5 4 sec

1.47x45

300

tB == == 5.10 sec

1.47x40

300

tc == == 5.8 3 sec

1.47x35

300

t D = = 1 0.2 0 sec

1.47x 20

4 x 300

u. == = 46.75 ft I sec

I 4.54 + 5.10 + 5.83 + 10.20

= 31.90mph

4.4 Flow Density Relationships

The general equation relating flow, density, and space mean speed is given as flow = density x space mean speed

q = k u,

Each of the variables In above equation also depends on several other factors, including the characteristics of the roadway, the characteristics of the vehicle, the characteristics of the driver, and environmental factors such as the weather.

Other relationships that exist among the traffic flow variables are given below.

space mean speed = (flow) x (space headway)

Us = qd

where

d = ( I /k) = average space headway density = (flow) x (travel time for unit distance)

k = q t

where t is the average time for unit distance.

average space headway = (space mean speed) x (average time headway)

-

d = Us h

91

average time headway = (average travel time for unit distance) x (average space headway)

-

h = td

4.5 Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow

The relationship between the density (vpm) and the corresponding flow of traffic on a highway generally is referred to as the fundamental diagram of traffic flow. The following theory has been postulated with respect to the shape of the curve depicting this relationship.

1. When the density on the highway is zero, the flow is also zero because there are no vehicles on the highway.

2. As the density increases, the flow also increases.

3. However, when the density reaches its maximum, generally referred to as thejam density (kJ, the flow must be zero because vehicles will tend to line up end to end.

4. It follows that as density increases from zero, the flow will also initially increase from zero to a maximum value. Further continues increase in density will then result in continuous reduction of the flow, which will eventually be zero when the density is equal to the jam density. The shape of the curve therefore takes the form in Figure 4.2 a.

A Slope of this line gives mean free speed.

qmax

k

Density

Jam density

Slopes of these lines give space mean speeds for k , k,. and k,.

(a) Flow versus density

Figure 4.2 Fundamental Diagrams of Traffic Flow

Density

(b) Space mean speed versus density

92

qmax

Flow

(c) Spare mean speed versus volume

Figure 4.2 Fundamental Diagrams of Traffic Flow

Data have been collected that tend to confirm the argument postulated above, but there is some controversy regarding the exact shape of the curve. A similar argument can be postulated for the general relationship between the space mean speed and the flow. When the flow is very low, there is little interaction between individual vehicles. Drivers are therefore free to travel at the maximum possible speed. The absolute maximum speed is obtained as the flow tends to zero, and it is known as the mean free speed (up. The magnitude of the mean free speed depends on the physical characteristics of the highway. Continuous increase in flow will result in a continuous decrease in speed. A point will be reached, however, when further addition of vehicles will result in the reduction of the actual number of vehicles that pass a point on the highway (that is, reduction of flow). This results in congestion, and eventually both the speed and the flow become zero. Figure 4.2 c shows this general relationship. Figure 4.2 b shows the direct relationship between speed and density.

Space mean speed is flow divided by density, which makes the slopes of lines OB, OC, and OE in Figure 4.2a represent the space mean speeds at densities kb, k.; and k, respectively. The slope of line OA is the speed as the density tends to zero and little interaction exists between vehicles. The slope of this line is therefore the mean free speed (u.); it is the maximum speed that can be attained on the highway. The slope of line OE is the space mean speed for maximum £10\\/. This maximum flow is the capacity of the highway. Thus it can be seen that it is desirable for highways to operate at densities not greater than that required for maximum flow.

93

B. INTERSECTION

4.6 Definition

•

An intersection is the area where two or more roads join or cross .

The primary operational function ofthe intersection is to provide for change in travel direction.

•

4.7 Intersectional Conflicts

• An intersection is also a point at which there are a number of possible conflicts.

• The movement of one vehicle can conflict with the movements of other vehicles in the same stream, the cross-streams, the opposing stream, and pedestrians in crosswalks.

