Year 10 Elective

Disease & Defence

2020 Workbook

Name: Syed Shabbir Raza Class: SDD05

Week 1 – What is a Disease?

• Answer the following questions:

• What do all infectious diseases have in common?

The transmitting of the infectious diseases is what they all have in common, more
notably that they are caused by a pathogen that has been transmitted to a
person.
• What are the main ways you can prevent i) infectious diseases, and ii) non-
infectious diseases?
The main ways you can prevent i) infectious diseases is through maintaining
hygiene simple things like washing your hands with soap and water, thoroughly
and frequently. As infectious diseases spread from human to human contact, we
need to minimise the pathogens from travelling, so we can cover nose and mouth
when sneezing or coughing. The main ways you can prevent ii) non-infectious
diseases is though maintaining a healthy lifestyle (looking after your body, what
you eat, how long you sleep etc) to ensure that your body can fight off any
pathogens that try to enter your body.
• Doing your own research, which types of diseases are the biggest killers i)
in Australia, and ii) in underdeveloped countries?
The deadliest diseases in Australia and undeveloped countries are:
• Coronary heart disease
• Dementia
• Cerebrovascular diseases such as strokes
• Lung cancer
• Chronic lower respiratory diseases like pneumonia and bronchitis
 • Tuberculosis
• Malaria
• AIDS
• Respiratory tract infections
• Diarrheal diseases
• Fill in the blanks for the following table:
Term Definition
Disease A disorder that impairs the normal functioning of an organism. Its symptoms
stem from the disorder rather than physical injury of an area.

Non- Is a disease that arises from genetic mutations, malfunctions of cells and
Infectious body systems, and lifestyle choices. It isn’t transmissible.
Disease
Infectious Is a disease caused by pathogens and is transmissible.
Disease
Syndrome A recognisable pattern of symptoms and behaviours that consistently occur
together for a particular disease.
Chronic A word to describe a disease that is a long developing syndrome.

Acute A word to describe a disease that has a severe and sudden onset.

Extension
The prevalence of a particular disease can be classified under several terms.
When a disease is spread at a local level, it is described as an outbreak. When it
spreads rapidly through a nation and affects large numbers of people, it is
described as an epidemic. When it is rapidly spread through the world, it is
described as a pandemic. In the context of COVID-19, what measures have been
put in place to contain and control the disease at these three different levels?
There are many measures that have been put in place to contain and control the
disease at these distinct levels. In an outbreak, the government has restricted the
movement of people by placing them under a curfew and putting the state in a stage
lockdown. In an epidemic, the whole nation's borders are closed off to restrict the
movement of people as strict two week quarantining protocols for anyone coming into
that country, as well as other nations putting a ban on not allowing those people from
the nation to come into their country. In a pandemic, most the countries if not all have
closed their borders off to everyone except their own citizens and are putting them
under mandatory quarantining, from this they are trying to control the cases of Covid 19
by focusing on their individual nations.
Week 2 – Non-Infectious Diseases and Gel Electrophoresis
Non-Infectious Diseases
• What are the causes of non-infectious diseases?
There are many causes of non-infectious diseases: Some can arise from genetic
mutations, malfunctions of cells and body systems, and lifestyle choices. They are
not transmissible like infectious diseases.

Extension
Besides cancer and Huntington’s disease, investigate one other non-infectious
disease. Identify the causes, diagnosis, and prevention/treatment of this disease.
Bipolar disorder(BD), is another example of a non-infectious disease. It is a brain
disorder that causes unusual shifts in a person's mood, energy, and ability to function.
There are many factors that should be taken into consideration for the causes of this
disorder which include: genetics, environmental factors, physical illnesses and the use
of substances etc. It is often hard to diagnose people, so people might suffer for a
couple of years before it is treated. BD is a long-term illness that can be controlled, but
never cured. There are many treatments to help BD that include: Medication with a
combination of psychotherapy, which is considered to be very successful and lithium!
Gel Electrophoresis
• Navigate to https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/gel/ and answer the
following questions:

• What is the purpose of gel electrophoresis?

The purpose of gel electrophoresis is that it can be used for DNA identification
(forensics/DNA/Paternal testing) and the identification of diseases.
• What acts as a filter?
The ‘agarose gel’ acts as a filter that sorts the DNA strands.
• How is the agarose different to jelly?