There are 4 types of conflicts:

1. Crossing
2. Merging
3. Diverging
4. Weaving o Merging conflic t porn ts ~ H

x Diver gmg conflict porn t s = 8 • Crossing COnniCI p om tv ~ 16

Figure 4.3 Contlict Points at a Four-Approach Unsignalized Intersection

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4.8 Types of Intersection

1. At-grade intersection

2. Grade-separated intersection

At-grade Intersections

•

Most highways intersect at grade

Many factors enter into the choice of type of intersection, but the principal controls are:

y Traffic Volumes

,. Character of Traffic (both through or turning)

).- Design Speed

•

In a particular case the type is determined primarily by

• No. of intersection legs

• Physical controls of topography, and

• The desired type of operation

Types of At-grade Intersection

• Three-leg intersection - "T" or "Y".

• Four-leg intersection - right angle, off-set (or staggered), skewed.

• Multileg intersection - intersection with 5 or more legs.

• Rotary intersection or traffic circles.

I

0~

.-'. ~.-=-

_.-.- -.-.~®- J -

PLAIN 'T'INTERSECTION

'T'INTERSECTION

(a)

(With Right Turn Lane) (b)

Figure t.: Example ofT Intersection

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NEW ALIGNMENT

Figure 4.5 Example of Multileg Intersection

Grade Separation

Intersection at grade is eliminated by the use of grade-separation structures that permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without interruptions.

A grade separation is a crossing of two highways, a highway and a railroad, or a pedestrian walkway, and a highway at different levels.

An overpass is a highway passing over an intersection street, railroad, or pedestrian facility.

• An underpass is a highway passing under an intersecting street, railroad or pedestrian

•

•

•

facility.

PARTIAL CLO'vERLEAF

DIAMO~Jl)

Figure 4.6 Examples of Grade Separated Interchanges

96

C. TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

Traffic control devices are all the traffic signals, signs, pavement marking, or other devices placed or erected with the approval of a traffic authority having the necessary jurisdiction, to regulate, warn, or guide traffic.

4.9 Function of Traffic Control Devices

•

Devices are classified into three functional groups as follows:

1. Regulatory devices

o These give the road user notice of traffic laws or regulations that apply at a given place or on a given roadway.

o Disregard of such devices in punishable as an infraction, violation, or misdemeanor

e.g. stop, no turning, do not enter, no parking, one-way street, etc.

2. Warning devices

o These call attention of the road user to conditions, on or adjacent to the roadway, that are potentially hazardous to traffic operations.

e.g. road narrow, divided highway ends, slippery when wet, railroad crossing, etc.

3. Guiding devices

o These provide directions and information to the road user regarding route designations, distances, destinations point of interest, and other geographical or cultural information.

e.g. Airport 20 km., Pyay 30 km.

4.10 Requirements of Traffic Control Devices

• Any traffic control device should meet the following basic requirements:

1. It should be capable of fulfilling an important need.

2. It should command attention.

3. It should convey a clear, simple message.

4. It should command the respect of road users.

97

•

5. It should be located to give adequate time for response to the message.

Four basic considerations are employed to ensure that the requirements are met. These include the following:

1. Design of devices

o size, colors, and shape

2. Placement of devices

o within the vision of road user and permit time of response

3. Maintenance of devices

o device must be clean, legible, and free from obstruction

4. Uniformity

o design, application, and location

4.11 Traffic Signals

4.11.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Traffic Signal

•

Advantages

1. Provide for the orderly movement of traffic

2. Reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents ..... right-angle collisions, pedestrians, etc.

3. Provide a means of interrupting heavy traffic to allow other traffic, both vehicular and pedestrian, to enter or cross.

4. Promote driver confidence by assuming right-of-way.

• Disadvantages

1. Increase total intersection delay, especially during off-peak periods.

2. Probable increase in certain types of accidents ..... rear-end collisions, etc.

3. When improperly located, cause unnecessary delay and promote disrespect for this type of control.

4. When improperly timed, cause excessive delay, increasing driver irritation.

98

4.11.2 Terminology

Approach

o A lane or group of lanes through which traffic enters an intersection.