Agarose is a fine mesh that made from seaweed that allows molecules like DNA to
pass through.

• What is the electric current for?

The function of the electric current in gel electrophoresis is to move the DNA from
the negative through to the positive terminal. 
• Why are DNA fragments drawn towards the positive pole?

DNA fragments are negatively charged, so they are drawn towards the

positive pole.

• What is the purpose of the loading buffer?

The purpose of the loading buffer is for making the DNA samples thicker and more
visible.
• What does the ‘DNA size standard’ contain? What is its purpose?

When performing gel electrophoresis, a DNA size standard is an important control

 to run along with the samples in order to determine the approximate size of the
samples.

• How do you know when the current is running?

You know that the current is running as the negatively charged DNA moves through
the gel towards the positive side of the terminal and also produces bubbles as an
output.
• Why do the longer DNA strands migrate the least?

The reason the longer DNA strands migrate the least is because they are caught up
in the gel mesh hence it takes them longer to move through.

• Why is ethidium bromide used to stain DNA (2 reasons)?

Ethidium bromide is used to stain DNA as it can (a) bind to DNA and (b) make it
visible under the fluoro light.
• Why is it necessary to avoid contact with ethidium bromide?
It is necessary to avoid contact with ethidium bromide as it can bind to the DNA on
your skin and damage it; it’s also toxic!
• After running the simulation, what are the estimates of base pair length?
After running the simulation, the estimates of base pair lengths are the top band
being approx. 6000 base pairs, the second is approx. 3500 base pairs and the third
is approx. 1500 base pairs.
• How can this technology be used to identify different species?
This technology can be used to identify different species as they will have different
DNA and therefore, gel electrophoresis can be used to investigate the DNA
fragments of species.

• Answer the following questions:

• Which DNA fragment is the largest?
DNA fragment E is the largest

• Which two DNA fragments are the same size?

B and F DNA fragments are the same size

• Which lane of the gel (2, 3, 4 or 5) has a DNA fragment that is about 700
 bp?
Lane 4 has a DNA fragment about 700 bp

• Which DNA fragment (B, C, D, or E) is about the same size as fragment A

and F added together?
DNA fragment E is about the same size as fragment A and F added together.

• Use the image of a gel on the right to draw where you think you would see
the bands described below:
• Lane 1: DNA ladder (drawn for you)
• Lane 2: A fragment of DNA that is 375 bp long
• Lane 3: 3 fragments of DNA, one 150bp, one 400 bp, and one 780 bp
• Lane 4: A 1,200 bp fragment that has been cut in two by a restriction
enzyme at base pair 370
• Lane 5: a 50 base pair fragment of DNA and a 2,400 bp fragment of
DNA

Extension
Construct a flowchart on the preparation of DNA for gel electrophoresis.
Week 3 – Infectious Diseases
Bacteria as pathogens

• Why are bacteria considered ‘pathogens’?

Bacteria are considered ‘pathogens’ because they are also disease-causing
agents.
• Bacteria are able to reproduce rapidly in the human body. State how
bacteria reproduce and list 3 conditions that are optimal bacterial
reproduction.
Bacteria reproduce through binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. In asexual
reproduction, the ‘parent’ produces a genetically identical copy of itself. The optimal
bacterial reproduction conditions are in a warm, moist, protein-rich environment that
is pH neutral or low acid.
• How does bacteria cause disease? List 3 diseases caused by bacteria.
Bacteria causes disease by secreting or excreting toxins; these toxins are
produced internally so it then disrupts the body’s normal functioning. Three
diseases that are caused by bacteria are: Cholera, Lyme Disease and syphilis.
• What preventative measures could you implement to avoid bacterial
infection?
There are many preventative measures one could take to avoid bacterial
infections of which taking antibiotics, maintain your personal hygiene and getting
appropriate vaccines to keep your health in check and antibodies replenished.

Viruses as pathogens
• Viruses are said to be non-living. Why are they considered non-living, and
do you agree?
 Viruses are said to be non-living as they are, they can’t do anything on their own
until they enter a living cell. Without cells, viruses would not be able to multiply.
Hence, we say that viruses are not living things.
•

Study the diagram below:

• Why do viruses not need any organelles, membrane, or cytoplasm of their
own?
Viruses do not need any organelles, membrane or cytoplasm of their own as they
hijack a cell and redirect it to ‘photocopy’ its genetic code of the virus and doesn’t
really need to do anything else.
• The influenza virus is responsible for seasonal flu epidemics every year.
The influenza virus constantly changes its genes and surface proteins –
how would this impact on the ability to finding a long-lasting treatment?
This would negatively impact the ability to finding a long-lasting treatment for the
influenza virus as if the genes and surface proteins continue changing then no
vaccines will be effective.
• Viruses can be stopped by stopping the replication of their genetic material
inside the nucleus or changing the pH on the surface of the cell. Which of
the two ways would be better to stop the virus? Explain your answer.
I believe that stopping the replication of their genetic material inside the nucleus
would be more effective than changing the pH on the surface of the cell as your
directly killing the virus’s powerhouse whereas the other method takes a bit more
time and patience even though the outcome is quote similar.
• Another way that viruses are stopped is by the body’s natural defence
system. Proteins called cytokines can slow down virus production and
activate natural killer cells which have antiviral properties. Lymphocytes
and phagocytes can also be stimulated to destroy the cells infected by the
virus. Why would someone with a reduced immune system or on
immunosuppressant drugs be of particular risk with a virus?
Someone with a reduced immune system or on immunosuppressant drugs will
be of particular risk with a virus as your immune system is quite weaker and
doesn’t have the strength to fight the virus as its been compromised by having a
reduced immune system or the immunosuppressant drugs.

Extension
Why are vaccinations for bacterial diseases easier to produce?
Vaccinations for bacterial diseases are easier to produce as the bacteria's blueprint
doesn't change time to time and stays the same to help the immune system make
antibodies. However, viruses change their blueprint or DNA every year so we always
need to make new vaccinations like the flu shot we get every year.

The COVID-19 pandemic has driven the biomedical community globally to

uncover and develop antiviral interventions. One promising therapeutic approach
is being investigated – the drug Remdesivir. Remdesivir has demonstrated,
across numerous virology laboratories, the ability to inhibit the replication of
coronavirus inside infected cells. New drugs need to be tested and trialled before
being used to check if they are safe and effective. Factors such as toxicity,
effectiveness and dose are very important. In pre-clinical trials, medical
researchers test the drug on cells first, then to tissues, then live animals. Why do
they not try the Remdesivir straightaway on animals?
They don't try the Remdesivir straightaway on animals as they need to see if it will be
safe for them (and we don't want them to die!) Hence the reason why medical
researches test the drug on cells and tissues to see any harmful things that may
possibly harm the animals, so they are then put as the last resort.

Preliminary Practical for Research Assessment Task:

Dealing with Bacteria

Growth of bacteria may be affected by chemical and physical stimuli. The human body
may respond to a bacterial infection with a range of responses. One of these is to alter
the body temperature.
Antiseptics are used to kill microorganisms on the surface of a host, but they are too
toxic to use internally. Antibiotics are safe to use internally. Alexander Fleming observed
the inhibitory effects of the mould, Penicillium, on the growth of bacterial culture. Not all
microorganisms are killed by the same antibiotic.
Aim
To test the effectiveness of antibiotics on the growth of 2 species of bacteria.
To investigate the effect of temperature on bacterial growth.
Variables
Independent: Temperature, Antibiotics
Dependent: Growth of Bacteria
Controlled Variable: Plate with E. coli and no Antibiotic disc
Materials
Per group (4 students per group)
• 4 nutrient agar plates
• 2 of each antibiotic susceptibility disc (Ampicillin, Penicillin G, Sulphafurazol,
Chloramphenicol)
• Methylated spirits in 50mL beaker
• Disinfectant solution
• 2 sterile swabs
• 1 pair of forceps
• 1 Bunsen burner and 1 box of matches
• 1 sticky tape
• 1 ruler with mm scale
• 1 permanent marker
Per class
• Bacterial cultures of E. coli (gram negative rod) and B. subtilis (gram positive rod)
• Incubator at 37C
• 25% sodium hypochlorite solution – bleach
• Antiseptic soap