Cycle Time or Cycle Length, C

o The total time required for the complete sequence of phases or

o On a given intersection approach the time required for one complete set of signal indication

o Typical C =s=> 60 - 120 seconds

• Phase or Traffic Phase

•

•

o A part of the cycle time allocated to any traffic movements or to any combination of movements receiving right-of-way

o The sum of all phases is equal to the cycle time

• Lost Time, I

o Time lost due to starting and stopping (the time which is not effectively used for vehicle movement)

• All-red Interval or All-red Period

o The time of display of red indication for all entering traffic.

• Indication

o The illumination of one or more signal lenses (greens, yellows, reds) indicating a permitted or prohibited traffic movement.

• Interval

o A period of time during which all signal indications (greens, yellow, reds) remain the same for all approaches.

• Green Time

o The time within a cycle in which an approach has the green indication (expressed in seconds).

• Red Time

o The time within a cycle In which an approach has the red indication (expressed i n seconds)

• Yellow (or' Amber) Time

() The time within a cycle In which an approach has the yellow indication (expressed in seconds).

99

• Purpose of Amber Time

o To purpose the motorists that the red interval is about to commence and to permit the motorists to come to a safe stop.

o To allow vehicles those have entered the intersection legally sufficient time to clear the point of conflict prior to release of opposing vehicles.

o Theoretically, the amber phase should be enough so that a driver approaching the intersection will never find himlherself in the position of being too close to stop safely and yet too far away to pass completely through the intersection before the red phase commences.

o (Typical A = 3 - 5 sec.)

1 v w+l A=t+--+--

2 a v

where:

t = perception-reaction time, suggested value = 1 sec. v = approach speed

a = deceleration rate, suggested value = 4.6 m/secs.i w =:; intersection width

I = length of vehicle, suggested value in U.S = 20 ft. (6.1 m.)

4.11.3

Methods

I. U.K Methods Webster Method

2. U.S Methods Drew Model

4.11.3.1 U.K Method (Webster Method)

Formulas

L (" =-_

I 1-Y

1.5/, + 5 c=---

II ]_ Y

100

Where:

C I = minimum cycle time, sec. Co = optimum cycle time, sec. L = total lost time = nl + R

or L = I{! - A)+II

n = no. of phases

I == lost time per phase

R = lost time per cycle, due to the simultaneous showing of red signals ..... all red time

1= intergreen period

(What is intergreen? .... intergreen time comprises of the closing amber and all red times)

Y = YI + Y 2 + ..... + Y,

Y, = ratio of approach flow to saturation flow

Y=Si

I

Si

q = approach flow, PCU/hr.

s = saturation flow, PCU/hr. (PCU = Passenger ~ar Unit)

• Saturation Flow, S

o Saturation flow is the maximum flow that can pass through an intersection from one approach without impedance by signals.

s =525w(winm.) = 160 w (w in ft.)

w =" approach ... measured between curbs

101

o The formula is only applicable to the approach width exceeding 5.2 m. (17 ft.)

w m m.

3.05 3.35 3.65 3.95 4.25 4.60 5.00

sin PCU/hr

]850 1875 1900 1950 2075 2250 2575

Ge!T = Effective green time

•

GaeL = Actual green time Effect of Composition

o 1 heavy or median goods vehicle

o I bus

= 1.75 PCU = 2.25 PCU = 0.33 peu

•

o 1 motorcycle Effect of Right-turning Traffic

o For case without turning phase

o I right turn= 1. 75 through traffic Effect of Left-turning Traffic

o If the left-turners form appreciably more than 10% of the traffic, a correction

•

could be made for the excess over 10% by assuming o 1 left-turn = 1.25 straight-ahead vehicles

Example 4.2: Approach flows and saturation tlows at a 2-phase signal controlled intersection are given in the following Table. Both intergreen periods are 5 sec. and lost times are 2 sec. per phase. What is the optimum cycle time?