Risks and Precautions

Risk
Damage or contamination to
uniform, skin, or eyes.
Contamination or unsafe handling of
bacterial cultures.
Flooding or spillage of biohazardous
material.
Inoculated agar plates may become
pathogenic.
Contamination of agar plates.
Contamination of work benches.
Contamination of hands.
Precaution
Wear gloves, laboratory coat, safety glasses and
closed-toe shoes at all times. Long hair should be
tied up.
Assume all bacterial cultures to be pathogenic.
Always handle with extreme caution.
Know to notify the teacher as soon as possible and
know location of disinfectant bleach.
Do not open inoculated agar plates.
Autoclave for 20 minutes at 120C (laboratory
technician does this).
Disinfect work benches before and after use.
Wash hands with antiseptic soap before and after
the experiment.
Method
• Follow teacher instructions.
• Disinfect hand and work bench and set up a sterile area with a Bunsen burner.
• You will need to inoculate 4 plates – 3 plates will be of 1 bacterial species.
Temperature Investigation
• Label base of plates with name of group and name of bacteria. Remember to
keep the agar plates within the sterile area around the Bunsen burner.
• Of the 3 plates which are the same species, label 1 with 37 and the other with the
internal fridge temperature at the time of incubation.
• The remaining two plates will be used for antibiotic investigation. Draw quadrant
lines at the base of these two plates.
• Create the bacterial lawns by streaking the plates as demonstrated by your
teacher. Do not cross contaminate by using the same swab for both species!
• Place used swabs into disinfectant and seal the plates with tape.
Antibiotic Investigation
• Sterilise forceps in methylated spirits and place it over the Bunsen burner then
allow to cool.
• With forceps, place 1 of each antibiotic susceptibility disc (there are 4 different
kinds) onto the remaining agar plates.
• Seal plates with tape and incubate inverted for 24 hours.
• You will have 2 plates of different species at 37C for the antibiotic investigation,
and 2 plates of the same species for the temperature investigation.
• Sterilise the benches and wash your hands.
Results – 3 marks
Antibiotic abbreviations:
• AP – Ampicillin
• C – Chloramphenicol
• PG – Penicillin G
• S – Sulphafurazol
REMINDER: DO NOT OPEN PLATES!
When graphing results; Independent variable on the x - axis
Antibiotic plates
Measure the radius of the inhibition zones (with a mm ruler) and enter results into a
suitable table.
Table 1. Radius of inhibition zones (mm) for different types of antibiotics [AP, C, PG, S]
against strains of E. coli and B. subtilis.
Radius of inhibition zones for each type of antibiotic (mm)
AP C PG S
B E. coli 7.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
a
c B. subtilis 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00
t
e
r
i
a

Temperature plates
Observe the growth of both plates and a description of your results into a suitable table.
Table 2. Descriptions of E. coli growth on plates incubated at two different temperatures
[37C, 22C].
Temperature (C) Description
37 Growth, lawn, colour
22 Slow

(3 marks for fully labelled, titled, and properly structured tables)

Discussion – 15 marks
• Formulate 2 appropriate hypotheses for this experiment. (2 marks)
Hypothesis 1: If the antibiotic is effective than the bacterial growth will decline.
Hypothesis 2: If the temperature is optimum for the growth of bacteria than it will
multiply and fill the agar plate.
• Why are some antibiotics effective against bacteria whilst some are
ineffective? (1 mark)
Some antibiotics are effective against bacteria whilst some aren’t as not all
antibiotics can kill bacteria effectively and some bacteria species are resistant
than others.
• Why is the plate kept at 37C during the incubation period? (1 mark)
The plate is kept at 37C during the incubation period as that’s the optimum
temperature at which bacteria thrives.
• Explain, with reference to your data, why a bacterial infection can still
occur after eating food that has been frozen, but is safe if the same food
has been cooked and eaten immediately? (2 marks)
When you’re cooking the food, you’re indirectly the bacteria from the heat
compared to the frozen food where the bacteria is still alive but inactive. We can
compare this to the data taken where E. coli is in cooler temperature and the
bacteria isn’t multiplying as quickly as when the bacteria is in warmer
temperature.
• During a fight against infection, immune cells release a group of proteins
called cytokines that act as signalling molecules. Cytokines have been
found to bind to blood vessels in the brain, which then induces the release
of a steroid called prostaglandin hormone [PGE2]. PGE2 then enters the
hypothalamus to cause fatigue, fever, and loss of appetite.
• Explain the body’s thermal response to a bacterial infection. (1 mark)
The body’s thermal response to a bacterial infection would be that the
person would have high fever.
• Explain what would happen once the infection has been eliminated
by the immune system. (1 mark)
Once the infection has been eliminated by the immune system the fever
will come down and the body will go back to its healthy state.
• What are 2 measures that were taken to minimise contamination of the agar
plate? (1 mark)
The two measures that were taken to minimise contamination of the agar plate
were firstly creating a sterile area with the Bunsen burner. The second measure
was disinfecting your hands and wearing gloves.
• How would you tell if there has been contamination during the
experiment? (1 mark)
 You would tell if there has been contamination during the experiment as there
would be different types of bacteria.
• Which antibiotic would best treat an infection by Bacillus subtilis? Explain
your reasoning with reference to your data. (2 marks)
The antibiotic which would best treat an infection by Bacillus subtilis would be
Chloramphenicol because in the experiment it had inhibition zone of 10mm.
• Under what circumstances would a broad-spectrum antibiotic be
prescribed by a doctor? (1 mark)
A person would have multiple bacterial infections which would cause the doctor
to prescribe broad-spectrum antibiotics.
• Discuss the possible problems for this type of treatment. (1 mark)
The possible problems for this type of treatment is that it will increase the
resistance strain against the antibiotics.

• As a conclusion, relate results from this experiment to the effectiveness of

controlling the growth of bacteria. (1 mark)
The growth of bacteria is dependent on the temperature of the environment. The
more optimum (37C) the temperature gets, the quicker we see the growth of
bacteria compared to a slower progression in much cooler temperatures.

TOTAL MARK = 17/18

Week 6 – Immunity
Innate Immunity (or ‘Non-Specific Defences’)
• What is the main difference between the first and second line of defence?
The main difference between the first and second line of defence is that the first
line of defence is on the outside of your body while the second line of defences
are in the inside the body.

• Plants have no distinct immune system however; they have structural and
biochemical characteristics that can be compared to an animal’s first line
of defence. Mechanical barriers include waxy cuticle or structures such as
thorns, and chemical barriers such as secretion of antimicrobial chemicals.
What are the structural and chemical barriers that humans have?
The structural and chemical barriers that humans have is the first and second
 line of defence in the human body. The first line of defence is the physical barrier,
so skin, hair etc. and the second line of defence is the chemical barrier, so
stomach acid, mucus, tears etc.

• When does the second line of defence occur? Are you able to control your
second line of defence – why/why not?
The second line of defence occurs when the first line of defence is breached and
can be controlled in certain circumstances such as being careful when using
sharp things as the person has a higher chance of getting bacteria and
pathogens through the wound when there is a split in the skin; however in other
circumstances it isn’t.

• State the function of the following cells:

Type of cell Function
Phagocytes (type of WBC) They use phagocytosis to engulf
bacteria, foreign particles, and dying
cells to protect the body.

Macrophages (type of WBC) They ingest pathogens, cancer cells and

microscopic debris.

Dendritic cells (type of WBC) Main function is to process antigen

material and present it on the cell
surface to the T cells, hence antigen-
presenting cells.

Neutrophils (type of WBC) Engage in engulfing and destroying

bacteria, and are present in most
people’s bloodstreams and play a huge
role in fighting off infections.

Mast cells (type of WBC) Play a role in inflammation by releasing a

protein called histamine, and are
involved in wound healing and tissue
repair.

Natural killer cells They can recognise and kill the cells of
someone’s body that has been infected
with a pathogen; also, can destroy
tumour cells.
 • Explain how a natural killer cell can recognise that a cell has been infected
by a virus, and what occurs as a result. Use the following terms in your
answer: receptor, antigen, self-cell, non-self cell, pathogen, markers, major
histocompatibility complex, natural killer cell.
Natural killer cells (NK cells) detect cells with non-self antigens using receptors
on their surface. If the receptor binds to the antigen and recognises the cell as
infected, the natural killer cell will release a signal to kill the infected cell. Our
body’s immune system must be able to distinguish between cells that are foreign
and cells that are not a threat using receptors on the surface of WBCs. We call
cells that are not normally found in a body ‘non-self cells’. The normal body cells
are called ‘self-cells’. To determine whether something is normal to a body, we
look for protein markers called an antigen. These can be found on the surface of
cells or on the surface of free-floating pathogens. Antigens give passing immune
cells a snapshot of what is happening inside of the cell --> the antigens are held
up on the markers called MHC (major histocompatibility complex). Receptors on
immune cells can recognise these proteins as foreign.