N

s

E

W

Approach Flows, peU/hr

810 750

1470 1200

Saturation Flows, PCU/hr

1800 2000 4200 4000

102

Solution

Phase 1 =:=> N vs S Phase 2 ==> E vs W

[ = 5 sec.,

A = 3 sec. (Typical), I = 2 sec.

YJ =:l.!_ = _!!_Q_ = 0.4 5 sJ 1800

or

750

YJ =--=0.375 2000

Take, y 1 = 0.45

Y2 = q2 = 1470 =0.35 S2 4200

or

Take, Y2 "'. 0.35

y = y 11- Y2 = 0.45+0.35 = 0.8

Cycle Length,

L = I(r - A)+ II =2(5 - 3)+(2x2)= 8sec.

Y

Effective green time,Gdi = ~-(Co - L)

G ell' 1 = y~ (Co - L) = °O~ (85 - 8)= 43.3

Take, G ell' 1 = 43 sec.

103

Y2 ( ) 0.35

G '11' 2 = - C - L = --, (85 - 8)= 33 75

c , Y 0 0.8 .

Take, G efT 2 = 34 sec.

Actual green time,

Gaell =Getr +1-A=43+2-3=42sec.

G act. 2 = G -rr + 1- A = 34 + 2 - 3 = 33 sec.

83

o

42

45

80

85

47

II

PHASE 1

GREEN 1 I A 1 RED 1
RED 2 GREEN 2 I A I PHASE 2

Signal Timing Diagram

•

Delays at Traffic Signals

( )2 2 [ ]J.1

d=C, l-A_+ X -O.65~ X(2+SA)

2 (1 - AX ) 2 q (1 - x) q 2

where:

d = average delay per vehicle on the particular approach

c = proportion of the cycle which is effectively green for the phase under consideration

A = g / c

g = effective green time x = degree of saturation

104

x =_9_ AS

• in most cases the last term of the equation has a value in the range of 5 15~o of d

• a rough approximation to the delay may therefore be given by

d=O 9[C(1 -AY + x2 1

. 2(1-Ax) 2q{l-x)

Example 4.3: Given:

c= 120 sec.

g = 33 sec.

q = O. I 83 veh/sec s = 0.764 veh/sec. Find delay, d:

Solution

g I c = 331120 = 0.275

x=_9c_= 0.183 =0.871

AS O.275xO.764

[C(I- Icy X2]_ [120(1-0.275)2 + 0.8712 ]

d=O.9 2(1-Icx)+2q{1-x) -0.9 2{1-O.275xO.764) 2xO.183{1-0.871)

d = 0.9 (41.47 +16.07) = 51.8 sec./veh.

4.11.3.2 U.S Method (Drew Model)

(I) Steps

Assume a trial phasing

2. Determination the critical lane volume, VI

3. Calculate the cycle length, C

105

C=~~Q_~~_(k - H)

n

3600- HL:>i

1;1

where:

n = no. of phases

k = lost time per phase 1-1 = headway

if C < 120 sec. ifC> 120 sec.

Go to (4)

Go back to (1)

(4) Calculate Pi

v C H ( )

P= 1 +k-H

1 3600

• What is the critical lane volume?

• The largest lane volume (one lane) must be accommodated on a phase.

Example

l i:i U

2500

Critical lane volume = 250012 = 1250 vehlhr/lane

r:r I

ST = 3000 vehicles/hr. . RT = 400 vehicJes/hr.

phase It i

106

=> Critical Jane volume = 3000/2 = 1500 veh.lhr.

phase 2 r => Critical lane volume = 400 veh.lhr.

ST = 780 vehicles/hr. R T = 2400 vehicles/hr.

phase 1 t I r r => Critical lane volume

(a) 795 (b) 780 (c) 800

(d) none of the above ( e) do not care

:.Criticallane volume = 800 veh.lhr. =s=> (c)

Example 4.4

~--)

260

--_.:.):.._...,..)--_.~ 1, 140

125

1,000

260

185

• Find the circle time and phase length (use k = 6 sec, and H = 2 sec)

( I) Design 4 phases

Phase 1

Phase 2

( 2) Find critical lane volume, VI

phase I, VI .c (1000 - 260 )/2 = 630 veh.rhr.

phase 2, v: 200 vehhr

phase 3, \'1= (1140 '260)'2 700 veh.zhr.

phase 4, V.j c. 210 veh. hr

200

107

180

210

1.050 ..... --'....__--.(--

190

Phase 3

820

Phase 4

( 3 ) Find circle time, C

C = 3600 x n (k _=- I-I)

11

3600 - HL Vi

i~I

C= 3600x4[6-2] =480sec.=>120sec.

3600 - 2[630 + 200 + 700 + 210]

Go back to ( 1 )

Now each approach is widened to permit a left turning lane

:.Criticallane volume =

phase 1

phase 3

t t 820

1,140 --_.

i i

1,000

--- 1,050

VJ= 100012 = 500 vehlhr

V3 = 1140/2 = 570 veh/hr

('=___ 3600x4(6-2) =90secs.

New, ( )

- 3600-2 500+200+570+210

Since C is less than 120 secs., Go to (4)

Find phase length, Pi

I 500 x 90 x:2 (- "') )9

P lase 1 PI =--3600 --- -I- 6 - L = - sec.

200 x 90 x:2

Phase2 po =-------+ (6 - 2)= 14sec_

- 3600

108

109

570 x 90 x 2 ( )

Phase3 p, =+ 6 - 2 = 32.5sec.

. 3600

210 x 90 x 2 ( )

Phase4 P4 = + 6-2 =14.5sec.

3600

o

7S.Sth

90th

I I
I Ai Rl
Gl
R2 I A2 R2
G2
83 G3 I A3 R3
R4 G4 I A4 Signal Timing Diagram

110

D. PARKING STUDIES

4.12 Introduction

Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be parked for either a relatively short time or a much longer time, depending one the reason for parking. The provision of parking facilities is therefore an essential element of the highway mode of transportation. The need for parking spaces is usually very great in areas where land uses include business, residential, or commercial activities. The growing use of the automobile as a personal feeder service to transit systems ("park-and-ride") has also increased the demand for parking spaces at transit stations. in areas of high density, where space is very expensive, the space provided for automobiles usually has to be divided between that allocated for their movement and that allocated for parking them.

Providing adequate parking space to meet the demand for parking in the CBD may necessitate the provision of parking bays along curbs, which reduces the capacity of the streets and may affect the level of service. This problem usually confronts a city traffic engineer. The solution is not simple, since the location of available space will depend on the goals of the community, which the traffic engineer must take into consideration when trying to solve the problem. Parking studies are therefore used to determine the demand for and the supply of parking facilities in an area, the projection of the demand, and the views of various interest groups on how best to solve the problem.

4.13 Definitions of Parking Terms

1. A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space for a period of 1 hr.

2. Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length of time, usually a day.

3. Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified time. These data can be plotted as a curve of parking accumulation against time, which shows the variation of the parking accumulation during the day.

111

4. The parking load is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times. It is usually given as the number of space-hours used during the specified period of time.

5. Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay. When the parking duration is given as an average, it gives an indication of how frequentlya parking space becomes available.

6. Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified period by the number of parking spaces.

4.14 Types of Parking Facilities

There are two basic types of parking facilities.

• On-street or curb facilities

• Off-street parking facilities

Off-street parking facilities

• Surface lots

• Garages

Off-street facilities, considered in terms of ownership develop other classifications, such as:

1. Privately owned and operated

2. Public owned and privately operated

3. Public owned and operated

4.15 Geometric Design of Parking Terminals

•

Curb Parking

o The number of spaces that can be accommodated per linear ft. (m.) of curb increases as the angle of parking increases.