Adaptive Immunity (or ‘Specific Defences’)

• What is the main difference between innate and adaptive immunity?
The main difference between innate and adaptive immunity is that, Innate
immunity is something that a person is already born with and is already present
in the body, whereas, Adaptive immunity is created in response to exposure to a
foreign substance/pathogen.

• Circle T or B (to indicate T-cells or B-cells) for the following functions – you
can circle both for some:

Stimulates other white blood cells.

T/B
Activated by T helper cells.
T/B
Kills pathogens that live inside host cells.
T/B
Remembers the pathogen’s antigen to prevent infection from future re-exposure.
T/B
Kills cancer cells.
T/B
Activated by antigen presenting cells (includes macrophages and dendritic cells).
T/B
Makes and releases antibodies.
T/B

• Draw a flow chart to represent antigen presentation and the production of

antibodies.
Done on Paper

Extension
In the case of COVID-19, viruses join to receptors on ciliated cells in and around
the lungs. It enters the cells and makes thousands of copies of itself while
destroying cells in the process. The debris from this then enters the lungs and
causes shortness of breath and other severe symptoms. Respiratory reflexes
such as coughing and sneezing are actually physical actions that are classified
as one of the first line of defences. Describe the benefits and harms of coughing.
The benefits of coughing include that it acts as a protective barrier against germs and
irritants that may want to go into your body. Through my research I could't find any harm
in coughing!

Explain the main difference between cell-mediated immune response and

humoral immune response in terms of: cells involved, size of the response,
duration of the response and types of pathogens the response is effective
against.
The Cell-mediated response can be acquired through T cells from someone who is
immune to the target disease or infection, and the homoral imune response is immunity
from serum antibodies produced by plasma cells. The immunity that identifies and
destroys infected cells in the body.
https://microbenotes.com/differences-between-humoral-immunity-and-cell-mediated-
immunity/

Week 7 – Antibiotics and Vaccinations

• Explain why antibiotic do not work on viruses.

• What may happen if there is an increased use of antibiotics for diseases that are
not bacterial?

• What may happen when a patient does not finish a full course of antibiotics?

• Why do booster shots increase the effectiveness of some vaccines?

 • Why are health authorities concerned when the vaccination rates for an
infectious disease fall?

• Social arguments are concerned with the effects on everyone in society,

economic arguments are concerned with costs and money and ethical argument
are concerned with what is considered right or wrong. Consider whether these
childhood vaccination arguments are social, economic or ethical arguments.
“Childhood diseases can be fatal or cause serious health problems, so I make sure that
my children are vaccinated.” – Ranj, Mother of two
S / Eco / Eth
“At least 90% of the population needs to be vaccinated to make sure that the diseases
are kept at a non-threatening level.” – Louis, Community health worker
S / Eco / Eth
“It is much cheaper to vaccinate people than it is to treat the effects of childhood
diseases.” – Morris, Health minister
S / Eco / Eth
“I am not injecting my child with diseases. Vaccinations are unsafe and some children
have life-threatening reactions to them.” – David, Father
S / Eco / Eth
“The use of vaccinations against childhood diseases in Australia has reduced the
incidence of these diseases to negligible levels.” – Jasmine, Professor of Medicine
S / Eco / Eth
“A few of my patients are concerned about the potential side effects of giving
vaccinations to children. However, I always tell them that the chances of this are far
lower than the risk and effects of getting the disease.” – Tunde, General Practitioner
S / Eco / Eth

Extension
Attempt this question from Section B of the 2019 VCE Biology exam.

Question 3. (7 marks)
The human immune system consists of a series of defensive barriers that protect the body from
infection. When bacteria come into contact with the body, they immediately encounter these defences
and must bypass each barrier f they are to survive and infect the body.
a) When bacteria come into contact with the body, they must gain access to the living tissues to
become pathogens.
List two possible routes the bacteria could use to access the living tissues of the body.
b) Once bacteria are within or have access to the living tissues of the body, but before cells are aware
of their presence, the bacteria will encounter chemical barriers.
List one of these chemical barriers and explain its function.

c) When an inflammation response starts, the first cellular responders will be cells from the innate
immune system. One of these cells release histamine.
How does histamine contribute to the inflammatory response?

d) If bacteria are not destroyed by innate immune responses, adaptive immune responses become
involved.
Describe how an adaptive immue response is initiated during a bacterial infection.