Angle: parallel

o Angle parking, however interferes more severely with moving traffic than parallel parking, and accident rates are higher for angle parking than for parallel parking.

112

e

Angle parking is recommended for local streets, which are wide, have good sight distance and carry low traffic volumes.

•

Off-street parking

o Parking lots must be designed to achieve the following objectives:

1. Provide maximum number of spaces.

2. Minimize travel discomfort while parking, unparking, and driving within the lot.

o

3. Minimize interference of entrance and exit pedestrian and vehicle movements

external to the lot.

Various forms of parking-stall layouts are available (Figure 4.7 and 4.8)

Selection of best parking angle, however depend primarily on the size and shape of the parking lot.

More than one parking angle layout may be used in a parking lot to minimize

a

o

space utilization.

• For 9(/Parking

o This layout uses the space most efficiently.

•

Other Angle Parking

o If the parking angle is less than 90 degrees, the travel aisles must be made oneway.

c In USA, the minimum width of an aisle (for surface parking) 12 ft. for one-way movement

24 ft. for two-way travel

Center of/he road Parking

• Where the conditions are appropriate, parking can be provided in the center of the road.

• The combination of kerbside parking and center of the road parking provides a large number of parking places per unit length.

• Center of the road parking is usually combined with parallel kerbside parking.

• It is rarely possible to combine angle kerb parking with center of the road parking, because of the large amount of road space required.

113

• Generally, center of the road parking should only be considered in streets with little through traffic and where all traffic moves slowly.

• For traffic road volumes greater than these, no general criteria can be applied and engineering assessment should be made.

~--42'--~

,----.--_. __ ._---

;..,---' 1···--~

Ci~~1r '

r"l
Aisle
90°
lID [[TI
---~-- -:.:-: ....... UTI
1-+18'-20' .... ___ -'~~,
------- ..... --':- ... \\
0=0 '\, ITIJ
, I
ITIJ g ITJJ

58' Figure 4.7 Parking Stall Layout

114

-

-

-

Figure 4.8 Layout of Parking Stalls in an On-Surface Lot

4.16 Parking Management

The determination of the demand for parking is the first step in the design of parking facilities.

Questions like "Where should the parking places be located?", "Should the full parking demand be located for" or "Can the parking demand be changed?" are part of parking management.

Any management decision to locate parking supply away from a driver's destination or to increase the price of parking will impact user's perception of the desirability of the activity, and/or the attraction of using the car to get to it.

• Ifthe change is large enough then the driver may change the mode of travel or the

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destination, or may forgo participation in the activity.

• Parking has been seen as a powerful tool in managing transport demand.

us

4.17 Methodology of Parking Studies

A comprehensive parking study usually involves: (1) Inventory of existing parking facilities,

(2) Collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover, and parking duration,

(3) Identification of parking generators, and

(4) Collection of information on parking demand. Information on related factors, such as financial, legal, and administrative matters, may also be collected.

(1) Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities

An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed listing of the location and all other relevant characteristics of each legal parking facility, private and public, in the study area. The inventory includes both on- and off-street facilities. The relevant characteristics usually listed include:

Types and number of parking spaces at each parking facility Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any Type of ownership (private or public)

Parking fees, if any, and method of collection

Restrictions on use (open or closed to the public)

Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi ranks) Probable degree of permanency (can the facility be regarded as permanent or is it just a

temporary facility')

The information obtained from an inventory of parking facilities is useful both to the traffic engmeer and to public agencies, such as zoning commissions and planning

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departments.

The inventory should be updated at regular intervals of about 4 to 5 years.

(2) Collection of Parking Data

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Accumulation. Accumulation data are obtained by checking the amount of parking during regular intervals on different days of the week. The checks are usually carried out on an hourly or 2-hr basis between 6:00 a.m and 8:00 p.m. The selection of the times depends on the operation times of land-use activities that act as parking generators. For example, if a commercial zone is included, checks should be made during the times when retail shops are open, which may include periods up to 9:30 p.m. on some days. The information obtained is used to determine hourly variations of parking and peak periods of parking demand.

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~ 400
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Figure 4.9 Parking Accumulation at a Parking Lot

Turnover and Duration. Information on turnover and duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in a given block. This is done by recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals during the study period. The length of the fixed intervals depends on the maximum permissible duration. For example, if the maximum permissible duration of parking at a curb

117

face is 1 hr, a suitable interval is every 20 min. If the permissible duration is Zhr, checking every 30 min would be appropriate.

(3) Identification of Parking Generators

This phase involves identifying parking generators (for example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and loading these on a map of the study area.

(4) Parking Demand

Information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities listed during the inventory. An effort should be made to interview all drivers using the parking facilities on typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p. m. information sought should include (1) trip origin, (2) purposes of trip, and (3) driver's destination after parking. The interviewer must also note the location of the parking facility, the times of arrival and departure, and the vehicle type.

Parking interviews can also be carried out using the postcard technique; in which stamped postcards bearing the appropriate questions and a return address are handed to drivers or placed under windshield wipers. When this technique is used, usually only about 30 to 50 percent of the cards distributed are returned. It is therefore necessary to record the time and the number of cards distributed at each location, because this information is required to develop expansion factors, which are later used to expand the sample.

4.18 Analysis of Parking Data

Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding, and interpreting the data so that the relevant information required for decision-making can be obtained. The relevant information incl udes.

• Number and duration for vehicles legally parked

• Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked

• Space-hours of demand for parking

• Supply of parking facilities

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Parking Supply

where:

P = parking supply (vehicles)

N = no. of spaces of a given type and time restriction

T = time that N spaces of a given type and time restriction are available during the study period (hr.)

D = average parking duration during the study period (hr/veh.) F = insufficiency factor to account for turnover

The efficiency factor F is used to correct for time lost in each turnover. It is determined on the basis of the best performance a parking facility is expected to produce. Efficiency factors should therefore be determined for different types of parking facilities-for example, surface lots, curb parking, and garages. Efficiency factors for curb parking, during highest demand, vary from 78% to 96%; for surface lots and garages, from 75% to 92%. Average values ofF are 90% for curb parking, 80% for garages, and 85% for surface lots.

Example 4.5: If a 12-hour study of an area revealed that there were 450 spaces available for the full 12 hours, 280 spaces available for 6 hours, 150 spaces available for 7 hours, and 100 available for 5 hours, and the average parking duration was 1.4 hours/vehicle, then the parking supply would be?"?

Solution

(Assume F = 0.9) Parking supply,

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<) '" 5548 vehicles

Thus, during the 12-hour study period 5548 vehicles could be parked If) the study area. This does not mean that this number could be parked at the same time, rather that over the 12 hours a total of 5548 vehicles could be accommodated.

This analysis requires the average parking duration to be known

Parking Duration

IN,.X.I

D = --'< ------- ---

NJ

where:

D = average parking duration (hr/veh) N, = no. of vehicles parked for x intervals X = no. of intervals parked

= length of observation interval (hr) N, = total no. of vehicles observed

Explanation for X => vehicles can be classified as having been parked for one interval, 2,3, . and duration of each interval may be 20 min. or 1 he.

Example 4.6: Assuming that during each 30 minutes interval of observation, there were 875 vehicles parked for 1 interval, 490 for 2, 308 for 3,275 for 4, 143 for 5 and 28 for 6 intervals

(from Table 4.1).

Parking duration.

IN,x.1

D =-.'. .. -----.--NJ

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D == 1.12 hour / vehicle

Turnover Rate

TR==~ S.Ts

where:

TR = parking turnover rate (veh. I stall I hr) S = total no. of legal parking stalls

Ts = duration of the study period (hr.)

Example 4.7: From the previous example, if there are 1500 parking spaces (from Table 4.1) and observation period = 7 hours, then

Turnover Rate,

N 2119

TR = _1_ = = 0.21 veh / stall / hr.

S.T. 1500x7

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